From: L. Canepari (2005) A Handbook of Pronunciation - Lincom Europa

From: L.
Canepari (2005) A Handbook of Pronunciation – Lincom Europa
Contents
p. √¤ Foreword
A Handbook of pronunciation
English, Italian, French, German,
Spanish, Portuguese, Russian, Arabic,
Hindi, Chinese, Japanese, Esperanto
1 1. Prelude
1 A synthesis of çNaturalÇ Phonetics “ Tonetics
16 Transcriptions
21 ˛e contents of the HPr (“ of the HPh)
23 Observations on phonetic terminology
28 Guide to the figures
34 Guide to di‡erent types of transcriptions
36 Transcribing by hand
37 Generic symbols
39 ˛e o‚cial IPA chart
41 canIPA “ correspondent oƒIPA symbols
46 2. English – American “ British (neutral “ other accents)
123 3. Italian
152 4. French (neutral “ other accents)
186 5. German (neutral “ other accents)
231 6. Spanish – Iberian “ American
257 7. Portuguese – Brazilian “ Lusitanian
282 8. Russian
314 9. Arabic
330 10. Hindi
345 11. Chinese – Mandarin
370 12. Japanese
392 13. Esperanto
413 Utilizable bibliography

424 Index
427 Language index
From: L. Canepari (2005) A Handbook of Pronunciation – Lincom Europa
1. Prelude
A synthesis of Phonetics “ Tonetics
1.1.1. ©th the aid of some indispensable diagrams (mostly taken from the
HPh, but with simplifications and other modifications), we will provide the key
to adequately use the rich potentialities of Phonetics, with regard to the 12 lan-
guages dealt with in this book: English, Italian, French, German, Spanish, Portu-
guese, Russian, Arabic, Hindi, Chinese, Japanese, and Esperanto.
Above all we take into consideration voicing, vowels, consonants, and intonation
(including tones). For in-depth analyses, the reader is referred to the companion
volume HPh (A Handbook of Phonetics).
1.1.2. û 1.1 shows the glottis (which is the space between the vocal folds) and
the positions adopted during the phonation types we are interested in. In addition
to normal breathing, we have a complete stoppage (¤ the stop (ö), which techni-
cally can be neither voiced nor voiceless, but has more a‚nities with the latter
type, and will schematically be represented with Ï ), besides voicelessness ((f), Á ) and
voicing ((v), Ë ).
Furthermore, we also find lenis (or lenited] voicelessness and voicing (respective-
ly (É, v), Ù, È ), and mixed phonation (or half-voicing, (Ñ), with three schematic
û 1.1. Phonation types and positions of the glottis.
å. breathing ∫. occlusion ©. voicelessness ∂. voicing

(){} (ö, P) Ï (f, s, ·) Á (v, z, â, m, a) Ë
1 +
2 + +
™. lenis voicelessness Ÿ. lenis voicing
(É, s, h, ), A) Ù +
(v, z, H, ") È
3
ƒ. mixed phonation
(Ñ, Ω, ≈, Ø) {1 Î (pbX ), 2 Í
(bpX b), 3 Û (bpX )}: 1 (|'Êa, ap'Êa)÷
∆. creaky voice 2 (&aÊa'Êa)÷ 3 (aÊ'pa, 'aÊ|) ¤. falsetto
(Ca) Ú (Úma) ∏
2 a handbook of pronunciation
icons, which we will shortly see), where half of the interested phone is voiced,
while the other half is voiceless.
Generally, the çchoiceÇ –between the three of them– depends on context: after
a pause (or silence) or a voiceless C, the first half is still voiceless; whereas the sec-
ond half, which is in contact with voiced phones, is voiced: (Î ), as in German: Bett
/'bEt/ ('ÊEt). Instead, before a pause or a voiceless C, the two halves are exchanged:
(Û ), as in English: Bed /'bEd/ ('b™;fl). On the other hand, within words or phrases/
sentences, between voiced phones, the central part is the voiceless one, whereas the
two margins (each one for a fourth of the total duration) are voiced: (Í ), as in Ne-
apolitan-Italian pronunciation: dato /'dato/ ('dA;√&∂ø). We have added several par-
ticulars in û 1.1, where there are two peculiar phonation types, too: creak (Ú ) and
falsetto: (∏ ), which are useful for Chinese and Hindi respectively.
In § 4.1.7-12 of the HPh, we have explained how to verify and check if çvoiceÇ is
û 1.2. Di‡erent phonation types exemplified by some languages: American “ British English
(with mediatic British variants); Italian (with two regional variants: Naples “ Rome); French;
(Lusitanian) Portuguese; German; (Mandarin) Chinese; Hindi; Japanese.
ÁÙËË ÁÁËË ËËË ËËÛ ÁÙËËË ÙËÛÁËÁ

('pha;Ù) ('spa;Ù) ('ba;Ù) ('b¤;Ê) ('phl™;I) ('h™;fl&S¤p)
pie spy buy bib play headship ({Amer./Brit.} Eng.)
ËÁÁË/ËÏÁË ËËÁÁ/ËËÏÁ ËÏÁÁË ËËÏÁÁ
('πkTå, 'π∏Tå) ('w¤ks, 'w¤∏s) ('Eökça) ('w¤öks)
actor wicks (Brit.) actor wicks (mediatic Brit.)
ÁËËËË ËËËËËËËÁË ËËÁËËÁËËËÁË ÁËËËÈ ËÁÁÁÙ ÁËÁËËÁË

('fa:va) (u˙'gwan:to) (&u˙kan'tan:te) ('sud:H, -d:È) ('Es:th, -tÈ) (sa'pe:te)
fava un guanto un cantante sud est sapete (Ital.)
ËËÁËÁÁËÁÁÁË ËËÙËÁÙËÁÁÙË ËËÈËËÈËËËÈË ÁËÍËËÍË ÁËÈËËÈË
(&ilkap'pOt:to) (&ilk√p'pOt:ùo) (&u˙g√n'dan:de) (s√'Êe;I∂e) (sa'be:de)
il cappotto il cappotto (~å) un cantante (~å) sapete (~å) sapete (®µ) (reg.)
ÁÎË ÁÎË ÁÎË ÁÎË ÁËÁÙ ÁÎËÁÙ ÁËÁÁ ËÛÁÙ

('p¿e) ('p#Å) ('pÎi) ('púÅ) ('p§pa) ('püis)) ('©ÅtX) ('AÓtu)
pied poids puis plat peuple prisme quatre (French) alto (Lus. Port.)
ÁÙËËË ÎËËËË ËËËÁÎËÁ ÏËËËË ÏËÁÎËËÁ ÛËËÁÎËËÁ

('phaen) ('Êaen) ('li:púIÂ) ('öa:b…) ('öap&ÊIlt) ('ÊE‰k&∂ø‰f)
Pein Bein lieblich aber Abbild Bergdorf (Germ.)
ÁÁËË ÁÙËËÁÚÚÚ ÁÁËËËËÁÚÚÚ ÙËË ÎËËÁÁÚÚ ÁÚËÚ

(5p·aÉ) (—phaÉç2ßøøU) (5t·¤,2buç2tUU¥) ('1paÉ) (ÒÊaÉ63q·aË) (63pa3bå)
pai paishœu tingbudœng bái báicài bàba (Chinese)
ÁËËË ÁÙËËË ËËËË ËÈËËË ∏∏∏ ÁÙÁË

('kaan) ('khaan) ('gaan) ('gHaan) (¿Ú'mì™21) (3Âi'Âi)
kaan khaan gaan ghaan mãq? (Hindi) chichi (Japanese)
1. prelude 3
present or not, depending on vocal-fold vibrations during the productions of phones.

û 1.2 shows the various phonation types applied to the 12 HPr languages, only.
1.1.3. As far as vowels are concerned, let us recall that from a phonetic point of
view it is more convenient to use the term vocoids, while reserving the more tradi-
tional terms for phonemes and graphemes, in addition to more general expositions,
as at the beginning of the HPh.
û 1.3-5 will help to çreconstructÇ the typical modalities for the production and
identification of vocoids, or vowel phones, which have three fundamental compo-
nents that – concisely– are: the fronting and raising of the dorsum (or central part
of the tongue), with di‡erent degrees of jaw opening, and di‡erent lip positions,
since lip rounding doubles the number of possible vocoids.
û 1.3. Orograms with the extreme points for vocoid articulations.
i π å u
û 1.4. Vocogram with the extreme points for vocoid articulations (and corresponding labio-
grams).
i u
π å
û 1.5. Vocoid classification (with labiograms of high vocoids).

ba cen ded .
d .
n nd
de nd
ba al ro rou
un u
ro l ro
ce cen d
e
l
ra al
nt nd
nt tra
ck tra
ck tra
ck u
=
nt tr
fro rou
ce -cen
i
ba -cen
±
ba l
-
r
nt
nt
nt
ck
fro
fro
fro
i Û … M [*] Y y % ¯ u high (å) Û˙…˙M

I ¤ ¢ û [ï] è Y T ¨ U lower-high (∫)
≥ ©¬øß™
e Ù È X [Ú] [∏] ° + P o higher-mid (©)
≥ µ¤∂
= +
™ É ‘ x [¢] [π] # ê Ö ø lower-mid (∂) Y˙{%˙¯}

E Ä å √ ∏ [œ] § @ ∏ O higher-low (™)
π Å a A å [ì] π ∏ ù Ø ≥ øπ™~
≠
low (ƒ) y˙{%˙¯}˙u

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
±
Furthermore, û 1.6 will complete our general view, by providing all possible
vocoids, in orograms which contain a miniature vocogram, in order to help to see
û 1.6. Vocoid orograms. unrounded
i Û … M {{*}}
I ¤ ¢ û {{ï}}
e Ù È X {{Ú}}
™ É ‘ x {{¢}}
E Ä å √ ∏
π Å a A å
rounded
Y y % ¯ u
è Y T ¨ U
{{∏}} ° + P o
{{π}} # ê Ö ø
{{œ}} § @ ∏ O
{{ì}} π ∏ ù Ø
1. prelude 5
nuances and di‡erences better.

For vocoids, voicing is the normal type, so much so because voicelessness is con-
sidered to be the marked characteristic. Also the addition of possible nasalization
is considered marked (Ô û 1.7; in § 11.17 of the HPh we explain how to verify and
check exactly how nasalized vocoids are produced).
For the eight vocoids which appear without any grey background, and with
symbols in double brackets, no language has been found that uses them systemat-
ically. û 1.8 shows the various lip positions, by means of labiograms.
û 1.7. Oral (or normal) vocoids and nasalized vocoids.
i a u
i Å u
û 1.8. Labiograms for the di‡erent vocoids.

neutral half- vertically
spread (or normal) -round(ed) rounded round(ed)
i Û … M {{*}} {¨ ˚ W} Y {% ¯} y {% ¯} u
I ¤ ¢ û {{ï}} {Ù : w} è {T ¨} Y {T ¨} U
e Ù È X {{Ú}} {È , „} {{∏}} {+ P} ° {+ P} o
™ É ‘ x {{¢}} {Í Ï ∑} {{π}} {ê Ö} # {ê Ö} ø
E Äå√∏ {É † ,} {{œ}} {@ ∏} § {@ ∏} O
π ÅaAå {Ω Ä a} {{ì}} {∏ ù} π {∏ ù} Ø
1.1.4. Also for consonants we follow a more scientific terminology, which de-
fines the consonantal phones as contoids, while reserving the more traditional
terms for phonemes and graphemes, in addition to more general expositions.
˛e three fundamental components for the production and identification of
contoids are: manners and places of articulation, and phonation types. ˛e latter
are extremely useful for contoids, since –depending on whether voicing is present
or not– they double their number, for distinctive –or phonemic– purposes, as of-
ten happens with (t, d÷ c, G÷ f, v), which then form diphonic pairs, which are dis-
tinguished only by the di‡erent type of phonation.
˛ere are seven fundamental manners of articulation: nasal, stop, stop-strictive,
constrictive, approximant, trill, lateral. Traditionally (in spite of an actual and ob-
jective di‚culty, instead of the clearer articulatory terms that we use), some terms
of auditory origin, such as ça‡ricateÇ for stop-strictive or çfricativeÇ for constrictive,
are still widespread.
Depending on languages, some internal subdivisions are possible, as that be-
tween grooved (constrictive and stopstrictive) contoids, which are marked in com-
parison with the simple –slit– ones, from which they can be distinguished by the
addition of a groove along the longitudinal part of the tongue. For instance, (s, z÷
S, Z÷ q, Q÷ c, G) are grooved articulations.
Another important subdivision applies to trills, such as (r, K), which consist in
two rapid tappings (respectively of the tip of the tongue or of the uvula), and taps,
such as (R, ç), with just one tapping. Also flaps are possible, such as ([, ®), which
produce a rapid contact in passing to a fronter position, as can be seen from the
illustration (û 1.14.3).
û 1.9-15 present, according to the seven manners (with further internal subdivi-
sions), the contoid articulations found in dealing with the 12 languages described
in é 2-13, including the variants indicated. ˛is is why we call them çHPr con-
û 1.9.1. Nasal contoids.
˝ /m
)/m /[ /M
˝
/M /“ /"
/‹
˝
/M /˙ /n £/n
/N /¸ /º /ª
“
˝
/n /n /N /n
/˝ ˝
/~ /√ /N
˝
/∞ /” /˙ /Ñ
/\ /û /m ˝
/,
1. prelude 7
toidsÇ, in order to recall both the completeness of the HPr (in itself), and that these
consonantal articulations are not the only existing ones.
Rather, since there are çonlyÇ 200 in comparison with the 462 given in the HPh,
they are less than half (again, of course, considering them as mere çarticulationsÇ,
since potentially each one may produce a diphonic pair, with two distinct ele-
ments because of the addition of voicing. As a matter of fact, they almost double
the actual number of phones; there are 283 in the HPr, but 772 in the HPh).
/M /∫ /π /«
û 1.9.2. Semi-nasal contoids.

/n
˝
p/b (/{ Q/Á p/b
]/7 ˝
t/d t/d 4/7
˝
T/D B/∫ ˛/Ã T/D
t/d ˝
+/_ ©/á £/8
˝
´/Ò k/g $/¢
˝
û 1.10. Stop contoids. ö
˝
›/
˝ ˝ ˝
p/ ∫/ ‡/ƒ ./…
˝ ˝
k/› %/ ∞/ w/
û 1.11.1.å.
˝
∑/ k/ (∫at) stop-strictive contoids.
û 1.11.1.∫. Grooved stop-strictive contoids.
˝ ˝ ˝
q/Q q/Q ç/Ç fi/"
˝ ˝
C/‚ c/G &/1 C/G
c/g v/∆ ⁄/Á ˝

Â/©
û 1.11.2. (Grooved and flat) stop-semi-strictive contoids.
ú/∂ º/Ÿ ˜/
˝
å/6 f/v 5/ç f/v
w/W ˝
†/∑ Q/z
/D
/ï /ø ˝
Â/J …/
˝
x/Ÿ /) ˝
X/º
¢/Ú
û 1.12.1.å. (∫at) constrictive contoids.

˝
h/ ·
˝
s/z ˝
s/z †/Ã ß/fi
˝
ß/Ω ë/ò ˝
S/Z
∑/
«/» X/5 x/ç ‹/¶
./÷ //\ S/q À/=
û 1.12.1.∫. Grooved constrictive contoids.

˝
¿/B
1. prelude 9
û 1.12.2. (Grooved and flat) semi-constrictive contoids.
ƒ/√ fl/∂ ∂/d À/ö
»/« /, /y /m
û 1.13.1. Approximant contoids.
˝ ˝
F/B /ñ /V /¶
/◊ Ï/ƒ ≈/¸ /⁄
˝ ˝ ˝
â/j /¥ /µ /°
∆/V ˝
W/w ˜/˜ x/‰
+
˝ ˝ ˝
/H h H ∆
û 1.13.2. Semi-approximant contoids.
/b /d /ã /%
/F /Æ /= /j
û 1.13.3. Lateralized approximant contoids.
+ + + +
/S /Ã /¸ /Í
+ +
˝ + + ˝
/> /˛ /< /<
+ ù,§ semilateral approximants

+ +
/‰ ‰ semiapproximant /ù /§
˝ “
/r /5 /5 {/D
û 1.14.1. Trill contoids.

˝
'/K º/˜
˝ “ ˝
/R /R /R /e
û 1.14.2. Tap contoids.

[/ç 3/r
û 1.14.3. ∫ap contoids.
+
Ó/[ r/m {V}/e /®
û 1.15.1. (Bi)lateral contoids (and two semilateral (ù, ))).
+ + + ˝
+
/l /R /Ï a/l
˝
+ + + +
/ı /] /∞ /l
+ + + +
˝
/$ /¯ /L Ñ/¬
+ + + +
˝ ˝
/L /ı /ù /)
û 1.15.2. Unilateral contoids. + +

/ô /÷
û 1.15.3. Lateral tap contoids. + +

˝
/¬ /»
In û 1.9-15, some orograms are marked with an eight-point asterisk; they indi-
cate the few articulations which actually correspond to the canonical or o‚cial
ones. Near those marked with ç“Ç another slightly di‡erent articulation appears,
which however is represented with the same symbol. In these synopses, very pre-
cise symbols are given, in order to satisfactorily couple articulations and symbols,
1. prelude 11
although for some of them more common symbols can then be used (as can be
seen in § 10.2-8 of the HPh]˘
In addition, û 1.16-7, with their labiograms, dorsograms and palatograms, are
the necessary help to distinguish –and observe well– all the nuances, which con-
tribute to di‡erentiate the contoids given there.
û 1.16.1. (Two perspectives of) consonant labiograms.

