S T A B I L I T Y OF BURIED P I P E L I N E S SUBJECTED

TO WAVE LOADING

by

RAJARATNAM SIDDHARTHAN

B.S. ( H o n s . ) , U n i v e r s i t y o f S r i L a n k a ,
P e r a d e n i y a Campus, S r i L a n k a , 1977

A THESIS'SUBMITTED I N P A R T I A L FULFILLMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF A P P L I E D SCIENCE

in

THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES

Department o f C i v i l Engineering

We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s as conforming

to the required standard

THE U N I V E R S I T Y OF B R I T I S H COLUMBIA

May 1981

(c) Rajaratnam Siddharthan, 1981

In p r e s e n t i n g this thesis in partial f u l f i l m e n t of the
requirements f o r an a d v a n c e d d e g r e e a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y
of British Columbia, I agree that the L i b r a r y shall make
it freely available f o r reference and s t u d y . I further
agree that permission f o r extensive copying of t h i s thesis
for scholarly p u r p o s e s may be g r a n t e d by t h e h e a d o f my
d e p a r t m e n t o r by h i s o r h e r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . Iti s
understood that copying or p u b l i c a t i o n of this thesis
for f i n a n c i a l gain shall n o t be a l l o w e d w i t h o u t my written
permission.

Department o f

The U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia
2075 Wesbrook P l a c e
V a n c o u v e r , Canada
V6T 1W5

Date Aprf H 8 I
 ABSTRACT

The r e s p o n s e of b u r i e d offshore pipelines t o wave l o a d i n g is

shown t o d e p e n d m a i n l y on the stability of the seafloor. Two analyses to

i n v e s t i g a t e the stability of the seafloor are p r e s e n t e d ; one i s based on

Biot's t h e o r y of a poro-elastic solid, the o t h e r on the t h e o r y of residual

wave i n d u c e d p o r e w a t e r p r e s s u r e s . Poro-elastic analysis gives the dis-

t r i b u t i o n of the transient p o r e w a t e r p r e s s u r e s and the effective stress

field i n d u c e d by the wave l o a d i n g . The stability of the seafloor can be

e s t i m a t e d by a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e Mohr-Coulomb f a i l u r e c r i t e r i o n to the

computed s t r e s s f i e l d . For a l l deep d e p o s i t s except f o r hard f i n e sands,

it i s shown t h a t a much s i m p l e r analysis can be u s e d . The effective

stresses can be d e t e r m i n e d by computing the total stress f i e l d elastically

and pore pressure f i e l d by simple solutions of the Laplace equation.

Residual pore pressure a n a l y s i s i s b a s e d on computing the resi-

d u a l p o r e p r e s s u r e s g e n e r a t e d by the cyclic a c t i o n o f wave i n d u c e d shear

stresses and then using t h e Mohr-Coulomb f a i l u r e c r i t e r i o n to investigate

the stability. I n many c a s e s , r e s i d u a l p o r e p r e s s u r e s c a n lead to insta-

bility or even l i q u e f a c t i o n of the seafloor. Because of the duration of

typical storms, d i s s i p a t i o n of r e s i d u a l pore p r e s s u r e s d u r i n g a storm has

been c o n s i d e r e d in this analysis. The degradation i n e f f e c t i v e stress

dependent p r o p e r t i e s of the deposit i s also taken into account.

Two c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s , STAB-MAX and STAB-W, h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d

to perform the poro-elastic and r e s i d u a l pore pressure analyses respec-

tively.

An example problem i n p i p e l i n e s t a b i l i t y has been p r e s e n t e d to

illustrate the factors that s h o u l d be considered i n the analysis of the

stability of buried offshore pipelines.

 i i i

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT n

TABLE OF CONTENTS i i i

L I S T OF FIGURES v i

L I S T OF TABLES viii

NOMENCLATURE ix

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS x i i

CHAPTER 1 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Scope 2

1.3 L i t e r a t u r e Review 4

1.4 Organisation of the Thesis 6

CHAPTER 2 GENERAL ASPECTS OF OFFSHORE P I P E L I N E S T A B I L I T Y 7

2.1 Statement of t h e Problem 8

2.2 Estimation of the Forces 10

2.2.1 E f f e c t i v e bouyancy f o r c e U 10

2.2.2 E f f e c t i v e w e i g h t o f t h e mass o f s o i l Involved: W s 11

2.2.3 S h e a r r e s i s t a n c e c o m p o n e n t , Ry 12

2.2.4 Contribution of s o i l a d h e s i o n , C^ 12

2.2.5 Contribution of s o i l suction force, P w 13

2.3 Proposed A n a l y s i s f o r t h e P i p e l i n e 13

CHAPTER 3 EVALUATION OF DESIGN STORM WAVE 18

3.1 Obtaining D e s i g n S t o r m Waves 19

3.2 Wave T h e o r i e s 21
 iv

Page

3.2. 1 L i n e a r wave t h e o r y 22

3.2. 2. Stokes' higher order t h e o r i e s 24

3.2. 3 C n o i d a l wave t h e o r y 24

3.2. 4 S o l i t a r y wave t h e o r y 25

3.2. 5 S t r e a m - f u n c t i o n n u m e r i c a l wave t h e o r y 25

3.2. 6 Theory used i nthis thesis 26

3.3 Equivalent Uniform S t o r m Wave 26

CHAPTER 4 PORO-ELASTIC A N A L Y S I S 31

4.1 Introduction 31

4.2 Governing Equations 31

4.3 Boundary C o n d i t i o n s 34

4.4 Solution Technique 35

4.4..1 Horizontally layered deposit 37

4.5 A n a l y s i s o f t h e Depth o f I n s t a b i l i t y 38

4.6 Values forElastic Constants 39

4.7 Example Problem 42

4.8 Comparison of Theory w i t h F i e l d Data 52

4.9 Some P r a c t i c a l Solutions 55

CHAPTER 5 RESIDUAL PORE PRESSURE A N A L Y S I S 58

5.1 Theory 59

5.2 A n a l y s i s of t h e Depth o f I n s t a b i l i t y 63

5.3 Changes i n S o i l P r o p e r t i e s and P o r e Pressure 63

Generation

5.4 Example Problem 65

5.4,.1 Equivalent uniform storm . 67

5.4..2 Discussion of r e s u l t s 67
 V

Page

CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS OF P I P E L I N E FLOTATION 71

CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSIONS 75

REFERENCES 78

APPENDIX I 83

APPENDIX I I 89
 vi

L I S T OF FIGURES

Page

FIGURE 1 F o r c e s on a B u r i e d P i p e l i n e 9

FIGURE 2 General S l i p S u r f a c e f o r Shallow Anchors 9

FIGURE 3 F l o w C h a r t t o C a l c u l a t e G e n e r a l S t o r m Wave D a t a 20
a n d t h e E q u i v a l e n t S t o r m Wave S y s t e m

FIGURE 4 R e g i o n s o f V a l i d i t y o f Wave T h e o r i e s 23

FIGURE 5(a) Modified Penetration vs x/a^ 0 29

FIGURE 5(b) E q u i v a l e n t Number o f C y c l e s 29

FIGURE 6 Wave P r e s s u r e s o n O c e a n F l o o r 32

FIGURE 7 The V a r i a t i o n o f Secant Shear Modulus w i t h 40

Shear S t r a i n

FIGURE 8 S o i l D e p o s i t used i n Example Problem 43

FIGURE 9 F i n i t e Element D i s c r e t i z a t i o n 43

FIGURE 1 0 ( a ) Porewater P r e s s u r e i n a Deposit of F i n i t e Depth 45

FIGURE 1 0 ( b ) Induced V e r t i c a l Effective Stresses i n a Deposit 46

of F i n i t e D e p t h

FIGURE 1 0 ( c ) Induced Shear S t r e s s e s i n a D e p o s i t o f F i n i t e 48

Depth

FIGURE 1 0 ( d ) Induced H o r i z o n t a l E f f e c t i v e Stresses ina 49

Deposit o f F i n i t e Depth

FIGURE 11 C o n t o u r s o f D e v e l o p e d F r i c t i o n A n g l e , <j> 51

FIGURE 12 B o r e h o l e Data 53

FIGURE 13 Pore Pressure D i s t r i b u t i o n i n Sand D e p o s i t o f 54

C a l i f o r n i a Coast

FIGURE 14 Rate of Pore Pressure Generation during Cyclic 62

Loading

FIGURE 1 5 ( a ) B a s i c E q u a t i o n and S o l u t i o n Domain 64

FIGURE 1 5 ( b ) S t r e s s C o n d i t i o n s B e f o r e and D u r i n g Storms 64

 vii

Page

FIGURE 16 R e s i d u a l Pore P r e s s u r e D i s t r i b u t i o n i n S o i l 70
Deposit

FIGURE 17 Wave F o r c e s on a H o r i z o n t a l l y Layered Deposit 90

 viii

L I S T OF TABLES

Page

TABLE I Gavity Breakthrough Factors 16

TABLE II D e s i g n Wave D a t a 66

TABLE I I I L i q u e f a c t i o n P o t e n t i a l Curve 66

TABLE IV C a l c u l a t i o n of Equivalent Number o f U n i f o r m 68

Cycles

TABLE V Results of Residual Pore Pressure A n a l y s i s 68

TABLE VI C a l c u l a t i o n o f B r e a k o u t S o i l Mass 73

i
 ix

NOMENCLATURE

B = diameter of the pipe

B = b u l k modulus of t h e d e p o s i t
m
C„ = c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r f o r SPT v a l u e s
N
C = adhesion f o r c e between p i p e and soil
a
C = correction factor for liquefaction data
Y
c = cohesion of the deposit

c = c o e f f i c i e n t of c o n s o l i d a t i o n
v
c^-*,c^ = a r b i t r a r y constants associated with the deposit

D = Thickness of the deposit

D, = d e p t h o f embedment o f t h e p i p e
b

= depth of i n s t a b i l i t y i n the deposit

= r e l a t i v e density of the deposit

d = mean d e p t h o f w a t e r

e = void ratio

F ,F = c a v i t y breakout factors
c' q J

G = shear modulus o f t h e d e p o s i t

G = shear modulus of t h e d e p o s i t a t low s t r a i n level

max

H = wave h e i g h t

H = e q u i v a l e n t wave height

i = seepage g r a d i e n t

K ,Kx z = p e r m e a b i l i t y i n x and z d i r e c t i o n s

K = lateral earth pressure at rest

o

L = wave l e n g t h

m = b u l k modulus constant

m = coefficient of volume c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y
N = equivalent number o f c y c l e s of a given reference wave
eq

N = number o f c y c l e s to l i q u e f a c t i o n

N = corrected SPT v a l u e
P

n = porosity o f t h e sea-bed

n w = total number o f wave c o m p o n e n t s i n t h e wave

OCR = over consolidation ratio

= atmospheric pressure

P = soil suction force

w

P = total static pore pressure

p = induced transient pore pressure

p^ = a m p l i t u d e o f wave p r e s s u r e o n t o p o f t h e s e a - b e d

q = weight of p i p e l i n e per unit length

R = domain o f integration

R = vertical component of shear resistance along the

slip surface

R g = shear r e s i s t a n c e along slip surface

r u = pore pressure ratio

S = degree of saturation

T = wave period

= total duration o f .ithe storm

= bouyancy f o r c e per u n i t length

U^jU^ = total pore p r e s s u r e a t t o p and bottom o f t h e p i p e l i n e

U = e f f e c t i v e bouyancy f o r c e on t h e p i p e l i n e per u n i t length

u = residual pore pressure

Ug = p o r e p r e s s u r e due t o c y c l i c shear stresses

v = displacement in x direction

W = total weight of p i p e l i n e including i t s contents per u n i t

P
length
 xi

W = e f f e c t i v e weight of s o i l mass i n v o l v e d i n breakout

together with the object

w = displacement in z direction

B = compressibility of porewater

a',B' = constants

Y g = saturated unit weight of the deposit

Y = unit weight of water

w

-y' = effective unit weight of the deposit

Y M
= defined a s (|' - y i )
w
e = total volumetric strain

e , e ,£ =
ir normal strains i n x,y,z d i r e c t i o n s defined t o be positive
x y z
in elongation

d i s t a n c e measured in z direction from top of a layer

empirical constant

wave number = 2TT/L

Poisson's ratio

vertical effective stress

vo

a',a' = wave i n d u c e d effective stresses

x z

x c = cyclic shear stress

T = wave induced shear stresses on x-z plane (horizontal)

X2

A>, \ ~ friction angle developed by s t r e s s state i n an element

(x,y,t)

<f>' =. angle of i n t e r n a l friction

 xii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to thank h i s a d v i s o r , P r o f e s s o r W.D.

Liam Finn, f o rh i scontinued interest, unfailing help and f o r making

many v a l u a b l e suggestions t o improve t h e presentation of t h e t h e s i s .

He i s also indebted to Professor M. d e S t . Q . Isaacson for reading this

thesis and f o r making c o n s t r u c t i v e suggestions i n the preparation of

Chapter 3.

The author wishes to express h i sgratitude to Miss Desiree

Cheung f o r t y p i n g this t h e s i s and f o r making v a l u a b l e comments. The

author i s also grateful t o M r s . 0. C u t h b e r t , who was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r

providing a pleasant and p e a c e f u l home d u r i n g h i s stay i n Canada.

The financial assistance provided by F u g r o , Inc., Long Beach,

California i sgratefully acknowledged.

 1

CHAPTER 1

1.1 Introduction

The s t a b i l i t y of the seafloor i s of major importance f o r o f f s h o r e

installations, such as p i p e l i n e s and g r a v i t y s t r u c t u r e s . The o c c u r r e n c e

of seafloor i n s t a b i l i t y d u e t o wave a c t i o n h a s b e e n r e p o r t e d by H e n k e l

(1970). The i n f l u e n c e o f s e a f l o o r i n s t a b i l i t y c a u s e d by wave a c t i o n on

offshore installations, such as p i p e l i n e s (Beckmann, 1970; C h r i s t i a n e t

al, 1974; N a t a r a j a , 1978), g r a v i t y s t r u c t u r e s ( L e e , 1 9 7 5 ; Rahman, 1976),

sea walls ( H e y b i c h , 1 9 6 8 ; S a t o , 1968) a n d j a c k e t - t y p e structures (Wright,

1972; B e a , 1971) h a s b e e n e x t e n s i v e l y studied. The o c c u r r e n c e o f s e a f l o o r

s l i d e s and l a r g e s o i l m o v e m e n t s c a u s e d by w a v e s d u r i n g the periods of

s e v e r e s t o r m a c t i v i t y may h a v e two e f f e c t s o n a n o f f s h o r e facility: (a)

i t may l e a d to loss of strength i n foundation soil; ( b ) i t may produce

significant additional l a t e r a l load. T h e s e two e f f e c t s r e p r e s e n t a v e r y

severe loading condition f o r the design of these s t r u c t u r e s . The p r o b l e m

o f p r e d i c t i n g when, w h e r e , t o w h a t e x t e n t a s e a f l o o r slide will o c c u r and

the e f f e c t s of t h i s s l i d e on t h e above o f f s h o r e installations during a

storm a c t i v i t y i s extremely difficult.

P i p e l i n e s a r e p r o b a b l y t h e m o s t e f f i c i e n t a n d e c o n o m i c a l means o f

transporting petroleum products from o f f s h o r e sources t o onshore facilities.

One o f t h e m a j o r d e s i g n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n the design of o f f s h o r e pipelines

w o u l d be t h e i n s t a b i l i t y due t o c u r r e n t , wave a n d f l o t a t i o n effects, which

may l e a d to eventual pipeline failure.

The e f f e c t s of surface waves on a s e a f l o o r c a n be a n a l y s e d using

wave t h e o r i e s . B e c a u s e o f many v a r i a b l e s i n f l u e n c i n g wave g e o m e t r y a n d

water kinematics, a general t h e o r y f o r t h e m e c h a n i c s o f w a t e r waves i s

 2

very difficult, i fnot impossible. I t i s common t o a s s u m e t h a t t h e s e a

s u r f a c e waves c a n be i d e a l i s e d a s a p l a n e t r a v e l l i n g surface waves.

These s u r f a c e t r a v e l l i n g waves e x e r t p r e s s u r e l o a d i n g on t h e s e a f l o o r ,

with amplitude varying harmonically i n t i m e and h o r i z o n t a l d i s t a n c e . The

harmonically varying stress field i n d u c e d by t h i s p r e s s u r e l o a d i n g on t h e

s e a f l o o r , may b e l a r g e e n o u g h t o c a u s e s e a f l o o r s l i d e s . Here, t h e Mohr-

Coulomb c r i t e r i o n c a n b e e m p l o y e d s u c c e s s f u l l y t o a n a l y s e a potential

failure zone.

Further, t h i s harmonic pressure loading w i l l produce cyclic

s h e a r s t r e s s e s i n t h e o c e a n b e d w h i c h may g i v e r i s e t o t h e b u i l d u p o f

r e s i d u a l pore pressure ( F i n n , 1 9 7 6 ) i n some s o i l s . This increase i n pore

pressure will l e a d t o s t r e n g t h l o s s o r even l i q u e f a c t i o n o f t h e s o i l

surrounding the pipeline. The t e c h n i q u e s of seismic response a n a l y s i s

can be u s e d t o e v a l u a t e t h i s r e s i d u a l pore pressure. But, i n the follow-

ing aspects, seismic l o a d i n g d i f f e r s f r o m wave l o a d i n g .

(a) T h e d u r a t i o n o f l o a d i n g a n d wave p e r i o d s a r e v e r y long

i n t h e c a s e o f wave l o a d i n g a n d , t h e r e f o r e , p o r e
p r e s s u r e d i s s i p a t i o n s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d .

(b) Wave l o a d i n g i s essentially unidirectional.

(c) Seismic l o a d i n g i s a p p l i e d a t t h e lower boundary o f t h e

deposit. As t h e r e s i d u a l pore p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e s d u r i n g
the s e i s m i c l o a d i n g , t h e s o i l d e p o s i t s o f t e n s and t h i s
might l e a d t o l o w e r i n e r t i a f o r c e s on t h e s t r u c t u r e s
c o n s t r u c t e d on t o p o f t h e d e p o s i t . B u t wave l o a d i n g
w h i c h i s a p p l i e d e x t e r n a l l y and i n d e p e n d e n t l y remains
u n a l t e r e d and t h e major e f f e c t o f d e g r a d a t i o n o r s o f t e n -
ing o f s o i l p r o p e r t i e s i s t o i n c r e a s e t h e depth o f
i n s t a b i l i t y u n d e r t h e g i v e n wave l o a d i n g .

1.2 Scope

In t h i s t h e s i s an a n a l y s i s of t h e response of a buried p i p e l i n e

t o wave l o a d i n g i spresented. The seabed i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be a h o r i z o n -

tally layered deposit. Further, a common a s s u m p t i o n i n s o i l - s t r u c t u r e

 3

i n t e r a c t i o n p r o b l e m s i s made, v i z . t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e p i p e l i n e i n no

way affects either the stress field d i s t r i b u t i o n or the instantaneous

or r e s i d u a l pore p r e s s u r e s induced by t h e wave l o a d i n g i n t h e deposit.

W i t h t h e s e a s s u m p t i o n s t h e r e s p o n s e o f a b u r i e d p i p e l i n e t o wave l o a d i n g

can be d e d u c e d f r o m t h e r e s p o n s e o f t h e s o i l deposit alone to t h i s wave

loading.

It has been mentioned e a r l i e r t h a t t h e s u r f a c e waves have the

following e f f e c t s on the seabed:

1) I t induces a harmonic s t r e s s field.

2) The c y c l i c s h e a r s t r e s s e s may g i v e r i s e t o the

b u i l d u p of r e s i d u a l . p o r e p r e s s u r e s .

The harmonic s t r e s s f i e l d has been a n a l y s e d by Yamamoto (1978)

and Madsen ( 1 9 7 8 ) . They a s s u m e d a n elastically coupled s o i l - w a t e r system

and presented an e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s a n a l y s i s b a s e d on B i o t ' s equations

(1941). They a n a l y s e d the i n s t a b i l i t y of t h e seabed f o r g i v e n extreme

waves, u s i n g t h e Mohr-Coulomb f a i l u r e c r i t e r i o n . The wave l o a d i n g was

a s s u m e d t o be quasi-static. The soil deposit considered by them was uni-

f o r m and deep. In this t h e s i s an efficient computer p r o g r a m based on the

finite d i f f e r e n c e method has been p r e s e n t e d to analyse the response of the

s e a b e d t o wave l o a d i n g u n d e r m o r e g e n e r a l f i e l d conditions. T h i s method

will be r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e p o r o - e l a s t i c m e t h o d o f stability analysis. Pre-

d i c t i o n s made by t h i s method have been compared w i t h a v a i l a b l e f i e l d data.

