LECTURE HAND-OUTS ON- Research Methods in Child and Adolescent Development

Prepared by: Dr. Ma. Angelita S. Rabanal, RN, MSN

STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT ACROSS LIFESPAN

1. PRENATAL STAGE

 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT INVOLVES THREE MAJOR STAGES:

A. GERMINAL STAGE (Zygote Period)
- From a single cell, an organism becomes complete with brain and behavioral and other capabilities in approximately 9 months.
- The fertilized egg known as zygote then moves towards the uterus, a journey that can more or less take a week to complete.
- Cell division begins approximately 24- 36 hours after conception.
- Six days after fertilization, the cells of the zygote become sticky and attach to the wall of the uterus, where implantation begins.
- The cells begin to specialize, some forming an inner cell mass which will become the embryo, and some forming a surrounding cell mass, which will support
structures for the embryo.

B. EMBRYONIC STAGE (The Period of Embryo)

- The mass of the cells is now known as embryo.
- Structures important to the support of the embryo develop, including the placenta and umbilical cord.
- Cells begin to differentiate into the various body systems.
- The basic outlines of the organs, body and nervous system are established.
- By the end of the embryonic stage, the beginnings of features such as fingers, eyes, mouth, and ears become visible.
- Development is very rapid during the second week. The embryo now comes to look a little human being. The internal organs develop at the point where some of
them can function. Nerves and muscles grow and develop.

C. FETAL STAGE (The Period of the Fetus)

- The embryo has become a fetus in this stage.
- The neural tube develops into the brain and the spinal cord and neurons form.
- Sex organs begin to appear during the third month of gestation.
- The fetus continuous to grow in both weight and length although the majority of the physical growth occurs in the later stages of pregnancy.
- The individual is complete with face, arms, legs, fingers, toes and some calcification of these bones, functioning in internal organs and muscles. The fetus is ready to
build upon the basic form that has been laid down.
- Has a large repertory of movements which includes blinking, sucking, turning the head and gripping, and a wide variety of movements of limb, hands and feet.

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 o Prenatal behavioral development corresponds to the development of nervous system and the muscles of the body.

IMPORTANCE of Understanding the PRENATAL STAGE

a. Less than two weeks after conception, the new organism begins to demonstrate gross, adaptive forms of behavior and as it develops, it displays more complex
and varied forms of behavior; this behavior has potential effect on later behavior.
b. From researches, learning already occurs at this early stage; hence, this stage is considered to be of great importance for the development of behavior.

2. INFANCY STAGE

- Occurs from birth to 12 months during which babies experience rapid changes: height, weight, hearing and sensitivity to sounds- patterned perception begins.
- Learns to crawl, walk, talk, take solid foods, control elimination of body wastes and have refined grips.

Characterized by:
o Advancement in cognitive aspects
o An automatic or inborn responses to stimulus that involves nerve impulses
o Time spent more in sleeping
o Radical adjustments with the external environment, such as in
a. Temperature change
b. Breathing
c. Sucking and swallowing
d. Elimination

3. BABYHOOD/ TODDLERHOOD

 Occurs roughly from one to three years during which the child learns to take solid food, walk, talk, control elimination of body wastes, gets ready to read, starts
distinguishing boys from girls and between rght and wrong.

4. EARLY CHILDHOOD STAGE ( 3 – 6 years old: Pre- School/ Kindergarten)

CHARACTERISTICS CLASSROOM IMPLICATIONS

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

1. Extremely active; have good control of their bodies; enjoy activity for  Provide plenty of opportunities for running, climbing, and jumping but
itself. these should be under control.

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 2. Have inclination towards “bursts” of activity, so they need frequent rest  Schedule quiet activities after strenuous ones.
periods as they often don’t know they need to slow down.

3. With large muscles that are more developed than those that control  Avoid too many small motor activities such as pasting paper chains,
fingers and hands; are therefore clumsy especially in skills like tying provide big tools and supplies.
shoes and buttoning.

4. Have difficulty in focusing their eyes on small objects, so their eye- hand  As much as possible, minimize the need for children to look at small
coordination is not yet perfect. things.

5. Their bodies may be flexible and resilient, but the bones that protect  Intervene immediately when blows to the head in games or fights
their bodies are still soft. between children occur, and explain why.

6. Boys maybe bigger but girls are ahead in many areas of development,  Avoid boy- girl comparisons or competition involving skills.
especially in fine motor skills.

7. By age 5, body proportions are now more similar to adults.

8. Gains in fine motor skills are especially evident in children’s writings

and drawings.

SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS

1. Most have one or two best friends, but this friendship may change  Provide assistance to those who like to be with others but lack the
rapidly, as they all tend to be willing and able to play with most other confidence or ability to join them.
children in class; friendships tend to be the same sex.

2. Play groups tend to be small and too highly organized.  Determine when silence and sedentary activities are justifiable.

3. Younger children may play beside others; older ones with others.  Determine what type of social behaviors each child exhibits and provide
appropriate activities, especially free play and experimentation.

4. Play patterns vary according to social class, gender or age.  Give attention to the variety of play activities to know what play patterns
most children prefer or should be provided them.

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 5. Quarrels are frequent especially among boys, but are of short duration  As much as possible, let the children settle their differences and intervene
and are quickly forgotten. only if quarrels get out of hand.

6. Awareness of sex roles and sex typing is evident.  Help children resist forms of sex typing and begin to acquire traits of both
sexes (andrology)

EMOTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS

1. Tend to express their emotions freely and openly; anger outbursts are  Let children express their feelings within broad limits so they can
frequent. recognize and face their emotions.

2. Jealousy among classmates is likely to be common because they seek  Spread attention as equitably as possible; do most praising in private.
attention and affection of teachers.

COGNITIVE CHARACTERISTICS

1. Quite skillful with languages; most like to talk especially in front of  Provide ‘sharing time’ sessions and at the same time help them become
groups. good listeners.

2. May stick to own rules in use of language.  Limit any attempts at grammar instruction to modeling (delay formal
grammar instruction until 2nd or 3rd grade)

3. Need more opportunities involving interaction, interest, opportunities,  Interact with children more often, showing interest in what they do,
urging, limits, admiration, signs of affection. appreciating their achievement, and allowing them to investigate and
experience many things independently to certain limits.

MORAL CHARACTERISTICS

1. Concept of morality emerges as a result of interactions with adults and

peers.

2. Show concern about deviations from the way objects should be and how
people should be.

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5. MIDDLE CHILDHOOD STAGE ( 6 -9 years old: Grade 1 – 3)

CHARACTERISTICS CLASSROOM IMPLICATIONS

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

1. Still extremely active, hence, when restricted, their energy is released  Avoid rules that require them to stay quiet for long periods; have frequent
throygh nervous habits (ex. fidgeting) breaks; provide active classwork.

2. Get fatigued easily because of physical and mental exhaustion.  Schedule quiet and/or relaxing activities after periods of mental
concentration.

3. With more superior large- muscle control than fine coordination.  Avoid scheduling too much writing at one time.

4. Many have difficulty focusing on small prints or objects.  Try not to require too much reading at one stretch. Prepare materials with
large prints.

5. Have excellent control over their bodies, are confident in their skills, and  Encourage participation in essential safe games.
often underestimate danger.

6. Bone growths not complete yet, so, bones and ligaments can’t stand  Encourage competition involving corrdinated skills.
heavy pressure.

SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS

1. Somewhat more selective in choosing friends and are likely to have a  Sociograms may be used to gain insight into friendships. Give some
more or less permanent friend. assistance to children who have difficulty in making friends.

2. Like organized games in small groups, but may tend to be overly  Promote the idea that games should be fun and not excessively
concerned with rules or get carried away by team spirit. competetive.

3. Quarrels are still frequent although words are used more often than  Try to give children a chance to work out their own situation to
physical aggression. disagrrement as social conflict is effective in spurting cognitive growth.

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 EMOTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS
1. Sensitive to ridicule and criticism and may have difficulty in adjusting to
failure.
2. Most are eager to please the teacher.
3. Beginning to become sensitive to the feelings of others.
COGNITIVE CHARACTERISTICS
1. Are generally eager to learn; they have built- in motivation for this.
2. Have much more facility in speech than in writing.
3. Can make generalization but based only on concrete experiences.
MORAL CHARACTERISTICS
1. Have the tendency to tell on their classmates, maybe due to jealousy or
malice or simply to get attention or curry favor.
6. LATE CHILDHOOD STAGE ( 9 – 12 years old: Grade 4 – 6)
CHARACTERISTICS
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
1. Growth spurt occurs in most girls and starts in early- maturing boys. On
the average girls between 10 and 14 are taller and heavier than boys of
the same age.
 Give frequent praise and recognition and other positive reinforcement
especially for academic behavior.
 Assign jobs on a ‘rotating basis’
 Be alert about the group pastime of increased teasing a particular child so
much that it may make a tremendous effect on the attitude towards school
of the victim.
 Sustain their eagerness to learn.
 Control participation so that they speak only when called upon.
 Tell an informant that you are aware of the situation and that you will do
something about it.; then follow up by talking to the offending parties.
CLASSROOM IMPLICATIONS
 Conflicts between physical attributes and sex roles might arise; try
to explain that things will eventually even out and to persuade
pupils that being male or female should not in itself determine
what a person does.
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 2. Concern and curiosity about sex are prevalent especially because these  Try to give accurate and unemotional answers to question about
involve drastic biological adjustments. sex.