+
=+
± +
±
m˙p˙b [˙(˙{ M˙f˙v

S˙Z˙c˙G
≠
+
=
≠
±
±
w˙u ë˙ò˙C˙‚ j˙i

«˙»˙&˙1
û 1.16.2. Further consonant labiograms (only front view).
s˙z˙q˙Q t˙d l r
n
¿˙B˙Â˙© N˙Â
R L k˙g˙˙˙x
û 1.16.3. Consonant orograms with di‡erent labial positions.
ë S « ¿/B
û 1.17. Consonant dorsograms and palatograms.

grooved constr. flat consrtict. approximant (appr.) lateral (appr.) unilateral constr. unilat.
s, z÷ ß, Ω÷ S, Z †, ∑÷ Â, J÷ x, Ÿ ¸, j, w l, {L} ô !, ¡
†, ∑ s, z S, Z ‡, ƒ q, Q c, G
T, D l ô !, ¡
û 1.18. Table of the contoids dealt with in the HPr. (@ indicates an çintermediateÇ articulation manner not present here, Ô é 10 of the HPh.]
@
`
&
F >
Ô
Æ
æ
ö >)
‰
Â
˘
ó
ƒ
ã
Ñ M

‹
_
ß
´
`
@
@
@ b { b
F
p ( p
bilabial
m[ mM‹M
b
bilabial rounded
palatalized bilabial
uvularized bilabial
labiodentalized bilabial
> fv 5 ç
]
ƒ
labiodental
V¶
7≥
√
labiodental rounded
S postalveolariz. labiodental r.
palatalized labiodental
f w†
v W ∑
uvularized labiodental
" ˙ n
◊ > ƒ
pro-dental
>‡ƒ
> fl∂
> sz sz
> ∂d
>d 7
q q
dental
Ï
t 4
QQ
d
Ã
l R
denti-alveolar
velarized dental
[5] [5] r
[R] [R] R
uvularized dental
t T
† ß
[Ï] l ≥
d D≥
D z≥
Ã fi≥
> £n N ¸ º ª n
. ≥
ç
alveolar
Ó ≥
r
a
≈≥
∫
¸
ô
¬
[
m≥
alveo–bilabial
labiodentalized alveolar
alveolar semi-rounded
B
∫
semi-paltaliz. alveolar semi-r.
V ≥
velarized alveolar
R
e
÷
5
ù §
ı ∞ l $
]
velarized alveolar rounded
[n] N
uvularized alveolar
> ∂
> "
> Ω
ú
fi
postalveolar
ß
π
Í > ˛
®
Ã
e
postalveolar rounded
»
velarized postalveolar
∑ ë S « X x ‹ . / S À ¿
¯ L
> ö «
>ò Z »5 ç ¶ ÷ \ q = B
[T] [t]
Cc & C cv
[D] [d]
postalveo-palatal (lowered tip)

À »
‚G 1Gg∆
n
postalveo-palatal protruded
postalveo-palatal over-rounded
postalveo-palatal (raised tip)
postalveo-palatal protruded
postalveo-palatal over-rounded
postalveo-prevelar
postalveo-prevelar protruded
postalveo-velar protruded
>Ñ¬
> [ç
> {D
⁄Â ≥
prepalatal
+
Á©
~
_
bilabialized prepalatal
labiodentalized prepalatal
√N∞ ”
> ºŸ
> ›
> âj 3 ¥
>J
>© £ ´
k% ∞
palatal
Â …
n
L
,
ã % F
postpalatal
8
postpalatal rounded
prevelar
¢
Ò
Ú
postalveolariz. prevelar round.

≥
<
provelar
µ ° V w≥
=
provelar rounded
>Ÿ )
velar
w
x
∆W
k
˙ Ñ \m ,
g
ı
ym
velar rounded
≥
j
labiodentalized velar
velar–bilabial
velar–alveolar
uvulo-postalveolariz. velar r.
<
> ˜˜ x‰ H hH ∆
∑k
º ≥
'
›
3≥
uvular
X
K≥
˜
r
pharyngealized uvular
pharyngeal
h·
laryngeal
ö
laryngeal rounded
Æ
æ
@
`
ö

&
F
‰
Â
˘
ó
Ô
ã
Ñ
_
‹
`
ß
´
1. prelude 13
Obviously, the total possible places of articulation are far more numerous than
those needed for our 12 languages. For each of them, in the respective chapter, a
table is given, which contains all the necessary contoids (and definitions) for the
neutral pronunciation of every single language.
However, the table in û 1.18 provides these contoids (except 7 complex coartic-
ulations, which appear among the orogram synopses, though), for a useful overall
comparison.
û 1.19 “ û 1.20 show the mechanisms of three particular types of explosion:
lateral, nasal, and inaudible, respectively for a stop followed by a homorganic lat-
eral or nasal contoid, or else by another di‡erent contoid, with an intermediate
phase, made up of an'articulation with two simultaneous occlusions.
û 1.19.
Lateral (å) “ nasal (å) tl, tÍ, t® (∫) tn, tó
(∫) explosions. ((Tæl, TæÍ, Tæı)) ((Tæn, Tæó))
û 1.20.
Inaudible explosion.
pt ((pæT)) kt ((kæT))
1.1.5. Intonation is the most evasive aspect of languages and (perhaps because
of this) it is generally very badly and superficially dealt with, that is when it is not
completely neglected (which would, sometimes, be preferable – rather than caus-
ing damage, or simply confusing readers).
In this synthesis, û 1.21-3 will help us to present intonation, without useless
–absurd and harmful– complications. In fact, without scaring (but also without
ba·ing or disorienting anyone), û 1.21 very intuitively shows the normal pitch
movements, in neutral British pronunciation, of the four intonemes of English
and the two most frequent preintonemes (of its four).
An intonation group includes a given number of syllables (formed by phones/pho-
nemes – so they are phono-syllables), which are combined in order to constitute
some rhythm groups, made up of the words occurring in a particular utterance.
1
See you on û 1.21.
Satur
day.
Iconic
2 tono-graphic
[Wi ll I]
se e you on d a y?
Sat ur examples.
3
[∑y won't they]
see you on Sat
urday?
4
don't] see you total di
[If I on Sat d ay… [it'll be a sa s
ur te r.]
5 don't] see you worry a
[If I on Sa t urd ay… [don't bout
it.]
˛e most normal and frequent intonation group is composed of two parts: a pre-
intoneme and an intoneme. Obviously, the preintoneme precedes the intoneme,
which concerns the last strong stress of the intonation group. ˛ere are three marked
intonemes: conclusive /./, interrogative /?/, and suspensive /÷/. A fourth unmarked
–continuative /,/– intoneme completes the inventory. ˛e first two, as shown by the
first two examples in û 1.21, are respectively used to state or to ask something. ˛is
kind of question is defined a total question, because the answer –which regards the
whole question, in its totality– must be Yes or No (or Perhaps, I don't know, Â]˘
1.1.6. Our third example is a partial question, because it inquires about why (by
taking the rest for granted, or known) and its answer cannot be simply Yes or No.
˛us, there is only one part of the question, which is the one marked by the inter-
rogative word (such as: when, why, where, what, who, how, Â]˘
As can be seen from the movements in the third example, the intoneme that has
to be used, in partial questions, is not the interrogative one at all (as, however,
schools lead us to believe, with their grammars, and even the recordings of lan-
guage-teaching courses!). On the contrary, the appropriate intoneme is a conclu-
sive one, whereas its preintoneme is actually interrogative indeed.
As a matter of fact, a statement like ∑en you come back again (as an answer to
a question like ∑en will you tell us about it?) is intonationally di‡erent, from the
very start, from ∑en'll you come back again? In fact, even before hearing /®/ (Í) 'll,
which is the only syntactical di‡erence, we can perceive that /'wEn/ (5w™n:) is
already di‡erent in the two examples, because in the question it has a slightly ris-
ing pitch movement (while in the statement it is level), as can be seen from û 1.23.
˛e interrogative preintoneme begins with /¿ / (¿ ), whereas the normal one has
no particular symbol. (Here the space after the isolated symbol helps to identify
the preintoneme; but in actual examples it does not appear at all.)
˛e statement can di‡er also because it may have a slightly weaker stress and
di‡erent pitch: (&w™n) up to (w™n), and to /wÈn/ (wûn) as well (with a clear seg-
mental change). Here are the transcriptions of both sentences (including assimila-
tory coarticulation for /n/ (~) + heterosyllabic /j/, while /-n® j-/ = (-nÍ j-), as a com-
promise): ∑en you come back again (5w™~: j¯&khåm'bπk û'g™n:3 3), (&w™~5j¯;u, w™~-
5j¯;u, wû~5j¯;u), and ∑en'll you come back again? (¿5w™nÍ j¯&khåm'bπk û'g™n:3 3).
(As some readers might have observed, in our inter(dia)phonemic transcription
of English, we use both /l/ and /ı/, although they are not in opposition, (l, ı);
whereas, an intraphonemic kind of transcription would give only /l/, with (l, ı).
Instead, we also have /®/ (®, Í), the latter occurring before /é/ or /j/. Our transcrip-
tion is diaphonemic too, since it also shows di‡erences between American and
British English, as for instance in no /'nOU/ ('n‘;¨)a ('nø;¨)b.)
˛e last two examples illustrate the suspensive intoneme, /÷/, which is used to draw
attention to what one is going to say (or not to say) in a kind of suspense, and the
continuative one, /,/, which instead does not produce this e‡ect, as it simply divides
the utterance (just in order to continue). ˛is is done either to avoid strings which
are too long, or to subdivide them into parts which present semantic cohesion be-
tween the elements of each group, in comparison with those of another group.
1. prelude 15
û 1.22. ˛e four neutral intonemes of British English.
conclusive interrogative suspensive continuative

/./ (2 ' 3 3) >6≥ /?/ (2 ' 2 1) >•≥ /÷/ (2 ' 3 2) >¶≥ /,/ (2 ' 2) §'@
û 1.23. Two neutral preintonemes of British English.

normal interrogative
//()§@ /¿ / (¿ ) §¿ @
1.1.7. We can now carefully see (or see again) the tonograms of the intonemes
and preintonemes given in û 1.22-3. ˛is is also useful to run trials in order to
check how much we approach –or not– what is shown there, depending on our
own spontaneous pronunciation, which may be more or less regional. It is likely
that the major di‡erences exist for the suspensive intoneme, which is the most var-
ied and çimaginativeÇ one.
In é 2-13 we always also give the imperative, /¡ /, and emphatic, /˚ /, preinto-
nemes. ˛ese are respectively used, above all, to give orders, to curse… or to ex-
claim, declare…
Lastly, let us observe that a continuative intoneme can substitute a conclusive
one, when it is needed to attenuate the impact of the latter, in order to be less
abrupt, or nicer, as also happens in partial questions addressed to strangers, such
as ∑at's the time? or ∑at's your name?, or How much does it cost?
For many other things, including paraphonics (which concerns states of mind,
attitudes…), it is necessary to refer the readers to the HPh or MaPI. We simply add
û 1.24, that shows pitch modifications in (low or mid) parentheses and in quota-
tions, that occur in the text of †e North Wind and the Sun, which we have used
for the transcriptions given at the end of each chapter (before possible appendix-
es, as for English and French).
û 1.24. Tonograms of parentheses and quotations.
low parenthesis: (ì œ) /ì œ/ mid parenthesis: (‘ ’) /‘ ’/ quotation: (^ Œ) /^ Œ/
1.1.8. û 1.25 helps us understand the relationship tone languages have with in-
tonation. As a matter of fact, the di‡erent tones (which are the realizations of par-
ticular tonemes, such as those of Chinese, for instance) obviously have their own
peculiar characteristics, as can be seen from û 1.26.
˛erefore, intonation is added to the existing tones, by modifying them in pre-
intonemes, according to what is shown in û 1.25. In the tonograms there, the grey
parts indicate how the preintonemes slightly deform lexical pitches (by delimiting
the available extents). In comparison with an emphatic preintoneme, /˚ /, the nor-
mal one, / /, is more compressed towards the middle part; an interrogative, /¿ /, is
raised, whereas an imperative one, /¡ /, is falling.
Obviously, also in intonemes there are some (even greater, Ô û 13.9 of the HPh)
modifications, which are indicated by the corresponding tonograms, for Chinese
and Japanese (é 11-2; or in the phonosyntheses of the HPh, for the various tone
languages given there).
Naturally, what has been presented here about intonation holds for the lan-
guages treated, with all due di‡erences –at a tonetic level– which are indicated by
possible observations and respective tonograms. ˛ese sections might seem to be
too short, but in actual fact, they provide all that is needed, whenever one ade-
quately knows the tonetic method, which is an integral –and necessary– part of the
phonetic method (within natural phonetics).
˛e tonemic symbols, /¿ ¡ ˚ . ? ÷ ,/, can be applied to all languages, since intona-
tion functions are shared, although their actual tonetic realizations are extremely
di‡erent, as can be seen in the individual tonograms given.
û 1.25. ˛e four preintonemes for tone languages.
/ / ( ) ((” )) /¡ / (¡ ) ((»’ ))
/¿ / (¿ ) ((» )) /˚ /(˚ ) ((ˇ ))
û 1.26. ˛e four basic ton(em)es of (Mandarin) Chinese.
1 /5/ (5) >1≥ 2 /•/ ('1) >Q≥ 3 /¶/ (ç2) >5≥ 4 /6/ (63) >Z≥
Transcriptions
1.2.1. ‹en it comes to analyzing the pronunciation of a language, for learn-

ing or teaching purposes, it is necessary to use two fundamental types of transcrip-
tion: phonetic and phonemic.
Both of them must start from real interlinguistic strategies, rather than from in-
tralinguistic considerations. In fact, an intralinguistic transcription has the sole
aim to be used for just one language and –above all– for native speakers. ˛ere-
fore, it is limited to what is merely phonemic, without concerning comparisons
with other languages.
All this is quite legitimate, though, when no connection with other languages
is felt necessary. In this case, even very generic symbols may be used, provided each
phoneme has a di‡erent symbol from those of all other phonemes.
In theory, it could be su‚cient to transcribe the English diphthongs (Ii, ™I, aÙ,
øÙ, aÖ, ‘¨/ø¨, ¯u/Uu) (here American variants appear after a slash), simply as ç/i:,
e:, ai, oi, au, o: u:/Ç (if not even as ç/ij, ej, aj, oj, aw, ow, uw/Ç). According to this
way of thinking, German (ae, ao, OY) are çrightlyÇ indicated as ç/aj, aw, oj/Ç, or
even Spanish or Italian (ai, au) as ç/aj, aw/Ç.
1. prelude 17
1.2.2. However, it is immediately clear that –dealing with descriptions and teach-
ing– indications such as ç/aj, aw/Ç are rarely faithful and highly misleading, for such
di‡erent realities as English (aÙ, aÖ) (with centralized and non-high second ele-
ments), German (ae, ao) (with peripheral and non-high second elements), and
Spanish or Italian (ai, au) (with peripheral and decidedly high second elements).
Besides, transcribing German (OY) as ç/oj/Ç would mean completely ignoring
(or concealing) the fact that –in neutral pronunciation– also the second element
is rounded (and neither fully high nor front). For English it would be desirable
–once and for all– not to continue to conceal the evident fact that not only are (™I,
‘¨/ø¨) real diphthongs, but that (Ii, ¯u/Uu) are diphthongs too.
Instead, interphonemic transcriptions seek to take into proper consideration
the characteristics of each language, even though within a less rich and less precise
symbol inventory, which is however capable of using the similarities and di‡er-
ences among the various languages in a better way.
˛erefore, we have: English /aE, aO/, German /ae, ao/, Spanish or Italian /ai, au/.
A careful analysis of the vocograms in é 3 “ 5 will surely explain the notational
di‡erence between English and German. To complete the series given above, we
have English /Ii, EI, OE, OU, Uu/, and German /OY/.
1.2.3. ˛e most e‡ective phonetic transcriptions are the taxophonic ones. ˛ey
resort to every useful symbol (among the available ones for the di‡erent phones:
vocoids and contoids) and all the most precise prosodic elements, in order to man-
age to show the necessary nuances. Only in this way is it possible to make real and
valid comparisons between di‡erent pronunciations, either regarding di‡erent lan-
guages or di‡erent areas for the same language. Otherwise, everything becomes
approximate and definitely less useful, since people may think they are working
well, while generally they are simply deceiving themselves.
Even excessive simplifications, to help learners, are not the best solution in or-
der to teach–learn pronunciation really well. For instance, when English phone-
ticians continue to use (È) even in more accurate transcriptions (perhaps with dia-
critics), for all occurrences of /È/ (and perhaps ç/ÈU/Ç too), they miss the opportuni-
ty to show reality, as when to go˚ the man˚ further˚ are rendered as ç(tÈ'gÈU, ∑È'mπn,
'f‘:∑È) (or ('fÈ:∑È))Ç in British pronunciation, instead of actual (Tû'g‘;¨, ∑È'mπ;n,
'f‘;∑å) (as happens to the quite often reported cases of ç(i:, u:)Ç for (Ii, ¯u/Uu)).
1.2.4. ˛erefore, for those who use several languages, but also for those who uti-
lize one foreign language only, the most recommendable phonemic transcriptions
are the interphonemic ones, because they use symbols in a less arbitrary way. In
fact, they do not flatten reality, by only showing what is functional, but compare
di‡erent languages better, by considering similarities and di‡erences as well.
In Japanese, it is certainly better to use /M/ rather than ç/u/Ç, even if there is no
possibility of confusing them, since this language has no /u/. However, the use of
/M/ highlights the di‡erences from other languages which do have /u/.
˛e kind of diaphonemic transcription is important, as well. It generally rests
on an interphonemic basis, although an intraphonemic basis is possible, too (but
with all the imperfections that this inevitably implies).

diaphonemes are fundamental to transcribe partially di‡erent accents of the
same language simultaneously. In fact, by using a sole kind of transcription and
occupying less space, it calls to mind that there are di‡erences and indicates syste-
matic variations (with no need to repeat the same words but only change the sym-
bols of the parts that really di‡er).
In this way, for instance, /Uu, OU/ represent (and trace back to) (¯u, ‘¨) (Br.) and
(Uu, ø¨) (Am.): two /'tUu/ ('Th¯;u, 'ThU;u), go /'gOU/ ('g‘;¨, 'gø;¨).
Equally we have: /π;/ for (A:) (Br.) and for (π) (Am.): last /'lπ;st/ ('lA;sT, 'lπsT); or
/Ø;/ for (Ø) (Br.) and for (O:) (Am.): lost /'lØ;st/ ('lØsT, 'lO;sT); and /ù, ≤/ in /'lEùÈ≤/ for
('l™Tå) (Br.) or for ('l™m≥) (Am.).
1.2.5. ‹atever the phonemic transcription used, to go on to the phonetic one