The p o s s i b i l i t y of l i q u e f a c t i o n of the s o i l d e p o s i t due to resi-

dual pore pressure generation during a design storm was taken into account

by S e e d e t a l ( 1 9 7 7 ) , and Nataraja (1978). They a n a l y s e d the s e a f l o o r as

an u n c o u p l e d s o i l - w a t e r system. They d i d n o t consider the e f f e c t s of

degradation of the soil p r o p e r t i e s d u r i n g a storm activity as the residual

pore pressures are generated. I t has been mentioned e a r l i e r that the

 4

degradation of the soil p r o p e r t i e s should be c o n s i d e r e d as this softening

of s o i l p r o p e r t i e s leads to h i g h e r r e s i d u a l pore pressures. In this thesis

the e f f e c t of s o f t e n i n g has been i n c l u d e d . F u r t h e r , Seed,':s a n a l y s i s has

b e e n e x t e n d e d t o i n c l u d e e s t i m a t i n g t h e maximum d e p t h o f instability during

a storm u s i n g t h e Mohr-Coulomb f a i l u r e criterion.

All researchers, to date, h a v e u s e d t h e l i n e a r wave t h e o r y to

compute t h e p r e s s u r e l o a d i n g on the seafloor. The l i n e a r wave t h e o r y is

not a p p l i c a b l e to shallow water c o n d i t i o n s . So, shallow water theories

l i k e t h e c n o i d a l t h e o r y may be a p p r o p r i a t e when a s s e s s i n g stability in

nearshore regions. The r e l a t i v e m e r i t s o f t h e v a r i o u s wave t h e o r i e s and

t h e i r ranges of a p p l i c a b i l i t y a r e discussed.

An appropriate example i l l u s t r a t i n g a l l t h e p r i n c i p l e s of the

proposed methods of a n a l y s i s i s presented.

1.3 L i t e r a t u r e Review

Large amplitude s u r f a c e waves h a v e t h e f o l l o w i n g e f f e c t s on the

seabed: 1) they induce pressure l o a d i n g on the s e a f l o o r which i s harmonic

i n s p a c e and time, and 2) r e s i d u a l pore pressures a r e g e n e r a t e d due to

cyclic shear s t r e s s e s .

The e f f e c t s of p r e s s u r e l o a d i n g on the stability of soft clay

d e p o s i t s were a n a l y s e d by H e n k e l ( 1 9 7 0 ) . He t r e a t e d the s e a f l o o r as an

uncoupled s o i l - w a t e r s y s t e m and presented an a n a l y t i c a l m o d e l b a s e d o n the

p r i n c i p l e of l i m i t i n g e q u i l i b r i u m , employing the assumption of a circular

failure surface. F u r t h e r , he a s s u m e d t h e p e r i o d s of important waves were

l o n g enough t o n e g l e c t the t r a n s i e n t e f f e c t s of the pressure loading. There-

fore, the e f f e c t s of t h e h i g h e s t wave l o a d i n g s c a n be a n a l y s e d statically.

An e x t e n s i o n o f H e n k e l ' s m e t h o d was p r o p o s e d by W r i g h t e t a l

( 1 9 7 2 ) w h i c h e m p l o y s t h e f i n i t e e l e m e n t m e t h o d and includes nonlinear

 5

p r o p e r t i e s of s o i l . A hyperbolic s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p and a v a l u e

of 0.495 f o r P o i s s o n ' s r a t i o (to represent undrained condition) were

assumed i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f s t r e s s e s . B o t h t h e above methods a r e t o t a l

s t r e s s m e t h o d s w h i c h do n o t r e q u i r e p o r e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d a r e

s u i t a b l e f o r deposits of very low p e r m e a b i l i t y , c h i e f l y , clayey deposits.

A n e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s a n a l y s i s c a n be p e r f o r m e d i n two w a y s : 1)

by e s t i m a t i n g the t o t a l s t r e s s and t h e p o r e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n i n the

deposit i n d e p e n d e n t l y by u n c o u p l e d a n a l y s e s o r 2) by t r e a t i n g the deposit

as a c o u p l e d s o i l - w a t e r system.

In the uncoupled e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s a n a l y s i s the e s t i m a t i o n of

total s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r a wave l o a d i n g i n t h e b e d c a n be made u s i n g

appropriate total stress soil properties. The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f i n s t a n t a n e o u s

p o r e p r e s s u r e s h a s b e e n p r e d i c t e d b y a number o f i n v e s t i g a t o r s b a s e d on

different assumptions:

1) L i u ( 1 9 7 3 ) , M a s s e l ( 1 9 7 6 ) , Putnam (1949) and R e i d e t a l

(1957) assumed t h a t t h e p o r o u s bed i s r i g i d and n o n -
d e f o r m a b l e and t h e p o r e w a t e r i s i n c o m p r e s s i b l e . I f the
f l u i d m o t i o n i n t h e p o r o u s b e d i s d e f i n e d by D a r c y ' s
Law, t h e n f o r i s o t r o p i c p e r m e a b i l i t y , t h e g o v e r n i n g
equation leads to the Laplace equation f o r pore pressure.
Putnam's s o l u t i o n s l e a d t o p o r e p r e s s u r e r e s p o n s e b e i n g
i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y of t h e bed m a t e r i a l .

2) M o s h a g e n a n d T«5rum ( 1 9 7 5 ) a s s u m e d t h a t t h e w a t e r i s com-
p r e s s i b l e w h i l e t h e p o r o u s bed i s n o n d e f o r m a b l e , and
t h i s l e a d s t o t h e heat c o n d u c t i o n e q u a t i o n f o r pore
pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n . They c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e p o r e
p r e s s u r e response i s a f u n c t i o n of p e r m e a b i l i t y of the
bed m a t e r i a l . I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t w h i l e compres-
s i b i l i t y o f s o i l s o l i d s i s i n d e e d n e g l i g i b l e , t h e com-
p r e s s i b i l i t y of the s o i l s k e l e t o n i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y
higher than the water c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y and, t h e r e f o r e ,
M o s h a g e n a n d Thrum's a s s u m p t i o n i s n o t a c c e p t a b l e .

Yamamoto ( 1 9 7 8 ) a n d M a d s e n (1978) p r e s e n t e d t h e c o u p l e d effective

s t r e s s a n a l y s i s f o r a deep d e p o s i t based on B i o t ' s equations (1941).

Their analysis takes i n t o account the e l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n of the porous

 6

medium a n d t h e c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y o f p o r e f l u i d . This i s a coupled analysis

and, therefore, t h i s method g i v e s s o l u t i o n s f o r e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s e s and

pore pressures. They i n v e s t i g a t e d failure zones u s i n g t h e Mohr-Coulomb

failure criterion.

On t h e o t h e r h a n d , p o r e p r e s s u r e s g e n e r a t e d by c y c l i c shear

s t r e s s e s w e r e c o n s i d e r e d by Seed e t a l (1977) and N a t a r a j a ( 1 9 7 9 ) . Seed's

a n a l y s i s w h i c h i n c l u d e s d i s s i p a t i o n o f r e s i d u a l p o r e p r e s s u r e , was c o n -

cerned w i t h t h e p o s s i b l e l i q u e f a c t i o n of t h e seabed. A simple pore pres-

s u r e m o d e l p r o p o s e d by S e e d e t a l ( 1 9 7 6 ) was u s e d to generate porewater

p r e s s u r e under cyclic loading.

1.4 Organisation of the Thesis

The g e n e r a l a s p e c t s o f o f f s h o r e p i p e l i n e s t a b i l i t y are extensively

discussed i n C h a p t e r 2. The m a i n a s s u m p t i o n s a n d t h e d e s i g n c o n s i d e r a -

tions are c r i t i c a l l y reviewed.

Chapter 3 d e a l s w i t h the f o l l o w i n g topics: ( a ) Wave T h e o r i e s : a

b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n o f a v a i l a b l e wave t h e o r i e s a n d t h e i r v a l i d i t y ; (b)

E q u i v a l e n t Uniform Storm: t h e method based on M i n e r ' s r u l e t o e v a l u a t e an

e q u i v a l e n t s t o r m f r o m d e s i g n s t o r m wave d a t a i s e x p l a i n e d .

C h a p t e r s 4 and 5 d i s c u s s t h e p o r o - e l a s t i c and r e s i d u a l p o r e p r e s -

sure methods, r e s p e c t i v e l y . Assumptions, theoretical formulation, limita-

t i o n s and u s e f u l n e s s o f t h e s e t h e o r i e s a r e p r e s e n t e d . S o l u t i o n s f o r an

example problem a r e d i s c u s s e d . F u r t h e r m o r e , p r e d i c t i o n s based on t h e s e

approaches have been compared w i t h a v a i l a b l e f i e l d data.

Stability of a buried pipeline i s checked u s i n g the procedure

outlined i n this thesis i n C h a p t e r 6. A brief summary o f t h e m o r e impor-

tant c o n c l u s i o n i s presented i n Chapter 7.

 7

CHAPTER 2

GENERAL ASPECTS OF OFFSHORE P I P E L I N E S T A B I L I T Y

In order t o p r e v e n t damage o c c u r r i n g d u e t o f i s h i n g gear, ships'

anchors, etc., offshore p i p e l i n e s a r e often buried. Therefore, one o f

the main design requirements i s that t h e p i p e l i n e should n o t f l o a t up

during i t s operation. In general, t h e s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y of the f l u i d that

is t o be t r a n s p o r t e d b y t h e p i p e l i n e v a r i e s f r o m 0.99 i n t h e c a s e o f

s a n i t a r y w a t e r , t o 0.0007 i n t h e c a s e o f n a t u r a l g a s . I n c a s e s where l o w

specific gravity fluid i s being transported, there w i l l be p o s i t i v e n e t

buoyancy f o r c e s w h i c h t r y to force the pipeline to the surface. Net

buoyancy f o r c e i s d e f i n e d a s t h e upward f o r c e on a p i p e l i n e due t o s u r r o u n d -

ing w a t e r a b o v e i t s own w e i g h t .

In the case of buried pipelines the s t a b i l i t y of cover should be

analysed f o r the following design considerations: 1) s e a f l o o r slides

should not occur below t h e b u r i e d depth of t h e p i p e l i n e or i n t h e cover

material; 2) i f p o s i t i v e n e t b u o y a n c y f o r c e s a r e p r e s e n t the cover should

provide a d e q u a t e r e s i s t a n c e so t h a t t h e p i p e l i n e would n o t f l o a t ; 3) i n

the c a s e s where n e t buoyancy f o r c e s a r e n o t p r e s e n t adequate bearing

r e s i s t a n c e should be p r o v i d e d by t h e s o i l .

This t h e s i s i s concerned w i t h cases where p o s i t i v e n e t buoyancy

forces a r e present. B u r i a l of p i p e l i n e s a t adequate depth, t h e p r o v i s i o n

of adequate s t r o n g c o v e r and a d d i t i o n o f a r t i f i c i a l w e i g h t a r e t h e common

methods used t o c o u n t e r a c t pipeline flotation problems.

MacPherson (1978) and L i u e t a l (1979) p r e s e n t e d theoretical

approaches t o evaluate f o r c e s d e v e l o p e d , due t o seepage f o r c e s on a b u r i e d

pipeline. Their a n a l y s i s was b a s e d o n P u t n a m ' s a s s u m p t i o n s . When t h e

 8

c r e s t o f t h e wave i s a l i g n e d w i t h the c e n t r e l i n e of the pipe, t h e wave

f o r c e a c t s v e r t i c a l l y downward ( s t a b i l i z i n g force) a n d , on t h e o t h e r hand,

it a c t s v e r t i c a l l y u p w a r d s when t h e t r o u g h i s i n l i n e w i t h the centre of

the pipe (destabilizing force). MacPherson concluded that f o r a deep

deposit t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e n e t wave i n d u c e d f o r c e w h i c h c o u l d be a s

l a r g e as 30% of t h e buoyancy f o r c e , i s independent of t h e d i s t a n c e between

t h e wave c r e s t a n d t h e c e n t r e of the pipe. He f u r t h e r s u g g e s t e d t h a t this

periodic s e e p a g e f o r c e may b e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the "jacking e f f e c t " which

has been r e p o r t e d f o r buried pipelines. The a n a l y s i s p r e s e n t e d i n this

thesis ignores t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h i s p e r i o d i c seepage f o r c e .

Now l e t u s a s s u m e t h a t t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e p i p e l i n e on e i t h e r

the stress field d i s t r i b u t i o n or the r e s i d u a l pore pressure generation-

d i s s i p a t i o n c a n be n e g l e c t e d . We c o u l d then analyse the response of a

buried p i p e l i n e t o a wave l o a d i n g by a n a l y s i n g t h e r e s p o n s e of t h e seabed

a l o n e t o t h i s wave l o a d i n g . Furthermore, since t h i s t h e s i s i s concerned

with h o r i z o n t a l l y layered deposits, a complete s e a f l o o r s l i d e would n o t

occur. So, t h e o n l y d e s i g n consideration t h a t h a s t o be a n a l y s e d i sthe

stability of the p i p e l i n e against flotation.

2.1 Statement of t h e Problem

Figure 1 shows t h e f o r c e s w h i c h m u s t b e c o n s i d e r e d when estab-

lishing a criterion for stability against flotation. The c o m p o n e n t s a r e

1) The n e t b u o y a n c y f o r c e o n t h e p i p e l i n e , U.

Here, U = U b - W p

where Wp = t o t a l w e i g h t o f p i p e l i n e and i t s
contents per u n i t length;
= b u o y a n c y f o r c e c a u s e d by s u r r o u n d i n g
water pressure per u n i t l e n g t h .

2) The e f f e c t i v e w e i g h t o f t h e mass o f s o i l , W, g

involved i n breakout together with the p i p e l i n e .

 9

Still Water Level

Sea Bottom

FIG. 1 Forces on a B u r i e d Pipeline

FIG. 2 General Slip Surface f o r Shallow Anchors

 10

E f f e c t i v e w e i g h t o f t h e i n v o l v e d s o i l mass c a n be
determined e a s i l y under calm c o n d i t i o n s i f t h e
e f f e c t i v e u n i t w e i g h t , y'» volume of that a n Q t n e

m a s s a r e known. Should t h e r e be steady v e r t i c a l

upward seepage o f g r a d i e n t , i , i n t h e s o i l mass i n
q u e s t i o n , t h e a p p a r e n t s o i l u n i t w e i g h t h a s t o be
changed t o

Y" = Y' - Y w i (2.2)

3) T h e v e r t i c a l c o m p o n e n t , R^, o f t h e f o r c e s o f
s h e a r i n g r e s i s t a n c e , R , on t h e overburden s o i l
g

along the s l i p surface separating the part of the

s o i l i n v o l v e d i n breakout from the r e s t of the
s o i l mass.

4) The v e r t i c a l component, C , a due t o a d h e s i o n

between t h e p i p e l i n e and t h e a d j a c e n t soil.

5) The s o i l s u c t i o n f o r c e s , P , r e s u l t i n g from w

d i f f e r e n c e s i n p o r e w a t e r s t r e s s e s above and
b e l o w t h e p i p e l i n e c a u s e d by a t t e m p t e d u p w a r d
movement. F o r i n s t a b i l i t y o r u p w a r d movement
one s h o u l d h a v e

U > p+ s
b
w W + R
v + C
a + p
w (2.3)

2.2 Estimation of the Forces

2.2.1 Effective buoyancy force U

Weight per u n i t l e n g t h o f p i p e l i n e , and i t s c o n t e n t s (Wp) c a n b e

evaluated precisely. The a v e r a g e buoyancy f o r c e p e r u n i t length, U^, c a n

be estimated using the formula,

V iu

U. b = TTB (2.4)

where B = the diameter of t h e pipe;

UjV U2 = the t o t a l pore pressures, i . e . , s t a t i c and r e s i d u a l
p o r e p r e s s u r e a t t h e t o p and bottom o f t h e p i p e ,
respectively.

This equation i s obtained by i n t e g r a t i n g t h e t o t a l pore pressures around

the circumference of the pipes assuming that the variation between and

U2 i s linear. Note that the values of corresponding t o t h e buoyancy

 J

11

f o r c e on a p i p e i n water and l i q u e f i e d s o i l d e p o s i t c a n be represented

by t h i s equation as,

water w 4

and I lLi.q u e ff i•e da =

Y s "~7~
4 < -
2 4 b
)
soil

where Y w
=
t h e u n i t w e i g h t o f w a t e r , and
Y S = the u n i t weight of saturated s o i l deposit
surrounding the pipe.

Now k n o w i n g Wp a n d U^, e q u a t i o n (2.1) c a n be used t o e s t i m a t e U.

2.2.2 E f f e c t i v e w e i g h t o f t h e mass o f s o i l involved: W s

The v o l u m e o f s o i l mass i n v o l v e d d e p e n d s , i n g e n e r a l , o n t h e

d e p t h o f embedment, D , b and r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y , D .
r Based on e x t e n s i v e

experimental data, Vesic (1971) r e p o r t e d that shallow anchors f a i l along

the general slip s u r f a c e a s shown i n F i g . 2. Deep a n c h o r s move v e r t i c a l l y

for a considerable distance producing a failure pattern similar t o punching

shear f a i l u r e and t h e n fail along the general slip surface. The critical

r e l a t i v e depth, D^/B, a b o v e w h i c h t h e embedded o b j e c t s s h o u l d behave as

shallow anchors, depends on t h e r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y o f t h e s o i l and, p o s s i b l y ,

some o t h e r a s y e t u n c l a r i f i e d factors. A v a i l a b l e experimental evidence

(Vesic, 1971) s u g g e s t s that this l i m i t i n g depth, D^/B, i n s a n d may increase

from perhaps 2 f o r a v e r y l o o s e d e p o s i t t o over 10 i n a v e r y d e n s e d e p o s i t .

In very soft bentonite clay the l i m i t i s a b o u t D^/B = 2 while i n a stiff

clay i t i s approximately 10.

A f t e r assuming t h e volume i n v o l v e d , an average e f f e c t i v e weight

of t h e s o i l mass w h i c h a c c o u n t s f o r seepage f o r c e s has t o be evaluated.

E f f e c t i v e u n i t w e i g h t o f t h e s o i l mass i s a f f e c t e d by t h e o c c u r r e n c e of
seepage f o r c e s and c a n be calculated using equation (2.2).

2.2.3 Shear r e s i s t a n c e component, R , v along t h e assumed s l i p surface

The v e r t i c a l component of the shearing r e s i s t a n c e , R , v can be

d e t e r m i n e d by a p p r o p r i a t e a n a l y s e s f o r any trial slip surface. Even a

simple y i e l d criterion s u c h as Mohr-Coulomb l e a d s t o r i g o r o u s computations

unless some o t h e r a s s u m p t i o n s a r e made r e g a r d i n g the d i s t r i b u t i o n of

stresses along the s l i p surface. An a n a l y t i c a l approach to t h i s problem

was' p r o p o s e d by V e s i c (1971), who compared t h i s p r o b l e m w i t h t h e expansion

of c a v i t i e s near the s u r f a c e of a s e m i - i n f i n i t e p l a s t i c s o l i d mass. The

solution i s given i n terms o f an u l t i m a t e r a d i a l p r e s s u r e required to

breakout a cylindrical o r s p h e r i c a l c a v i t y o f a g i v e n r a d i u s and depth

o f embedment b e l o w t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e s o l i d mass. This pressure i s equi-

valent to W s p l u s t h e component, R . v Phillips e t a l (1979) c a r r i e d out

an extensive experimental program to study the s t a b i l i t y of p i p e l i n e s i n

s a n d , and concluded that Vesic's theory overestimated the stable soil

r e s i s t a n c e because the theory d i d not consider wave-induced excess pore

pressures and the corresponding reduction in effective stresses.

2.2.4 C o n t r i b u t i o n of s o i l adhesion, Ca

Cohesive s o i l s containing a c t i v e minerals w i l l develop adhesion

when i n c o n t a c t w i t h a l m o s t a l l m a t e r i a l s . The process i s of a physico-

chemical nature and r e q u i r e s some t i m e . Experiences with steel, concrete,

and wood p i l e s seem t o i n d i c a t e , .at l e a s t i n soft clays, that the adhesion

equals or exceeds the undrained shear s t r e n g t h a f t e r a p e r i o d of a few

days t o , p e r h a p s , a few months of b u r i a l . M o s t o f t h e known adhesion

s t u d i e s were concerned w i t h measurements of r e s i s t a n c e to shear. However,

i n t h i s breakout problem r e s i s t a n c e to t e n s i o n between the b u r i e d object

 13

and t h e u n d e r l y i n g s o i l must be d e a l t w i t h . Since the assumption that

C a i s equal to zero leads to a conservative design, C a i s assumed t o be

zero i n this analysis.

