Job Insecurity:

Job insecurity can be define as any change in the job nature based on voluntarily (up and down
movement) and possibility of future existence of current job. Job insecurity may be related to
higher gap between country growth and population, low level of career opportunities,
unfavorable situation of the state, and unstable social and economic conditions (Greenhalgh &
Rosenblatt, 1984; Hartley et al., 1991; Hellgren et al., 1999). Staufenbiel and König (2010)
interpreted that Job insecurity causes stress, fear as well as anxiety. Hindrance stressor
expresses, excessive or undesirable work-related demands that interfere with an individual’s
work achievement. It has been examined by the different research literature that Job insecurity
situation have impact upon both individual employees and on institutions. Now it is necessary
to measure the effect of job insecurity.
Researchers are using Multi-dimensional as well as Global view for analysis and
interpretation of Job insecurity. The method of Multi-dimensional view uses Multi-item
measures for the analysis of Job insecurity. However, the method of Global view will either use
single or multi-items. The concept along with the operation of two methods (multi-dimensional
view and global view) are different from each other. It has been recognized that Job insecurity
is subjective in nature and there are various level of job insecurity if individuals are evaluated
on the same objective predictors of job insecurity. According to Sverke and Hellgren, (2002)
examined that Job insecurity threatens the individual job in the future. Johnson et al, (1984)
introduced Seven-item work opinion Questionnaire. However, two scales do not show
Psychometric properties as well as statistical procedures. On the other side, Ashford et al,
(1989) introduced 51-items Job insecurity scale (JIS) and posses 5- Subscales. The JIS scale
analyzes 7 Job dimensions as well as 10 Job changes. But the major issue with the JIS scale is
that it is difficult to use in the applied settings.

http://www.gu.edu.pk/new/GUJR/GJSS-2017/GJSS-Issue-1-
March2017/4_%20Naveed_%20Job%20Insecurity%20paper%201.pdf
Job insecurity is regarded as the ‘overall concern about the continued existence of
the job in the future. Although there are variations between different definitions, they all
have common ground in that job insecurity is a subjective perception . The same
objective event, such as corporate changes or poor financial performance, affects
different employees differently. Some might not see this as a threat even though they
might end up losing their jobs, whilst others might feel that their jobs are vulnerable
when this is not the case.
Sverke, M., & Hellgren, J., ‘The nature of job insecurity: Understanding employment
uncertainty on the brink of a new millennium’, Applied Psychology: An International
Review, 51, 2002, pp. 23–42.
Job Crafting:
Job crafting is a means of describing the ways in which employees utilize. opportunities to
customize their jobs by actively changing their tasks and interactions with others at. work.
Those who engage in these actions are called job crafters, and research suggests they can.

Employees can make variety of changes into their job. These changes constitutes of physical
changes, cognitive changes, relational boundaries changes, changes in scope and form.
Whenever any type of change is made by employees into their job, it drives to alteration in job
design and working environment. These alterations ultimately bring change in meaning and
identity of work to employees.(Bakker, Demerouti, & Xanthopoulou, 2012; Lyons, 2008; Tims &
Bakker, 2010; Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001)

Job crafting through changing tasks

According to traditional job design theory, employees consider a job meaningful if there is
multi-tasking (task variety).on the other hand, relational job design perspective states that
when employees perceive their task to be effective others they think their job meaningful (task
significance).task significance enhances motivation and performance of employees. There are
three ways with employees to cultivate greater task variety, task identity and task significance.
1. Adding tasks: whenever employees find tasks or projects meaningful they can add them into
their work.
2. Emphasizing tasks: when employees perceive some task more meaningful they can
emphasize by providing greater time, attention and
Employees are encouraged to perform job crafting on the basis of individual and job factor.
Individual factors which enforce job crafting consist of cognitive ability, proactive personality,
self-regulation, and self-efficacy. Job factors take into consideration task interdependence,
supervisor support, autonomy and social ties.(Bakker, Demerouti, et al., 2012; Bakker, Tims, &
Derks, 2012; Leana, Appelbaum, & Shevchuk, 2009; Lyons, 2008; Petrou, Demerouti, Peeters,
Schaufeli, & Hetland, 2012; Tims & Bakker, 2010; Tims, Bakker, & Derks, 2012)
There are research evidences about positive association between job crafting and behavioral
outcomes of employees. Job crafting enhances perceived control, self-image and readiness to
change among employees. Job crafting has positive strong impact over the in-role performance
of employees. Collaborative job crafting has been observed with positive effects over
organizational commitment and job satisfaction of employees.(Bakker, Tims, et al., 2012; Leana
et al., 2009; Lyons, 2008; Petrou et al., 2012; Tims & Bakker, 2010)
Reference: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330101874_Job-
Crafting_and_Organizational_Commitment_Person-
Job_Fit_as_Moderator_in_Banking_Sector_of_Pakistan
Job Strain:
Job strain is a form of psychosocial stress that occurs in the workplace. One of the most
common forms of stress, it is characterized by a combination of high demands and low levels of
control regarding one's job.