(and then to an adequate pronunciation) each distinctive element –¤ each pho-
neme– must be considered as one of a given number of fixed points in the phone-
mic space, either vocalic or consonantal, of a certain language.
Each of these points, or elements, is necessarily di‡erent from all the others be-
cause of its function, and is also di‡erent from a çzero occurrenceÇ. For instance,
/π/ is di‡erent from /I/, or from /Ø/, Â, but it is di‡erent from /`/ too. As a mat-
ter of fact, beat /'bIit/ di‡ers from heat /'hIit/, but they are also di‡erent from eat
/'Iit/ (or //'Ìit//, to show the relationship more clearly).
Even the opposite process –¤ the decoding of an oral message– is carried out
according to these principles. Each phone of a given utterance –depending on the
global meaning and the speaker's phonic system as well– must be assigned to an
agreed phoneme (as a realization of it). ˛en this has to be placed into a specific
phonemic space, as already said.
1.2.6. It is important to keep in mind the di‡erence between phonemes, phones,

and sounds. phonemes have a distinctive value within a given language, since it
can change the meaning of words, as for instance: (I can) read /'<Iid/ and (I have)
read /'<Ed/, or hit /'hIt/, hat /'hπt/, hut /'h√t/, hot /'hØt/. As already said, a phoneme
has the function of distinguishing itself from all other phonemes of a given lan-
guage, that is of not being what the others are: it is form.
phones, instead, have an identifying value, in one or more languages, since they
contribute to characterize pronunciation, by using more or less typical and recog-
nizable segments, beyond simple phonemic representations. In a language, or in
an accent, the phoneme /s/ can be articulated as dental, (s) (as in Latin American
Spanish, or in neutral Italian), or as alveolar, (ß) (as in Castilian Spanish, which is
used in central-northern Spain, or in Greek, Danish, ≈nnish, or very often in
northern Italian).
In English and French, /s/ is more often realized as denti-alveolar, ¤ intermedi-
ate between (s) and (ß), which can be represented by (s); but it can be appropriate
to use a (more) specific symbol, (s), to show the di‡erence –at least in the early
stages of learning– in order to demonstrate its actual realization, even though it
can hardly be perceived (all the more so because quite a few native speakers of
1. prelude 19
these languages use the dental type instead). A phone has the function to maintain
consistency between the elements of a given pronunciation: it is substance.
1.2.7. On the other hand, sounds have their value exclusively in transmission,
their function being to enable human communication through sound waves.
˛erefore, a sound is a single emission, in practice unrepeatable even by the same
person. It can oscillate quite a bit, often producing quite di‡erent realizations: it
is matter.
As can be seen in § 2.4 of the HPh, one way to allude to the fact that actual
sounds are always a bit di‡erent would be to represent them with di‡erent fonts:
o, o, o, o…
In conclusion, many di‡erent –yet similar– sounds constitute a single phone.
˛en, in the context of a particular language, several phones, not wholly identical
(but with the alternation governed by fixed and systematic rules, which can and
should be discovered and then explained simply and completely), constitute a pho-
neme. ˛e phones referred to by a given phoneme are called taxophones (or combi-
natory phones, or çallophonesÇ {a more ambiguous and less advisable term, since
it implies modifications not necessarily due to combination, but simply any sort
of di‡erence, for any reason, whether general or random}).
Sometimes, in the course of listening to recorded materials, certain sounds still
need to be disregarded in the process of constructing the phonetic inventory of
that language. ˛is is because it is possible for single speakers to occasionally pro-
duce sounds presenting abnormal deviations, whereas it is essential to consider
mainly what is more typical and frequent.
1.2.8. ˛erefore, actual sounds are practically infinite, and phonetics and pho-
nology would be decidedly complex if it were not possible to rely on the systemat-
icity of phones. In fact, the set of phones is the result of a past classification and
structuring of sounds (abstracting from the unrepeatability of the same sound).
˛is set allows us to reach recognizable types, which can in turn be represented
through precise phonetic symbols, regardless of any particular language.
˛us, what is similar in di‡erent languages and dialects is realized by phones
and their symbols, which make it possible to compare di‡erent languages (an es-
sential point in order to be able to learn and describe those languages).
˛erefore, the phonemic representation of single languages necessarily uses a se-
lection of (phonemic) symbols, with distinctive functions and purposes, even if
–of course– some symbols may be the same but with rather di‡erent phonetic val-
ues.
˛us plain phonemic symbols (generally chosen among the most common, as
the o‚cial IPA ones, ¤ International Phonetic Alphabet, or oƒIPA), do not repre-
sent pronunciation exactly, but rather the relationships between the phonemes of
a given language.
˛ey are useful for the specific purpose of keeping the current writing system
distinct from the phonic level. ˛erefore, phonemic transcriptions make it possi-
ble to avoid interference deriving from not knowing orthographic çrulesÇ, or from
the inconsistency of these rules.

However the exact pronunciation, for purposes of learning and teaching, can
only be shown with the careful, consistent, and systematic (because normalized]
transcriptions of a phonetic alphabet such as canIPA.
1.2.9. In the books which do not completely ignore it, intonation is usually
treated after vowels, consonants, and stress (and other prosodic characteristics,
such as length) – this is due to the greater di‚culties involved in describing intona-
tion. However, intonation should not be ignored, or relegated to the end in teach-
ing˚ since it is inseparable –in actual language– from the other elements.
˛erefore, phonetic transcriptions, in the strict sense of the word, simplify real-
ity a bit by indicating it only partially; in fact, it is as if they indicated –in any
case– a continuative intoneme, as in Italian ('tan:to2), ('tEm:po2), (a˙'ko:Ra2). (˛e
dot at medium height indicates the presence of intonation, even though of an un-
marked type. ˛e symbol (:) denotes length.)
However, in tonetic and phonotonetic transcriptions, the notation (') represents
not only stress but also a mid-range pitch (both in the context of tones and in that
of intonation) – it is thus in contrast with other signs such as (5), (ç), (6), (¶), Â.
˛e examples given –also in the chapters on the 12 languages– are of a phonet-
ic type, with possible durations, but without intonation. For instance, to a French
transcription like (pÅ'ºi) /pa'Ki/ Paris we will have to add an adequate pitch, as if
it were –say– in a conclusive intoneme. ˛us, we ought to have at least (pÅçºi)
(since another slight di‡erence exists, Ô § 4.3.5).
However, the low pitch on (çºi) depends on its occurring in the stressed sylla-
ble of a conclusive intoneme; thus, in actual fact, we ought to transcribe it as (pÅ-
çºi3 3), that gives us intonational information, which has to be added when neces-
sary (as for a conclusive intoneme), provided we already fully know the intonation
characteristics of the language.
1.2.10. ˛erefore, it is certainly useful to have –right at the very beginning of

the study of the pronunciation of a language– at least an idea of the pitch move-
ments of that language. One ought to manage to (re)produce them adequately and
be able to find their tonograms again easily, whenever they are useful (regardless
of laziness and the illusion one does not need them).
However, by indicating pitch in transcriptions of isolated words, for non-tone
languages (which simply means çwithout any ton(em)esÇ, certainly not çwithout
intonationÇ!), people could be led to think that all stressed syllables of French are
low-pitched – whereas the other French intonemes and preintonemes are not so.
˛erefore, in conclusion, a realistic solution to the problem states that, for all
non-tone languages, intonation is marked only in sentences, which are given as ex-
amples of actual utterances. On the contrary, for tone languages (although, again,
intonation is not generally given), it is necessary, instead, to show all the to-
n(em)es, since they are a part of the phonemic system itself, which is distinctive,
not of intonation (although both ton{em}es and intonation rely on pitch).
As a matter of fact, tonemes are real phonemes (not at the segmental –but su-
1. prelude 21
prasegmental– level), as can be seen from the examples associated with û 1.26:
(5ma) /5ma/ ma çmotherÇ, ('1ma) /•ma/ má çhempÇ, (ç2maa) /¶ma/ m∑ çhorseÇ, (63ma)
/6ma/ mà çscold, curseÇ˘ (In é 11, we will see that Mandarin Chinese also has a çze-
roÇ toneme and very important taxotones, too.)
˛e contents of the HPr (“ of the HPh)
1.3.1. ˛e HPr is about applied phonetics, since (as has been said in § 1.1.1) it
gives accurate and fairly extended descriptions of 12 languages (¤ English, Italian,
French, German, Spanish, Portuguese, Russian, Arabic, Hindi, {Mandarin} Chi-
nese, Japanese, and Esperanto) by putting into practice what is explained in the
HPh. We thus include the crucial phonemic component –constituted by function-
al phonetics– which is realized with phonemic transcriptions given together with
phonetic transcriptions, so as to show the relationship between phonemes and
phones˘
Together with these two types of notation, the o‚cial spelling of each language
is provided (or a transliteration in the case of the four Asian languages). Spelling
is given last, so that it will interfere as little as possible with the e‚cacy of the pho-
netic method and the associated transcriptions – thus the reader will come upon
the spelling only after having fixed in mind the phonic structures. As will be seen,
pronunciation variants are also given, and these will be worth studying.
Natural phonetics is an artistic science, and the best way to extend its rich poten-
tial concretely (after the necessary fundamental premises) is through applying its
techniques and knowledge to languages which are in great demand for teach-
ing–learning. In fact, these languages can be taught to others, or they can be self-
-taught (while remembering that, in order to teach adequately, it is necessary to
have learned well first).
˛erefore, it is best to begin the course of phonetic analysis with one's own lan-
guage. ˛e language one speaks is frequently a regional variant, more or less strong-
ly marked. Consequently, it is important to understand how neutral pronuncia-
tion operates and how it di‡ers from one's own pronunciation. ˛is method helps
to build consciousness of one's own speech patterns. ˛ese patterns can then be
compared with those of the neutral pronunciation, which exists in every language
of culture, even though speakers and society rarely have a consistent and precise
idea of what it is.
1.3.2. In every society, at least when there is a written language and literary pro-
duction, a neutral pronunciation exists, which is the pronunciation used by profes-
sionals in public speaking (particularly actors, presenters, and announcers of high
quality). ˛e Danish linguist Otto Jespersen declared that the èbest¶ language is
spoken when the social and regional origin of the speaker are least obvious. Neu-
tral pronunciation brings this çmiracleÇ to pass, sometimes even to the point of
making the identification of social and regional origin completely impossible.
˛e çsupportersÇ of regional pronunciations, who encourage individuals to
maintain their çgenuineÇ pronunciation (even when they carry out çpublicÇ profes-
sions), deceive –themselves as well– because of their lack of success in bettering
their own pronunciation (a task which would have required commitment and per-
sistence).
In other cases, they fail to understand the importance of being able to free them-
selves from a heavy burden (often extremely distasteful to the individual in ques-
tion, at least on an unconscious level), all the while without renouncing their ori-
gins or identity. In fact, regional origins can be exhibited more e‡ectively by alter-
nating between one's dialect and the national language (competently, and above
all by choice). ˛e least preferable approach is to remain prisoners of an uncontrol-
lable hybrid, which is neither the o‚cial language nor a local dialect. In Italy and
the German-speaking countries, dialects di‡er largely not only in terms of pronun-
ciation but also of grammar and vocabulary too; in fact dialect –rigorously speak-
ing– refers (or should refer) to these other di‡erences, while accent predominant-
ly involves di‡erences in pronunciation.
In the other 12 chapters of the HPr, therefore, we will apply the phonetic meth-
od, which consists of a careful and rigorous comparison of the phonemes˚ phones˚
and intonation of the languages described, listening to good audio recordings, us-
ing the two types of transcription (etic and emic), analyzing the phonetic figures,
and showing commitment. ˛e last quality is clearly indispensable: it is not enough
simply to want to know – a sustained e‡ort to learn according to an e‡ective meth-
od is also required.
1.3.3. It is very important to attain greater precision in identifying and repre-

senting the true realizations of each phoneme. ˛is task therefore implies phonet-
ic transcription with the aid of a symbol inventory endowed with a su‚cient num-
ber of taxophones, so as to be able to represent the actual phonetic reality, and not
merely what this reality is assumed to be.
In this way, the çarticulatory basisÇ, ¤ the collective phono-tonetic habits inher-
ent in each language, is implicitly made evident, without the need for specific and
complicated e‡orts (more targeted and burdensome, but –normally– leading to
less satisfactory results). ˛us it will not be necessary to transcribe the partial nasal-
ization each time in cases such as thanking ('†π˙k¤˙) ((('†Õ˙k∏˙))), unless it should
become more noteworthy, in which case it could be transcribed as ('†π˙k¤˙); the
same holds for words like none ('n√n:, 'nån:) {(('nvn:, 'nÄn:))}, if pronounced di‡er-
ently from ('nÚn:, 'nAn:). It will be more than su‚cient to observe, once and for all,
that a light nasalization in such cases is practically inevitable, in contact with fol-
lowing (ö) segments.
In the case of intonation, mechanical instruments are capable of extracting and
measuring single characteristics (through a series of separate processes), but they
end up confusedly mixing up the various components. Expert human perception,
on the other hand, can sift out superfluous elements and concentrate on what is
truly important.
For these reasons, it is impossible to accept without reserves the raw melodic
curves produced by acoustic methods. It is necessary instead to filter them in imi-
1. prelude 23
tation of the process employed by the human ear, which manages to compensate
in an extremely e‡ective way for the many irregularities, whether objective or inci-
dental, which can occur. ˛e results are then standardized in tonograms, by tak-
ing a sort of average of large numbers of utterances.
Observations on phonetic terminology
1.3.4. In the field of terminology, as well, scientific rigor is a great help, while
the vagueness and lack of clarity of certain obsolete traditions with little scientific
foundation is decidedly negative. On every page of the HPr (“ HPh, as well) this
requirement is addressed continually – indeed, everything becomes simpler and
easier to understand when the technical terms are clear and intuitive (even more
so than in normal speech). For example, tonic should refer only to tone –pitch–
and not to stress.
A diphthong should contain only vocalic elements, such as in ('ai), not vocalic
and consonantal elements together, as in ('ja). Were it otherwise, it would follow
that ('la, 'ma, 'sa) would be diphthongs as well – in fact, while (a, i, u) are vocalic
elements, (j, l, m, s, t, r, h) are consonants. ˛us, contrary to the opinion broad-
ly promulgated by grammarians, Italian ('ia) –for instance– is a true diphthong as
well (Ô § 5.2-3 of the HPh).
˛e concept of a phonetic syllable also remains overly subject to the influence
of writing systems and of grammatical and metrical traditions. It is natural that
books on linguistics and dialectology should speak about the phonic side of things
as well, using transcriptions. However, a minimum of rigor would be of great ben-
efit, since otherwise there is the risk of spreading and reinforcing unmitigated er-
rors, which compromise and discourage e‡ective learning.
For example, with the third millennium already here, books are still published
which give the provisory IPA table (of 1993), naturally with the mistakes includ-
ed as well (corrected in 1996), when it would have been a simple matter to down-
load, or refer to, the (currently) definitive table shown on the o‚cial website. Ob-
viously, this would only bring us to the level of the o‚cial position, which is hard-
ly satisfactory; but at least major errors and embarrassingly naive missteps could
be avoided (within the limits of the incompleteness and ingenuousness of the o‚-
cial table)… ˛ere are also those who succeed in producing brilliant achievements
X (¤ the monogram with a sort of çumbrellaÇ on top, in the place of the
like ç/c/Ç
normal /c/, or the possible ç/tXS/Ç).
As we have said in § 8.5 of the HPh, we prefer not to avoid the perfectly gram-
matical use of su‚xal comparative and superlative for front and back, contrary to
mostly non-phonetician common usage.
1.3.5. It must be quite clear that doing phonetics means giving a symbol to a
sound. ˛is task is not so trivial as the man on the street and perhaps acoustic pho-
neticians and theoretical phonologists might imagine. In fact, giving a symbol
to a sound necessarily implies several successive and linked phases, in which hear-
ing, mimicry, kinesthesia, comparison, adjustment, and mnemonic storage are all
activated.
≈rst of all, it is necessary to be capable of su‚ciently perceiving the sound, so
that it can be identified with a precise phone which can adequately represent it.
˛e next step is to be capable of reproducing the sound using the appropriate
phone, which is carried out especially through imitation which is immediate, ¤,
occurring promptly after hearing the sound.
˛e third step, which is indispensable, is to produce the phone using kinesthe-
sia (¤ consciousness of the necessary articulatory and phonatory movements), e-
ven when the auditory stimulus is not close at hand. However, auditory memory
can still be an important guide, whether it is particular, referring to a specific
sound in a given language, or general, involving comparison with similar phones
with the help of experience in listening to and producing the phones of many lan-
guages.
In this manner, it is possible to produce a particular phone even days, months,
or years after having heard it (and to be reasonably sure of producing the correct
phone, even in the case of languages which one has never heard). ˛e secret of
good notation is for it to be realistic, and consequently, truly useful.
As a matter of fact, the fourth point, which is fundamental and decisive, is –as
our çdefinitionÇ suggests– finding a way to symbolize the specific phone by choos-
ing the most appropriate symbol out of several hundred (not just a few dozen) ele-
ments. If, after careful consideration, none of the available symbols is capable of
decently representing a particular phone, it becomes necessary to find its position
with regard to all other known phones. In this way, it will become possible to de-
cide whether it is truly a new phone in need of a new symbol. If a new symbol is
necessary, it can then be designed by following the general criteria of necessity, dis-
tinctness, and availability (as can be seen in the HPh).
1.3.6. ˛erefore, doing phonetics means managing to truly enter the phonic
system of one or more languages, thanks to a rich array of symbols as well. ˛e
symbols of the o‚cial IPA (oƒIPA = an o‡ alphabet! – Ô § 7.4 of the HPh) are not
at all su‚cient, and they create the illusion of successfully doing phonetics, while
all that has been achieved is at most a bit of phonology. Far too often, these stud-
ies proceed without the minimal understanding of what the phonetic structure in
the case in question actually is.
Clearly, it is phonology which is a part of phonetics (Ô § 1.9 and above all §
3.1.3 of the HPh), and not the other way round as some believe. In fact, within
the rubric of phonetic analysis and description, there is a functional component
as well. ˛erefore, functional phonetics (or phonemics) is an indispensable part
of phonetics, but only a part. ˛ere is little which could be done working with
phonology alone, just as there is little which could be done with just acoustics. In-
stead, what is needed is a global vision: articulatory, auditory, functional, descrip-
tive, and contrastive (while verifying various characteristics acoustically).
On this subject, it is interesting to note that the phonotonetic data of the HPh,
and of the HPr, have been compared with a sizable collection of acoustic data from
1. prelude 25
various sources, or at times, with data from a single source furnished by di‡erent
authors. In practice, the correspondence is dramatic, not only with data from a sin-
gle source, but also with data from multiple audio recordings analyzed accurately
and subsequently normalized. ‹en we speak of normalized data, we refer to the
practice of çaveragingÇ the results of multiple speakers and many utterances in var-
ious contexts, while keeping in mind phonological considerations and excluding
inappropriate samples.
˛e çdiscoveriesÇ of sociolinguistics also require normalization; otherwise there
is a significant risk of irremediably creating confusion, even when çscientificÇ da-
ta are used. ˛is fact has been responsibly demonstrated in several recent works.
We will not cite these sources (as çexamples to followÇ), simply because this ought
to be the normal way of doing things, not the çalarmistÇ or çscoopistÇ manner of
far too many publications.
1.3.7. According to this global framework, every phonic system is an autono-