2.2.5 C o n t r i b u t i o n of s o i l suction force, P w

During the process of attempted u p w a r d p i p e l i n e movement, t h e

overburden s o i l adjacent t o t h e p i p e i s h e a v i l y compressed, w h i l e t h e

underlying soil i s relieved from s t r e s s e s . This w i l l l e a d t o an i n c r e a s e

in porewater p r e s s u r e s above t h e o b j e c t and a decrease i n porewater pres-

sures below t h e o b j e c t . I f the s o i l i s very porous these porewater pres-

sures w i l l v a n i s h as they appear. The d i f f e r e n c e i n p o r e w a t e r pressures

above and below t h e p i p e l i n e r e s u l t s i n a suction force. Vesic (1971)

suggested a p o s s i b l e way o f a n a l y s i n g t h i s s u c t i o n f o r c e by performing

undrained t e s t s of s o i l samples. The e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s e s a n d p o r e pressures

during breakout have been s t u d i e d by B y r n e and F i n n (1978) . Since the

analysis i s restricted t o sandy o r s i l t y s o i l s , which have f a i r l y high

permeability, i t i s assumed t h a t P w i s very nearly zero. This assumption

also w i l l lead to a conservative design. So, f i n a l l y , equation (2.3) can

be now w r i t t e n a s

U >W +W +R - (2.4)
b p s v
-

for t h e u p w a r d movement.

2.3 Proposed A n a l y s i s f o r t h e P i p e l i n e

During storms, r e s i d u a l pore pressures a r e induced i n some soil

d e p o s i t s and t h e s e w i l l have t h r e e e f f e c t s on t h e r e s p o n s e of a p i p e l i n e

buried i n t h e d e p o s i t , t o wave l o a d i n g .

1) I t may l e a d t o i n c r e a s e i n b o u y a n c y f o r c e , U i j .
T h i s i s because t h e pore pressures around t h e
pipe increase.
 1

2) I t w i l l reduce the e f f e c t i v e weight of t h e

s o i l mass ( W ) . T h i s happens b e c a u s e o f
s

upward seepage o f p o r e w a t e r c r e a t e d by r e s i -
dual pore pressures.

3) I t w i l l reduce t h e shear s t r e n g t h along an

assumed s l i p s u r f a c e a n d , t h e r e f o r e , r e d u c t i o n
i n Ry w i l l r e s u l t .

The first two e f f e c t s n o t e d a b o v e c a n b e a n a l y s e d i fr e s i d u a l

pore pressure distribution i s known i n t h e d e p o s i t . T h i s c a n be done

using r e s i d u a l pore pressure analysis explained i n detail i n C h a p t e r 5.

The shearing r e s i s t a n c e o f f e r e d b y t h e d e p o s i t a g a i n s t u p w a r d movement

.of t h e p i p e l i n e w i l l d e p e n d o n t h e s t r e s s e s i n d u c e d i n the deposit by t h e

wave l o a d i n g a n d s h e a r s t r e n g t h o f t h e d e p o s i t . I f the stresses induced

by t h e wave l o a d i n g a r e g r e a t e r than or equal t o t h e shear strength

(failure) o f t h e d e p o s i t , t h e n t h e r e s i s t a n c e o f f e r e d by t h e d e p o s i t f o r

v e r t i c a l movement o f t h e p i p e l i n e b u r i e d i n this failure region w i l l be

zero. The Mohr-Coulomb c r i t e r i o n c a n be u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e f a i l u r e depth

(Df) i f induced s t r e s s e s a r e known i n t h e d e p o s i t . P o r o - e l a s t i c method o

stability analysis explained i n Chapter 4 c a n be u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e this.

Highest Df w i l l occur a s t h e e x t r e m e wave p a s s e s o v e r , when t h e b e d h a s

maximum r e s i d u a l p o r e p r e s s u r e . So, t h e p o r o - e l a s t i c method o f stability

analysis should be u s e d t o f i n d D f , k n o w i n g t h e maximum r e s i d u a l p o r e

pressure i n the deposit during t h e storm activity.

Three cases of p i p e l i n e f l o t a t i o n problem w i l l be considered.

Case I This i s concerned w i t h p o s s i b l e f l o t a t i o n during calm sea

surface conditions. Here, t h e theory o f V e s i c o r Reese (Reese e t a l ,

1968) c a n be employed s u c c e s s f u l l y , i r r e s p e c t i v e o f t h e d e p t h o f b u r i a l .

Phillips e t a l ( 1 9 7 9 ) showed t h a t t h e r e s i s t a n c e t o f l o t a t i o n predicted

by V e s i c i s s l i g h t l y higher t h a n t h a t p r e d i c t e d by R e e s e e t a l . Using

Vesic's approach, explained earlier

 15

R +W

B c b q

where F c > Fq = t h e c a v i t y b r e a k t h r o u g h f a c t o r s w h i c h depend on

t h e shape and r e l a t i v e d e p t h o f t h e c a v i t y , as
w e l l a s oh t h e a n g l e o f i n t e r n a l f r i c t i o n , and

c 1
= the e f f e c t i v e cohesion of the s o i l d e p o s i t .

These f a c t o r s c a n be u s e d directly f o r embedded s p h e r e s o r embedded hori-

zontal cylinders. Therefore, f o r s t a b i l i t y o r no u p w a r d movement o f t h e

pipeline

U, < W + R + W
b ~ p v s

i.e.,rB y <W + B ( c ' F + y ' V . F )'.

2
(2.6)
4 w p c -
b q

(Factors F c and F q are tabulated i n Table 1).

Alternatively, t h i s a n a l y s i s c a n be p e r f o r m e d a c c o r d i n g to recommendations

made by t h e P i p e l i n e F l o t a t i o n R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l (ASCE, R e p o r t , 1966).

Case I I This case i s concerned with the s t a b i l i t y of a p i p e l i n e during

a storm c o n d i t i o n such that the depth of b u r i a l , D^, i s l e s s than the

depth of i n s t a b i l i t y , . Under t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , where < D^, i ti s

r e a s o n a b l e t o assume that

1) the s l i p surface i s e s s e n t i a l l y along two

vertical p l a n e s , and

2) R , w h i c h i s t h e v e r t i c a l component o f t h e
v

shear f o r c e on t h e s l i p s u r f a c e , i s n e a r l y z e r o .

U s i n g e q u a t i o n ( 2 . 4 ) , f o r no u p w a r d movement

u, < w + w
b p s

Here,

U b = f B O J ^ ) (2.7)
 TABLE 1

CAVITY BREAKTHROUGH FACTORS ( A F T E R V E S I C , 1 9 7 1 )

F i r s t number i s F c

<J), i n d e g r e e s
S e c o n d number i s F c

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.5 5.0

0.81 1.61 2.42 4.04 8.07

0
0.21 0.61 0.74 0.84 0.92

0.84 1.68 2.52 4.22 8.43

10
0.30 0.77 0.99 1.26 1.75

0.84 1.67 2.52 4.19 8.37

20
0.38 0.94 1.23 1.67 2.57

0.79 1.58 2.37 3.99 7.89

30
0.45 1.08 1.45 2.03 3.30

0.70 1.40 2.11 3.51 7.02

40
0.51 1.19 1.61 2.30 3.83

0.58 1.17 1.75 2.92 5.84

50
0.53 1.25 1.70 2.44 4.12
 17

where u
2'^l = t n e
maximum t o t a l p o r e p r e s s u r e s o n t h e t o p
and b o t t o m o f t h e p i p e a t a n y t i m e d u r i n g
t h e s t o r m , w h i c h c a n be e s t i m a t e d u s i n g t h e
r e s i d u a l p o r e p r e s s u r e m e t h o d , and
W g = e f f e c t i v e s o i l mass i n v o l v e d w i t h c o r r e c t i o n
f o r upward seepage f o r c e i n c l u d e d .

T h i s c a s e has been c o n s i d e r e d i n the sample problem i n Chapter 6.

Case I I I This case deals w i t h the s i t u a t i o n where the d e p t h of burial,

D^, i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e d e p t h of f a i l u r e , Df. The f o l l o w i n g steps are

to be c a r r i e d out to analyse this case:

a) A s l i p s u r f a c e h a s t o be a s s u m e d b e t w e e n l e v e l s
Df and D . b Guidelines outlined i n Section 2.2.2
c a n be u s e d t o assume a s l i p s u r f a c e . The s l i p
s u r f a c e w i t h i n the i n s t a b i l i t y r e g i o n does not o f f e r
a n y r e s i s t a n c e and i s a l o n g two v e r t i c a l p l a n e s .

b) The v e r t i c a l c o m p o n e n t o f t h e s h e a r r e s i s t a n c e
o f f e r e d by t h e s u r r o u n d i n g s o i l a g a i n s t t h e s l i p
a l o n g t h i s s l i p s u r f a c e h a s t o be e s t i m a t e d .
T h i s c a n be d o n e i n an a p p r o x i m a t e way by c o m p u t i n g
t h e e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s f i e l d on t h e s l i p s u r f a c e , and
e s t i m a t i n g the shear r e s i s t a n c e m o b i l i s e d i n the
r e g i o n b e t w e e n Df and D^.

c) An e s t i m a t i o n o f W s c a n be made a f t e r c o r r e c t i n g
t h e b r e a k o u t s o i l mass i n v o l v e d f o r upward seepage
effects. Now, e q u a t i o n ( 2 . 4 ) c a n be u s e d t o c h e c k
w h e t h e r t h e u p w a r d movement i s p o s s i b l e .
 18

CHAPTER 3

EVALUATION OF DESIGN STORM WAVE

The designer of an o f f s h o r e f a c i l i t y i s always faced w i t h the

problem of e s t i m a t i n g design s t o r m wave d a t a f o r a s t o r m that w i l l occur

during the future l i f e of t h i s f a c i l i t y . I n any l o c a t i o n , i t i s often

uneconomical t o d e s i g n an o f f s h o r e f a c i l i t y to withstand t h e worst possi-

ble loading conditions. The d e s i g n , t h e r e f o r e , i s a l w a y s b a s e d o n c o n d i -

t i o n s t h a t have a s u i t a b l y small p r o b a b i l i t y of occurrence. A numerical

v a l u e f o r t h i s p r o b a b i l i t y has t o be d e c i d e d b a s e d o n a number o f f a c t o r s

such as t h e l i f e of the structure, r e l a t i v e cost of r e p a i r s , c o n s t r u c t i o n ,

e x t e n t o f damages, e t c . D e s i g n storm wave d a t a f o r a p a r t i c u l a r location

a r e of t e n r e p o r t e d i n terms of e i t h e r e x t r e m e wave h e i g h t o r s p e c t r a

(i.e., wave h e i g h t s a n d wave p e r i o d s ) . S p e c t r a a r e much m o r e u s e f u l b u t

i

s u f f e r from t h e disadvantages of being extremely t e d i o u s and e x p e n s i v e to

compute. Complaints a r e o f t e n made a b o u t t h e two m a j o r u n c e r t a i n t i e s

involved i n the estimation of a design s t o r m wave d a t a , either i n terms

o f maximum h e i g h t o r s p e c t r a , w i t h a c e r t a i n d e s i g n p r o b a b i l i t y . The two

uncertainties are:

1) H i s t o r i c a l d a t a r e q u i r e d t o do p r o b a b i l i s t i c
studies are available only i n limited locations
and, o f t e n , i n t e r p o l a t i o n has t o be employed t o
estimate relevant data f o r a p a r t i c u l a r l o c a t i o n .

2) The a v a i l a b l e d a t a span o n l y a f e w y e a r s and t h e y

have t o be u s e d t o e s t i m a t e t h e d e s i g n s t o r m w i t h a
r e t u r n p e r i o d o f perhaps.. 100 y e a r s .

The p o r o - e l a s t i c method o f s t a b i l i t y analysis analyses the

response of a s o i l d e p o s i t t o extreme waves. So, a d e s i g n e x t r e m e wave

with a small p r o b a b i l i t y of occurrence i s required. On t h e o t h e r hand,

 19

t h e r e s i d u a l p o r e p r e s s u r e a n a l y s i s computes r e s i d u a l p o r e pressures

generated I n t h e d e p o s i t due t o c y c l i c shear s t r e s s e s d u r i n g a storm

activity. A u n i f o r m s t o r m wave i n p u t i s r e q u i r e d f o r t h i s purpose.

This chapter explains, b r i e f l y , a simple basis f o r obtaining an

" e q u i v a l e n t u n i f o r m s t o r m w a v e " c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e d e s i g n s t o r m wave

. d a t a w h i c h was e v a l u a t e d u s i n g t h e p r o p e r p r o b a b i l i t y m o d e l f o r a certain

small specified probability^of occurrence. Here, an e q u i v a l e n t u n i f o r m

s t o r m wave i s d e f i n e d a s a s i n g l e wave o f c e r t a i n wave h e i g h t ( H q ) a n d e

period ( T q ) w i t h a c e r t a i n number o f c y c l e s
e (N e q ) acting f o r the dura-

t i o n of t h e storm, which i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e d e s i g n s t o r m wave i n

terms o f p o r e p r e s s u r e g e n e r a t i o n due t o t h e c y c l i c shear s t r e s s e s i n t h e

deposit. A g e n e r a l f l o w c h a r t t o e s t i m a t e t h e e q u i v a l e n t storm from

weather maps i s p r e s e n t e d i n F i g . 3. I n nearshore l o c a t i o n s , direct

s t o r m wave d a t a may a l s o b e a v a i l a b l e . Here, storm-produced waves o n l y

are considered but t h i s approach c a n be e x t e n d e d t o c a s e s where waves a r e

g e n e r a t e d by, f o r example, earthquakes or landslides.

3.1 O b t a i n i n g Design Storm Waves

Storm wave d a t a f o r a p a r t i c u l a r s i t e may b e p r e s e n t e d i n t e r m s

o f a maximum wave ( i n p u t f o r p o r o - e l a s t i c a n a l y s i s ) a n d wave spectra.

The task of c o l l e c t i n g the required storm data f o r a s i t e i s , needless to

say, a b i g t a s k i n i t s e l f . The s e a c o n d i t i o n s a r e h i g h l y v a r i a b l e a n d

seemingly u n p r e d i c t a b l e . So, a s t a t i s t i c a l approach f o r selecting design

conditions i n which the v a r i a b i l i t y of the sea s t a t e i s accounted for is

important. The s t a t i s t i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f s t o r m o c c u r r e n c e r a t e s and h i s -

t o r i c a l data a r e used t o d e t e r m i n e an e s t i m a t e o f a t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n o f

storms. S i g n i f i c a n t wave f i e l d s c a n b e e s t i m a t e d b a s e d on c o n d i t i o n s of

wind speed, f e t c h , d e p t h , beach s l o p e and wind duration. T h i s method t o

 20

Weather Maps

Storm Data:
Wind V e l o c i t y and
Duration

P r o b a b i l i t y Model,
D e s i g n Storm Data

S t o r m Wave C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
H, T, number o f waves

Wave Theories
to
Calculate Pressure Loading

Equivalent Uniform
Storm Wave

FIG. 3 Flow Chart t o C a l c u l a t e G e n e r a l S t o r m Wave D a t a a n d t h e

Equivalent U n i f o r m S t o r m Wave S y s t e m
 21

e s t a b l i s h s i g n i f i c a n t wave f i e l d s for different c a s e s s u c h a s deep w a t e r

and shallow water c o n d i t i o n s i s described by W e i g e l (1964). The r e l a -

t i v e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f wave h e i g h t s w h i c h o c c u r s during passage of a hurri-

cane c a n be e s t i m a t e d through consideration of t h i s significant wave

field a s w e l l a s t h r o u g h t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f a n assumed R a y l e i g h distri-

b u t i o n f o r wave h e i g h t s d u r i n g u n i f o r m time increments (Nataraja et a l ,

1978). Harmonic p r e s s u r e loading exerted by t r a v e l l i n g s u r f a c e waves

can b e now e v a l u a t e d u s i n g wave t h e o r i e s .

3.2 Wave Theories

Waves i n t h e o c e a n o f t e n a p p e a r a s a c o n f u s e d and c o n s t a n t l y

changing s e a o f c r e s t s and t r o u g h s on t h e water s u r f a c e because o f i r r e g u -

larity o f wave s h a p e s a n d t h e v a r i a b i l i t y i n the d i r e c t i o n of propagation.

This i sparticularly t r u e when t h e w a v e s a r e u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f w i n d .

A p r e c i s e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s e a s u r f a c e waves i s d i f f i c u l t because of t h e

i n t e r a c t i o n between i n d i v i d u a l waves. F a s t e r waves o v e r t a k e and pass

through slower ones from v a r i o u s d i r e c t i o n s . Waves s o m e t i m e s r e i n f o r c e o r

c a n c e l each other by t h i s interaction, and o f t e n c o l l i d e w i t h each other

and transform into turbulence and spray. Wave e n e r g y d e r i v e d f r o m sources

such as wind i sdissipated internally within the fluid by i n t e r a c t i o n with

t h e a i r above, by t u r b u l e n c e on b r e a k i n g and a t t h e bottom i n s h a l l o w

depths. I t i s because o f t h i s h i g h l y v a r i a b l e and seemingly unpredictable

nature o f s e a s u r f a c e waves, t h a t a p r e c i s e m a t h e m a t i c a l model i s i m p o s s i b l e

to formulate. H o w e v e r , t h e r e a r e a b o u t e i g h t w e l l - k n o w n wave t h e o r i e s

based on i d e a l t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l i n c o m p r e s s i b l e fluid flow conditions which

have been used s u c c e s s f u l l y f o r e n g i n e e r i n g purposes. A l l these eight

wave t h e o r i e s c a n b e u s e d t o e s t i m a t e the pressure l o a d i n g on t h e s e a f l o o r

due t o s u r f a c e waves. I t has been e x p e r i m e n t a l l y v e r i f i e d that a parti-

c u l a r wave t h e o r y i s m o s t s u i t a b l e f o r a p a r t i c u l a r r a n g e o f wave
 22

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and s t i l l water c o n d i t i o n s . An e x t e n s i v e r e v i e w o f wave

t h e o r i e s h a s b e e n p r e s e n t e d b y Dean ( 1 9 7 4 ) . T h e s e w e l l - k n o w n wave

t h e o r i e s and a b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e i r r e l a t i v e merits are listed

below. This w i l l be h e l p f u l i n s e l e c t i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e wave theory

for evaluating the pressure loading on t h e ocean f l o o r . Figure 4 shows

the regions of v a l i d i t y f o rvarious wave t h e o r i e s . Preliminary studies

c a r r i e d out a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia suggest that the error

in using i m p r o p e r wave t h e o r y to estimate the pressure loading on t h e

s e a f l o o r c a n be e v e n a s much a s 3 0 % .

Analytical validity o f t h e wave t h e o r i e s i s analysed below.

Analytical validity i s defined as t h e degree to which t h e t h e o r i e s satisfy

the d e f i n i n g boundary c o n d i t i o n s . There a r e f i v e d e f i n i n g equations to

satisfy: the d i f f e r e n t i a l equation and f o u r boundary c o n d i t i o n s . These

are as f o l l o w s :

1) Differential equation f o r two-dimensional i d e a l flow.

2) No f l o w o c c u r s a c r o s s t h e bottom boundary.

3) K i n e m a t i c f r e e s u r f a c e boundary c o n d i t i o n which
r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e components o f f l o w a t t h e f r e e
s u r f a c e be i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e g e o m e t r y and
motion of the free surface.

4) Dynamic f r e e s u r f a c e boundary c o n d i t i o n w h i c h
r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e pressure immediately below t h e
f r e e s u r f a c e be u n i f o r m and e q u a l t o a t m o s p h e r i c
pressure.

5) Motion i s periodic i n x with spatial periodicity

o f t h e wave l e n g t h , L .

3.2.1 Linear wave theory

The l i n e a r wave t h e o r y i s the simplest of a l l the theories.

It s a t i s f i e s kinematic and dynamic f r e e s u r f a c e boundary c o n d i t i o n s t o

the first order only. I t has been r e p o r t e d that this theory can
 23

0.05

0.00005 0.001 0.002 0.005 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2

d
QT'

Here, H = Wave H e i g h t

T "= Wave Period

d = Mean W a t e r Depth

FIG. 4 Regions of V a l i d i t y o f Wave Theories

 24

be u s e d successfully i n both s h a l l o w and deep w a t e r c o n d i t i o n s w i t h

reasonable accuracy, although i t i s best suited for transitional water

depths. Furthermore, the linear theory i s readily applied to representa-

t i o n s o f random waves.