Different perspectives had been found on the definition of the strain but there is a little
agreement on definitions among scholars (Barsky, Thoresen, Warren, & Kaplan, 2004). Strain and stress
are sometimes confused with each other, so in order to solve this problem the study follows the
definitions of both concepts from ISO 10075 standards which are related to the mental work load.
According to ISO(International Standards Organization) mental strain is, ―the immediate effect of
mental stress within the individual (not the long-term effect) depending on his/her individual habitual
and actual preconditions, including individual coping styles‖, and mental stress ―the total of all
assessable influences impinging upon a human being from external sources and affecting it mentally‖
(―ISO 10075:1991(en), Ergonomic principles related to mental work-load — General terms and
definitions,‖ 2016). So we can say that, psychological strain is a negative judgment about one‘s self
(anxiety, irritation, depression, dissatisfaction, and turnover intention) results of stressful force or
factors known as stressors(role conflict, role ambiguity) (Barsky et al., 2004; Beehr, Jex, Stacy, & Murray,
2000; Mohr, Müller, Rigotti, Aycan, & Tschan, 2006).In other words, it can be said that psychological
irritation is an instance of the psychological strain. Mohr et al. (2006) described a well description of
psychological strain in the light of irritation. Moreover they explained the construct ―irritation‖ and said
that it deals with the uncertainty and reaction, when individual get into a situation which is different
from its desired situation it is called uncertainty and in response of this uncertain situation individual act
in a specific way,it‘s called reaction. Desire outcomes are known as the goals (Robbins & Coulter, 2012),
so it can be said now that the discrepancy among the goals (uncertainty) leads to mental impairment
(reaction) and this psychological state can be thought as an irritation. Mohr et al. (2006) also describe
the main two dimensions of irritation, one is cognitive irritation also known as rumination and the other
is emotional irritation also known as irritability. The cognitive irritation is a class of cognizant
contemplations that spin around a typical instrumental composition and that repeat without prompt
natural requests requiring the musings, and emotional irritation is psychological condition of losing the
impetus to accomplish a specific goal. Organizations are social entities and employees make social
comparison with other employees and when employees feel others are superior, they fall in envy (van
de Ven & Zeelenberg, 2014). This implies when people perceive lack of something they become envious.

Psychological strain can cause many attitudes and behaviors in the workplace such as, absenteeism,
turnover (Gupta & Beehr, 1979) and performance (Beehr et al., 2000). Person-environment fit theory
possess that if the person‘s characteristics match the environment characteristics there would be no
strain and if they don‘t match there will be a psychological , physiological or behavioral strain in
employees (Caplan, 1971; Edwards & Van Harrison, 1993). Moreover strain promotes greed (Robinson &
Murphy, 2009.

Reference:

http://www.qurtuba.edu.pk/jms/JMS%20Special%20Edition/3%20FMM/12%20(AIC-
FMM%202017)%20221-244%20Qlander%20Hayat%20FMM-627.pdf
Employee Performance:
Employee performance has been shown to have a significant positive effect on organizational
performance (Collis and Montgomery, 1995). One of the major pitfalls in an organization occurs when
managers believe their organizations are constantly operating at the highest level of efficiency, or that
they do not require input from their employees (Foot and Hook, 1999).

Whetten and Cameron (1998) state that Employee performance is the product of ability multiplied by
motivation. Furthermore, Cummings and Schwab (1973) concur with the belief that performance is
ultimately an Employee phenomenon with environmental factors influencing performance primarily
through their effect on the Employee determinants of performance – ability and motivation.

Reference: http://repository.out.ac.tz/475/1/THESIS-Ngowi-OUT-FINAL_CD.pdf