mous and complete organism. It contains phonemes, with their taxophones, as well
as prosodemes, with their particular realizations (concerning duration, stress, tones,
and intonation). To give a simple example, a vocalic element of a language, no mat-
ter how similar to an element of another language, must be considered in relation-
ship only with the other vocalic (and consonantal and prosodic) elements of its
own phonic system, within its own phonemic space (Ô § 1.5 of the HPh]˘
˛erefore, if it is necessary to codify (pronounce, or transcribe), and also to de-
codify (listen, or trans-read), it is essential to constantly refer to only elements from
the system of the language in question. ˛e term trans-read should be taken quite
seriously, since it means çto read a transcription appropriatelyÇ, using the actual
phones (as well as tones and intonation) of the language transcribed. It does not
mean at all çto take a shot at reading a transcriptionÇ, using merely the phones of
one's own personal accent.
1.3.8. ˛erefore, in the pronunciation of a particular language, it is essential to

use only the phones and prosodic elements of that language. Instead, it is almost
a rule that people use the phones of their mother tongue, adding a few phones
from the other language because these are not present in their own language. Of
course, the rough idea is to complete the inventory when things are missing, but
ideally all work should take place within a single system, even with parts contain-
ing elements which are similar in the two languages.
In fact, no matter how similar they may seem, the elements of one language are
never exactly like those of another – due to the relationships with other elements,
if nothing else. For example, the Italian /i/ is similar to the Spanish, or Portuguese
(Brazilian or Lusitanian), or French ones. However, the Spanish /i/ is in opposi-
tion with only four vowel phonemes (/e, a, o, u/), while the Italian or Brazilian /i/
is in opposition with six (/e, E, a, O, o, u/), and the Lusitanian /i/ is in opposition
with eight (/e, E, a, A, O, o, u, e/, which in an exclusively Lusitanian –not diapho-
nemic– system, would be represented by /e, E, a, å, O, o, u, …/, together with /i/, of
course).
At first sight, the Brazilian system could seem exactly the same as the Italian
one, as both have /i, e, E, a, O, o, u/. Instead, the two systems are di‡erent, particu-
larly since in Brazilian Portuguese (and also in Lusitanian, but with additional
di‡erences), even nasalized taxophones are expected ((i, e/™, A, 9/Ú, u), when fol-
lowed by (ö), ¤ a nasal consonant element); without these nasalized phones the
pronunciation would not be genuine (while in Italian it would be a regional one
if with nasalized vowels).
As for French, /i/ is in opposition with fourteen other vowel phonemes (/e, E, a,
O, o, u, y, °, §÷ í, Õ, Ú, ^/ and /ù/, ¤, the traditional ç/È/Ç), including the four na-
salized vowels (/í, Õ, Ú, ^/), which are true phonemes, in French, and not mere
taxophones.
Apart from these considerations, the actual phonetic realizations are not exact-
ly the same, even though we use the same phone (i). ˛e di‡erences can be seen
by comparing the vocograms (or vowel quadrilaterals) of these languages, in é 2-
13. ˛e same is true for the other elements which çcorrespondÇ.
1.3.9. If we now consider German and English, even without going into too
much detail (the details are available, of course, in é 2 “ é 5), it is clear that we
will have to take into account phonemic vowel duration. Instead, in the Romance
languages we have considered, vowel length is –practically– only phonetic (al-
though it varies considerably from language to language; consult the specific chap-
ters, or to see the di‡erences more rapidly, consult the transcriptions at the end of
those chapters).
In German and in English, the ç/i/Ç (çshort iÇ) is considerably more open than
in the Romance languages, giving (I) in German and (¤) in English, respectively.
However, even more pertinent to the present discussion of phonic systems is the
fact that in the Germanic languages, the opposition of duration is relevant (¤,
phonemic, distinctive) as well: German /I, i:/ (Schi‡˚ schief /'SIf, 'Si:f/ ('SIf, 'Si:f)); En-
glish /I, Ii/ (bit˚ beat /'bIt, 'bIit/ ('b¤T, 'bIiT) – as we have observed repeatedly, we pre-
fer a less abstract type of notation than the predominating form, which less use-
fully continues to give ç/i:/Ç, even for English, Â).
‹at emerges quite clearly from this discussion is the sorry state of those gram-
mar texts and language courses which çdescribeÇ the German /I/, or worse still, the
English one, as ça short i, as in French vite, or in Spanish listo, or in Italian fittoÇ.
‹en one considers that many Italian regional pronunciations have a vowel in fit-
to which is not at all short, the absurdity is evident! Of course, the same is true
when one tries to teach the close and short French (or Spanish, or Italian) /i/ (i)
by citing the same old misleading example: machine. Often, silence is golden…
1.3.10. Foreign and regional accents result from pronouncing a national lan-
guage according to the phono-tonetic system of a particular and recognizable area
(— of a particular and recognizable social group), especially in Italy, and in Ger-
man, Spanish, or Portuguese speaking countries. ˛erefore, it is important to be-
gin to carefully examine one's own pronunciation, so as to be in a position to work
towards the goal desired. ˛is task involves learning to analyze one's own sounds,
1. prelude 27
classifying them into precise phones (and transcribing them with adequate sym-
bols), and then seeing how these phones are in turn part of particular phonemes.
At this point, it is indispensable to have a reliable and careful description availa-
ble for the system of the language one is seeking to learn. ˛e necessary compari-
sons can then begin – they should be carried out objectively and systematically.
Obviously, it is imperative to follow an extensive series of specifically directed exer-
cises, followed by careful checks. ˛ese exercises consist of listening to good record-
ings and recording oneself to perform çmercilessÇ examinations of how much pro-
gress has been made – without cheating, otherwise all e‡ort is wasted.
For the pronunciation of Italian, Italians can rely on the seven chapters of the
MaPI treating regional pronunciations for the initial diagnosis of how regional
their pronunciation is. To (attempt to) achieve a neutral Italian pronunciation,
Italians (and foreigners as well) can use the rest of the MaPI (including the two au-
diotapes which come with it), together with the DiPI. ˛ese two çformulaeÇ refer
to two works by the present author (Manuale di pronuncia italiana {çA Handbook
of Italian PronunciationÇ} and Dizionario di pronuncia italiana {çA Dictionary of
Italian PronunciationÇ}, in the bibliography).
1.3.11. In this handbook, we suggest the use of Esperanto (Ô é 13: a planned

and auxiliary international language, which means it is a suitable second language
for all {certainly not the only language, which would be absurd}), in order to ap-
ply the phonetic method. ˛e aim is to manage to produce the sounds and intona-
tion of Esperanto, which are definitely simpler than those of other languages.
(Of course, the comparison holds –even more– for morpho-syntactic and lex-
eme-semantic aspects, as well. In fact, the structural comparison at all levels, be-
tween Esperanto and some studied languages, including one's own national lan-
guage, is very revealing. Above all, it is a good preparation for the serious prob-
lems of interference, by helping one to see them concretely and systematically, not
only as occasional inconvenient troubles. Language teaching ought to acknowl-
edge this opportunity and use it accordingly.)
It is a doubly useful drill, since it requires just a limited commitment, which
should, however, be taken seriously. Besides, it is very unlikely for anyone to have
heard neutral Esperanto before. In fact, even if one happened to hear somebody
speak this language, certainly the pronunciations used must have been individual,
regional, ethnic, or national. ˛erefore, one has to approach neutral Esperanto
pronunciation relying exclusively on the descriptions, figures, and explanations
provided here, in é 13.
˛en the dilemma of self-evaluation can arise: how can people be sure they have
really attained their goal, which means neutral Esperanto pronunciation? ˛is is
also a part of the phonetic method, where mere imitation (with all its problems of
fidelity and authenticity) is not the main aim at all – although, of course, for natur-
al languages, it is always fundamental to have a reliable sound-model to follow. On
the other hand, we know fully well that transcriptions are reliable models too, as
much as recordings (and sometimes even more), provided they are faithful and se-
rious, mainly if they are supplied with intonation, objectively and realistically
marked.
However, the real strength of the phonetic method resides exactly in being a-
ware of what to do in order to attain the (hopefully neutral) pronunciation of a
certain language, or of several languages. ˛is is so because we are not in the posi-
tion of a child any longer, when complete phonotonetic (and phonotonemic, and
also paraphonic) learning was right, including certain regional peculiarities, which
could be happily renounced – but that is the çbiological methodÇ!
≈nally, awareness has this further advantage as well – it allows one to choose
what is thought to be most advisable, between various possibilities.
Guide to the figures
1.4.1. ˛e orograms of the HPr (and HPh) use symbols according to certain con-
ventions, which make the orograms easier to understand (and tell apart). It is
therefore important to become familiar with these conventions, so as to be able to
make the best use possible of the rich iconic framework they provide. It is di‚cult
to understand why some çphoneticsÇ texts contain only a small number of illustra-
tions, or even none at all. It is certainly true, however, that it is better to give no
illustrations at all rather than to provide imprecise (or erroneous) ones. It would
be better still if certain books were not produced at all…
In the vowel orograms (Ô û 1.7), it is of great importance to pay careful atten-
tion to the location of the marker indicating the center of the back of the tongue.
It is even more important to take note of the precise location within the white (or
transparent) miniature vocogram, placed at the center of the oral cavity (with re-
spect to the still more precise location seen in the normal, larger vocograms), and
the shape assumed by the entire back of the tongue. In this way, the various vow-
el orograms can be compared (or just a subset of them, such as those relevant for
a particular language).
All this e‡ort should lead to a real understanding of the vocoid articulations and
of the di‡erent movements of which they are composed, so that an active panora-
ma is produced in the mind, and not simply a passive vision of things. In phonet-
ics, merely passive and memorized knowledge has little use – except to confuse
and discourage people!
Obviously, the true analysis and description of the vocoids of a given language
occur through the use of the large vocograms (vocograms in the strict sense), giv-
en that these diagrams succeed in showing nuances very precisely (as can be seen
in é 2-13, or in the phonosyntheses of é 16-23 of the HPh, as well as in the MaPI
and the various Italian regional pronunciations given therein).
1.4.2. ˛erefore, we will now consider what can be found in vocograms, which
should be observed, analyzed, and scrutinized calmly in all of their particulars. Vo-
cograms are full of details, without which it is impossible to come close to the
çspiritÇ of a language, manifested especially through vocoids, then through pitch,
and finally through contoids. Even a single millimeter makes a notable di‡erence
1. prelude 29
on a vocogram (as well as on an orogram or on a tonogram).

˛is is the çmagicÇ of phonetics. In fact, those who fail to perceive it accuse pho-
netics of being cold, dry, incomprehensible, di‚cult, and useless to boot. Instead,
it is extremely useful, which is fundamental, and fun as well!
Vocograms are subdivided into 30 boxes, where the appropriate markers are
placed according to the shape imparted to the lips. Round markers denote lip
rounding (as in (u, o, O)), and square ones denote normal lips (or spread lips; in
any case unrounded, for example (i, e, E, a)), Ô û 1.4 “ û 1.7-8. It is also true that
the vowel orograms (in the miniature vocogram part) also contain circular or
square markers according to the lip position. However, it is clearly much easier to
see the markers in the (large) vocograms, where it is essential to use them proper-
ly (Ô û 1.27).
It is possible to use the diamond markers as well (squares rotated by 45°: $) to
show lip positions which are half-rounded, halfway between round and normal (as
in (˚), Ô § 8.10 of the HPh), or for perfectly coinciding rounded and unrounded
V (as (…, %), Ô û 1.27).
Besides the shape of the markers, their content and shading are also important.
∑ite markers (where the normal shape is not filled in by any shading) represent
unstressed vocoids, such as English (È), or for example those represented by >o≥ in
the following Italian examples: poiché˚ grido (pøi'ke, 'gri:dø) (or possibly, in cer-
tain languages, half-stressed vocoids, but not fully stressed ones). Solid black mark-
ers represent vocoids which are always stressed, as in yes ('j™s), or in Italian no ('nO).
Naturally, there are also vocoids which can occur stressed or unstressed; for
these, the symbols are black-and-white (¤ black with a white center), as in singing
('s¤˙¤˙) or in neutral British English lover ('låvå), while we have lovers ('låvÈΩ, -‘Ω),
or neutral American English lover ('l√v≥) and lovers ('l√v≥Ω, -≥Ü).
û 1.27. Di‡erent markers for vocoids.
half-rounded (˚), or coincident (…, %)
unrounded: rounded:
unstressed /i, È/ (i, È) unstressed /u/ (¯)
stressed or unstressed /I, √/ (¤, å) stressed or unstressed /U/ (¨)
stressed /E/ (™)
1.4.3. Markers can also be filled with grey in order to indicate variants (contex-
tual ones – the fundamental taxophones, pronounced using special phones; possi-
ble ones, such as those used in regional accents – geophones; or those related to var-
ious social groupings – sociophones). In neutral British English, for instance, there
are quite a few taxophones, especially including those produced when there is a
following (ı) – for example in hut˚ hull /'h√t, 'h√ı/ ('håT, 'h√ı:), or feet˚ feel ('fIiT, 'fi;Iı)
(while feeling has ('fIil¤˙)). It is impossible to continue to ignore such variations in
vocograms and phonetic transcriptions.
A representative example of Italian geophones is given with the varied realiza-
tions of the phoneme /a/ (a), which include: (Å, A, ù, ∏, Ä, å, √). Some of these real-
izations can constitute sociophones, since they are more commonly found in
broader (instead of less broad) regional accents (these details can be found in the
MaPI in both cases). Grey markers can also have white centers in cases where they
refer to vocoids which can occur unstressed as well.
At times, it can be necessary to improvise a di‡erence in the marker or in its
shading in order to represent important realizations which depend upon the posi-
tion in the word with respect to word boundaries, stress, syllable structure, less
common use, or simple occasional variation. In this manner, it becomes possible
to avoid the use of supplementary vocograms. ˛e purpose of these special mark-
ers will be explained clearly, whether in a text placed close to the vocogram, or in
the main treatment. ˛e most common convention is the use of dashed lines, par-
ticularly for unstressed vowels which are represented by ordinary unshaded
(çwhiteÇ) markers.
For examples of these rules in practice, the reader is invited to consult the vo-
cogram of the çinternationalÇ French accent (Ô § 4.4.1), southern French (Ô §
4.4.3), or German (with its various accents: é 5), or Brazilian Portuguese, Russian,
Arabic (Ô é 7-10).
û 1.28. Markers for variants.
unstressed /È/ (û) unstressed /u/ (%)
stressed or unstressed /I, √/ (Ù, √) stressed or unstressed /U/ (P)
stressed /E/ (e, E)
1.4.4. But let us now proceed to the conventions concerning diphthongs

(formed by two tautosyllabic vocoids – ¤, two vocoids contained in a single sylla-
ble, Ô § 5.2-3 of the HPh). Diphthongs are denoted with the appropriate marker
for the starting element, together with an unbroken black line which moves all the
way to the precise location of the second element (Ô û 1.29-31).
If the endpoint is an unrounded vowel, nothing is added; instead, with round-
ed vowels, a minuscule black dot is placed at the end of the line. If the endpoint is
half-rounded, the marker at the end is a diamond÷ this marker is thus analogous
to the normal-sized marker that would be used for a half-rounded first element ($).
Meanwhile, the phonemic and phonetic transcriptions completing the informa-
tion provided are placed around the vocogram.
û 1.29. Diphthongs (occurring stressed and unstressed).
wide (ai) wide, with rounded

2nd element (au)
narrow (a™) narrow, with rounded

2nd element (aø)
monotimbric (aa)
1. prelude 31
1.4.5. Diphthongs are considered wide, when their figure contains a fairly long
line, and narrow, when the line is rather short. Besides these ditimbric (two-tim-
bre) diphthongs, beginning and ending with distinct vocoids, monotimbric (one-
-timbre) diphthongs also exist, with the second element in the same box as the first
element, but at a slightly di‡erent point of that box.
˛is last group consists of quite narrow diphthongs (which therefore are almost
like long vowel phonemes), and often the line is extremely short. Because the dis-
tance is so short, a dashed line can be reduced especially in such cases to a single
short segment, or to the black dot alone for diphthongs with rounded second ele-
ments.
Completing the survey, we come to vowel gemination, or vocoid doubling. ˛ese
cases involve vocoids which are neither short nor monotimbric diphthongs. A giv-
en vocoid is repeated within the same phonetic syllable, but without any move-
ment in the vocogram at all: (aa) (Ô û 1.30).
‹en the first element of a diphthong is the same as that of a monophthong
given together in the vocogram, it is possible to show the monophthong and the
diphthong together by showing the diphthong with a dashed line, instead of an
unbroken one (which would indicate the diphthong alone).
‹en variant diphthongs occur, they are denoted by grey markers together
with unbroken lines (or, in the case of an unstressed variant, the marker will be an
unshaded figure with the edge and line both dashed).
û 1.30. Short and long monophthongs and diphthongs with the same starting point (here, all
stressed).
(short or long) monophthong (short or long) monophthong
and (wide) diphthong (a, a:, ai) and (wide) diphthong with
rounded 2nd element (a, a:, au)
(short or long) monophthong (short or long) monophthong
and (wide) diphthong (a, a:, a™) and (narrow) diphthong with
rounded 2nd element (a, a:, aø)
(short or long) monophthong and monotimbric diphthong (a, a:, aa)
1.4.6. Moreover, according to the direction of their movement, diphthongs can