3.2.2 Stokes higher order theories

Stokes theories satisfy t h e f r e e s u r f a c e boundary c o n d i t i o n s t o

t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e orders of approximation. Each e x t e n s i o n i n t h e order of

approximation u s u a l l y p r o v i d e s b e t t e r agreement w i t h t h e o r e t i c a l and

observed wave b e h a v i o u r . T h e s e e x t e n d e d wave t h e o r i e s c a n e x p l a i n p h e n o -

mena, s u c h a s m a s s t r a n s p o r t , t h a t c a n n o t b e e x p l a i n e d by t h e l i n e a r wave

theory. Generally, higher order Stokes t h e o r i e s do n o t i m p r o v e t h e a c c u -

r a c y commensurate w i t h t h e i n c r e a s e d computations involved. The r a n g e o f

applicability i s limited t o 1/25 < d / L . H e r e , d and L a r e a s

previously defined (Sen, 1971).

3.2.3 C n o i d a l wave theory

The c n o i d a l wave t h e o r y i s a nonlinear theory. The t e r m , cnoidal,

i s u s e d s i n c e t h e wave p r o f i l e i s g i v e n by t h e J a c o b i a n elliptical cosine

function u s u a l l y designated by c n . There a r e higher order cnoidal theories

and t h e y t o o do n o t i m p r o v e t h e a c c u r a c y commensurate w i t h t h e i n c r e a s e d

computations. F o r s h a l l o w w a t e r r e g i o n s , t h e c n o i d a l wave t h e o r y p r e d i c t s

rather well t h e waveform and a s s o c i a t e d m o t i o n s . H o w e v e r , c n o i d a l wave

t h e o r y has had l i m i t e d a p p l i c a t i o n t o t h e s o l u t i o n s o f e n g i n e e r i n g problems

due to the d i f f i c u l t i e s i n making t h e necessary computations (Shore

P r o t e c t i o n M a n u a l , 1977) .

The w o r k i n v o l v e d i n u s i n g t h e c n o i d a l wave t h e o r y h a s b e e n sub-

s t a n t i a l l y reduced by t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f g r a p h i c a l and t a b u l a r f o r m s o f
 25

functions ( M a s c h and W i e g e l , 1961). However, a p p l i c a t i o n of this

theory is still quite involved. Long, f i n i t e amplitude waves of per-

manent f o r m p r o p a g a t i n g i n s h a l l o w water w i t h a range of applicability

d/L < 1/8 a r e f r e q u e n t l y b e s t d e s c r i b e d by this theory.

3.2.4 Solitary wave theory

Waves c o n s i d e r e d so f a r a r e o s c i l l a t o r y or n e a r l y oscillatory

waves. The water p a r t i c l e s move b a c k w a r d s and forwards w i t h the passage

o f e a c h wave and a d i s t i n c t wave c r e s t and wave:.trough i s e v i d e n t . A

s o l i t a r y wave i s n e i t h e r o s c i l l a t o r y n o r does i t e x h i b i t a t r o u g h . In

the pure sense, t h e s o l i t a r y wave l i e s entirely above the s t i l l water

level. Long waves, such as tsunamis and waves r e s u l t i n g from l a r g e d i s -

p l a c e m e n t s o f w a t e r c a u s e d by s u c h phenomena a s l a n d s l i d e s and earthquakes,

sometimes behave s i m i l a r l y t o s o l i t a r y waves. This theory i s broadly

valid for. r e l a t i v e l y shallow water. * . ''

3.2.5 Stream-function n u m e r i c a l wave theory

Numerical approximations to s o l u t i o n s of the hydrodynamic equa-

t i o n s o f wave m o t i o n e x p r e s s e d i n terms of stream f u n c t i o n s were proposed

and developed b y Dean ( 1 9 6 5 ) . The nonlinear stream-function theory i s

similar to the higher order Stokes' theories. The theory i s used to d e t e r -

mine the c o e f f i c i e n t of each h i g h e r order term so t h a t a b e s t f i t , i n t h e

least squares sense, i s obtained t o the dynamic f r e e - s u r f a c e boundary

conditions. T h i s t h e o r y has b e e n shown t o p r o v i d e a b e t t e r f i t t o labo-

r a t o r y measurements of p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y than o t h e r s . I t requires a

number o f t a b u l a t e d p a r a m e t e r s and a digital computer w i t h a reasonably

l a r g e memory. The stream-function theory provides best f i t over a wide

range i n c l u d i n g a l l of the t r a n s i t i o n a l and d e e p w a t e r wave r e g i o n s and

 26

also a significant p a r t of t h e s h a l l o w water range. B u t , a s one c a n

expect, this i s n o t a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d t h e o r y and cannot be r e a d i l y a p p l i e d .

3.2.6 Theory used i n this thesis

All t h e t h e o r i e s d e t a i l e d above assume t h a t t h e s e a f l o o r i s

impermeable and r i g i d . M a l l a r d and D a l r y m p l e (1977) d e v e l o p e d a useful

analysis showing t h e e f f e c t s o f a deformable s e a f l o o r o n wave p r e s s u r e

amplitudes. Their analyses concluded t h a t p r e s s u r e s on a deformable imper-

meable s e a f l o o r a r e h i g h e r than those on a r i g i d b a s e by u p t o 1 5 % f o r v e r y

soft cohesive s o i l s . B u t t h i s e f f e c t may b e i g n o r e d f o r m o s t sands.

In this thesis, t h e l i n e a r wave t h e o r y i s used because of i t s

s i m p l i c i t y a n d r e l i a b i l i t y o v e r a l a r g e s e g m e n t o f t h e w h o l e wave regime.

S o l u t i o n s o f l i n e a r wave t h e o r y f o r p r e s s u r e l o a d i n g o n t h e s e a f l o o r i s

g i v e n by

Y H
AP = W
9 , Cos {2TT(^ - £ ) } = p n Cos {2Tr(f - f ) } (3.1)
2Cosh(^) °

where

2
L = - f ^ - tanh ( ^ ) (3.2)
ZTT L

3.3 Equivalent Uniform S t o r m Wave

To u s e t h e r e s i d u a l p o r e p r e s s u r e a n a l y s i s , we h a v e t o f i n d an

equivalent uniform s t o r m wave r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e d e s i g n s t o r m wave i n

terms of pore pressure g e n e r a t i o n i n t h e d e p o s i t . The d e s i g n s t o r m wave

i s a s e t o f s p e c i f i e d w a v e s e a c h c h a r a c t e r i s e d by i t s wave h e i g h t , wave

p e r i o d a n d number o f c y c l e s . This t h e s i s uses a simple pore pressure

g e n e r a t i o n model proposed by Seed e t a l ( 1 9 7 6 ) , (see equation (5.6)).

According to this equation, r e s i d u a l pore p r e s s u r e generated due t o t h e

 27

cyclic e f f e c t of t h e shear s t r e s s e s i s a f u n c t i o n o f N/N . L Here, N i s

t h e number o f a p p l i e d c y c l e s and i s t h e number o f c y c l e s r e q u i r e d t o

cause i n i t i a l l i q u e f a c t i o n under given stress conditions. N L c a n be

obtained from a l i q u e f a c t i o n p o t e n t i a l curve which i s a p l o t between

T
c/°vo a n d N^. Here, T / a ^ c 0 i s the cyclic shear stress ratio. Since N L

is uniquely defined by T /O^ C Q f o r a given soil deposit, we c a n c o n c l u d e

that t h e excess pore pressure ratio i s uniquely g o v e r n e d by t h e number o f

a p p l i e d c y c l e s and T /O^ .
C Q

Now, an equivalent uniform s t o r m wave c a n be e s t i m a t e d by reducing

the T /O
C v o o f a l l w a v e c o m p o n e n t s t o z -> 0 a n d u s i n g t h e method proposed

by L e e and Chan ( 1 9 7 2 ) . It will be seen i n Chapter 4 t h a t the soil-water

s y s t e m c a n be u n c o u p l e d and t h e s h e a r s t r e s s e s c a n be d e t e r m i n e d w i t h good

accuracy using simple s o l i d mechanical p r i n c i p l e s as explained i n Appendix

II. L e e and Chan s u g g e s t e d t h a t N „ , t h e e q u i v a l e n t n number o f c y c l e s o f a

given reference wave, c a n be g i v e n by

n
w N
N = I - ^ N r (3.3)
ec
* r=l Lr r

where ^Leq = n u m D
of c y c l e s required to cause i n i t i a l
e r

l i q u e f a c t i o n f o r t h e shear s t r e s s r a t i o c o r r e s -
p o n d i n g t o t h e s e l e c t e d r e f e r e n c e wave a t z + 0;

^Lr =
number o f c y c l e s r e q u i r e d t o c a u s e i n i t i a l
l i q u e f a c t i o n f o r t h e shear s t r e s s r a t i o c o r r e s -
p o n d i n g t o t h e - r wave c o m p o n e n t a t z -> 0;
t n

N. = number o f w a v e s o f t h e r t n
wave c o m p o n e n t ;

n w = t o t a l number o f wave c o m p o n e n t s .

To c a l c u l a t e t h e number o f c y c l e s t o c a u s e i n i t i a l l i q u e f a c t i o n or limited

s t r a i n f o r a given shear s t r e s s r a t i o , one has t o e x p e r i m e n t a l l y establish

the c u r v e known a s t h e l i q u e f a c t i o n p o t e n t i a l c u r v e . This c a n b e d o n e by

performing c y c l i c t e s t s on ' u n d i s t u r b e d ' samples. The t e s t s c a n b e

 28

carried out i n either triaxial or simple shear apparatus. S i n c e ocean

wave l o a d i n g i s e s s e n t i a l l y u n i - d i r e c t i o n a l , a correction factor, Cy,

of a v e r a g e v a l u e , 0.60 (Seed, 1979; N a t a r a j a e t a l , 1979) c a n be used

for the r e s u l t s of c y c l i c triaxial t e s t s to reduce to p r e v a i l i n g simple

shear c o n d i t i o n s or simple shear t e s t s c a n be u s e d w i t h o u t a n y c o r r e c -

tion (Seed, 1979).

L i q u e f a c t i o n p o t e n t i a l c u r v e s c a n a l s o be o b t a i n e d f r o m standard

penetration tests. T h i s method i s based on d a t a p r e s e n t e d by S e e d (1979).

Calculated f i e l d v a l u e s of c y c l i c stress ratio c a n be p r e s e n t e d as a

f u n c t i o n o f c o r r e c t e d a v e r a g e p e n e t r a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e , Np. H e r e , Np is

t h e p e n e t r a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e c o r r e c t e d t o an e f f e c t i v e overburden pressure

of one t o n per square f o o t and i s g i v e n by t h e f o l l o w i n g equation.

N
P = (
V N
f

where

C N = 1-1.25 l o g (|^) (3.4)

where 5Q = e f f e c t i v e overburden p r e s s u r e i n tons per square

f o o t a t the p o i n t where p e n e t r a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e
has a v a l u e o f N j ;

a\ = one ton per square foot;

Nf = standard p e n e t r a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e measured i n t h e
f i e l d , blow count per f o o t .

In F i g . 5(a) the r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e m o d i f i e d p e n e t r a t i o n

r e s i s t a n c e , Np, and the corresponding cyclic s t r e s s r a t i o which causes

initial l i q u e f a c t i o n or a s p e c i f i e d limited strain i s shown. Correspond-

ing interpolated earthquake m a g n i t u d e s a r e a l s o shown i n F i g . 5 ( a ) .

Using Figs. 5(a) and (b) i t i s p o s s i b l e to get an a v e r a g e liquefaction

p o t e n t i a l curve f o r various N p values ( N a t a r a j a et a l , 1979). Nataraja

et a l suggest i n c r e a s i n g by 10 p e r c e n t the. l i q u e f a c t i o n p o t e n t i a l curve,

 (a)
0.6
UJ < Solid, points indicate sites and
O H test conditions showing liquefaction
Q_ 00

O7.0

• Based on field data

Extrapolated from results
large score laboratory tests

50

MODIFIED PENETRATION RESISTANCE. N -BLOWS/

FT.
w h i c h was b a s e d on f i e l d data during earthquakes. This i s because the

strength of the s o i l under two-dimensional plane strain conditions

of o c e a n wave l o a d i n g i s somewhat h i g h e r than that under the three-

dimensional conditions of earthquake loading.

 31

CHAPTER 4

PORO-ELASTIC ANALYSIS

4.1 Introduction

The e f f e c t s o f w a v e s o n f o u n d a t i o n s o i l s and s t r u c t u r e s have

been important considerations i n the design of offshore installations.

In the design of offshore s t r u c t u r e s such as p i p e l i n e s , sea w a l l s , e t c . ,

it i s common t o i d e a l i s e t h e s u r f a c e w a v e s a s p l a n e t r a v e l l i n g w a v e s .

When t h e s e w a v e s p r o p a g a t e o v e r a p o r o u s s e a b e d , fluid flow i s induced

in t h e b e d a n d t h e p o r o u s medium itself i sforced t o deform. Thus, t h e

r e s p o n s e o f t h e bed t o s u r f a c e waves i s a c t u a l l y a c o m b i n a t i o n o f f l u i d

and s o l i d mechanical effects. Therefore, t h e response a n a l y s i s of a sea-

bed t o wave l o a d i n g should i n c l u d e p o r e w a t e r f l o w , volume change and

deformation c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e b e d . Yamamoto ( 1 9 7 8 ) a n d M a d s e n (1978)

presented a coupled e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s a n a l y s i s based on B i o t ' s equation

(1941) f o r a deep s o i l deposit.

4.2 Governing Equations

The f o l l o w i n g b a s i c a s s u m p t i o n s a r e made w h i l e f o r m u l a t i n g t h e

theory:

1) The p e r i o d s o f i m p o r t a n t waves a r e l o n g enough so

that t r a n s i e n t response of t h e pressure loading
caused by s u r f a c e waves c a n be n e g l e c t e d . Therefore,
t h e p r e s s u r e l o a d i n g c a n be a n a l y s e d quasi-statically.

2) Theory o f l i n e a r elasticity i sapplicable.

3) Plane s t r a i n conditions prevail.

4) Darcy's law i s a p p l i c a b l e .

Figure 6 shows a s o i l deposit of constant t h i c k n e s s D. The

 32

Free Surface
y s = y Cos (Xx -a)t)
Mean
Water Level

Pressure Loading Ap = p Q Cos (Xx-ajt)

Sea-bed

Porous Bed A Element A

^Rigid Bottom

FIG. 6 Wave P r e s s u r e s on Ocean Floor

 33

x-axis i s t a k e n on t h e bed s u r f a c e ; the p o s i t i v e z-axis i s shown a s

b e i n g v e r t i c a l l y downward f r o m t h e bed s u r f a c e . Consider element A

shown i n F i g . 6. D a r c i a n f l o w of c o m p r e s s i b l e porewater i n a compres-

s i b l e p o r o u s medium l e a d s to the f o l l o w i n g form of t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n

e q u a t i o n ( B i o t , 1941) u n d e r p l a n e s t r a i n conditions:

s 2
a 3(£ +e,)
k
" ^ - T n e | £ = Y * Z
(4.D
x . 2 z . 2 w 3t w 3t
3x 3z

where ^x»^z = t
* i e
principal permeabilities i n t h e x and

z directions, respectively;

p = the excess pore pressure;

Y W = the u n i t weight of porewater;

n = t h e p o r o s i t y o f t h e bed;
e x and e z = t h e n o r m a l s t r a i n s (ey=0) d e f i n e d t o be
p o s i t i v e a s e l o n g a t i o n s , and

t = time.

The c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y o f . p o r e w a t e r , 3, i s g i v e n by

If - >»H
where p = the density of porewater.

I n c r e m e n t a l e q u i l i b r i u m e q u a t i o n s i n x a n d z d i r e c t i o n s c a n be

w r i t t e n as

3o' 3T . 3a' 3T
x xz 3p , z zx 3p ,, ~ N

~Z— +
5 — —
~ =
2 •» a n d
"a— ~^— +
~=
(4.3)
3x 3,z 3x 3z 3x 3z
where a , a and T
x z x z = the incremental e f f e c t i v e stresses
and s h e a r s t r e s s e s .

Here, i n e r t i a terms a s s o c i a t e d with accelerations are neglected and a

quasi-static loading i s assumed.

Assuming t h a t the s o i l skeleton i s an i d e a l i s o t r o p i c e l a s t i c

material then, under the plane s t r a i n condition

 34

_ _3v _ (1-y) , , v ,N ( 4 4 N
£
x " 3x _
2G x ( C J
1-v V ^ ' ^

and

3w (1-v) , , v , N

£
z =
~3z" =
~ ^ G °z " - (
°x )

where v and w = displacement vectors;

G and v = shear modulus and P o i s s o n ' s ratio.

Equation ( 4 . 4 ) c a n be r e w r i t t e n a s

°x A
l - 2 v ) G C
3x +
1-v aV

a' = - 2 ( t - ) G (^- + ^ -5-) (4.5)

z l-2v 3z l ^ v 3x

and a l s o , shear stress

_,3v , 3w.
xz 3z 3x

By substituting equation (4.5) i n e q u i l i b r i u m equations ( 4 . 3 ) we get two

equations i n t e r m s o f t h e unknowns v,w and p. Equation (4.1) g i v e s a

third equation i n t h e b a s i c v a r i a b l e s v,w and p . Therefore, a solution

is, in principle, possible.

4.3 Boundary Conditions

To s o l v e t h e a b o v e b o u n d a r y v a l u e p r o b l e m , we need three indepen-

dent boundary c o n d i t i o n s per boundary. At the s e a f l o o r surface the boun-

dary conditions are: (z=0)

1) the v e r t i c a l effective stress, a z = 0;

2) shear stress x x z i s negligible small or x x z = 0;

3) p o r e p r e s s u r e p i s g i v e n by p Q Cos(Ax-iot) .

Therefore,

= 0, p = p C o s ( Ax-cot) at z = 0 (4.6)
zx r
o r
 35

H e r e , A a n d to a r e d e f i n e d a s 2TT/L a n d 2TT/T, r e s p e c t i v e l y , w i t h L b e i n g

t h e wave l e n g t h a n d T b e i n g t h e wave p e r i o d ; p Q i s the amplitude of the

pressure l o a d i n g which c a n be c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g t h e l i n e a r wave t h e o r y .

The boundary c o n d i t i o n s a t t h e bottom boundary of t h e seabed

are

1) displacements i n x and z d i r e c t i o n s a r e z e r o ;

2) no f l o w o c c u r s a c r o s s t h i s boundary.

I n o t h e r w o r d s , i t i s assumed t h a t t h e b o t t o m boundary i s r i g i d and

impermeable, i . e . ,

v = w = - | £ =
0 at z = D (4.7)
3z

4.4 S o l u t i o n Technique

Since the third boundary c o n d i t i o n i n e q u a t i o n (4.6) i s p e r i o d i c

i n b o t h t i m e and space, i t i s reasonable t o a s s u m e t h a t v,w a n d p a r e

also periodic i n t i m e and space. Since d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n with respect to

x and t o c c u r f r e q u e n t l y , i t i s c o n v e n i e n t t o s o l v e t h i s boundary value

problem i n terms of complex v a r i a b l e s . The s o l u t i o n i s t a k e n t o be t h e

r e a l p a r t o f t h e complex s o l u t i o n . Now, equation ( 4 . 6 ) becomes

, i ( Ax-cot)
a' = x = 0 , p = p e
z xz c
o
r

Equation ( 4 . 1 ) c a n now b e w r i t t e n a s

2
- K A p + K 2
M r + i Y ngcop = - ly t o ( i A v + -^) (4.8)
X Z _ 2 W W 3z
3z

From e q u a t i o n ( 4 . 3 ) we o b t a i n

3x
iAa' + = - piA (4.9)
x 3z

and
 36

3a'
z
, + iAx = - I 2
(4-10)

3z xz 3z

introducing the .expression f o r p i n equations (4.8) and (4.10)

2 3
3a' 3 x 9 , 8T
K ( 1 + 1^) - ( K A - i n0u>) (a'' + - ^ )
z -2 iA „ 3 x 'w x i A 3z
Y

3z 3z
= i y co(iAv + |^) (4.11)
W oZ

and

3a' 3a' . 3 x 2

Z
+ iAx = P (4.12)
3z xz 3z iA . 2

3z

Substituting s t r e s s e s i n terms of displacements from equation (4.5) i n

(4.11), ( 4 . 1 2 ) a n d e l i m i n a t i n g w, we o b t a i n
6 „ K 2 4 . K 2a
3
v . 2 J c _ J i
A { 2 i v 4
+ J i . } + A { 1 + 2 2 J i } l z
K ,2 .4 K ,2 . 2
J

3z z A 3z z A 3z

K 2
- A 6
{-£ - \} v = 0 (4.13)
K
z A

where

2 . {nB+(l-2v)/(2G(l-v))}
y =
Z

The g e n e r a l s o l u t i o n t o t h i s d i f f e r e n t i a l equation with constant coeffi-

c i e n t s c a n be o b t a i n e d by substituting

. r A z i(Ax-cot) . . .
v = Ae e i n equation (4.13)
2

This leads to the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c equation which i s cubic i n r and has

roots
K,. 2
r 2
= 1,1, ^ - (4.14)
z A

Realizing that r 2
= 1 i s a repeated r o o t , we o b t a i n t h e g e n e r a l solution
 37

{(A A
v =
2)e (A,+A z)e- A,e A,e- } «**- t) (4.15)
A z X z T l A z r i A 2
1 + o Z + A + + e a
1 3 4 D o

and A^
J K
^
z A
2
"72

->- Ag a r e a r b i t r a r y c o n s t a n t s t o be d e t e r m i n e d using the boundary

conditions. I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t c o n s t a n t s A^ t h r o u g h Ag, i n general,

will be c o m p l e x and o n l y the r e a l p a r t of the complete complex solution

c o n s t i t u t e s t h e s o l u t i o n to our problem.