3. Fine motor coordination is quite good; manipulation of small objects is  Provide arts and crafts and musical and related creative activities.
easy and enjoyable.

SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS
 Keep in mind the pupils’ growing independence and their need
1. Peer group becomes powerful and begins to replace adults as basis of for understanding and limit setting rather than punishment,
behavior standards and recognition of achievement. provide cooperative activities.

 Try to play down comparisons between best and worst learners.

2. Increase development of interpersonal reasoning that leads to greater Encourage pupils to participate in rule setting; keep pupils
understanding of others’ feelings. constructively busy.

EMOTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS
 May need provisions for counseling and parent training and
1. Delinquent behavior may be manifested caused more by disruptive mastery of basic academic skills.
family relationships, social rejection, and school failure.
 Report unusual and repeated episodes of disorder to parents and
2. Some may show behavior disorder (hyperactivity, bed wetting, school counselor.
antisocial behavior, ties, excessive fears, depression, eating disorder,
anxiety, withdrawal)

COGNITIVE CHARACTERISTICS
 Provide opportunities to learn for both sexes to further lessen
1. Sex differences in specific abilities decrease in number and magnitude. differences.

 Use varied teaching methods and approaches.

2. Differences in cognitive styles become apparent.

3. May be able to deal with abstraction but may still need to generalize
from concrete experience.

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 MORAL CHARACTERISTICS

1. Emotions concerning pride and guilt become clearly governed by

personal responsibility.

2. Ideas about justice.

3. Can now follow advance internalized standards.

7. ADOLESCENT STAGE (12- 16 years old: High School)

CHARACTERISTICS CLASSROOM IMPLICATIONS

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

1. Physical growth becomes more accelerated although most girls  Give students extra opportunities to gain status and self-
completed their growth spurt at the beginning of this period earlier than confidense by succeeding in school work or other non- athletic
boys. activities and recognizing their achievements.

2. Pubertal development is evident.  Provide accurate information/ answers to questions asked.

3. Adolescent awkwardness is likely; self- consciousness and great concern  Establish a class routine that includes completion of activities
about appearance are manifested. about two- three minutes before end of period to give students
time for growing and social interaction.

4. Generally have good health but may show poor sleeping habits and diet.  Provide frequent changes of pace and breaks to address
drowsiness to some extent.
SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS

1. Peer group becomes the general source of behavior; desire for greater  Involve students in establishing class rules and routines.
independence shown.

2. Great desire to conform is at its peak, whether in appearance, opinion,  Encourage formation of personal values thorugh techniques such
dress or behavior. as values classification or voice their opinions in writing.

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 3. Great concerns about what other think of them.  Be a sympathetic listener especially to those who often show
depression and pre- occupation.

EMOTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS

1. Some but not all have feelings of confusion, anxiety, depression, extreme  Provide opportunities for more academic work, accompanied by
mood swings and low- level of self- confidence, often attributed to the incentives and rewards and involvement of decision making.
rapid changes in height, weight and body proportions, hormone
production, identity formation, increased academic responsibility, and
the development of formal operational reasoning.

COGNITIVE CHARACTERISTICS

1. Have increased ability to engage in mental manipulations and test  Give more opportunities to make personal ouputs regarding
hypotheses; thinking becomes more abstract, liberal and knowledgeable. academic work and to express own views.

MORAL CHARACTERISTICS

1. Have greater willingness to obey rules out of respect to authority or of a

desire to impress others; have a greater concept of individual rights.

2. Ideas about what ought to be done when the needs and desires of people
are on conflict also change toward increasingly just fair solutions to
moral problems.

8. ADULTHOOD STAGE
- Consists of individuals in the age range of 20-65, most of whom take on the responsibility of parenthood.
- Maturity characterizes the adult and can adopt to social roles in a flexible way.
- Has no universal physical changes
- No new approaches to social relations acquired
- With stable personality, intellectual activites are often at the peak of efficiency.

9. OLD STAGE
- Composed of individuals over the age of 65; most of whom have retired from work
- Most individuals in this late years begin to show slow physical, intellectual and social activities.
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