be classified into three categories: opening (when the second element is lower), clos-
ing (when the second element is higher), and centering (when the endpoint is (È),
or (‘)). In û 1.31 (where all the symbols given are unrounded, for the sake of sim-
plicity), the diphthongs given with thinner lines in the first and third vocograms
((a‘)), or in the second and third ((…È)), could be considered closing, opening, or
centering, depending upon the phonological interpretation and upon what sorts
of similar diphthongs are present (or absent) in that language in other areas of the
vocogram.
For example, if (a‘) comes together with (π™, Øø), or (…È) with (ie, uo), then
(a‘) will be considered closing, and (…È) opening. Analogously, diphthongs whose
second element is not exactly central, including cases with (Ù, É, X, x÷ °, #, P, Ö)
(and (¤, ¢, û÷ Ä, å, √÷ Y, T, ¨÷ §, @, ∏)), could be profitably considered centering,
if structural conditions so indicate.
û 1.31. Di‡erent diphthongs.
closing opening centering
For example, in British English, beers /'bIÈ≤z/ ('b¤;ÈΩ) and bear(s) /'bEÈ≤{z}/
('b™;‘{Ω}) are in the same group as beer /'bIÈ≤/ ('b¤;å), even in accents which present
(éÅ, éa) for /éÈ≤/. ˛erefore, the best decisions are normally made considering
both phonemic and phonetic transcriptions.
1.4.7. In the vowel orograms (and in the vocogram) supplied in û 1.3-4, we give
the most extreme vocogram positions, with the express purpose of showing the
limits of the region of oral space used for vocoids. Instead, the orograms in û 1.6
give positions which are more commonly found in the languages of the world;
these are slightly less peripheral.
In fact, certain trapezoids (or even çvowel trianglesÇ) show all of the symbols
perfectly aligned along the edges, çthreadedÇ along the lines (rather like pearls,
since they are all circular as well), so that they extend outside of the margins. We
find such figures decidedly odd, given that the objective reality of vocograms is
quite di‡erent.
1.4.8. ©th orograms, which are fundamental for consonants, we follow sever-
al conventions, some of which are more intuitive than others. For example, it is
su‚cient to indicate nasals by showing the velum lowered, as in the cases of û
1.9.1-2. Nasalized articulations are indicated in the same way, including vocoids
(û 1.7, on the bottom). ˛ere is also nasal explosion (û 1.19, on the right).
Stops are shown with a raised velum, and as with nasals, there is contact between
two or more articulators (û 1.10).
Constrictive orograms show the articulators close to one another (û 1.12.1-2 “
û 1.32; “ û 1.1, ©, for (·)), together with a useful convention (albeit a bit less ob-
vious and objective) consisting of a horizontal black line, immediately above the
base of the orograms. ˛is line is intended to allude to the constriction – in this
case, the noise of friction produced by the flow of air through the narrowest point
of the articulation. If the line is not continuous, but divided into three segments
(as in the case of (,)), the contoid is semi-constrictive (intermediate between a con-
strictive and an approximant).
In the case of grooved constrictives (Ô û 1.32 “ û 1.12.1.∫ {and § 9.13 of the
HPh}), there is a curved line placed on the tongue blade. ˛is curve is meant to be
a reminder of the longitudinal groove that characterizes these articulations.
˛e curve (like the horizontal line) is segmented in the case of semi-constric-
tives. ˛e same marks naturally occur in the diagrams for stopstrictives as well.
1. prelude 33
û 1.32. Slit and grooved constrictives: (†) and (s).
slit † grooved s
In the case of approximants, there is visibly more space between the articulators,
and the horizontal line (used with constrictives) is omitted. However, there can
be a black arrow, slightly smaller than the one used for laterals, and this arrow sig-
nifies lateral contraction –lateralization– a trait accompanying and characterizing
some of the approximants (û 1.13.3). Semi-approximants have a dotted horizon-
tal line (û 1.13.2).
Trills, taps, and flaps (û 1.14.1-3) are marked with a black dot placed upon the
articulator which is in motion (whether this is the tongue tip, the uvula, or the
lips). Moreover, a dashed outline is added to trill orograms, and two dashed out-
lines to flap orograms (Ô û 1.33). In the same figure, we can see çsequential articu-
latory compositionsÇ as well, which show two rapid tappings for (r), followed by
two çopenÇ positions, with a white background.
For the tap, (R), there is only one contact, for a rapid tapping; whereas, the flap,
([), consists of three quite di‡erent (and quick) phases: firstly, the tip is brought
behind the alveolar ridge; then, while moving forwards, it touches the ridge (and
this is the pertinent articulation); finally, the third phase corresponds to the de-
tachment at every tapping, such as the two white ones in (r).
r = + + + –
û 1.33.
R = + –
Trills, (r),
taps, (R),
and flaps, ([).
[ = + +
Laterals are identifiable with an arrow placed on the most fundamental part of
the articulation. If the arrow is black, the contoid is bilateral (û 1.15.1); if white,
the contoid is unilateral (û 1.15.2). If the contoid is instead a lateral tap, a white
dot is shown (û 1.15.3). (Much more is to be found in the HPh, on other types of
laterals, with di‡erent additions.)
û 1.34.
(Bi)lateral, (l), and + +
unilateral, (ô), articulations. l ô
1.4.9. Stopstrictive orograms have a small black part, which refers to the stop
phase of these contoids. ˛e stop phase (as can be seen in û 1.11.1-2) is homorgan-
ic to the place of articulation of the constrictive phase, which immediately follows
and constitutes the second part of these phones. ˛e result is a unitary (though
compound) phone, since its full duration corresponds to the length of other stops
or constrictives, not to the length of two phones combined in sequence.
Stopstrictives naturally have a horizontal line at the base of the figure. Grooved
stopstrictives have a curved line as well, representing the groove (û 1.11.1.∫). Stop-
-semi-constrictives have a black horizontal line divided into three parts. (Here we
indicate only the stop-strictives which occur in the 12 languages dealt with in this
book. Other languages present further types too, which are dealt with in the HPh.]
1.4.10. Palatograms (û 1.17, two lower rows) are used to show contact with the
palate throughout the course of an articulation. Palatograms are mainly useful for
certain contoids. It would be possible to employ them to add detail to the de-
scription of vocoids, particularly those which are not back. However, vocograms
and orograms are more useful in this case for purposes of description and teach-
ing. ‹en parts of the palatogram are shaded black, this convention signifies full
contact of the articulators (in the stop phase of stopstrictive contoids). Grey shad-
ing indicates instead, naturally, constrictive contact (as in the characteristic con-
strictive phase of stopstrictives). If the palatograms of the constrictives, (†, s, S) are
compared to those of the corresponding stopstrictives, (‡, q, c), this di‡erence
becomes clear immediately. It is useful to observe carefully (in the last part of every
set of diagrams, in û 1.17) the palatograms –and dorsograms– which show the
di‡erence for the voiced alveolar articulation between stop, (D), and (bi)lateral,
(l), in addition to unilateral, (ô), and constrictive, (¡), as well (although these do
not occur in the 12 languages of the HPr).
1.4.11. Dorsograms (as in û 1.17, first row) give a new perspective, which is not
longitudinal but instead transversal. ˛ese figures are particularly helpful to illus-
trate the di‡erence between slit tongue position (the unmarked position, since it
requires fewer phonic features) and grooved tongue position or lateral contraction
(or lateralization) – these are the two marked possibilities, in comparison with the
unmarked position.
‹en arrows are used in labiograms given in profile (as in û 1.5 “ û 1.16), they
indicate the direction of the characteristic movements, as produced by particular
facial muscles. Frontal labiograms require no particular explanations (Ô û 1.8 and
those just mentioned) – the vertical gap, which is steadily larger as the jaw opens,
is fairly intuitive. By carefully observing û 1.16, let us consider attentively the labi-
al di‡erences for (ë, S, «) (keeping in mind what has been said in § 4.2.4 of the HPh,
about lip-position detection). However, we think it useful to call to mind that (S)
is protruded, not simply rounded (Ô û 1.16.1).
Another useful type of diagram is the laryngogram (as in û 1.1), which should
be analyzed attentively. ˛ese laryngograms are naturally optical (as well as being
schematic and frozen in a particular instant), representing what can be seen with
a laryngoscope, or a throat-specialist's mirror. ˛ey are not acoustic laryngograms,
which measure vocal fold vibration.
1. prelude 35
1.4.12. We will now move on to tonograms, which are divided into three juxta-
posed bands, of high, mid, and low pitch (where the levels are not absolute, but
relative to the voice of each particular speaker). Both in preintonemes and in into-
nemes (Ô § 1.1.5-8 “ û 1.21-3 {and, in the HPh˚ § 6.4.5.1-4 “ § 13.8-34}), as in
tones as well (Ô û 1.26 {and, in the HPh again˚ § 6.4.4 “ § 12.17-18}), lines (or
dashes) placed at di‡erent heights and with various slopes represent stressed pho-
no-syllables. Dots, on the other hand, represent unstressed syllables, while shorter
lines/dashes represent half-stressed syllables (with secondary stress, but with pitch
indicated by the position in the tonogram).
In phonotonetic transcriptions, secondary stress is indicated by two dots placed
close together (smaller than a single dot), variously oriented according to the to-
netic necessities. Secondary stress on a medium level pitch is denoted with (&) in
order not to create confusion with the hyphen we use to show syllable boundaries.
˛is use is consistent with marking primary stress with ('). çUnstressedÇ phono-syl-
lables (or better, weakly-stressed – ¤, weaker than half-stressed syllables) with mid
level pitch are not marked in any particular way. On the other hand, in tone lan-
guages, syllables with mid pitch and weak stress are preceded by a dot placed at
medium height, (2).
Guide to di‡erent types of transcriptions
1.5.1. In the HPr, there is no doubt that a great number of symbols is used.
However, these symbols are not superfluous for those who desire to do phonetics
thoroughly (and not merely çeasilyÇ, and inevitably superficially). A small num-
ber of symbols ineluctably leads to mediocrity, whereas a large number of symbols
opens the way towards the true understanding and çsavoringÇ of pronunciation.
Even if study has been methodical, concentrated, and accompanied by careful
exercises, it will remain occasionally necessary to check the value, the nature, and
the connections of certain symbols (and concepts as well) which are less frequent.
˛e best way to do so is to look for explanations in the right place, or places. In
fact, the necessary answers, verifications, and connections, as well as new perspec-
tives, can be found in the general index (contents) and in the analytical index (in-
dex), by flipping through the chapters and the sections, and by paying attention
to the tables, the lists of symbols, and the groups of figures.
˛e major categories are, of course, vowels, consonants, intonation, other prosod-
ic traits (stress, pitch, duration/length), and paraphonics.
It would be complicated –and probably useless– to try to re-explain these mat-
ters in a general synthesis (probably too compressed and complex). ˛erefore we
will merely suggest following the directions given here, emphasizing only the
meaning of the di‡erent çparenthesesÇ used to enclose the symbols.
Slashes –/ /– always denote phonemes, on a theoretical and abstract level; in-
stead, brackets –( )– are used exclusively for phones (and taxophones) – ¤, the
practical and concrete side of things, which nonetheless naturally comprise essen-
tial generalizations and normalizations, without which it would be necessary to
speak only of single, unrepeatable realizations of particular individuals. For ex-

ample, play /'plaE/ ('phla;Ù).
1.5.2. Doubling the çparenthesesÇ indicates a further accentuation of their

primitive values. ˛us, double slashes –// //– refer to a still more abstract or theo-
retical level of phonological characteristics, such as what we have with German
wiederhaben //'vi:dÈKha:bÈn//, with respect to the ordinary phonemic or phonetic
transcription /'vi:dÚha:bó/ ('vi:d…&ha;bõ). Double brackets –(( ))– indicate instead
more exact symbols, in cases where showing extremely precise nuances is desired.
An example of the use of double brackets could occur when showing the articula-
tion with a high tongue tip, ((s, x)) (where these symbols need to be drawn careful-
ly so they can be clearly distinguished from (†, S)), instead of the articulation with
a low tongue tip, (s, S), which is considered more normal.
Another case is given by partial (or even substantial) nasalization, as indicated
above (§ 1.3.3): thanking ('†π˙k¤˙) ((('†Õ˙k∏˙))). ˛e o‚cial IPA has no way to
show light automatic nasalization, and in fact, it arbitrarily and misleadingly em-
ploys our symbol ç(Õ)Ç for a particular type of phonation, creaky voice (for which
we use (π)).
≈nally, when angle brackets –> ≥– enclose symbols or diacritics (such as §õ@), these
refer to paraphonic elements. Instead, when they enclose orthographic symbols
(such as >a≥), they refer to graphemic elements.
Symbols not enclosed in brackets or slashes represent phones in treatments of
general phonetics, as in the orograms shown up to now.
Instead, in the consonant tables in é 2-13 (and in the phonosyntheses, in é 16-
23 of the HPh]˚ the symbols not enclosed in slashes represent phonemes, even
though they are represented by fairly specific symbols (this is to avoid sacrificing
precision, but without making the visual e‡ect too intimidating – in fact, here the
symbols represent phones as well]˘
In the phonemic transcriptions accompanying the phonetic transcriptions, it is
also possible to use more generic symbols to indicate phonemes. We have followed
this approach in é 2-13, where we have also indicated the corresponding results
and presented them in easy reference form in the consonant tables.
Transcribing by hand
1.5.3. ≈nally, several fundamental observations should be made on the topic

of transcriptions carried out by hand. It is important to draw every symbol (and
every diacritical marking) exactly as it is printed in this manual (where we employ
the elegant Simoncini Garamond character set, in our personal version called
ßimon¸ani). It is necessary to be very careful not to confuse one symbol with an-
other one which is similar to it, but –obviously– not exactly the same and with a
di‡erent value.
To start out, transcriptions should not be carried out in cursive (or in italics). In
fact, contrary to habits in normal handwriting, the symbols should not be connected
1. prelude 37
to each other, but should instead be kept separate, as in print. Moreover, symbols
should not be simplified, changing n into u, or m into æ; or l into æ or a. Dots
should not be omitted, and so ª should not be written in place of i, nor ñ for j.
çStylisticÇ additions and modifications should be avoided. ˛us, d must remain
di‡erent from ∂ and from ´, just as ä is di‡erent from the grapheme g, and h from
Ü. ˛e same goes for cases like z, which should be kept distinct from both Z and Ë.
Moreover, (L, r, R, Ÿ) are, by the same token, quite distinct from (ô/H, ¸, [, y), Â.
Naturally, small capitals should be avoided as well, since the symbols (Å, ∫, ™, I, G,
ì, ,, Ì, K) are di‡erent from (a/A, b, e/E, i/¤, g, l, n, p, r).
In conclusion, it is necessary to set aside every normal writing habit which could
lead to confusion between the symbols. ˛e best strategy to reach this essential
goal is to begin observing every symbol with great care. A çtypographic eyeÇ should
be developed which pays attention to every detail, from the size and orientation
of a stroke ((t, T, ˛, †), (B, 6)), or of a symbol ((e, Ù, È), (K, º, ˜, ‰), (A, Ø÷ a, å), (™,
É÷ E, ‘), (X, x÷ v, √÷ ©, O), (r, <, ¸), (h, H, ¥), (f, á÷ j, 3÷ J, ,÷ ã, ª)), to the presence or ab-
sence of a sort of serif, or the type of serif present: (i, I, ¤÷ u, ¯, U÷ o, ø, Ö).
In working towards this objective, the observations in é 8-9 of the HPh will
help the reader to look at, not just see, the symbols found throughout the text. In
this way, it will prove easier to çacceptÇ the fact that (g) always has the value pres-
ent in the word get /'gEt/, and not the value in gem /'GEm/ (while gif –or ç.gifÇ–
can be pronounced either /'gIf/ or /'GIf/), Â.
Generic symbols (for phonetic categories)
1.5.4. It might prove useful, sooner or later, to have symbols available which
do not directly represent particular segments, but rather whole phonic categories.
For this task, phonetic and phonological formulae can be used, and the resulting
symbols can be employed, for example, on the edges of vocograms or tables. We
therefore provide a list of appropriate symbols of this type.
û 1.35 gives a schematic presentation of the seven fundamental manners of ar-
ticulation, for contoids. Also given are useful groupings and subdivisions, includ-
ing the distinction between obstruents and sonants (however, the mixed manners
of articulation, typical of approximants, and even more of trills and laterals, are
not included).
˛e category of obstruent contoids includes stops (but not nasals, even though
these could technically be considered stops with added nasalization), stopstrictives,
constrictives (including constrictive trills and constrictive laterals), and approxi-
mants (only the peripheral ones). ˛e sonants comprise, on the other hand, cen-
tral or lateralized approximants, besides nasals and trills (together with taps and
flaps), and laterals (including unilaterals and tapped laterals).
In various languages, for any manner of articulation except trills (and taps and
flaps), phonetically semi-… articulations are possible (¤ less tense – with no full
contact, also for nasals, stops, stopstrictives and laterals).
û 1.35. Groupings of the fundamental manners of articulation.

0
F ! ò ß ó ‹ ö
` Ô ƒ _ ¡ ∑ µ
ô ù
é vocoid/vowel Œ semilateral C
é reduced V (in duration; = ä) µ lateral — trill/tap C
ä shortened V ¯ intense (çsyllabicÇ) lateral — trill/tap C
– nasalized V @ voiceless lateral — trill/tap C
´ devoiced V ö nasal C
V voiced lenis V M intense (çsyllabicÇ) nasal C
‚ voiceless lenis V ° voiceless nasal C
◊ half-nasalized V ù sonant (or sonorant) C
≠ rounded V % intense (çsyllabicÇ) sonant C
Ÿ unrounded V # voiceless sonant C
5 advanced V ó trill (or trill “ tap) C
Ì retracted V § voiceless trill (or trill “ tap) C
† lowered V ˘ constrictive trill C
Ï raised V Â tap C
é normal V – or under other conventions ≈ lateralized tap C
ü creaky V (or laryngealized) ‰ flap C
0 contoid/consonant „ lateralized flap C
0 reduced C (in duration; = ¸) ∑ median approximant C
¸ shortened C ß approximant C
ô glottalized voiceless C, with simultaneous ´ semi-approximant C
(ö) ã lateralized approximant C
— intense (çsyllabicÇ) C J lateralized semiapproximant C
Ò devoiced C ¡ peripheral approximant C
Â voiceless lenis C – or under other conven- ô obstruent C (F, !, ò), in diphonic pairs
tions, especially diaphonemic ‡ laryngeal approximant C
C voiced lenis C â laryngeal constrictive C
= voiceless C F stop C
Ê voiced C K semi-stop C
± rounded C ƒ (slit) constrictive C
Ü unrounded C  (slit) semi-constrictive C
J palatalized C _ grooved constrictive C
ˆ velarized/uvularized C ` grooved semi-constrictive C
ó advanced C ò (generic) constrictive C
ô retracted C ∞ (generic) semi-constrictive C
ú tenser/closer C ` (slit) stop-strictive C
õ less tense/close C @ (slit) stop-semi-strictive C
ó voiced creaky/laryngealized C ¤ (slit) semi-stop-strictive C
‹ lateral C Ô grooved stop-strictive C
ü constrictive lateral C & grooved stop-semi-strictive C
û voiceless lateral C I grooved semi-stop-strictive C
æ lateral tap C ! (generic) stop-strictive C
Æ unilateral C Ì (generic) stop-semi-constrictive C
1. prelude 39
î (generic) semi-stop-strictive C | pause

˜ lateral stop-strictive C \ potential pause
º trill(ed)/tap(ped) stop-strictive C || longer pause
* lexeme ì œ (low) parenthesis
$ grammeme ‘ ’ (mid) parenthesis
O rhythm group ^ Œ quotation
o reduced rhythm group . emic conclusive intoneme
à phono-syllable ? emic interrogative intoneme
i reduced phono-syllable ÷ emic suspensive intoneme
à çlightÇ syllable , emic continuative intoneme
9 çheavyÇ syllable normal preintoneme (no sign)
` çzeroÇ phone/phoneme ¿ interrogative preintoneme
0 indicates proximity to é – 00, 000, 00 ¡ imperative preintoneme
Ò indicates proximity to 0 – Òé, ÒéÒ, éÒ ˚ emphatic preintoneme
0$ C with audible explosion & supplementary interrogative preintoneme
0æ C with inaudible explosion (in French)
05 = /=/ – /=h/, (=) – (=h) 5 (Ì ' Ç ç) tone with strong stress, Ô § 12.17 of
0Ì = /Ê/ – /Êh/, (Ê) – (ÊH) the HPh
0« ejective C — (& –) tone with mid stress, Ô § 12.17 of the
‘0 injective/implosive C HPh
60 dejective/click C 1 (2 3) tone with weak stress, Ô § 12.17 of the
ê0 prenalized dejective C HPh
è0 prenasalized C 8 ( " ∞ £) tone with extrastrong stress, Ô §
'é stressed V (with strong/primary stress) 12.17 of the HPh
&é half-stressed V (with mid/medium/secon- 9 (6 0 à è é) falling tone, Ô § 12.18 of the HPh
dary/half-strong stress) Ô (• Ò ` ¶ ´) rising tone, Ô § 12.18 of the HPh
’é unstressed V (with weak stress) ù Japanese akusento (distinctive pitch lower-
»é destressed V (with reduced stress, up to ing, Ô § 12.3.2.1-4)
weak; starting from 'é) # (@ § ° í ï ÷ /) shift diacritic, Ô § 8.11, 9.5 of
"é over-stressed V (with extrastrong stress) the HPh
é: long V § @ paraphonic element (Ô § 14.3-5 of the
é; half-long V HPh) – or grapheme
éà less than long V ( ) phonetic transcrition
éò less than half-long V / / phonemic transcrition
é| utterance-final V (( )) hyperphonetic transcrition
|é after a pausa or silence V // // hyperphonemic transcrition
éò word-final V ( ) symbol/phon(em)e which can fall (or be
òé word-initial V lacking)
é˘ syllable-final V (( )) potential symbol/phon(em)e, which can
-é- within a word, word-internal V be used, as in û 1.7-8.
˛e o‚cial IPA chart
1.6. For informative purposes– we also show the o‚cial IPA chart (û 1.36). It
highlights mostly its defects and global deficiencies, however.
˛e first section gives the o‚cial pulmonic consonants, which are 58 (with a
minor addition of ten çother symbolsÇ). ˛e second small section shows five dejec-
û 1.36. O‚cial IPA Chart (1996).