4.4.1 Horizontally layered deposits

In t h e case of h o r i z o n t a l l y l a y e r e d d e p o s i t s , an e q u a t i o n of the

type (4.15) e x i s t s f o r every layer. The number o f a r b i t r a r y constants

will t h e n be 6 x N, w h e r e N i s t h e number o f l a y e r s . These a r b i t r a r y con-

s t a n t s c a n be s o l v e d by s e t t i n g up 6 x N simultaneous equations, i n the

f o l l o w i n g manner. S i x equations a r e o b t a i n e d from the t h r e e boundary

c o n d i t i o n s a t t h e t o p and b o t t o m o f t h e d e p o s i t d e f i n e d by equations

(4.6) and (4.7). Then a t i n t e r f a c e s between l a y e r s t h e f o l l o w i n g condi-

tions are satisfied,

v = v w = w a' = cr , 1
T = x , , v ,
n n-1 n n-1 zn z(n-l) xzn xz(n-l)

dp dp _ 1

p =p ., K = K , . v (4.16)

r
n *n-l zn 9z z(n-l) 9z

These c o n d i t i o n s a r e r e q u i r e d f o r c o n t i n u i t y i n displacements, stresses,

p o r e p r e s s u r e s and f l o w n o r m a l t o t h e i n t e r f a c e b e t w e e n two adjacent

layers. An e q u a t i o n of the form of e q u a t i o n (4.16) w i l l l e a d to 6 x (N-1)

equations. T h e r e f o r e , t h e t o t a l number o f simultaneous equations are

6 x N. After solving these equations, i n c r e m e n t a l s t r e s s e s , pore pres-

s u r e s , e t c . c a n be o b t a i n e d i n any layer. These i n c r e m e n t a l v a l u e s f o r

s t r e s s e s and p o r e p r e s s u r e a r e s i m p l e f o r t h e s p e c i a l c a s e , G3 -> 0 and

 38

AD -> 0 (Yamamoto, 1 9 7 8 ) ' . Under t h e s e conditions,

- a' = a ' = p Aze ^ Z

Cos(Ax-tot)
X z o r

—Az
x = p Aze Sin(Ax-cot)
xz o

—Az
and p = p e Cos(Ax-cot) (4.17)
o

4.5 Analysis of t h e Depth of Instability

An a n a l y s i s has been p r e s e n t e d to evaluate t h e wave induced

incremental changes i n s t r e s s e s and pore p r e s s u r e s from the i n i t i a l equi-

librium state. The g r o s s effective stresses a t any p o i n t c a n be w r i t t e n as

a' = a' + a'

xt XO X

a' = a' + a' (4.18)

zt zo z

T. = T
xzt xz

where ° t>x °zt a n a T

xzt = t
* i e
effective stresses a t any p o i n t ;

a' and a ' = the i n i t i a l effective stresses

(i.e., during t h e calm p e r i o d ) .

These initial stresses f o r a uniform deposit are

a' = y.z and a' = K a' (4.19)

zo b xo o zo

where =
t h e buoyant u n i t weight of t h e s o i l ;

z = the depth of the point considered;

K Q = the c o e f f i c i e n t of earth pressure assumed t o be

g i v e n b y (1-Sin<j>').

Here, cb' i s t h e a n g l e o f i n t e r n a l friction. For layered deposits t h e same

idea c a n be e x t e n d e d to find a' by u s i n g the appropriate buoyant unit

zo
weight f o r each layer.

The stress s t a t e a t any p o i n t i s given by c r , x t Oy t and T x v t . Let

 39

Uo' - o ' J +4x }

Sin*(x,z,t) = , , (4.20)

zt xt

If t h e Mohr-Coulomb f a i l u r e c r i t e r i o n i s assumed t h e n instability will

occur i f <j)(x,z,t) > (j) . 1

F o r t h e d e s i g n e x t r e m e wave, a r e g i o n o f i n s t a -

bility w i t h i n which <j>(x,z,t) > <j>' c a n b e d e f i n e d . A computer program,

STAB-MAX, h a s b e e n d e v e l o p e d based on t h i s method. T h i s program c a n

compute i n d u c e d s t r e s s e s , pore p r e s s u r e s and p r e d i c t the r e g i o n of i n s t a -

bility d u e t o a wave l o a d i n g i n a h o r i z o n t a l l y layered deposit of f i n i t e

depth.

4.6 Values f o r E l a s t i c Constants

Except f o r some s p e c i a l cases mentioned i n S e c t i o n 4.9, appro-

priate values f o r the l i n e a r e l a s t i c c o n s t a n t s a r e r e q u i r e d t o compute

s t r e s s e s u s i n g t h i s method. We r e q u i r e 2 l i n e a r e l a s t i c c o n s t a n t s and

they a r e s e l e c t e d t o be shear and b u l k m o d u l i . I n general, the stress-

strain relationship i s i n e l a s t i c and h i g h l y strain-dependent. But, i t

has been found t h a t s t r e s s e s c a n be e v a l u a t e d w i t h r e a s o n a b l e a c c u r a c y by

assuming t h e s t r a i n dependent secant m o d u l i a s the l i n e a r elastic constants.

Based on c y c l i c t e s t s i n l a b o r a t o r y , Seed a n d I d r i s s (1970) p r e s e n t e d t h e

variation of average secant shear modulus f o r sands a s a f r a c t i o n of t h e

modulus a t l o w s t r a i n l e v e l (10 - 4
percent) w i t h shear strain (Fig. 7).

The shear modulus a t l o w s t r a i n l e v e l , G m a x , c a n be determined either i n

the f i e l d o r i nthe laboratory. Because o f t h e i n f l u e n c e o f sample dis-

t u r b a n c e o n t h e measurement o f G m a x i n the l a b o r a t o r y and t h e i n c a p a b i l i t y

of l a b o r a t o r y equipments t o measure v e r y l o w s t r a i n s , i t i s desirable to

measure G m a x i nthe f i e l d . S e i s m i c methods a r e e x t e n s i v e l y used for this

purpose. B a s e d o n t h e number o f r e s o n a n t column t e s t s carried out i n the

l a b o r a t o r y , H a r d i n and D r n e v i c h (1972) proposed a simple equation f o r G m a x

i n d i m e n s i o n l e s s form a s
 10 4
10 3
10 2
10 1

SHEAR STRAIN , 7- PERCENT

FIG. 7 V a r i a t i o n of Secant Shear Modulus w i t h Shear Strain

( A f t e r S e e d a n d I d r i s s , 1970)
 41

G = 320.8 P a
( 2
; ? ! i " e ) 2
(OCR) r
S) h
(4.21)
max a (1+e) P
a

where e = void ratio;

OCR = overconsolidation ratio

r = c o n s t a n t dependent on t h e p l a s t i c index of s o i l .
For zero p l a s t i c index r has a v a l u e of z e r o .
( H e r e , r i s a s s u m e d t o be' z e r o ) ;

cjjjj = mean e f f e c t i v e normal s t r e s s given by

1+2K

3 vo

K Q = c o e f f i c i e n t of earth pressure at r e s t (assumed t o

be e q u a l t o ( l - s i n c b ' ) ) ;

<j>' = effective angle of i n t e r n a l friction;

P a = atmospheric pressure.

So, knowing G m a x , we r e q u i r e shear strain induced by t h e wave l o a d i n g t o

estimate the secant shear modulus. T h i s c a n be done i n an i t e r a t i v e way

by first a s s u m i n g a v a l u e f o r s e c a n t m o d u l u s and t h e n m o d i f y i n g i t f o r the

strain developed and p e r f o r m i n g this analysis until there i s no appre-

ciable difference i n t h e i n p u t and m o d i f i e d shear moduli. In this thesis,

iterative analysis i s not performed. The l i n e a r elastic shear modulus

was assumed t o be g i v e n by e q u a t i o n (4.21), and c a l c u l a t e d using stresses

before the application o f t h e wave l o a d i n g .

B u l k modulus v a l u e s were found t o be a f u n c t i o n o f m i n o r n o r m a l

stress only, by Duncan e t a l (1978) . They proposed

B = K,P (^) (4.22)

m b a P
a

where = b u l k modulus constant;

m = b u l k modulus exponent c o n s t a n t ;
 42

= average e f f e c t i v e minor principal-stress

( a s s u m e d t o be-K-b^).-.

The same i t e r a t i v e a p p r o a c h u s e d f o r s h e a r m o d u l u s c a n be u s e d f o r b u l k

modulus to get c o m p a t i b l e b u l k modulus. In this thesis, the b u l k modulus

was a s s u m e d t o be c o n s t a n t and was calculated using equation (4.22)

b a s e d on s t r e s s e s t h a t e x i s t e d b e f o r e t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e wave l o a d i n g .

4.7 Example Problem

The s i m p l e e x a m p l e shown i n F i g . 8 w i l l be a n a l y s e d to illustrate

t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e m e t h o d and the k i n d s of r e s u l t s t h a t can be

obtained. The deposit i s a uniform sand of r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y , D r = 54%.

The mean w a t e r depth i s 12 f t . Other r e l e v a n t d a t a a r e g i v e n i n F i g . 8.

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e d e s i g n maximum wave a r e a wave h e i g h t = 9.0 ft

and a wave p e r i o d = 7.0 sec. The c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y of water i s taken to be

0.1953 x 1 0 " 7
ft /lb
2
(Madsen, 1978). The finite element discretization

u s e d f o r t h i s d e p o s i t i s shown i n F i g . 9. M a d s e n ( 1 9 7 8 ) s o l v e d t h e wave

induced p o r e p r e s s u r e s and e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s e s f o r a u n i f o r m medium stiff

d e p o s i t of i n f i n i t e t h i c k n e s s and constant p r o p e r t i e s . He concluded that

1) h y d r a u l i c a n i s o t r o p y of t h e s o i l d i d n o t have any
a p p r e c i a b l e e f f e c t on t h e s e s o l u t i o n s f o r s o i l s
coarser than s i l t ;

2) the s o l u t i o n s were v e r y s e n s i t i v e to r e l a t i v e
c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y o f t h e s o i l s k e l e t o n and p o r e w a t e r ; -

3) n e i t h e r a n i s o t r o p i c r a t i o nor c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y of
p o r e w a t e r had a n y i n f l u e n c e o n t h e v a l u e o f s h e a r
stresses.

To examine t h e s e c o n c l u s i o n s f o r a d e p o s i t of f i n i t e thickness

and s t r e s s dependent e l a s t i c c o n s t a n t s , t h e f o l l o w i n g a n a l y s i s was carried

out. Two soil t y p e s w e r e a s s u m e d by c h o o s i n g the v a l u e of vertical

permeability K z = 0.002 cm/s and 0.2 cm/s which correspond to typical

 43

Wave Height = 9.0'

Wave P e r i o d = 7 . 0 5

= 64.0 l b f / f t 3

V o i d r a t i o =0.7 _
E f f e c t i v e u n i t weight = 47.6 l b / f t " *
Compressibility of porewater = 0 . 1 9 5 3 x l 0 f t / l b
- /

' Bulk, modulus c o n s t a n t s K = 950, n = 0.03

60
b

= 33.0 L

FIG. 8 S o i l D e p o s i t used i n Example Problem

H = Wave Height

Node No. Depth - Ft

I o
2
2
4
3
6
4
8
5
10
6
rElements
15
7

8 20

Nodes 25
9

30
10

36
11

46
12

13 60
FIG. 9 F i n i t e Element Discretization
 44

values f o r f i n e and coarse sandy d e p o s i t s , r e s p e c t i v e l y . For each value

of K , z s o l u t i o n s were o b t a i n e d f o r h y d r a u l i c a n i s o t r o p y K /K K Z values of

1,2 and 5. The c a l c u l a t e d maximum i n c r e m e n t a l stresses are presented in

non-dimensional form i n F i g s . 10(a),(b),(c) and (d). The curves are

labelled by a two d i g i t number w h e r e t h e f i r s t d i g i t indicates vertical

permeability: 1 and 2 for K z = 0.002 and 0.2 cm/s, respectively. The

second d i g i t i n d i c a t e s the anisotropy r a t i o : K /K

x z = 1,2 and 5, respec-

tively. The a t t e n u a t i o n of pore p r e s s u r e with depth i s i l l u s t r a t e d in

Fig. 10(a). The curves exhibit essentially the same b e h a v i o u r as Madsen's

solutions. S i n c e one o f t h e b o t t o m b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s had b e e n 9p/9z = 0,

the ' k i n k ' i n wave i n d u c e d pore pressure and shear s t r e s s e s were observed.

The attenuation i s unaffected by the h y d r a u l i c anisotropy r a t i o in the

c a s e of f i n e sand, but i n the case of coarse sand, i n c r e a s e d permeability

in the h o r i z o n t a l d i r e c t i o n l e d to a f a s t e r decay i n pore pressure.

Figure 10(b) shows t h e v a r i a t i o n o f t h e maximum incremental

vertical effective stress. The maximum e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s o c c u r s under the

c r e s t o f t h e wave. This i s t o be e x p e c t e d as water i s f o r c e d into the

s o i l d e p o s i t under the c r e s t causing vertical seepage f o r c e s w h i c h contri-

b u t e t o an increase i n the v e r t i c a l e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s under the c r e s t of

t h e wave. I t can be inferred f r o m F i g . 10(b) t h a t , as i n the case of pore

pressure a t t e n u a t i o n w i t h depth, the increment i n v e r t i c a l effective

s t r e s s i s independent of the a n i s o t r o p y r a t i o f o r f i n e s a n d s and is a

f u n c t i o n of the r a t i o i n coarse sand d e p o s i t s . Increases in permeability

in t h e h o r i z o n t a l d i r e c t i o n l e a d t o an increase i n a , z and also close to

the s u r f a c e of the seabed t h e v e r t i c a l effective stress gradient

increases w i t h increase i n the a n i s o t r o p i c permeability ratio.

The s h e a r s t r e s s , on the other h a n d , a p p e a r s t o be fairly

FIG. 10(a) Porewater Pressure i n a Deposit of F i n i t e Depth
 46

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

• 25

FIG. 10(b) Induced Vertical Effective Stresses in a Deposit

of Finite Depth
 47

i n s e n s i t i v e to both p e r m e a b i l i t y and anisotropic permeability ratios

(Fig. 10(c)). Assuming t h a t the bed is elastic and impermeable, induced

shear s t r e s s e s can a l s o be calculated using simple s o l i d mechanical

principles. T h i s can be d o n e by constructing a stress function, such

that i t s a t i s f i e s boundary c o n d i t i o n s . This procedure i s explained in

Appendix I I . T h i s method w i l l give cyclic shear s t r e s s e s independent

of both permeability and c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y of w a t e r . P l o t of cyclic shear

stresses o b t a i n e d by t h i s method i s l a b e l l e d as 00 i n F i g . 10(c). Since

t h i s c u r v e compares w e l l w i t h the other curves, the simple e l a s t i c method

can be u s e d w i t h o u t much e r r o r f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l purposes. The residual

pore pressure a n a l y s i s explained i n Chapter 5 uses t h i s e l a s t i c method

to c a l c u l a t e induced shear s t r e s s e s . The maximum v a l u e o f shear stress

o c c u r s h a l f w a y between the c r e s t and the t r o u g h of the wave.

The increase in horizontal effective stress is affected by two

s e p a r a t e mechanisms. One i s the increase, due to the increase in vertical

effective stress. This contribution i s i n phase w i t h the v e r t i c a l effec-

tive stress. The other contribution i s g o v e r n e d by the soil response to

seepage f o r c e s i n d u c e d by the flow. This contribution i s a function of

the horizontal pressure gradient which decreases with increase in aniso-

tropic permeability ratios. The horizontal seepage f o r c e s act on the soil

in the d i r e c t i o n away f r o m t h e w a v e c r e s t and towards the troughs. This

horizontal seepage f l o w w i l l result i n tension under the crest. There-

f o r e , net increase in a x i s c o m p l e x and i s g o v e r n e d by both the aniso-

tropic permeability r a t i o and the permeability.

The e f f e c t of r e l a t i v e c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y has a great effect on

these solutions. Yamamoto ( 1 9 7 8 ) had shown t h a t , f o r a seabed of infinite

depth, with G3 -»• 0, the solutions f o r the wave-induced stresses reduce

FIG. 10(c) Induced Shear Stresses i n a Deposit of
F i n i t e Depth
 O-x'/Po

FIG. 10(d) Induced H o r i z o n t a l Effective Stresses in a

Deposit of F i n i t e Depth
 50

to s i m p l e m a t h e m a t i c a l e q u a t i o n s , a s shown i n e q u a t i o n (4.17). For

partially saturated soils, the e f f e c t i v e compressibility of t h e p o r e -

f l u i d s may exceed t h e c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y of pure water ( a i r free) by a

considerable amount d e p e n d i n g on t h e d e g r e e o f s a t u r a t i o n . A simple

analysis by V e r r u i t (1969) g i v e s a n u p p e r bound f o r t h e compressibility

of a w a t e r - g a s m i x t u r e as

1-S
3 = 3„ + — 5 ; 1 - S << 1 (4.23)

i n which S g i s the degree of s a t u r a t i o n , P t i s the t o t a l static pore

pressure, 3 and 3 Q a r e the c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y of p a r t i a l l y saturated and

saturated porewater, r e s p e c t i v e l y . F o r S = 0.99, e f f e c t i v e c o m p r e s s i b i -

—5 —1 —8 —1
lity defined by y 3 i s 10
w cm c o m p a r e d t o 4 x 10 cm f o r pure water.

The e f f e c t of p a r t i a l saturation i s well-documented by M a d s e n ( 1 9 7 8 ) and,

therefore, further analysis i s not considered in this thesis.

I n t h e program, STAB-MAX, s t r e s s e s a r e computed a t t h e m i d d l e

of t h e l a y e r s and t h e e f f e c t i v e a n g l e of f r i c t i o n r e q u i r e d for stability

is printed out. Based on t h i s , v a r i o u s c o n t o u r s o f cf>' c a n be d r a w n a n d

are shown i n F i g . 11 f o r t h e c a s e o f K z = 0.002 cm/s and K / Kx z = 1.

Assuming t h e waves t r a v e l a l o n g t h e h o r i z o n t a l a x i s , t h e d e p t h o f failure

c a n be e s t i m a t e d f o r t h e e x a m p l e problem considered ( $ ' = 33°) and was

f o u n d t o be 12.5'.

The r e a l u n d e r w a t e r seafloor stability problem i s more c o m p l i -

cated t h a n t h e one w h i c h h a s b e e n a n a l y s e d by t h e s i m p l i f i e d a p p r o a c h u s e d

here. There i s a l w a y s energy t r a n s f e r between t h e wave and the moving

s o i l because o f work done a g a i n s t the shearing resistance of the soil.

This contributes t o t h e damping of t h e waves. Further, the poro-elastic

method,predicted tensile horizontal stresses under t h e wave c r e s t . Since

 51

F I G . 11 C o n t o u r s o f <j) D e v e l o p e d
 52

soil cannot c a r r y t e n s i o n , the stress field p r e d i c t e d by this method

i s not accurate. However, t h i s simplified a p p r o a c h can be u s e d t o pre-

dict the response of the seafloor with reasonable accuracy.

4.8 Comparison of the Theory w i t h F i e l d Data

W a s t e w a t e r Management M a s t e r P l a n o f t h e C i t y and County of San

Francisco, California deals with c o l l e c t i n g , t r e a t i n g and disposing of

b o t h s a n i t a r y and storm wastewater f l o w s . T h e s e f l o w s w e r e t o be c o l l e c t e d

and dispersed t h r o u g h Ocean O u t f a l l a t d i f f u s e r s e c t i o n s i n the Pacific

Ocean. The O u t f a l l was t o be embedded t h r o u g h o u t m o s t o f i t s length of

approximately 4000 f t i n a t r e n c h - e x c a v a t e d a s much a s 25 f t below the

existing seafloor. The a t t e n u a t i o n of wave-induced pore p r e s s u r e which

is required i n the planning of o f f s h o r e t u n n e l i n g o p e r a t i o n s and in the

c o m p u t a t i o n o f f o r c e s o n b u r i e d o f f s h o r e s t r u c t u r e s , was measured i n the

field by C r o s s e t a l (197 9 ) . They m e a s u r e d w a v e - i n d u c e d p o r e pressures

using a v e r t i c a l piezometer array installed from a m u n i c i p a l pier in

Pacifica, California, located approximately 600 f t f r o m s h o r e i n 16 f t

of water. The p i e z o m e t e r s w h i c h w e r e IRAD v i b r a t i n g w i r e type were placed

a t 30, 60, 86 and 120 f t below the seafloor. The soil materials encoun-

t e r e d were predominantly loose fine sands near the s e a f l o o r , medium d e n s e

b e l o w 2 f t and dense to very dense below 8 f t . Soil type data obtained

during the i n s t a l l a t i o n process are presented i n F i g . 12. The analysis

explained i n t h i s chapter was used to p r e d i c t the wave-induced pore pres-

sure. For t h i s a n a l y s i s , I^/K^ was c h o s e n t o be 2 and the values of K z

were s e l e c t e d a c c o r d i n g to p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n data g i v e n by Cross

et a l . These authors presented pore pressure f l u c t u a t i o n s as a fraction

of observed s i g n i f i c a n t wave h e i g h t s d e f i n e d a s p / 2 y H i n F i g .
w 13.

Results obtained using STAB-MAX a r e a l s o shown f o r c o m p a r i s o n . The

 DEPTH
BELOW
MATERIAL DESCRIPTION
SEAFLOOR
(FEET)
•SEA FLOOR
S A N D (SP) : L o o s e t o medium d e n s e , l i g h t brown,
f i n e - g r a i n e d , sub-angular t o sub-rounded
— ' GRAVEL (GP) : V e r y d e n s e , l i g h t brown, medium t o
10 "v^_ coarse-grained, sub-angular t o sub-rounded y

S A N D (SP-SM): V e r y d e n s e , l i g h t b r o w n , fine-
grained, sub-angular t o sub-rounded
20 • ^GRAVEL ( G P ) : V e r y d e n s e , l i g h t brown, medium t o /
coarse-grained, sub-angular t o sub-rounded
S A N D (SP) : V e r y d e n s e , l i g h t brown, f i n e -
30 g r a i n e d , sub-angular t o sub-rounded, with a
s m a l l amount o f s u b - a n g u l a r g r a v e l

Piezometer
4 0

S I L T Y S A N D (SM)
V e r y d e n s e , brown, fine-grained, sub-angular
5 0 to sub-rounded

Piezometer
60 • J Becomes light brown

70
S A N D (SP)
V e r y d e n s e , brown, f i n e - g r a i n e d , s u b -
a n g u l a r t o sub-rounded
80

Piezometer
90

100

110 S A N D (SP-SM)
V e r y d e n s e , l i g h t brown, f i n e - g r a i n e d ,
sub-angular t o sub-rounded

120 —{ — Piezometer

J Becomes g r a y - g r e e n
130

BOTTOM OF B O R I N G § 130.5'
no

FIG. 12 B o r e h o l e Data (After Cross e t a l , 1979)

 Pore Pressure F l u c t u a t i o n p/(2y H)w

0 0.1 , OJZ (L3 OA (L5 0.6 p. 7

i —i 1 1 1 H r n

FIG. 13 Pore Pressure D i s t r i b u t i o n i n Sand D e p o s i t o f C a l i f o r n i a Coast

 55

a t t e n u a t i o n of wave-induced pore p r e s s u r e w i t h depth below t h e s e a f l o o r

agrees remarkably w e l l w i t h t h e p r e d i c t i o n s made by t h i s m e t h o d . Only

average p o r e p r e s s u r e s w e r e m e a s u r e d by t h e s e a u t h o r s , a n d n o t i n s t a n -

taneous v a l u e s , when a g i v e n wave i s p a s s i n g b y . The e r r o r i n prediction

c a n be t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t a t t r i b u t e d to this.

4.9 Some P r a c t i c a l S o l u t i o n s

The p o r o - e l a s t i c method e x p l a i n e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r i s a coupled

analysis, i n o t h e r words i t assumes t h a t t h e water and s o i l constitute

to a coupled problem. This type of a n a l y s i s i s t e d i o u s and r e q u i r e s

the computer f o r s o l v i n g ; . F i n n , S i d d h a r t h a n a n d M a r t i n ( 1 9 8 0 ) who carried

o u t a n e x t e n s i v e s t u d y u s i n g t h e p r o g r a m , STAB-MAX, s u g g e s t e d that simple

uncoupled a n a l y s i s c a n be p e r f o r m e d f o r a number o f u n i f o r m d e e p s a t u r a t e d

deposits. They c o n c l u d e d that t h e normal e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s e s induced in a

d e p o s i t c a n be o b t a i n e d by c o m p u t i n g t o t a l wave-induced normal stresses

and p o r e p r e s s u r e s i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f each o t h e r and u s i n g t h e p r i n c i p l e o f

effective stress, i . e . , e f f e c t i v e stress equals t o t a l s t r e s s minus pore

pressure. The s h e a r s t r e s s e s a r e t h e same w h e t h e r c o m p u t e d by t o t a l o r

effective stresses.

T o t a l w a v e - i n d u c e d s t r e s s e s c a n be o b t a i n e d by a n a l y s i n g t h e

d e p o s i t a s a s e m i - i n f i n i t e e l a s t i c medium, a n d s o l u t i o n s a r e g i v e n by

Fung ( 1 9 6 5 ) . T h e a m p l i t u d e o f t h e s e s t r e s s e s a r e g i v e n by

a z = P (e"
0
A z
+ zAe" A z
) (4.24)

/ ~Az , -Az. ,,
°x = p
o ( e
~ zXe ) (4.25)

a n d T
xz = p
o X z e
~ A Z
(4.26)

It s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t t h e s e s o l u t i o n s do n o t c o n t a i n t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f

the e l a s t i c medium.
 56

Now k n o w i n g t o t a l induced s t r e s s e s o n e n e e d s t o know s i m p l e solu-

t i o n s f o rpore pressure attenuation t o compute e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s e s . To do

this, Finn, Siddharthan and M a r t i n (1980) c o n s i d e r e d 4 different soil

types w i t h extreme s o i l properties. The p r o p e r t i e s c o n s i d e r e d were

SAND TYPE
PROPERTY
Hard Soft Coarse Fine

G, N/m 2
10 9
5xl0 6

K , m/sec io- 3
io" 6

Four t y p e s o f s o i l s v i z . h a r d - c o a r s e , h a r d - f i n e , s o f t - c o a r s e , and s o f t -

fine sands were c o n s i d e r e d . The f o l l o w i n g a d d i t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s were

a l s o assumed: K /K
x z = 1,2, a n d 5; P o i s s o n r a t i o = 1/3; b u l k m o d u l u s o f

s a t u r a t e d w a t e r = 2.45 x 1 0 ^ N/m . 2
The r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d w e r e somewhat

surprising. The a n i s o t r o p i c p e r m e a b i l i t y r a t i o has l i t t l e e f f e c t on t h e

porewater pressure i n s o f t - c o a r s e and s o f t - f i n e sands. A s i n g l e porewater

pressure attenuation curve which i s not a function K /K x z ratio, g i v e n by

-Az
P*o e
(4.27)

can be used f o r t h e s e sands. I t was f o u n d t h a t f o r h a r d - c o a r s e s a n d , t h e

pore pressure a t t e n u a t i o n was a f u n c t i o n o f a n i s o t r o p i c permeability

r a t i o and g i v e n by

-A(K /K )^z
X z
(4.28)
P
o 6

The pore pressure attenuation i n hard-fine s a n d s was o b s e r v e d t o b e inde-

pendent o f a n i s o t r o p i c r a t i o s , and s i m p l e s o l u t i o n f o r a t t e n u a t i o n was n o t

possible.

This s i m p l e method o f d e t e r m i n i n g induced e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s e s i s -

 57

restricted to cases where t h e d e p o s i t concerned i s d e e p , s a t u r a t e d and

uniform. For layered, shallow deposits a numerical s o l u t i o n of the type

(coupled solution) explained i n t h i s chapter should be u s e d .

 58

CHAPTER 5

RESIDUAL PORE PRESSURE ANALYSIS

The s u r f a c e waves i n d u c e c y c l i c shear s t r e s s e s on t h e seabed.

The cyclic shear s t r e s s e s developed d u r i n g s t o r m a c t i v i t y may b e h i g h

e n o u g h t o b u i l d up t h e r e s i d u a l p o r e p r e s s u r e s t o a s i g n i f i c a n t magnitude.

The d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e r e s i d u a l pore pressure i s t h e r e s u l t o f two o p p o s -

ing processes. The volume c o m p a c t i o n t e n d e n c y o f t h e s o i l under cyclic

loading causes t h e pore p r e s s u r e t o r i s e , and t h e d i s s i p a t i o n o f r e s i d u a l

pore p r e s s u r e which i s governed by t h e dynamic form of t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n

e q u a t i o n , decreases i t ( M a r t i n e t a l , 1975). I t i s common i n e a r t h q u a k e

r e s p o n s e a n a l y s e s t o assume t h a t t h e u n d r a i n e d c o n d i t i o n p r e v a i l s since

the loading acts f o r a very short time. I n o t h e r words, the dissipation

of r e s i d u a l pore pressure i s ignored. But, during storm a c t i v i t y , t h e

d i s s i p a t i o n o f r e s i d u a l pore p r e s s u r e s h o u l d be used since the duration

of t h e wave l o a d i n g i s very large. An u n d r a i n e d a n a l y s i s h e r e w i l l lead

to v e r y h i g h r e s i d u a l pore pressures i n t h e d e p o s i t .

The v o l u m e c o m p a c t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w h i c h g o v e r n t h e g e n e r a t i o n

of t h e r e s i d u a l p o r e p r e s s u r e i n t h e d e p o s i t depends p r i m a r i l y on

1) the r e l a t i v e density of the s o i l , D , and t h e t y p e

r

of soil,

2) t h e induced c y c l i c shear s t r e s s r a t i o , and

3) t h e e x i s t i n g r e s i d u a l pore pressure.

On t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e d i s s i p a t i o n w i l l depend on t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y com-

pressibility and t h e d r a i n a g e c o n d i t i o n s a t t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e d e p o s i t .

The n e t p o r e p r e s s u r e r e s p o n s e w i l l be t h e r e s u l t a n t o f t h e s e g e n e r a t i o n -

dissipation effects. Seed e t a l (1977) and N a t a r a j a (1978) analysed the

 59

p o s s i b i l i t y o f seabed l i q u e f a c t i o n d u r i n g storm activity.

5.1 Theory

A plane t r a v e l l i n g wave i n d u c e s a constant shear stress ampli-

tude a l o n g any h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e i n a horizontally layered deposit. Further,

drainage c o n d i t i o n s a r e a l s o t h e same f o r a l l t h e p o i n t s i n a horizontal

plane. U n d e r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , t h e wave l o a d i n g p r o b l e m i s r e d u c e d essen-

tially to a one-dimensional problem. Using Darcy's law, the c o n t i n u i t y

e q u a t i o n c a n be w r i t t e n a s

JL f _£ \ = l£ ( 5 1)
w

where u = r e s i d u a l pore pressure;

K z = c o - e f f i c i e n t of p e r m e a b i l i t y i n z d i r e c t i o n ;

Y w = u n i t weight of water;

e = increase i n volumetric s t r a i n being considered

positive. For t h i s problem e w i l l be a n e g a t i v e
quant i t y .

During an i n t e r v a l , At, the pore pressure i n an element of s o i l will

undergo a change, A t , w h i l e t h e element w i l l a l s o be s u b j e c t e d t o c y c l e s

of shear s t r e s s which w i l l cause an a d d i t i o n a l increase i n pore pressure,

3ug/3t At where 3 u g / 3 t i s t h e r a t e o f p o r e p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e . Considering

t h a t t h e change i n b u l k s t r e s s i s n e g l i g i b l e , t h e v o l u m e c h a n g e , Ae, o f

t h e element i n t i m e , A t , i s g i v e n by

3u
Ae = m (Au - — & 3t)
V at

where m^ = the c o e f f i c i e n t of volume compressibility.

As A t -> 0

~ „ 3u
It ~ m
v (
^ ( 5
' 2 )
 60

combining equations (5.1) and (5.2)

The c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y o f s o i l has been f o u n d t o i n c r e a s e w i t h an

i n c r e a s e i n p o r e p r e s s u r e , and t h e f o l l o w i n g equation f o r this variation

has been g i v e n by Seed (1976)

e A r
u
m = 0 o p m (5.4)
v .2 2B vo
tj A r

1 + Ar +

u 2

where A = 5(1.5 - D ) ; r

B = 3/2< r>; 2D

r u = pore pressure r a t i o d e f i n e d as u/a^ ;Q

iiiy = c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y a t pore pressure r a t i o , r u ;

m v o = c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y a t zero pore pressure ratio;

o\^ = 0 initial vertical effective stress.

In order to solve equation (5.3), i t i s necessary to establish the s o i l

p r o p e r t i e s s u c h a s m^, K , z D,r e t c . and t h e r a t e o f p o r e p r e s s u r e gene-

ration, 9ug/3t.

The r a t e o f p o r e p r e s s u r e g e n e r a t i o n c a n b e w r i t t e n a s ( S e e d et a l ,

1976)
g_ g. _9N
=
(5.5)
9t 9N 9 t

w h e r e N i s t h e number o f s t r e s s c y c l e s d u r i n g t h e s t o r m . The v a l u e o f

9u /9N c a n b e e i t h e r e v a l u a t e d b y a l a b o r a t o r y t e s t simulating the f i e l d

••conditions o r by an approximate mathematical formula. I t has been found

t h a t f o r many s o i l s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between U g and N c a n be e x p r e s s e d f o r

practical purposes i n t e r m s o f t h e number o f c y c l e s , N-^, r e q u i r e d to cause

 61

initial l i q u e f a c t i o n under a g i v e n s t r e s s c o n d i t i o n i nthe following

form (Seed et a l , 1976)

J_
g 2 . . 20. rs
7 = — arc s i n (x ) (5.6)
a "
vo

where Q = an e m p i r i c a l constant;

x = cyclic r a d i o , d e f i n e d a s (N/N-^) .

This relationship i spresented i n F i g . 14. D i f f e r e n t values of

G may b e u s e d t o r e p r e s e n t d i f f e r e n t r a t e s o f pore pressure generation.

A v a l u e o f 0 = 0.7 h a s b e e n f o u n d t o represent t h e average curve f o r

many s o i l s . By d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g equation (5.6) w i t h r e s p e c t t o N, o n e

gets

_g_ _ _VO 1_
(5.7)
3N GUNT . 26-1,11 v ,U .
^ sin ("2 r ) cos{j r )
u u

I n g e n e r a l , t h e d e s i g n s t o r m wave d a t a w i l l be i r r e g u l a r and f o r

p r a c t i c a l purposes i s u s u a l l y r e p r e s e n t e d by N q c y c l e s o f a u n i f o r m
e wave.

The t o t a l d u r a t i o n o f t h e u n i f o r m wave s t o r m i s t h e same a s t h a t o f t h e

irregular storm and i s d e s i g n a t e d as T . D Then

iS = _§a ( 5 . 8 )

9t T D

Combining equations (5.7) and ( 5 . 8 ) , t h e r a t e of pore pressure generation,

3ug/3t, a t any time c a n be determined from the equation:

a = g. . M
3t 3N 3t

3u a 1
N
o r _ £ = ^ o _ _ e a 1
3t GUTT) N . 20- L H . J , K
'
sm (-j r ) cos(-^ r )
T
u
u u

So, now k n o w i n g 3ug/3t, equation (5.3) c a n be used t o determine the resi-

dual pore pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n . F i n i t e element method i s used t o s o l v e

FIG. 14 Rate of Pore P r e s s u r e G e n e r a t i o n d u r i n g C y c l i c Loading
 63

for u. The d o m a i n and boundary c o n d i t i o n s of t h i s problem are shown i n

Fig. 15(a). The f o r m u l a t i o n of f i n i t e element method i s explained in

detail i n Appendix I .

5.2 A n a l y s i s of the Depth of Instability

The p r i n c i p l e explained i n - S e c t i o n 4.5 can be extended to p r e d i c t

the depth of instability. Let the initial vertical and horizontal effec-

tive s t r e s s e s i n an e l e m e n t d u r i n g a c a l m p e r i o d be g i v e n by o^ 0 and o .
x o

Shear s t r e s s T „ v will be z e r o . But, during the storm r e s i d u a l pore pres-

sures develop i n t h e d e p o s i t and t h e new s t r e s s s t a t e a t any p o i n t can be

expressed as

o' = a 1
- u (5.10)
zt vo

a' = K (a' - u) (see F i g . 15(b))

xt o vo b

and T „,.. Here, T i s t h e maximum c y c l i c shear s t r e s s induced at that

XZL XZu

p o i n t when t h e h i g h e s t wave p a s s e s o v e r . As b e f o r e , d e f i n i n g a n g l e , cj>,

developed by induced stresses i n the deposit, as

2 2 h
. , zt xt 7
xzt .
fc .
sin<£, . = 7—j ; r (5.11)
(x,z,t)
V
(a^ + a' )
t

i n s t a b i l i t y c a n be expected up t o a. d e p t h w i t h i n w h i c h <t>^ x z t ^ > <j) .1

I t c a n be seen t h a t the h i g h e r t h e u and x x z t , the higher the value of

^(x z t) b ' e
So, t h e w o r s t c a s e w o u l d be t h e e x t r e m e waves passing

over t h e bed when t h e r e a r e h i g h r e s i d u a l p o r e p r e s s u r e s i n the deposit.

5.3 Changes, i n S o i l P r o p e r t i e s and Pore Pressure Generation

The amplitude of c y c l i c shear s t r e s s e s h a v e t o be c o m p u t e d in

the d e p o s i t to use the pore pressure generation equation (5.9). It has

 64

-u = 0 at z = 0

Soil Deposit

_3_[l<z du\ [du du£\

dz|_7w 3zJ' v[at-at
m
J

|^ = 0 at z - D

Basic Equotion and Solution

Domain
(a)

vo °"vo- u

K
o °"vo 0 CTvo- )
K ( u

Stress Condition at Stress Condition at

Calm Periods Storm Periods
(b)

FIG. 15 S t r e s s Conditions Before and During Storms

 65

been observed i n S e c t i o n 4.7 t h a t the shear s t r e s s e s induced in a deposit

due t o wave l o a d i n g c a n be c o m p u t e d a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e bed i s impermeable.

A simple procedure using s o l i d mechanical principles t o compute cyclic

shear stresses i s presented i n Appendix I I . I t i s shown t h a t f o r a deep

uniform d e p o s i t , ^ /o^ c Q i s independent of e l a s t i c c o n s t a n t s of the soil

deposit. But, i n the case of a non-uniform or s h a l l o w d e p o s i t , T /a^.

c 0

d e p e n d s on the e l a s t i c constants.

When t h e r e s i d u a l p o r e p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e s d u r i n g a storm in a

deposit, the e l a s t i c c o n s t a n t s w h i c h w e r e a s s u m e d t o be stress dependent

reduce (equations ( 4 . 2 1 ) and (4.22)). During the presence of residual

excess p o r e p r e s s u r e , t h e mean n o r m a l s t r e s s e s and minor principal

s t r e s s e s s h o u l d be c a l c u l a t e d as,

1+2K
a' = =-5- (a' - u) (5.12)
m 3 vo

a' = K (a' - u)
3 o vo

This w i l l vary the T /a^c 0 induced by t h e waves i n s h a l l o w o r non-

uniform d e p o s i t s d u r i n g a storm activity. I t has been found that the

m o d i f i c a t i o n of e l a s t i c c o n s t a n t s t o be c o m p a t i b l e w i t h the current levels

of e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s e s l e a d s t o h i g h e r r e s i d u a l p o r e p r e s s u r e s and a

greater depth of instability i n the seabed. An efficient computer program,

STAB-W, w h i c h i n c o r p o r a t e s m o d i f i c a t i o n o f e l a s t i c c o n s t a n t s has been

developed to perform stability analysis.