¤~†™®~å†¤ø~å¬ π∆ø~™†¤© å¬π∆å∫™†
(o‚cial, revised 1993 and corrected in 1996)
©ø~ßø~å~† (π¨¬µø~¤©) (˝)
Bilabial Labiodent. Dental Alveolar Postalveol. Retroflex Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyng. Glottal
Plosive p b t d ˛ Ã © ˝ k g › G ö
Nasal m M n N N ˙ ,
Trill ∫ r K
Tap or ∫ap R #
Fricative F B f v † ∑ s z S Z ß Ω Â ˝ x ‚ X º h ˚ h H
Lateral fric. ! ú
Approxim. V < > j µ
Lateral app. l $ L ì
‹ere symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right is voiced. Shaded areas denote articulations judged impossible.
©ø~ßø~å~†ß (~ø~-π¨¬µø~¤©)
ø$™® ß¥µ∫ø¬ß ¿ Voiceless alveolo-palatal fric.
Clicks Voiced implosives Ejectives ' Voiceless labial-velar fric. B Voiced alveolo-palatal fric.
Ö Bilabial ñ Bilabial « as in: w Voiced labial-velar app. ï Alveolar lateral flap
| Dental Ã Dental/alveol. p« Bilabial ¥ Voiced labial-palatal app. À Simultaneous S and x
! (Post)alveolar á Palatal t« Dental/alveol. … Voiceless epiglottal fric.
Ï A‡ricates and double articulat.
õ Palatoalveolar Ÿ Velar k« Velar H Voiced epiglottal fric. can be represented by two sym-
~ Alveol. lateral ä Uvular s« Alveol. fricat. ¿ Epiglottal plosive ˜ bols joined by a tie bar if necess.
√ø∑™¬ß †ø~™ß “ ∑ø®∂ å©©™~†ß

Front Central Back ¬™√™¬ ©ø~†ø¨®
Close i y … % M u »1
Ò or >1 Extra-high £ or Rising
I Y U ´ ≥1 High 8 «1 Falling
Close-mid e ° Ù + ‰ o 0 ˇ1 Mid 3 21 High rising
È ` ≤1 Low ’ "1 Low falling
Open-mid E § ‘ ê √ O Ô <1 Extra-low à 4[1 Rising-falling
π å
Open a π A Ø ± Downstep (relative) ± Global rise
‹ere symbols appear in pairs, the one
≠ Upstep (relative) ≠ Global fall
to the right (and U) is rounded.
∂¤å©®¤†¤©ß (Diacritics can be placed above a symbol with a descender, ™ ô) ß¨π®åß™Ÿµ™~†å¬ß

= Voiceless ∂ ¨ ) Breathy voiced b " Y Dental U P ' Primary stress
î Voiced ÿ ‹ § Creaky voiced ë Ä Î Apical Û ∏ & Secondary stress:
5 Aspirated t5 d5 y Linguolabial u p ¥ Laminal ¨ π &foUnÈ'tISÈn
g More rounded Æ o „ Labialized t„ d„ ° Nasalized e Ú : Long a:
G Less rounded æ O J Palatalized tJ dJ ô Nasal release dô ; Half-long a;
Ω Advanced % — tˆ dˆ z Extra-short q
ˆ Velarized ó Lateral release dó
! Retaracted m ù / Pharyngealized t/ d/ æ No audibile rel. dæ . Syllable break:
7 Centralized ë ö Velarized or pharyngealized ı t <i.πkt
°
Z Mid-centralized ¬ • F Raised l (∑ = voiced labial-velar fricative) Ó Minor (foot) group
c Syllabic ó ≥ f Lowered L (≈ = voiceless velar approximant) Ó Major (intonation) gr.
W Non-syllabic k ¶ ƒ Advanced Tongue Root ¯ ¤
È& A& ‡ Retracted Tongue Root µ Ù
Ñ Linking (absence of a
& Rhotacized break)
1. prelude 41
tives (or clicks), five injectives (or implosives, including the theoretical uvular
one), and four examples of ejectives.
˛en the o‚cial quadrilateral follows, which tries to explain the vowels, which
are 28, in twelve pairs (for lip-position – spread or rounded), plus four isolated ele-
ments. ˛e collocation of (È, Ù, π) is highly unhappy.
˛e paltry section on tone and stress is misleading and leads one to think it is
not limited to some examples. ˛en suprasegmental signs are shown.
Lastly, we find the section on diacritics, which are thus necessary to avoid the
risk of being utterly vague and ambiguous. In fact, since only very few segmental
symbols are available, one must use some o‚cial diacritics (even two or three for
one symbol), which can be of some use when trying to hint at some important ar-
ticulatory di‡erences.
Unfortunately, this partial solution also betrays one of the fundamental princi-
ples, which used to di‡erentiate IPA from all other phonetic alphabets, precisely
for its outright refusal to use diacritical signs, simply to indicate articulatory char-
acteristics. Instead, now several diacritics are put above or under a generic sym-
bol, or after it as a superscript tiny character.
˛e chart provides nothing at all to show intonation. Even the ToBI system
(which someone seems to consider the intonation component of o‚cial IPA] is
very far from being really useful, since it fails to separate intonation both from ran-
domness and paraphonics.
˛e CANIPA in the HPr “ their correspondent O‡IPA symbols
1.7. For all the articulations given in the HPr (with their unitary symbols), we
thought it useful to add the corresponding oƒIPA çtranscriptionsÇ (given within
ç Ç), in order to show their çcompositionÇ (almost as in chemical or algebraic for-
mulae).
˛is will be useful both to understand the combinations of the few basic sym-
bols with so many diacritics (even if we did not use all those which could have
been necessary for absolute precision, although oƒIPA followers usually omit them
in their approximate and vague transcriptions), and to highlight that it is unthink-
able to do çdiacritical transcriptionsÇ, as all other çphonetic alphabetsÇ do. One of
the fundamental criteria of the original IPA, in fact, was to avoid articulatory dia-
critics.
˛e cases where these two IPA systems coincide are indicated with (=); whereas
a partial correspondence is marked with (=); the di‡erences, without diacritics,
with (–).
Let us recall that it is paramount to carefully observe the orograms, to constant-
ly compare them, and to find similarities also between symbols, by starting from
the o‚cial ones, from which the others have been derived (although with useful
modifications and some necessary substitutions). As we have already said, our firm
intention is to avoid articulatory diacritics and prefer unitary symbols, instead.
˛is is also done to avoid that there may be second- or third-class symbols (and
thus second- or third-class phones, as well), because they are accompanied by dia-
critics (which are not easy to combine accurately).
Vocoids (∏) ç(°)Ç (–)

(π) ç(°f ) or (§F )Ç
Spread/unrounded (œ) ç(§)Ç (–)
(i) ç(i)Ç (=) (ì) ç(π)Ç (–)
(I) ç(I)Ç (=) (y) ç(y7 ) or (y. )Ç
(e) ç(e)Ç (=) (Y) ç(Y7 ) or (Y& )Ç
(™) ç(ef ) or (EF )Ç (°) ç(°7 ) or (°& )Ç
(E) ç(E)Ç (=) (#) ç(§Z ) or (§7F ) or (°Z ) or (°7f )Ç
(π) ç(a)Ç (–) (§) ç(§7 ) or (§& )Ç
(π) ç(π7 ) or (π& )Ç
(Û) ç(i&) or (i]) or (…Ω)Ç
(¤) ç(I&) or (I7)Ç (%) ç(%)Ç (=)
(Ù) ç(e& ) or (ÙΩ ) or (e7 )Ç (T) ç(%f ) or (+F )Ç
(É) ç(EZ ) or (eZ )Ç (+) ç(+)Ç (=)
(Ä) ç(aZ ) or (E7 ) or (E& )Ç (ê) ç(ê)Ç (=)
(Å) ç(a7 ) or (a& )Ç (@) ç(êf )Ç (–)
(∏) ç(π7& )Ç (–)
(…) ç(…)Ç (=)
(¢) ç(…f) or (ÈHF )Ç (¯) ç(u7 ) or (uΩ )Ç
(È) ç(È) or (ÈF )Ç (¨) ç(U7 ) or (UΩ )Ç
(‘) ç(‘)Ç (=) (P) ç(o7 ) or (oΩ )Ç
(å) ç(å)Ç (=) (Ö) ç(OZ ) or (OFË ) or (oZ ) or (oËf )Ç
(a) ç(a7& ) or (åf )Ç (∏) ç(O7 ) or (OΩ )Ç
(ù) ç(Ø7 ) or (ØΩ )Ç
(M) ç(M 7 ) or (M Ω )Ç
(û) ç(M Z ) or (M Ëf ) or (M
7f ) or (‰7F )Ç (u) ç(u)Ç (=)
(X) ç(‰Ω) or (‰7)Ç (U) ç(U)Ç (=)
(x) ç(√Z ) or (√7F ) or (‰Z) or (‰7f )Ç (o) ç(o)Ç (=)
(√) ç(√Ω) or (√7 )Ç (ø) ç(OF ) or (of )Ç
(A) ç(AΩ ) or (A7 )Ç (O) ç(O)Ç (=)
(Ø) ç(Ø)Ç (=)
(*) ç(M)Ç (–)
(ï) ç(Mf ) or (‰f)Ç Semi-rounded
(Ú) ç(‰)Ç (–)
(¢) ç(‰f) or (√F )Ç (¨) ç(ig ) or (yG)Ç
(∏) ç(√)Ç (–) (˚) ç(…g ) or (%G )Ç
(å) ç(A)Ç (–) (W) ç(M Ëg ) or (uËG )Ç
(Ù) ç(Ig ) or (YG )Ç
Rounded (:) ç(I.g ) or (Y.G )Ç
(Y) ç(y)Ç (–) (w) ç(M hg ) or (UËG )Ç
(è) ç(Y)Ç (–) (È) ç(eg ) or (°G )Ç
1. prelude 43
(,) ç(e.g ) or (ÙËg ) or (e7g )Ç (/, \) ç(˙Xm)Ç

(„) ç(‰Ëg) or (oËG )Ç ((/, Ñ)) ç(˙√)Ç
(/, m) ç(˙XnÎ )Ç
(Í) ç(ehg ) or (EHg )Ç
(/, ,) ç(,)Ç (=)
(Ï) ç(‘g ) or (êG )Ç
(∑) ç(√Zg ), (√7g@ ), (OZG ) or (O7@G )Ç…
Semi-nasal
(É) ç(Eg ) or (§G )Ç
((/, M)) ç(m f )Ç
(†) ç(aZg ) or (§ .G )Ç
((/, ∫)) ç(nÎh )Ç
(,) ç(√Ëg ) or (√g7 ) or (OËG ) or (O7G )Ç
((/, π)) ç(Nh )Ç
(Ω) ç(aHg ) or (πHG )Ç ((/, n)) ç(Nh )Ç
(Ä) ç(a:7g ) or (åhg ) or (π7:G )Ç ((/, «)) ç(ḣΩ )Ç
(a) ç(AËg ) or (A7g ) or (ØËG ) or (Ø7G )Ç
Stop
(p, b) ç(p, b)Ç (=)
Contoids ((, {) ç(p„, b„)Ç
(p, b) ç(pJ, bJ)Ç
Nasal
((], 7)) ç(p√, b√)Ç
({)}, m) ç(m= , m)Ç (–, =) (t, d) ç(tY , dY )Ç
(/, [) ç(m„)Ç (t, d) ç(tˆ!, dˆ!)Ç
(/, m) ç(mJ)Ç ((4, 7)) ç(t:Y , d:Y )Ç
(/, M) ç(mˆ„)Ç (T, D) ç(tÎ, dÎ )Ç
((/, ‹)) ç(M√)Ç (˛, Ã) ç(˛, Ã)Ç (=)
(/, M) ç(M)Ç (=) ((T, D)) ç(t:¥ J, d:¥ J)Ç
(/, “) ç(MJ)Ç ((t, d)) ç(t:¥ J„, d:¥ J„)Ç
(/, ") ç(Mˆ)Ç (+, _) ç(t¥J, d¥ J)Ç
((/, ˙)) ç(nY ) or (nΩ )Ç (©, á) ç(©, á)Ç (=)
((/, n)) ç(n& )Ç ((£, 8)) ç(©& , .á)Ç
(/, N) ç(nÎ „)Ç or ç(nÎXm)Ç ((´, Ò)) ç(kΩ , gË )Ç
((/, º)) ç(nÎ „)Ç (k, g) ç(k, g)Ç (=)
((/, ª)) ç(nÎ fJ „)Ç (›, /) ç(›)Ç (=)
({£}, n) ç(nÎ≠ , nÎ )Ç (–, =) (ö) ç(ö)Ç (=)
((/, ¸)) ç(nÎ √)Ç
(/, n) ç(nÎ ˆ)Ç Stop-strictive
(/, n) ç(nÎ ˆ&)Ç (p, /) ç(pXF)Ç
(/, N) ç(N )Ç (=) (∫, /) ç(pXf)Ç
((/, n)) ç(n¥. )Ç (‡, ƒ) ç(tx†, dx∑)Ç
(/, ~) ç(n¥ J)Ç (., …) ç(t=ÎH#x< , dxÎ<#H )Ç
((/, √)) ç(n¥ √J)Ç (k, ›) ç(©XÂ, áXã)Ç
(/, N) ç(N)Ç (=) (%, /) ç(©XÂ: )Ç
((/, ∞)) ç(N. )Ç ((∞, )) ç(kΩxx , gXË‚)Ç
((/, ”)) ç(Ë̇ )Ç (w, Ÿ) ç(kxx, gX‚)Ç
(/, ˙) ç(˙)Ç (=) (∑, W) ç(›XX, Gxº)Ç
(k, K) ç(›HH=XK , GxKH#)Ç (ë, ò) ç(S¥J, Z¥J)Ç