5.4 Example Problem

The s i m p l e e x a m p l e shown i n F i g . 8 i s a n a l y s e d to i l l u s t r a t e the

a p p l i c a t i o n of t h i s method. T h i s u n i f o r m d e p o s i t was divided into 12

l a y e r s and the e l a s t i c soil c o n s t a n t s , G and B, w e r e s e l e c t e d t o be con-

s i s t e n t w i t h the l e v e l s of effective stress. A v a l u e o f 0 = 0.7, which

 66

i s a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e v a l u e f o r medium d e n s e s a n d s was u s e d i n pore pres-

sure generation (equation (5.6)). The d e s i g n s t o r m w a v e d a t a i s given

i n Table I I . T h e T /a^
Q 0 a n d N^ v a l u e s c o r r e s p o n d i n g to liquefaction poten-

tial curve i s given i n Table I I I .

T h e r e s i d u a l p o r e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n was a n a l y s e d f o r two

TABLE I I

D e s i g n Wave D a t a

Wave H e i g h t Wave P e r i o d No. o f Waves

f t (H) sec (T)

9.0 7.0 50

8.0 6.5 80

6.0 6.0 155

4.0 5.0 180

2.0 4.0 200

TABLE I I I

Liquefaction Potential Curve

Shear S t r e s s No. o f C y c l e s
Ratio N L

0.06 100,000

0.081 10,000

0.1 1,000

0.13 24

0.163 7.2

0.198 3.2

different permeability values, K z = 2 x 10 J

cm/s a n d K z = 2 x 10 1
cm/s.

To s t u d y t h e i n f l u e n c e o f m o d i f i c a t i o n o f m o d u l i o n t h e d e p o s i t , two
 67

types of a n a l y s i s were c o n d u c t e d . I n one, the moduli were not modified

for the changes i n r e s i d u a l pore p r e s s u r e and, i n the other, they were

modif i e d .

5.4.1 Equivalent uniform storm

The r e s i d u a l p o r e p r e s s u r e method r e q u i r e s e s t a b l i s h i n g an

"equivalent uniform storm" which i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the d e s i g n storm

wave i n t e r m s o f p o r e p r e s s u r e generation i n the deposit. The method

p r o p o s e d by L e e and Chan ( 1 9 7 2 ) was used to o b t a i n the equivalent storm.

T h i s p r o c e d u r e has been e x p l a i n e d i n S e c t i o n 3.3. Table I V shows the

procedure c a r r i e d out to c a l c u l a t e the e q u i v a l e n t storm of "uniform wave

heights f o r the design storm given i n Table I I .

5.4.2 D i s c u s s i o n of Results

F i g u r e 16 shows t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f r e s i d u a l p o r e p r e s s u r e in

t h e d e p o s i t a t t h e end of the storm f o r two cases, K z = 2 x 10 ^ -

cm/s

and K z = 2 x l O ^ cm/s.
-
The maximum p o r e p r e s s u r e r a t i o s and depth of

instability, calculated using equation (5.11), are presented i n Table V.

M o d i f i c a t i o n of soil p r o p e r t i e s f o r the increase i n r e s i d u a l

pore pressure has n o t i c e a b l e i m p a c t on the predicted r e s i d u a l pore pres-

sure. When t h e d e g r a d a t i o n i n moduli i s taken into account, the p r e d i c -

ted pore pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n i s about 30% higher i n the l e s s permeable

sand. I n the case of K z = 2 x 10 ''' cm/s,

-
the r e s i d u a l pore pressures

w e r e so l o w t h a t the changes i n the e l a s t i c constants f o r changes i n

e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s l e v e l s had no a p p r e c i a b l e i m p a c t on t h e r e s u l t s . The

depth of i n s t a b i l i t y a l s o i n c r e a s e d when m o d i f i c a t i o n o f p r o p e r t i e s was

considered. T h i s example c l e a r l y demonstrates t h a t t h e e f f e c t of degra-

dation i n moduli should be c o n s i d e r e d f o r proper a n a l y s i s .

 TABLE I V

C a l c u l a t i o n of Equivalent Number o f U n i f o r m Cycles

Wave H e i g h t Number o f Wave P e r i o d Wave L e n g t h Wave Pressure Shear Number o f E q u i v a l e n t No.

H (ft)
± Waves TJL ( s e e s ) L ±(ft) P ± (psf) Stress Cycles to of C y c l e s
Ratio Liquef. N ^ i N
eq wi/%i- ref
= N N

Nwi
a t z=0

9 50 7.0 130.7 245.9 0.202 3.0 61.0

8 80 6.5 120.3 212.8 0.190 3.66 80.0

6 155 6.0 109.9 154.2 0.151 7.79 72.8

4 180 5.0 88.6 92.5 0.112 229.5 2.9

2 200 4.0 66.6 37.4 0.059 100,000. 0.01

TABLE V

Results of Residual Pore Pressure Analysis

K z = 0.002 cm/s K z = 0. 2 cm/ s

without with without with

modification modif i c a t i o n modification mod i f i c a t i o n

Maximum R e s i d u a l P o r e
0.34 0.46 0.012 0.012
Pressure Ratio

Maximum D e p t h o f
3.0 5.0 0.0 0.0
Instability (ft)
 69

The d r a i n a g e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the sands a r e governed mainly

by coefficient consolidation c v given by K /(va^y^)

z . The higher the c v

the lower the r e s i d u a l pore pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n w i l l be. It is interes-

ting t o n o t e t h a t an a n a l y s i s b a s e d on u n d r a i n e d c o n d i t i o n s prevailing

during the storm a c t i v i t y w i l l indicate that the deposit would l i q u e f y to

a d e p t h of 10 ft. A c o v e r of a few f e e t of high c v material (gravel) will

reduce the pore pressure dramatically.

 70

FIG. 16 Residual Pore Pressure Distribution

 71

CHAPTER 6

ANALYSIS OF P I P E L I N E FLOTATION

A numerical example problem i s c o n s i d e r e d to explain the p r i n -

ciples i n C h a p t e r 2. A pre-stressed concrete p i p e l i n e of 4 f t diameter

i s b u r i e d a t a depth of 8 f t below t h e s e a f l o o r . The p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e

d e p o s i t a r e shown i n F i g . 8. The p i p e l i n e i s t o b e u s e d t o t r a n s m i t a

fluid of s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y S Q = 0.70 a n d i t w e i g h s q = 80 l b f / f t r u n .

The response of t h i s deposit using r e s i d u a l pore pressure analy-

sis to a given design storm i s presented i n S e c t i o n 5.4. T h e maximum

depth of i n s t a b i l i t y , , will occur when t h e e x t r e m e w a v e p a s s e s over

w h i l e t h e bed has h i g h e s t r e s i d u a l pore p r e s s u r e s . The p r e s e n c e o f r e s i -

dual pore pressures reduce t h e s t i f f n e s s p r o p e r t i e s of t h e deposit arid

lead to higher depth of i n s t a b i l i t y . T h e program,- STAB-MAX, was u s e d t o

analyse t h e r e s p o n s e o f t h e d e p o s i t f o r t h e e x t r e m e wave l o a d i n g with

properties modified f o r r e s i d u a l pore pressure. T h i s a n a l y s i s gave a

v a l u e o f 17.5 f t f o r D f . Therefore, a n a l y s i s of t h i s p i p e l i n e corresponds

t o C a s e I I , s t a t e d i n S e c t i o n 2 . 3 , w h e r e D^ < D f . Then, u s i n g equation

(2.7) f o r no u p w a r d movement

IL < W + W
b p s

where U b = t h e buoyancy f o r c e p e r u n i t l e n g t h on t h e
pipeline.

From e q u a t i o n (2.4),

U b = | B (l^-Up

B u o y a n c y f o r c e U>,

U2 = maximum t o t a l p o r e p r e s s u r e ( s t a t i c and r e s i d u a l )
a t t h e bottom of t h e p i p e l i n e ;
 72

= 10 x 64 + 0.263 x (o^ ) o z = 1 0 i

= 765.2 lfb/ft 2

U-^ = maximum t o t a l p o r e p r e s s u r e a t t h e t o p o f the

pipeline;

= 6 x 64 + 0.370 x (o^ ) 0 z = 6 ,

= 489.7 lbf/ft 2

U b = x 4 x (765.2 -489.7)

= 865.5 l b f / f t run

Weight o f p i p e l i n e and i t s contents (Wp)

«P - 1 + 4^
Here, Y j =
u n i t weight of fluid

= S Q x 62.4 lbf/ft 3

W •= 80 + T x 0.7 x 62.4 x 16
P 4
= 628.9 l b f / f t run

C o r r e c t e d b r e a k o u t s o i l mass W s

Using equation (2.2)

n
(W )
s ave
= I| (Y' - Y i) V
w r r

where (Y'-Y i) w r
=
average e f f e c t i v e u n i t weight of r layer;

V r = average volume i n v o l v e d in r layer;

n = t o t a l number o f layers;

i = hydraulic gradient = dh /dz;

s

h s = hydraulic head = u/Y « W

For this example problem, from T a b l e VI

(W ) s a v e = 789.8 l b f / f t run

Therefore, the factor of s a f e t y against flotation

 TABLE V I

C a l c u l a t i o n of Corrected Breakout S o i l Mass

Depth'Below Excess Pore H y d r a u l i c Head Volume

Seafloor Pressure a' h (ft) = u/y i=dh /dz (Y'-Y i) V f t 3
( '-Y i)V
vo s w s
w
r Y w r

Ratio

u/-<4 0

2 0.464 '95.2 0.690 0.345 25.5 8 204.0

4 0.421 190.4 1.25 0.280 29.7 8 237.6

6 0.370 285.6 1.65 0.20 34.8 8 278.4

8 0.315 380.8 1.87 0.110 40.6 1.72 69.8

(W )
s a v e =789.8
 74

stabilizing force
disturbing force

W + W
_E s
U
b

628.9 + 789.8
865.5

= 1.64

It should be n o t e d t h a t t h e f a c t o r of s a f e t y would have a value

of 1.82 i f softening e f f e c t of the deposit has not been c o n s i d e r e d and

4.19 i f a n a l y s i s was p e r f o r m e d a s s u m i n g c a l m s e a s u r f a c e conditions.

 CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSIONS

Travelling s u r f a c e waves e x e r t harmonic p r e s s u r e loading on

the seafloor. This pressure l o a d i n g has two e f f e c t s on the deposit.

It induces a harmonic s t r e s s f i e l d and i t may give r i s e to r e s i d u a l pore

pressures i n the deposit. The depth of instability can be estimated for

a g i v e n wave l o a d i n g u s i n g a f a i l u r e c r i t e r i o n such as Mohr-Coulomb

if the e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s f i e l d i n the deposit i s known. The most severe

condition for instability w i l l occur when t h e s e a b e d h a s t h e maximum

r e s i d u a l pore pressures and t h e e x t r e m e wave p a s s e s by.

The effective stress field can be obtained.either by a coupled

a n a l y s i s b a s e d on B i o t ' s t h e o r y of p o r o - e l a s t i c s o l i d o r by an appropriate

uncoupled a n a l y s i s . In this thesis, a coupled analysis for a horizontally

l a y e r e d d e p o s i t of f i n i t e depth i s presented. A computer program,

STAB-MAX, h a s been developed to implement the a n a l y s i s . STAB-MAX g i v e s

pore pressures and e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s e s i n the deposit for a given wave

load ing.

For deep, u n i f o r m , s a t u r a t e d d e p o s i t s , an u n c o u p l e d effective

stress f i e l d can be c o m p u t e d by independently evaluating total stress and

pore pressures i n t h e d e p o s i t and then using effective stress principle.

The u n c o u p l e d a n a l y s i s i s s i m p l e and does not r e q u i r e a computer. Based

on d a t a f r o m an extensive study using t h e p r o g r a m , STAB-MAX, F i n n ,

Siddharthan and Martin (1980) e s t a b l i s h e d g u i d e l i n e s f o r u n c o u p l e d analyses.

T h e y showed t h a t t h e t o t a l s t r e s s i n c r e m e n t s f o r a g i v e n wave l o a d i n g can

be o b t a i n e d using the theory of elasticity (Fung, 1965). They f o u n d the

pore pressure field t o be independent of h y d r a u l i c a n i s o t r o p h y for soft

 76

c o a r s e and f i n e sands. I t c a n be e s t i m a t e d using

-Xz
p = p e
r r
o

In s t i f f c o a r s e sand, t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of pore pressure i s a function

of the anisotropic permeability r a t i o and c a n be computed using

-A/K /K Z
p = p e x ^x z

The distribution in stiff f i n e sands i s independent o f t h e a n i s o t r o p i c

permeability ratio, but i t could n o t be e x p r e s s e d i n simple functional

form. T h e g e n e r a l i s a t i o n made f o r d e e p , u n i f o r m , saturated deposits can

not b e made f o r s h a l l o w or layered deposits. So, f o r a s h a l l o w or layered

deposit one should do a c o u p l e d a n a l y s i s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e f f e c t i v e

stresses i n the deposit, using a program such as STAB-MAX.

The r e s i d u a l pore pressures c a u s e d by c y c l i c a c t i o n o f t h e wave

induced shear s t r e s s e s i s very important i n loose sandy s o i l s . The evalua-

t i o n of r e s i d u a l pore pressures should take i n t o account pore pressure

dissipation because of the r a t h e r long duration o f most s t o r m wave load-

ings. An e x a m p l e c o n s i d e r e d i n this thesis reveals that the modification

of soil properties f o r the presence of r e s i d u a l pore pressures, give about

30% higher r e s i d u a l pore pressures than that obtained without the m o d i f i -

cation. Therefore, stability analyses should include m o d i f i c a t i o n of

s o i l properties f o r the increase i n r e s i d u a l pore pressures. A computer

p r o g r a m , STAB-W, h a s b e e n d e v e l o p e d t o e v a l u a t e the r e s i d u a l pore pressures

in a layered deposit of f i n i t e depth taking the e f f e c t s of pore pressures

on soil properties into account.

The cover provided f o r a buried p i p e l i n e w i t h p o s i t i v e buoyancy

should be s u c h t h a t f a i l u r e does n o t o c c u r w i t h i n t h e c o v e r and i t s h o u l d

provide adequate r e s i s t a n c e t o p i p e l i n e f l o t a t i o n during wave loading.

 77

E f f e c t i v e w e i g h t o f t h e s o i l m a s s (W ) a n d v e r t i c a l
s component o f t h e

s h e a r f o r c e (RyO along the s l i p s u r f a c e a r e t h e two f o r c e c o m p o n e n t s that

r e s i s t u p w a r d movement o f a b u r i e d p i p e l i n e . There c a n be a r e g i o n

instability i n t h e seabed w i t h i n w h i c h t h e a p p l i e d s t r e s s e s caused by t h e

wave l o a d i n g i s h i g h e r than the strength of the deposit. T h i s means that

any a d d i t i o n a l s h e a r r e s i s t a n c e c a n n o t be m o b i l i s e d a l o n g a slip surface

selected f o r p i p e l i n e breakout problem w i t h i n t h i s r e g i o n . The instability

region w i l l b e d e e p e r when t h e d e p o s i t has higher r e s i d u a l pore pressures

a s t h e e x t r e m e wave p a s s e s b y . The r e g i o n o f i n s t a b i l i t y c a n be obtained

by a n a l y s i n g t h e r e s p o n s e o f t h e d e p o s i t w i t h i t s p r o p e r t i e s m o d i f i e d f o r

the presence of higher r e s i d u a l pore pressures and t h e n u s i n g the poro-

e l a s t i c method o f i n s t a b i l i t y analysis. Furthermore, the presence of

r e s i d u a l pore pressures may g i v e r i s e t o a n i n c r e a s e i n p o s i t i v e b o u y a n c y

and r e d u c e t h e e f f e c t i v e m a s s (W ) s o f t h e d e p o s i t due t o t h e upward

seepage. An a p p r o p r i a t e example has been c o n s i d e r e d i n detail to explain

how t h e p r i n c i p l e s o u t l i n e d i n t h i s t h e s i s a r e u s e d t o a n a l y s e p i p e l i n e

flotation problems.

The a n a l y s i s presented here i s r e s t r i c t e d to horizontally layered

deposit. B u t t h e same a p p r o a c h c a n b e e x t e n d e d t o a n a l y s e sloping seabeds.

In these cases, the influence of s t a t i c shear s t r e s s e s on t h e f a i l u r e

c r i t e r i o n and on p o r e p r e s s u r e generation c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the deposit

must be c o n s i d e r e d . I n t h i s case, p o s s i b l e displacement of the deposit,

d u r i n g and a f t e r t h e wave l o a d i n g n e e d s t o b e c o n s i d e r e d . The p r e s e n c e o f

structures distorts the pore pressure field. This e f f e c t has n o t been

considered h e r e a n d may r e s u l t i n an i n c r e a s e i n bouyancy f o r c e s .

Q u a n t i t a t i v e v e r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e p o r o e l a s t i c method has been

reported. The p o r e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n p r e d i c t e d b y t h e t h e o r y was f o u n d

t o be i n good agreement w i t h t h e f i e l d measurements.

 78

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19. L e e , K . L . a n d C h a n , K. ( 1 9 7 2 ) , "Number o f E q u i v a l e n t S i g n i f i c a n t

Cycles i n Strong Motion Earthquakes," Proceedings, International

Conference on M i c r o z o n a t i o n , S e a t t l e , V o l . I I , pp. 609-627.

20. L e e , K . L . a n d A l b e i s a , A. ( 1 9 7 4 ) , " E a r t h q u a k e Induced Settlements

i n S a t u r a t e d Sands," J o u r n a l o f t h e S o i l Mechanics and F o u n d a t i o n s

D i v i s i o n , ASCE, V o l . 1 0 0 , No. GT4, P r o c . P a p e r 10496, April,

pp. 387-406.

21. L e e , K.L. and F o c h t , J.A. ( 1 9 7 5 ) , "Liquefaction Potential at

E k o f i s k Tank i n N o r t h Sea," Journal of the Geotechnical Engineering

D i v i s i o n , ASCE, No. GT1, P r o c . P a p e r 1 1 0 5 4 , p p . 1-18.

 80

22. L i u , P . L . F . ( 1 9 7 3 ) , "Damping o f W a t e r Waves O v e r P o r o u s B e d , "

J o u r n a l o f t h e H y d r a u l i c s D i v i s i o n , ASCE, V o l . 9 9 , No. H Y 1 2 ,

Proc. Paper 10218, December, pp. 2263-2271.

23. L i u , P.L.F., Timothy, P. a n d O ' D o n n e l l , ( 1 9 7 9 ) , Wave Induced

Forces on B u r i e d P i p e l i n e s i n Permeable Seabeds," Proceedings,
4th Conference on C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g i n t h e Oceans, San F r a n c i s c o ,
pp. 111-121.

24. M c P h e r s o n , H. ( 1 9 7 8 ) , "Wave F o r c e s o n P i p e l i n e B u r i e d i n P e r m e a b l e

Seabed," J o u r n a l o f t h e Waterway P o r t C o a s t a l and Ocean Division,

WW4, November, pp. 407-419.

25. M a d s e n , O.S. ( 1 9 7 8 ) , "Wave I n d u c e d P o r e P r e s s u r e s and E f f e c t i v e

S t r e s s e s i n a Porous Bed," Geotechnique 2 8 , No. 4, D e c e m b e r ,

pp. 377-393.

26. M a r t i n , G.R., F i n n , W.D. Liam a n d S e e d , H.B. ( 1 9 7 5 ) , "Some F u n d a -

mental Aspects i n L i q u e f a c t i o n Under C y c l i c L o a d i n g , " J o u r n a l o f
the Geotechnical Engineering D i v i s i o n , ASCE, V o l . 1 0 1 , No. GT5,
May, pp. 423-438.

27. M a s c h , F.D. a n d W i e g e l , R.L. ( 1 9 6 1 ) , " C n o i d a l W a v e s : Tables of

F u n c t i o n s , " C o u n c i l o f Wave R e s e a r c h , The E n g i n e e r i n g Foundation,
Richmond, Calif.

28. M a s s e l , S.R. ( 1 9 7 6 ) , " G r a v i t y Waves P r o p a g a t e d Over P e r m e a b l e

Bottom," J o u r n a l o f Waterways, Harbour and C o a s t a l E n g i n e e r i n g ,

ASCE, V o l . 1 0 2 , No. WW2, May, p p . 1 1 1 - 1 2 1 .