(q, Q) ç(tXsY , dXzY )Ç (S, Z) ç(S¥„, Z¥„)Ç
((q, Q)) ç(tXs:Y , dXzY:)Ç («, ») ç(S¥„g , Z¥„g )Ç
(ç, Ç) ç(tXsÎ , dXzÎ )Ç ((X, 5)) ç(S¥:J , Z¥:J)Ç
(fi, ") ç(˛Xß, ÃXΩ)Ç ((x, ç)) ç(S¥:„, Z¥:„)Ç
(C, ‚) ç(¥tXSJ, d¥ XZJ)Ç ((‹, ¶)) ç(S¥:„g , Z¥:„g )Ç
(c, G) ç(¥tXS„, d¥ XZ„)Ç (., ÷) ç(S¥:Ω̂ , Z¥: Ω̂)Ç
(&, 1) ç(¥tXS „g, d¥ XZ„g)Ç (/, \) ç(S¥:Ω̂„, Z¥: Ω̂„)Ç
((C, G)) ç(¥:tXSJ, d:¥ XZJ)Ç (S, q) ç(S¥:̂ „, Z¥:̂ „)Ç
((c, g)) ç(¥:tXS„, d:¥ XZ „)Ç (À, =) ç(s¥ J, z¥ J)Ç
((v, ∆)) ç(¥:tXS„g, d:¥ XZ„g)Ç (¿, B) ç(s¥ J„, z¥ J„)Ç
(⁄, Á) ç(tXs¥ J, dXz¥ J)Ç
Semi-constrictive
(Â, ©) ç(tXs¥ J„, dXz¥ J„)Ç
(ƒ, √) ç(ff , vf )Ç
Stop-semi-constrictive (/, , ) ç(ã° )Ç
(º, Ÿ) ç(©XÂh , áhXã )Ç (/, y) ç(‚h)Ç
(˜, ‚) ç(kXxf , ghX‚)Ç (/, m) ç(‚h„)Ç
(ú, ∂) ç(ftXß , dfXΩ)Ç (∂, d) ç(shY , zYh )Ç
(À, ö) ç(S¥hJ, Z¥hJ)Ç
Constrictive
(å, 6) ç(F, B)Ç (–) Approximant
(f, v) ç(f, v)Ç (=) (F, B) ç(F§ , Bf)Ç
(5, ç) ç(f„, v„)Ç (/, V) ç(V)Ç (=)
(f, v) ç(fJ, vJ)Ç (/, ¶) ç(V„)Ç
((w, W)) ç(†Ω, ∑Ω )Ç (/, ◊) ç(Vˆ& )Ç
(†, ∑) ç(†, ∑)Ç (=) (Ï, ƒ) ç(†:f , ∑:f )Ç
(/, D) ç(∑ˆ& )Ç (/, ⁄) ç(ΩÎh )Ç
(Q, z) ç(H<F≠, <FH )Ç (â, j) ç(Âh) o (ª), (j)Ç (–, =)
(P, p) ç(H=># , >#H )Ç (/, ¥) ç(¥. )Ç
(Â, J) ç(Â, ã)Ç (=, –) (Õ, j) ç(ª:], :]j) or (µ
Ω]+ , µ
Ω7 )Ç
((…, /)) ç(Â. )Ç (/, µ) ç(µ Ω )Ç
((¢, Ú)) ç(xΩ , ‚Ë)Ç (/, °) ç(w Ω )Ç
(x, Ÿ) ç(x, ‚)Ç (=, =) (∆, V) ç(µ = , µ)Ç (–)
(X, º) ç(X, º)Ç (=) (W, w) ç(', w)Ç (–, =)
(h) ç(…)Ç (–) (˜, ˜) ç(Xh , ºf )Ç
(·) ç(h)Ç (–) (x, ‰) ç(Xh /, ºf /)Ç
(s, z) ç(sY , zY )Ç (/, H) ç(Hf )Ç
((s, z)) ç(s& , z& )Ç
Semi-approximant
(†, Ã) ç(sˆ& , zˆ&)Ç
(ß, fi) ç(sÎ , zÎ )Ç (/, ã) ç(°j)Ç
(ß, Ω) ç(ß, Ω)Ç (=) (/, %) ç(¥f. )Ç
(∑) ç(ßˆ)Ç (/, F) ç(j:]f) or (µ
]fË )Ç
1. prelude 45
(/, =) Ωh )Ç
ç(µ ∫ap
(/, j) f )Ç
ç(w ({Ó}, [) ç(Í̆ , R̆ )Ç
({V}, e)* ç(Í̆ ˆ, R̆ ˆ)Ç
Laryngeal approximant
(/, ®) ç(#̆ )Ç
(h, H) ç(hf , Hf )Ç
(/, ·) ç(Hf „)Ç Constrictive trill
(+) ç(hî≠ J)Ç
(º, ˜) ç(K#=H , K#H )Ç
(´) ç(hî≠ ˆ)Ç
(±) ç(' î≠ )Ç Lateralized flap
(=) ç(hî≠ )Ç
(≠) ç(hî≠ „)Ç (r, m) ç(R:ÎË± &, R:ÎË&)Ç
(◊ , ©) ç((R:ÎË± &ˆ, R:ÎË&ˆ)Ç
Lateralized approximant (+ 2 semi-…)
(Bi)lateral
(/, S) ç(VX< &„)Ç
(/, Ã) ç(∑¥§ &)Ç ((/, l)) ç(lY)Ç
(/, ¸) ç(<Î &)Ç ((/, Ï)) ç(lYˆ) or (ıY)Ç
(/, Í) ç(<< &)Ç ((/, R)) ç(lY:)Ç
(/, >) ç(<< &„)Ç ({a}, l) ç(lÎ≠ , Îl )Ç
(/, ˛) ç(<< &ˆ„)Ç ({ñ}, ı) ç(l≠Îˆ), (lÎ ˆ) or (ıÎ), (ıÎ≠)Ç
(/, <) ç(µXΩ < &„)Ç ({Ü}, ]) ç(lÎ≠fˆ), (l§Îˆ) or (ıÎ§), (ıÎ≠f)Ç
(/, <) ç(µ<X &ˆ< „)Ç (/, ∞) ç(lÎ ˆ„) or (ıÎ „)Ç
(/, ‰) ç(µXhΩ < &„)Ç ((/, l)) ç(lÎ <ˆ) or (ı:Î )Ç
(/, $) ç($)Ç (=)
Trill ((L)) ç(l:¥ J)Ç
({Ñ}, ¬) ç(l¥≠ J, ¥l J)Ç
(/, r) ç(rÎ )Ç
(/, L) ç(L)Ç (=)
(/, 5)* ç(rÎ ˆ)Ç
(/, ı) ç(ì)Ç (–)
(/, 5) ç(rÎ ˆ&)Ç
({{}, D) ç(r¥+ J, ¥r J)Ç Unilateral
({'}, K) ç(K= , K)Ç (–, =)
(/, ô) ç(l@Î )Ç
Tap (/, |) ç(l@Î Ω̂)Ç
(/, ÷) ç(l@Î ˆ)Ç
({5}, R) ç(RÎ+ , ÎR )Ç
(/, R)* ç(RÎ ˆ)Ç Tap(ped) lateral
(/, R) ç(RÎ <ˆ )Ç
(/, e) ç(#)Ç (–) (/, ¬) ç(à)Ç (–)
({[}, ç) ç(R¥+ J, ¥R J)Ç (/, ») ç(àÎ:)Ç
({3}, r) ç(KW+ , KW )Ç
Semilateral
(/, ù) ç(ıf)Ç
(/, §) ç(ıf „)Ç
2. English
2.0. In this chapter we will deal with the American and British neutral accents
(or çstandard accentsÇ). We will also make a teaching proposal for an çinternation-
alÇ accent of English that could usefully be employed in pronunciation books and
pronouncing dictionaries (and in common dictionaries, too), as well as in every-
day teaching. ˛e kind of transcription we use is dia#onemic˚ expressly devised
for this kind of description, together with its corresponding #onetic and #onoto-
netic transcriptions.
Furthermore, we will also consider the American and British çmediaticÇ accents
(from non-local †√ “ radio), which are now as frequently heard as the neutral ones,
in the news, in the movies, and in songs.
To conclude, we will describe (without going into great detail, mainly by using
our usual accurate symbols and many diagrams) some other accents (with inter-
nal variations): those of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and England (for the
latter we will give the traditional, a‡ected, and Cockney accents). In a book in
progress –E«li´ Pronunciation*– we will deal with all the native accents of En-
glish all over the world (including many non-native accents), by working directly
on a substantial number of recordings, as well.
2.1. It will be useful to list the correspondences between our diaphonemic sym-
bols and the phonemic symbols used in recent dictionaries, and especially in the
three current English pronouncing dictionaries (Longman, Cambridge, Oxford).
˛ese do not always agree for certain aspects, but we show them (between ç Ç) af-
ter the diaphonemes, with examples.
Vowels /EI/ ç/eI/Ç dZ /'dEI/ ('D™;I)
/aE/ ç/aI, √I/Ç fly /'flaE/ ('fla;Ù)
/i/ ç/i, I/Ç lady /'lEIdi/ ('l™IDi) /OE/ ç/OI/Ç boy /'bOE/ ('bø;Ù)
/I/ ç/I/Ç bit /'bIt/ ('b¤T) /aO/ ç/aU/Ç cow /'kaO/ ('kha;Ö)
/E/ ç/e, E/Ç let /'lEt/ ('l™T) /OU/ ç/ÈU, oU/Ç go /'gOU/ ('gø;¨)a ('g‘;¨)b
/π/ ç/π, a/Ç hat /'hπt/ ('hπT) /Uu/ ç/u:, u/Ç who /'hUu/ ('hU;u)a ('h¯;u)b
/√/ ç/√, È/Ç hut /'h√t/ ('h√T)a ('håT)b
/Ø/ ç/O, A:, A/Ç hot /'hØt/ ('hAT)a ('hØT)b /¢/ ç/I, È, ¢, î/Ç wiés /'wIS¢z/ ('w¤SÈΩ)a
/U/ ç/U/Ç book /'bUk/ ('b¨k) ('w¤S¤Ω)b
/u/ ç/u, U/Ç influenza /Influ'EnzÈ/ (&¤Mfl¯- /π;/ ç/π, A:/Ç last /'lπ;st/ ('lπsT)a ('lA;sT)b
'™nz√)a (-å)b /A;/ ç/A:, π/Ç pasta /'pA;stÈ/ ('phA;sT√)a
/È/ ç/È/Ç anoèr /È'n√∑È≤/ (È'n√∑≥)a (È'nå∑- ('phπsTå)b
å)b˚ contain /kÈn'tEIn/ (khûn'Th™;In) /Ø;/ ç/Ø, O:/Ç so« /'sØ;˙/ ('sO:˙)a ('sØ;˙)b
/A:/ ç/A:, A/Ç spa /'spA:/ ('spA:) /O;/ ç/O:, Ø/Ç false /'fO;ıs/ ('fO;ıs, 'fAıs)a
/O:/ ç/O:, O/Ç law /'lO:/ ('lO:)a ('lø:)b ('fø;ıs, 'fØıs)b
/È;/ ç/√r, !:, ‘:r, Èr, ò/Ç hurry /'hÈ;<i/
/Ii/ ç/i:, i/Ç see /'sIi/ ('sI;i) ('h≥;i)a ('hå>i)b
2. english 47
/È:</ ç/‘:r, È:r, Èr, !:/Ç furry /'fÈ:<i/ ('f≥;i)a /K:/ ç/È, O:/Ç repertory /'<EpÈ≤tK:<i/ ('<™p≥-
('f‘;>i)b &Tø<i)a ('>™pÈTÈ>i, -È˛>i)b
/È:≤/ ç/‘:, È:, ‘:r, Èr, !:/Ç fur /'fÈ:≤/ ('f≥:)a /È/ ç/U, È, T, ÿ/Ç regular /'<EgjÈlÈ≤/ ('<™g-
('f‘:)b jÈl≥)a ('>™gj¨lå, -gjÈ-)b
/A:≤/ ç/A:, A:r/Ç car /'kA:≤/ ('khA:<)a ('khA:)b
/O:≤/ ç/O:, O:r/Ç door /'dO:≤/ ('Dø:<)a ('Dø:)b Consonants
/È≤/ ç/Èr, ÈÍ, ær, …r, ò/Ç wonder /'w√ndÈ≤/ /m/ ç/m/Ç some /'s√m/ ('s√m:)a ('såm:)b
('w√nD≥)a ('wånDå)b /n/ ç/n/Ç sun /'s√n/ ('s√n:)a ('sån:)b
/iÈ≤/ ç/iÈ, IÈ, iÈr, IÈr, IÈÍ, iÈÍ, i…r, iò/Ç /˙/ ç/˙/Ç su« /'s√˙/ ('s√˙:)a ('så˙:)b
happier /'hπpiÈ≤/ ('hπpi≥)a ('hπpiå)b /õ/ ç/æm, …m, m/Ç rhy`m /'<I∑õ/ ('<¤∑-
/IÈ≤/ ç/IÈ, IÈr, Ir, IÈÍ, I…r, Iò/Ç here /'hIÈ≤/ õ)a ('>-)b
('hI;≥)a ('h¤;å)b /ó/ ç/æn, …n, n/Ç cotton /'kØtó/ ('khATó)a
/EÈ≤/ ç/eÈ, E:, er, Er, eÈÍ, e…r, Eò/Ç ère ('khØ-)b
/'∑EÈ≤/ ('∑™;≥)a ('∑™;‘)b
/UÈ≤/ ç/UÈ, UÈr, Ur, UÈÍ, U…r, Uò/Ç moor /p/ ç/p/Ç pa$ /'pπk/ ('phπk)
/'mUÈ≤/ ('mU;≥)a ('m¨;å)b (with further /b/ ç/b/Ç ba$ /'bπk/ ('bπk)
pronunciations) /t/ ç/t/Ç ‘o /'tUu/ ('ThU;u)a ('Th¯;u)b
/uÈ≤/ ç/uÈ, UÈ, uÈr, UÈr, uò, uÈÍ, UÈÍ, /d/ ç/d/Ç do /'dUu/ ('DU;u)a ('D¯;u)b
u…r, u:ò/Ç rescuer /'<EskjuÈ≤/ ('<™skj¯≥)a /k/ ç/k/Ç came /'kEIm/ ('kh™;Im)
('<™skj¯å)b /g/ ç/g/Ç game /'gEIm/ ('g™;Im)
/IiÈ≤/ ç/i:È, i:Èr, i:ò, i:ÈÍ, i:…r, i:ò/Ç seer /c/ ç/tS/Ç >ain /'cEIn/ ('ch™;In)
/'sIiÈ≤/ ('sIi≥)a ('sIiå)b /G/ ç/dZ/Ç Jane /'GEIn/ ('G™;In)
/EIÈ≤/ ç/eIÈ, eIÈr, eIò, eIÈÍ, eI…r, eIò/Ç /f/ ç/f/Ç f[ /'fjUu/ ('fj¯;u)
plZer /'plEIÈ≤/ ('phl™I≥)a ('phl™Iå)b /v/ ç/v/Ç vi[ /'vjUu/ ('vj¯;u)
/aEÈ≤/ ç/aIÈ, √IÈ, aIÈr, aIò, aIÈÍ, aI…r, /†/ ç/†/Ç wreath /'<Ii†/ ('<Ii†)a ('>Ii†)b
aIò/Ç liar /'laEÈ≤/ ('laÙ≥)a ('laÙå)b /∑/ ç/∑/Ç wreathe /'<Ii∑/ ('<I;i„)a ('>I;i„)b
/OEÈ≤/ ç/OIÈ, OIÈr, OIò, OIÈÍ, OI…r, OIò/Ç /s/ ç/s/Ç ice /'aEs/ ('aÙs)
employer /Im'plOEÈ≤/ (¤m'phløÙ≥)a (¤m- /z/ ç/z/Ç \es /'aEz/ ('a;ÙΩ)
'phløÙå)b /S/ ç/S/Ç dilution /d¢'lUuS˘n/ (DÈ'lUuSÈn)a
/aOÈ≤/ ç/aUÈ, aUÈr, aUò, aUÈÍ, aU…r, aUò/Ç (D¤'l¯uSó)b
tower /'taOÈ≤/ ('ThaÖ≥)a ('ThaÖå)b /Z/ ç/Z/Ç delusion /d¢'lUuZ˘n/ (DÈ'lUuZÈn)a
/OUÈ≤/ ç/ÈUÈ, oUÈr, oUò, oUÈÍ, oU…r/Ç (D¤'l¯uZó)b
slower /'slOUÈ≤/ ('slø¨≥)a ('sl‘¨å)b
/</ ç/r/Ç rate /'<EIt/ ('<™IT)a ('>™IT)b
/UuÈ≤/ ç/u:È, u:Èr, u:ò, u:ÈÍ, u:…r/Ç doer
/j/ ç/j/Ç yate /'jEIt/ ('j™IT)
/'dUuÈ≤/ ('DUu≥)a ('D¯uå)b
/w/ ç/w/Ç wait /'wEIt/ ('w™IT)
/˘</ ç/Èr, ær, …r, ò/Ç wonderi« /'w√nd˘- /h/ ç/h/Ç hate /'hEIt/ ('h™IT)
<I˙/ ('w√nDÈ<¤˙, -D<¤˙)a ('wånDÈ>¤˙, /l/ ç/l/Ç late /'lEIt/ ('l™IT)
-NÃ>¤˙)b
/ù/ ç/t, ÿ/Ç ci“ /'sIùi/ ('s¤[i)a ('s¤Ti)b
/I˘</ ç/IÈr, Iær, Ir/Ç heari« /'hI˘<I˙/ ('h¤<-
/≤/ ç/–, r/Ç car /'kA:≤/ ('khA:<)a ('khA:)b
¤˙)a ('h¤È>¤˙)b
/ˆ/ ç/j, –/Ç n[ /'nÛu/ ('nU;u)a ('nj¯;u)b
/E˘</ ç/eÈr, eær, Eær, E:r/Ç cari« /'kE˘<I˙/
/·/ ç/h, –/Ç when /'·wEn/ ('w™n:÷ 'hw™n:÷
('kh™<¤˙)a ('kh™‘>¤˙)b
'W™n:)
/U˘</ ç/UÈr, Uær, Ur/Ç curi« /'kjU˘<I˙/
('khj¨<¤˙)a ('khj¨È>¤˙)b (with f. pron.) /ı/ ç/l/Ç lull /'l√ı/ ('l,ı:)a ('l√ı:)b
/Œ/ ç/È, e, E/Ç dictionary /'dIkSÈnŒ<i/ /®/ ç/l/Ç little /'lIù®/ ('l¤[®)a ('l¤T®)b
('D¤kSó&™<i)a ('D¤kSó>i)b
Vowels
2.1.1. English has a high number of vowel phonemes, so it may be advisable to