29. M o s h a g e n , H. a n d T^rum, A. ( 1 9 7 5 ) , "Wave I n d u c e d Pressures i n

Permeable Sea Beds," J o u r n a l o f Waterways, Harbour and C o a s t a l

E n g i n e e r i n g , ASCE, V o l . 1 0 1 , No. WWl, F e b r u a r y , p p . 4 9 - 5 8 .

30. N a t a r a j a , M.S., Wong, I . H . a n d T o t o , J.V. ( 1 9 7 8 ) , "Liquefaction

P o t e n t i a l a t a n Ocean O u t f a l l i n Puerto Rico," Proceedings, ASCE

Geotechnical Conference on Earthquake E n g i n e e r i n g and S o i l Dynamics,

Pasadena, C a l i f . , June, V o l . I I , pp. 685-703.

31. N a t a r a j a , M.S. a n d S i n g h , H. ( 1 9 7 9 ) , " S i m p l i f i e d P r o c e d u r e for

Ocean Wave-Induced L i q u e f a c t i o n A n a l y s i s , " P r o c e e d i n g s , 4 t h C o n f e r e n c e

on C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g i n t h e Oceans, San F r a n c i s c o , pp. 948-963.

 81

32. P h i l l i p s , B.A., Ghazzaly, O.I. and K a l a j i a n , E.H. (1979), "Stability

of P i p e l i n e i n S a n d U n d e r Wave P r e s s u r e , " P r o c e e d i n g s , 4 t h Conference

on C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g i n t h e Oceans, San F r a n c i s c o , pp. 122-136.

33. P u t n a m , J.A. ( 1 9 4 9 ) , " L o s s o f Wave E n e r g y Due to P e r c o l a t i o n in a

P e r m e a b l e Sea B o t t o m , " T r a n s a c t i o n s , A m e r i c a n Geophysical Union,

Vol. 3 0 , No. 5, J u n e , pp. 349-356.

34. Rahman, M.S., S e e d , H.B. and Booker, J.R. (1977), "Pore Pressure
Development Under O f f s h o r e G r a v i t y S t r u c t u r e s , " J o u r n a l of the
G e o t e c h n i c a l D i v i s i o n , ASCE, V o l . 1 0 3 , No. GT12, P r o c . Paper 13411,
December, pp. 1419-1436.

35. R e e s e , L.C. and C a s b a r i a n , A.O.P. ( 1 9 6 8 ) , "Pipe S o i l Interaction

for a B u r i e d O f f s h o r e P i p e l i n e , " S o c i e t y of Petroleum Engineers

J o u r n a l , Paper No. SPE 2343.

36. R e i d , R.O. and K a j i u r a , K. ( 1 9 5 7 ) , "On t h e Damping o f G r a v i t y Waves

Over a P e r m e a b l e Sea Bed," T r a n s a c t i o n s , American Geophysical Union,
Vol. 3 0 , No. 5, O c t o b e r , pp. 662-666.

37. S a t o , S., T a n a k a , N. and Irie, I . (1968), "Study on S c o u r i n g a t the

Feed o f C o a s t a l S t r u c t u r e s , " P r o c e e d i n g s , 11th Conference on

C o a s t a l E n g i n e e r i n g , pp. 579-598.

38. Sen, A.K. (1971), "Fluid-Dynamic E f f e c t s on t h e Response o f Offshore

T o w e r s t o Wave a n d Earthquake F o r c e s , " M.A.Sc. T h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y of

British Columbia, Vancouver, July.

39. S e e d , H.B. and Idriss, I.M. ( 1 9 7 0 ) , " S o i l M o d u l i and Damping F a c t o r s

for D y n a m i c R e s p o n s e A n a l y s i s , " EERI~ R e p o r t No. 70-10, C o l l e g e of

E n g i n e e r i n g , U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , B e r k e l e y , December.

40. S e e d , H.B., M a r t i n , P.P. and Lysmer, J . (1976), "Pore-water Pressure

Changes D u r i n g S o i l L i q u e f a c t i o n , " J o u r n a l of t h e G e o t e c h n i c a l

E n g i n e e r i n g D i v i s i o n , ASCE, V o l . 102, No. GT4, P r o c . Paper 12074,

April, pp. 323-346.

41. S e e d , H.B. and Rahman, M.S. (1977), " A n a l y s i s f o r Wave-Induced

L i q u e f a c t i o n i n R e l a t i o n t o Ocean F l o o r S t a b i l i t y , " Report on

r e s e a r c h sponsored by t h e N a t i o n a l S c i e n c e F o u n d a t i o n , Report No.

UCB/TE-77/02, May.
 82

42. S e e d , H.B. ( 1 9 7 9 ) , " S o i l L i q u e f a c t i o n and Cyclic Mobility Evalua-

t i o n f o r L e v e l Ground D u r i n g E a r t h q u a k e s , " J o u r n a l of the Geotech-

n i c a l E n g i n e e r i n g D i v i s i o n , ASCE, V o l . 105, No. GT2, Proc. Paper

. 14380, F e b r u a r y , pp. 201-255.

43. U.S. Army C o a s t a l E n g i n e e r i n g R e s e a r c h Center (1977), "Shore

P r o t e c t i o n M a n u a l , " V o l . I , Ch. 2, T h i r d Edition.

44. Verruijt, A. (1969), " E l a s t i c S t o r a g e of A q u i f e r s , " Flow Through

Porous Media, C h a p . 8, R.J.M. De W i e s t , E d i t o r , A c a d e m i c Press

P u b l i s h e r s , New York.

45. V e s i c , A.S. (1971), "Breakout R e s i s t a n c e o f O b j e c t s Embedded i n

Ocean B o t t o m , " J o u r n a l o f t h e S o i l M e c h a n i c s and Foundations Division,
ASCE, V o l . 97, No. SM9, P r o c . Paper 8372, September, pp. 1183-1205.

46. W i e g e l , R.L. (1964), "Oceanographical Engineering," Prentice-Hall,

I n c . , Englewood C l i f f s , New Jersey.

47. Wright, S.G. and Dunham, R.S. (1972), "Bottom S t a b i l i t y U n d e r Wave

Induced Loading," 4th Annual O f f s h o r e Technology Conference, Vol. I,

Paper No. OTC 1603, pp. 853-862.

48. Yamamoto, T. ( 1 9 7 8 ) , "Sea Bed Instability f r o m Waves," P r o c e e d i n g s ,

10th Annual O f f s h o r e Technology Conference, Houston, Texas, Paper
No. 3262, V o l . I , pp. 1819-1824.
 83

APPENDIX I

FORMULATION OF F I N I T E ELEMENT EQUATIONS FOR

ANALYSIS OF RESIDUAL PORE PRESSURES

The governing equation i s

K 3u
3 , z 3u> ,3u g.
(A.I-l)
H 7~ (
^
= m
v ^" (

w
At any i n s t a n t o f t i m e , (3u/3t - 3 u / 3 t ) may b e c o n s i d e r e d a s b e i n g a
g

function of z only. Now, say

9u g_
m „ (• ) = Q(z)
v v
3t 3t

then equation (A;I-1) reduces t o

'3 , z 3vu
K
, v

^ = Q ( z )

A.I-l Constructing Functional

Functional J f o ra differential e q u a t i o n o f t h e f o r m Au = f i s

J = (Au,u) - 2 ( f , u )

Using this, the functional J f o r this differential equation i s

^ ( f |w ) U
' 2 Q ( Z ) u } d Z

rD

4
r z K
i° 3 u

.y 3z
•w w
o

The boundary c o n d i t i o n s a t t h e t o p and bottom o f t h e s o i l d e p o s i t a r e

u = 0 at z = 0

3u
0 at z = D (No f l o w o c c u r s a t t h e b o t t o m boundary)
3z
 84

Under t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h e boundary term i n t h e f u n c t i o n a l v a n i s h e s .

Then,

? K
2
- J = — A dz + 2 Q(z) udz (A.1-2)
Y 9z
0 w

A.1-2 F i n i t e Element Technique

Let us c o n s i d e r t h a t t h e e n t i r e s o i l d e p o s i t as an assemblage

of a f i n i t e number o f e l e m e n t s . Then,

^ ^total n i ^ ^elements ( A . I 3)

all elements

To u s e t h i s m e t h o d (finite element) one must s e l e c t an i n t e r p o l a t i o n

function f o r u such that t h e f u n c t i o n a l c a n be computed. Since the func-

t i o n a l h a s 9u/9z t e r m , t h e i n t e r p o l a t i o n f u n c t i o n f o r u must be a t l e a s t

o r d e r 1 i n z. This c r i t e r i o n i s referred t o as "completeness c r i t e r i o n "

in f i n i t e element l i t e r a t u r e . So, l e t us choose t h e s i m p l e l i n e a r v a r i a -

t i o n o f u over an element a s
u
- ( 1
-i7> u
i
+
i : u
i i ( A
- -
x 4 )

i i +

= N T
u 6
(A.1-5)
- l

where d ^ i s t h e t h i c k n e s s of t h e i ^ t 1
element,

e u.
u.
-x u
i + l ;

u
i' i+l
u = t
* r e s i d u a l p o r e p r e s s u r e s a t nodes i and i + 1 .
i e

These node numbers a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h element i .

n = d i s t a n c e measured from t h e t o p o f t h e element

p a r a l l e l to z direction.
rn

N = .{1 - n/d^ n/cL] = nodal interpolation function.

Now, f r o m e q u a t i o n (A.1-2)
 = t h e f u n c t i o n a l f o r element
element

i K 2

-5- A dn +• 2Q(n)udn
w
0
e e
say = T + I
1 2

where

K
z ,3u. 2
,
^ ww ^ "

d.
l
and I, 2Q(n)udn

Now consider

31 ^ z ^ u ^
dn
fl7
Y 3n 3n l l j
3{u*} w ^ '

Substituting for from e q u a t i o n (A.1-5),

K u . . -u . d.
z 1+1 x l
3{u } e Y d. _1_
- l w 1
d.

K 1
_z J _
= 2
Y d. -1
w 1

2[K ] e {u?}

]
m -m
where [K ] =
e
-m m

K
and
Y d.
w 1
 86

Now consider

d.
x
2 Q(z) udn

d.
x 3u
2 m
v
(
IE " 1^ ^
0

Simple t r a p e z o i d a l i n t e g r a t i o n scheme c a n be u s e d to evaluate this

integral, i.e.,

9u
1 r , 3U g.
I* = 2m.. {•£[(•
v 2 - 3 t - 3t
L
) u ]
i +
" Tt^ ) u ]
i+1 } d
i
Here, subscript i and i+1 r e f e r t o t h e v a r i a b l e s a t n o d e s i a n d i+1

i.e.,

3u \
3u
31,
3t 3t ' i
).
= 2
3{u } e
m d. . 3u
-x v i 3u _
f

2 K
dt 3t i + l
;

. V 3u
v
3t 3t ' i
= 2[D ] e
(A.1-8)

Ju _ _j>
v
3t 3t 'i+1

where

m d.
and p v x

Now,

3J
element

3{u^} 3{u?} 3{u } 6

- X - X
 87

from equations (A.1-7) and (A.-8)

•in &>
[K ] { u ? } + [D ] I v
3t 3t ' i
^u _
| V
3t 3 t ±+l
J

Using v a r i a t i o n a l principles,

#3 iTu } = { 0 }

3J
^ element _
x. e.
all 3{u } e

elements

iE) ( _ (_§.)
3 f x
v v
3t i
;

X [Ke ] { ux } + 6
[D ]
e J
-( .
\ ._3u.
3u
_ , g.
f
|
= {0}

^3t i+l
;
^3t i + l
;

Summing u p f o r a l l t h e e l e m e n t s , one w i l l g e t

3u a

[K]{u} + [D]({-^} - { ^ } ) = {0} (A.1-9)

where m a t r i x [K] i s a c o n s t a n t m a t r i x f o r a g i v e n p r o b l e m , matrix [D] i s a

function of compressibility m, v which w i l l vary w i t h pore pressure ratio,

and { u } , {3u/3t} and {3ug/3t} d e n o t e t h e v e c t o r s o f n o d a l v a l u e s o f

3u/3t and 3ug/3t. F o r nodes a t t h e i n t e r f a c e o f two d i f f e r e n t materials,

{3u / 3 t } i s t a k e n a s t h e maximum o f i t s v a l u e j u s t above and below t h e

node.

Equation (A.1-9) c a n be r e g a r d e d as a s e t of o r d i n a r y d i f f e r e n -

tial e q u a t i o n s a n d may b e a p p r o x i m a t e l y integrated over the interval t ,

t+At as follows:

3u
[K](3'{u t + A t + a'{u })Att + [D]({u t + A t > - " ^ > A t
) = <>
0

(A.I-10)
 88

w h e r e a'+B 1
= 1 and subscripts t , t+At i n d i c a t e the v a l u e s of a variable

at t i m e s t , t + A t r e s p e c t i v e l y , and the bar denotes an average v a l u e over

the i n t e r v a l t , t+At ( c a l c u l a t e d from the average pore pressure ratio

over that interval). D i f f e r e n t v a l u e s o f a' c o r r e s p o n d to d i f f e r e n t

approximations; i f B'>0.5 t h e i n t e g r a t i o n by t h i s p r o c e d u r e is always

stable. I n t h i s program, B 1
i s a s s u m e d t o h a v e a v a l u e 0.5 (Crank-

N i c h o l s o n method). Then e q u a t i o n (A.I-10) c a n be w r i t t e n as

[AQ]{u t + A t } = {BQ1} + {BQ2} (A.I-11)

where

[AQ] = [K]B'At + [D]

[BQ1] = (-[K]a'At + [D]{u })

t

3u
[BQ2] = [D]{^}At

After incorporating e s s e n t i a l boundary c o n d i t i o n s , equation (A.I-11) is

modified as

[AQ*]{u t + A t } = {BQ1*} + {BQ2*} = {BQ*} (A.I-12)

Here, the a s t e r i s k denotes v a l u e s of the v a r i a b l e s after suitable modifi-

c a t i o n f o r the boundary conditions.

The above e q u a t i o n i s solved by the Gaussian elimination proce-

dure. The program has the option f o r t r e a t i n g the c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y values

e i t h e r constant or varying. I t i s assumed t h a t the c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y values

of the s o i l p r o f i l e does not v a r y w i t h pore pressure r a t i o , the matrix [D]

i s c o n s t a n t and equation (A.I-12) c a n be u s e d t o m a r c h t h e s o l u t i o n forward

i n time. I f the c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y values are treated as v a r i a b l e s then the

matrix [D] becomes v a r i a b l e a n d equation (A.I-12) has t o be solved itera-

t i v e l y by u s i n g t h e b e s t c u r r e n t e s t i m a t e of pore p r e s s u r e r a t i o to calcu-

late [D] and repeating t h i s procedure until the process converges.

 89

APPENDIX I I

CALCULATION OF C Y C L I C SHEAR STRESSES I N AN E L A S T I C

SEABED UNDER WAVE LOADING

A horizontally layered s o i l deposit subjected to a travelling

harmonic pressure increment i s shown i n F i g . 1 7 . T h e maximum cyclic

shear stresses i n t h e deposit a r e required i n order to determine t h e

build-up i n r e s i d u a l pore pressures. The f o l l o w i n g b a s i c assumptions

a r e used i nsolving for thestresses.

1) The p e r i o d s o f i m p o r t a n t waves a r e l o n g enough

that t h e t r a n s i e n t response to pressure loading
c a n b e n e g l e c t e d a n d t h e wave p r e s s u r e s treated
as s t a t i c l o a d s .

2) Theory o f l i n e a r elasticity i s applicable.

3) Plane strain condition prevails.

4) The s o i l d e p o s i t i s assumed t o be a c o n t i n u u m and

no f l u i d f l o w t a k e s p l a c e i n t h e b e d . These
assumptions reduce t h e problem t o a c l a s s i c a l s o l i d
mechanical problem.

Introducing an A i r y s t r e s s f u n c t i o n , <j>, t h e p r o b l e m o f d e t e r m i n i n g stres-

ses reduces t o s o l v i n g ,

4 + 2
7^r +
^ - 0 (A
-->
II 1

3x 3x 3z 3z

Let <J> = f ( z ) C o s A x w h e r e A = 2 i r / L a n d f ( z ) i s a f u n c t i o n o f z . Substitu-

ting this i n equation (A.II-1)

A 4
f(z) - 2A 2
f U
( z ) + f I V
(z) = 0

The g e n e r a l solution of t h i s equation i s

f(z) = C i e
A z
+ C e 2
_ A z
+ C ze 3
A z
+ ^ze * - 2
(A.II-2)
 -«a L »•

i
'H V
1I \

y = 2 Sin 2 7 r ( )
s r

Ap = P 0 Sin 2TT(- -) L

X
I st
Layer

(N-I) t h
Layer

N t h
Layer

(N + I) th
Layer

^ ^^Rigid Bottom ^

FIG. 17 Wave F o r c e s o n a H o r i z o n t a l l y Layered Deposit

 91

where C^ = any a r b i t r a r y c o n s t a n t s t o be determined

by a p p r o p r i a t e b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s , i.e.,

<j> = ( C ^ 2
+ C e" 2
A z
+ C ze3
X z
+ C ze~
4
A z
) CosAx (A.II-3)

I n g e n e r a l , t h e s o i l d e p o s i t i s d i v i d e d i n t o a number o f l a y e r s (NM).
Then, t h e A i r y s t r e s s f u n c t i o n f o r t h e N l a y e r w i l l be o f t h e f o r m

:f v Az , -Az , Az - i z ,
4>(n) = [ c , ..e + c. „.e + c, „.ze + c, z e JCosAx
r

(n,l) (n,2) (n,3) (n,4)

M

(A.II-4)

The a r b i t r a r y c o n s t a n t s c a n be f o u n d using the following boundary c o n d i -

tions .

Y H
(1) A t z=0, a = — C o s A x = p CosAx (A.II-5)
zz 2Cosh(Ad) o

and a = 0
xz

(2) z=D, v=w=0 w h e r e v,w a r e d i s p l a c e m e n t s i n x and z

directions, respectively.
a v a , and a are given by
XX 7
zz xz

2 2 2
3 <)> 3 <r 3(j) / A T T C\
a =• — , a = — , a = - . ^ (A.II-6)
XX 2 zz „ 2 xz 9x3z
9z 9x :
n

Special Case:

Uniform infinite deposit. I f D -> °° t h e n t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s

associated w i t h e^ z
terms should vanish.

± r , -Az.
i.e., <j> = ( c ^ e + C2ze )CosAx

Using b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s , i t c a n be e a s i l y p r o v e d t h a t t h e maximum cyclic

shear stress,

x = (a )
c xz max

Y H ,
w , -Az
Aze (A.II-7)
2Cosh(Ad)

-Az
p Aze
o
 92

It i s interesting to note t h a t Yamamoto ( 1 9 7 8 ) , who performed an

elastic coupled analysis, showed t h a t when G3 -> 0, x c f o r an infinite

t h i c k uniform deposit reduces t o t h e same e x p r e s s i o n . Here, G i s the

s h e a r m o d u l u s o f s o i l and g i s the c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y of porewater.

H o r i z o n t a l l y Layered Deposit

The Airy s t r e s s f u n c t i o n f o r the n layer i s

. / \ r Az , —Az , Az —Az -,
<Kn) = [ c , .,e + c, e + c. ,ze + c. ,.ze JCosAx
(n,l) (n,2) (n,3) (n,4)
O N

The number o f t o t a l a r b i t r a r y c o n s t a n t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a l l l a y e r s i s

4*NM and t h e y c a n be d e t e r m i n e d by solving simultaneous equations set up

i n the following manner.

At the s e a f l o o r , z=0

Y H W

CosAx and a = 0 (2 E q n s . )
zz 2Cosh(Ad) xz

At the i n t e r f a c e of the n t h d
an (n+l)th layer, stresses o z z ,

0
x z > w, v s h o u l d be c o m p a t i b l e . Here,

i.e.,
zz(n) a
zz(n+l)

xz(n) CT
xz(n+l)

(n) = W
(n+1)

(n) = V
(n 1) +

This leads to 4 equations per interface,

At the bottom, z = D,

W
(NM) " ° „ _ ,
(2 E q n s . )

(NM)

T o t a l number o f e q u a t i o n s a n d u n k n o w n s i s 4ANM. These simultaneous equa-

t i o n s c a n be solved f o r the a r b i t r a r y constants c ^ j ^ ; i=l,NM; j = l , 4 .

The cyclic shear stress at a depth z i s given by

 T • = a (z)
c xz max

A 2 Az .2 -Az , 2 ,
= c, ..A e - c, A e + c, , l A z+A>£
(n,l) (n,2) (n,3)
O N N

• . + c. ,\ {A-A^z }e - " Az

(n,4)

Here, n i s the number o f the layer involved.