subdivide them into groups, rather than keeping them all together. ˛is is also use-
ful to make easier comparisons with other languages, and to avoid possible con-
fusions. ˛e essential English vowel phonemes are: (short and long) mono#ò«s
/I, E, π, A:, √, Ø, O:, U, È:, È/ and di#ò«s /Ii, EI, aE, OE, aO, OU, Uu/. Furthermore,
there are some dia#onemes\ /π;, A;, Ø;, O;, È;/, and unstressed /i, u, ¢/ (plus some
other possible devices). But, in the volume English Pronunciation˙ ˚ instead of /Ii,
Uu÷ π;, A;, Ø;, O;, È;÷ √/, we use /ii, uu÷ X, [:, ], r:, ˘:÷ å/, which are more convenient.
We definitely prefer to deal with English pronunciation in a diaphonemic way.
It is important to show especially what the American and British accents have in
common, so that their structural di‡erences are made clearer and more natural.
American monophthongs
2.1.2.1. û 2.1 shows the American monophthongs (the British ones are given
in û 2.2). Let us start from the eight bla$ markers, which indicate the realizations
of the following eight vowel phonemes (in stressed or unstressed syllables): (¤) /I/,
(™) /E/, (π) /π/, (A:) /A:/, (A) /Ø/, (√) /√/, (O:) /O:/, (¨) /U/. Although in the çmediaticÇ
American accent (Ô § 2.4.2.2) /A:/ and /Ø/ are often neutralized –because they can
both be realized as (A[:])– in the neutral American accent we keep them apart, for
three good reasons. ≈rstly, they are in actual fact di‡erent, even if chiefly only in
terms of length. Furthermore, in this way we can keep a diaphonemic relation
with the British neutral accent. And finally, this will help us in highlighting the
characteristics of other accents, starting from comparable bases, although they are
actually shared only by a minority of speakers. Let us stress, in fact, that a neutral
pronunciation is always learned voluntarily.
Let us now illustrate the phonemes in û 2.1. It must be recalled that the tran-
scriptions, including phonemic ones, bear a stress mark, even for monosyllabic
words, unless they are usually unstressed in sentences, like the preposition in /In/
(¤n), compared to the adverb in /'In/ ('¤n:), or to the noun inn /'In/ ('¤n:)): ('h¤T)
/'hIt/ hit, ('j™s) /'jEs/ yes, ('mπ;n) /'mπn/ man, ('fA;∑≥) /'fA:∑È≤/ faèr, ('lAT) /'lØt/ lot,
('<√n:) /'<√n/ run, ('lO:n) /'lO:n/ lYn, ('ph¨T) /'pUt/ put.
For the sake of descriptive precision, although generally variations do not re-
quire di‡erent symbols, it is worthwhile to notice the taxophones of /Iı, Eı, πı, √ı,
Uı/; please note the two that change their symbols as well, in comparison with (™,
√): ('bEı:, 'h,ı:) /'bEı, 'h√ı/ bell˚ hull.
2.1.2.2. ˛e gr\ markers in the vocogram also show three variants of /I, U, O:/
(I, U, ø:) (compared to normal (¤, ¨, O:)). ˛ey occur in (stressed or unstressed) syl-
lables checked by /≤/: (I≥) /IÈ≤/, ([j]U≥) /[j]UÈ≤/, (ø:<) /O:≤/. ˛ere are no di‡erences in
terms of the nuclear element (or, perhaps, çnuclealÇ element) in (™≥) /EÈ≤/, (A:<)
/A:≤/, because they coincide with the black markers for /E, A:/ (™, A:). Instead, the
2. english 49
typical American realization of /È:≤/ is through an intense contoid (≥:), rather than
a vocoid as in British pronunciation ((‘:)).
Examples: ('hI;≥) /'hIÈ≤/ here, ('phjU;≥) /'pjUÈ≤/ pure, ('Dø:<) /'dO:≤/ door, ('∑™;≥)
/'∑EÈ≤/ ère, ('fA:<) /'fA:≤/ far, ('f≥:) /'fÈ:≤/ fur˘ A possible pronunciation with (¤≥, ¨≥)
(instead of (I≥, U≥), for /IÈ≤, UÈ≤/} does not sound strange, although it is not the
most frequently heard.
For /O:</ (that is, before vowels: /O:<é/), the realization is (O:<) (di‡erent from
/O:≤/, marked by a grey marker): ('bO;<¤˙)a (->-)b /'bO:<I˙/ bori«˘ In American En-
glish the diaphonemic transcriptions /I˘<, E˘<, U˘</ correspond to /I<, E<, U</, with
their typical articulations shown by the black markers. By the way, the di‡erence
between /I˘<, E˘<, U˘</ and /IÈ≤, EÈ≤, UÈ≤/ (taken into consideration above) should
be carefully noted. Here are a few examples: ('h¤<¤˙)a ('h¤È>¤˙)b /'hI˘<I˙/ heari«,
('b™<¤˙)a ('b™‘>¤˙)b /'bE˘<I˙/ beari«, ('D¨<¤˙)a ('Dj¨È>¤˙)b /'dÛ˘<I˙/ duri«˘
It must be also noticed that, in American pronunciation, the phonemic sequence
/jUÈ≤/ has the variant /jÈ:≤/ (more typically mediatic): ('phjU;≥÷ 'phj≥:) pure (the vari-
ant /[j]È:</ occurs for /jU˘<, Û˘</, too): ('khj¨<iÈs÷ 'khj≥;iÈs) curious, (¤n'D¨<Èns÷ -'D≥;-
Èns) endurance, ('D¨<¤˙÷ 'D≥;¤˙) duri«˘ ˛is is also true of other consonants with a
çpalatalÇ component: ('SU;≥÷ 'S≥:) /'SUÈ≤÷ 'SÈ:≤/ sure÷ but ('phU;≥, -ø:<) /'pUÈ≤, -O:≤/ poor.
˛e di‡erence between ('mO;<n¤˙) /'mO:≤nI˙/ morni« and ('mo≥n¤˙, 'mo;<nI˙)
mourni« (which, by now, belongs only to çtraditionalÇ American pronunciation)
is no longer neutral, nor is it modern, but simply regional. As a matter of fact, they
are now both pronounced ('mø;<n¤˙) (('mø;n¤˙)b) /'mO:≤nI˙/ (and the traditional
pronunciation of mourni« could be shown diaphonemically as ç/'mOÈ≤nI˙/Ç or
ç/'mo:≤nI˙/Ç).
û 2.1. American monophthongs.

/iò, ié/ (i) /ué/ (¯)
/I[ı]/ (¤, ¤ı), /IÈ≤/ (I≥), /I˘</ (¤<) /U[ı]/ (¨, ¨ı), /UÈ≤/ (U≥), /U˘</ (¨<)
f
f
/È:≤, È:<, È;</ (≥:), /È≤/ (≥), /È</ (È<, ≥)

/¢/ = /È/, /È/ (È, û*, √ò|)
/√[ı]/ (√, ,ı)
/E[ı]/ (™, Eı), /EÈ≤/ (™≥), /E˘</ (™<) /O:/ (O:), /O:</ (O:<), /O:≤/ (ø:<), /O;/ (O:÷ A)
/π[ı]/ (π, πı), /π</ (π<), /π;/ (π[:]) /Ø/ (A), /Ø;/ (O:÷ A), /Ø;</ (O:<÷ A<)
/A:/ (A:), /A;/ (A:)
‡
2.1.2.3. ˛e four white markers show the unstressed realizations of the remain-
ing three phonemes: (i) /i/, (¯) /u/, (È, û) /È/. ˛ey occur in the following contexts
– /i/ at the end of lexemes: ('l™IDi[Ω]) /'lEIdi[z]/ lady˚ ladies, ('™ni&†¤˙) /'Eni†I˙/ aJ-
ì«, and before vowels: (<i'πkT) /<i'πkt/ react÷ /u/ chiefly before vowels: (&s¤c¯'™I-
SÈn) /sIcu'EIS˘n/ situation˚ (Th¯'πıGi) /tu'πıGi/ to Algy˘ A few words ending in -ue
[value˚ ®atue˚ virtue˚ i˛ue˚ ti˛ue] may have a reduced variant, especially in a prein-
toneme, which might usefully be represented with the diaphoneme /uò/: ('vπlj¯[u],
'sTπc¯[u]) /'vπlju, 'stπcu/ value˚ ®atue˘
≈nally, /È/ is the most frequent unstressed vowel phoneme of the English lan-
guage (in particular American, Oceanian, and South African): (fÈ'ThAg<Èf≥) /fÈ'tØg-
<ÈfÈ≤/ #otogra#er. In words like ('sø¨f√)a ('s‘¨få)b /'sOUfÈ/ sofa˚ we can see that a
final /È/ before a pause (even a short one), is realized as if it were the (unstressed)
phoneme /√/; however, if a pause is not there, this does not occur.
2.1.2.4. In certain types of diaphonemic transcription, it would certainly be

better to use precisely this notation. Let us make this fact clear at once, with suit-
able examples in phonetic and (dia)phonemic transcriptions, in order to avoid any
unintentional misunderstandings. In the plural, we have: ('sø¨fÈΩ)a ('s‘¨fÈΩ)b /'sOU-
fÈz/ sofas˚ even when not in an intoneme: (h≥'ßø¨fÈ wûz'ø;¨ıfl, -fû wÇ-)a (hÈ's‘¨fÈ
wûz'Ö;¨ıfl, -fû wÇ-)b /hÈ≤'sOUfÈ wÈz'OUıd/ her sofa was old (Ô § 2.1.3.4).
On the other hand, if we introduce even a simple continuative intoneme, with
a short pause, we have: (¤pwûz[h]≥'ßø¨f√2\ ∑Èpwûz'ø¨ıfl)a (¤pwûz[h]È's‘¨få2\ ∑Èp-
wûz'Ö;¨ıfl)b /ItwÈz[h]È≤'sOUfÈ,\ ∑ÈtwÈz'OUıd/ it was her sofa àt was old.
˛us, this is what happens to /È./, /È?/, /È÷/ /È,/, (¤ with intonemes and pauses
of any length). ˛e same is true, but only in the neutral British accent, of /È≤./,
/È≤?/, /È≤÷/, /È≤,/: ('D¤;å)b /'dIÈ≤/ dear, ('s™nDå)b /'sEndÈ≤/ sender˘ Instead, for /EÈ≤/, the
modern neutral pronunciation has (™‘): ('kh™;‘)b /'kEÈ≤/ care˘ One generation ago,
it was ('kh™;å)b; while, earlier than that, it was ('khE;å)b; still earlier, it was ('khE;√)b;
and before that, ('khπ;√)b – but let us close this micro-diachronic digression.
˛e second taxophone of /È/, (û), occurs in contact with /k, g, ˙÷ w, ı/ (as they
are velar, or at least have a velar component): ('bπk û'g™n:÷ -™;In) /'bπk È'gE[I]n/
ba$ again, (khûn'Th™;In) /kÈn'tEIn/ contain, (Thû'gø;¨)a (-‘;¨)b /tÈ'gOU/ to go, ('s¤˙
û'sO:˙, 'sA;˙)a (-Ø;˙)b /'s¤˙ È'sØ;˙/ si« a so«, (∑û'w¤n:fl) /∑È'wInd/ è wind, ('™I~G®,
-Gûı) /'EInG®, -GÈı/ a«el˘
As can be seen from the vocograms, (û) substantially is (¨) with no lip round-
ing (and the symbol itself makes this quite clear). However, in these cases (È) could
be used, without great problems, as is done by some native speakers. On the oth-
er hand, the correct articulation may be produced, spontaneously, even by foreign-
ers, when they are able to adequately reproduce all the other phones that realize
the English phonemes.
British monophthongs (and centering diphthongs)
2.1.3.1. Let us now consider the corresponding vocogram for the Briti´ accent
(û 2.2). Here we have nine bla$ markers (for nine either stressed or unstressed
phonemes): (¤) /I/, (™) /E/, (π) /π/, (A:) /A:/, (Ø) /Ø/, (å) /√/, (ø:) /O:/, (¨) /U/, (‘:)
/È:≤/. We find: ('h¤T) /'hIt/ hit, ('j™s) /'jEs/ yes, ('mπ;n) /'mπn/ man, ('fA;∑å) /'fA:∑È≤/
faèr, ('fA:) /'fA:≤/ far, ('lØT) /'lØt/ lot, ('>ån:) /'<√n/ run, ('lø:n) /'lO:n/ lYn, ('Dø:)
/'dO:≤/ door, ('ph¨T) /'pUt/ put˚ and ('w‘:fl) /'wÈ:≤d/ word (for American English, of
course, this last word was in the group of /≤/, as we have seen above). If we consid-
er farèr˚ /'fA:≤∑È≤/, we can see that it is pronounced exactly as faèr˚ ('fA;∑å) (with
no /≤/ pronounced), while in American English both r /≤/ are realized: ('fA;<∑≥). For
an American pronunciation like ('fA;∑≥), for farèr, and other words, see below:
di˛imilation (§ 2.3.3.5).
Let us quickly add that even for (ø:) /O:≤/, as in ('wø:[Ω]) /'wO:≤[z]/ war(s)˚ by now,
2. english 51
pronunciations like ('wø;å, 'wø;‘Ω) are old-fashioned (or regional).

For /Iı, Eı, πı, √ı, Uı/ we have some modifications, with an actual change only
for two of them: ('Å;ı, 'h√ı:) /'πı, 'h√ı/ Al˚ hull (in comparison with (π, å)).
û 2.2. British monophthongs.
/iò, ié/ (i) /ué/ (¯)
/I/ (¤), /Iı/ (¤ı) /U[ı]/ (¨, ¨ı)
‡
f
/¢/ = /I/ (¤) /È[≤]/ (È, û*, åò|)
/O:/ (ø:), /O;/ (ø:, Ø)
/E[ı]/ (™, ™ı) /È:</ (‘:>), /È:≤/ (‘:), /È;</ (‘:>)
f
/√[ı]/ (å, √ı) /Ø/ (Ø), /Ø;/ (Ø)

/π[ı]/ (π, Åı), /π;/ (A:) /A:/ (A:), /A;/ (π)
2.1.3.2. For British English, /IÈ≤, EÈ≤, UÈ≤/ are given in û 2.3: ('h¤;å) /'hIÈ≤/ here,
('phj¨;å) /'pjUÈ≤/ pure, ('∑™;‘) /'∑EÈ≤/ ère˘ We have already seen that in British En-
glish a simple vocoid, with no contoid, occurs in cases like ('f‘:) /'fÈ:≤/ fur˘ It is to
be noticed that, in this type of pronunciation, the phonemic sequence /[j]UÈ≤/, by
this time, is almost exclusively substituted with its variant /[j]O:≤/: ('phjø:÷ 'phj¨;å)
pure, ('phø:÷ 'ph¨;å) poor, ('Sø:÷ 'S¨;å) sure˘
It is curious to note that, in the British pronunciation of the sixties, a similar
trend was very strong, but it soon stopped: ('phj‘:, 'khj‘;>iÈs, ¤n'Dj‘;>Èns, 'Dj‘;>¤˙, 'S‘:)
pure˚ curious˚ endurance˚ during˚ sure (at that time, of course, the neutral pronun-
ciation had (¤é) ç/Ié/Ç for modern (ié) /ié/: ('khj‘;>¤Ès), curious). Another curiosity
is that, in the first half of the twentieth century, the same pronunciation (j‘:) /jÈ:≤/
(which today no longer occurs, except as an old-fashioned variant) was a variant of
/IÈ≤, I˘</: ('D¤;å÷ 'Dj‘:) dear˚ ('h¤;å÷ 'hj‘:) here˚ (s¤n's¤;å÷ -'sj‘:) sincere˚ ('khl¤È>Èns÷ 'khlj‘;-
>Èns) clearance÷ however, it still remains as a secondary variant in ('j¤;å÷ 'j‘:) year˘
2.1.3.3. Also in the British accent, the four white markers show the realizations
of the remaining phonemes, always in unstressed positions: (i) /i/, (¯) /u/, (È, û)
/È/. ˛ey occur in the same contexts – /i/ at the end of a lexeme: ('l™IDi[Ω]) /'lEIdi[z]/
lady˚ ladies, ('™ni&†¤˙) /'Eni†I˙/ aJì«, and before a vowel: (>i'πkT) /<i'πkt/ react˘
/u/ occurs chiefly before vowels: (&s¤c¯'™ISó) /sIcu'EIS˘n/ situation˚ (Th¯'ÅıGi) /tu-
'πıGi/ to Algy˘ ˛e possibility of finding /'vπlju/ value (§ 2.1.2.3) is less common
in British English.
≈nally, /È/ is the most frequent unstressed vowel phoneme in British English,
too, also because of the vocalization of /È≤, é:≤/): (fÈ'ThØg>Èf‘Ω) /fÈ'tØg<ÈfÈ≤z/ #o-
togra#ers ((fÈ'ThAg<Èf≥Ü)a)˚ ('>¤cÈfl) /'<IcÈ≤d/ Ri>ard (('<¤c≥fl)a), (Thû'g‘;¨) /tÈ'gOU/
to go ((Thû'gø;¨)a). Of course, we also find (å|) /È, È≤/ (before pauses): ('s‘¨få)
/'sOUfÈ/ sofa {('sø¨f√)a}, ('A;fTå) /'π;ftÈ≤/ after {('π[;]fT≥)a}.
2.1.3.4. However, in British pronunciation, /È/ has another –rather important–

taxophone, (‘). Phonetically, it is the short version of /È:/ (‘:), and occurs for /È≤ò/
followed by the grammemes /zò, dò/, and for non-prepausal /È≤ò/ (while, if /È≤ò/ is
final before a pause, it becomes (å)).
So we find: ('fA;∑‘Ω) {('fA;∑≥Ü)a} faèrs and faèr's˚ ('A;ns‘fl) {('π[;]ns≥fl)a} an-

~ered÷ and (∑È'phl™Z‘z&maÙn÷ -‘>¤-÷ 'ma;Ùn) {(-≥fi-÷ -≥¤z-÷ 'm-)a} è pleasure is mine˚
(È'nå∑‘ 'g‘;ı) {(-√∑≥ 'g≥:ı, 'g≥;®)a} anoèr girl˘
In addition to /È≤ò/, this happens to non-prepausal /Èò/ as well (also in American
English, generally only up to (È), with no need to use (‘)): (Åı'phπk‘ 'kh‘¨T) {(-È
'khø¨T)a} alpaca coat –so, as can be seen, (‘) occurs, even near a /k/ Â, instead of
(û), Ô (aÉı'phπk û'kh‘¨T) {(û'khø¨T)a} I'll pa$ a coat]– but: (Åı'phπkå|) {(πı-
'phπk√|)a} alpaca˘
However, even this taxophone can be represented by the usual realization of /È/:
(È), as many native speakers do. As a matter of fact, compared to (û), this other
taxophone may be less important and almost exclusively limited to the British ac-
cent.
Both in American and in Briti´ English, but with a traditional or regional con-
notation, /i, u/ may be realized as if they were /I, U/: ('l™ID¤[Ω]), ('™n¤&†¤˙), (<¤'πkT)a
(>¤'πkT)b, (&s¤c¨'™ISÈn)a (-Só)b˚ (Th¨'πıG¤)a (-Åı-)b. A possible compromise is (Ií) for
/i/: (-DI[Ω], '™nI-, <I-a/>I-b, -GI). On the other hand, in American English /ué/ =
/Èwé/ is quite frequent, too: (&s¤c¯'™ISÈn, &s¤cû'w™ISÈn), ('vπ¬¯¤˙, 'vπ¬jûw¤˙) (('vπ¬-
j¯¤˙)b) /'vπljuI˙/ valui«, and /’OUé/ = /Èwé/ as well: ('fAlø¨¤˙, 'fAlûw¤˙) (('fØl-
‘¨¤˙)b) /'fØlOUI˙/ followi«, ('SπDøï, -Dûwi) ((-D‘ï)b) /'SπdOUi/ ádowy˘
2.1.3.5. It is useful to recall here (although this is also true of the preceding cas-
es of /È≤/) that, in neutral British pronunciation (as well as Oceanian and South
African), the normal realization of /È≤/ is (È): (phÈ'fø;mÈns) /pÈ≤'fO:≤mÈns/ perform-
ance˚ (&πsÈ'Th™;In) /πsÈ≤'tEIn/ ascertain˚ (hÈ'håzbÈnfl) /hÈ≤'h√zbÈnd/ her husband˘ Of
course, this holds good unless in absolute final position before a pause, (å|), or final
in a rhythm group, or with the grammemes /zò, dò/, (‘ò, ‘Ωò, ‘flò): ('h¤È>¤˙) /'hI˘<I˙/
heari«˚ ('h¤;‘ w¤∑'j¯;u) /'hIÈ≤ wI∑'jUu/ here wi` you, ('b¤;‘Ω) /'bIÈ≤z/ beers, ('h¤;È> Èn-
'∑™;‘) /'hIÈ≤ Èn{d}'∑EÈ≤/ here and ère˘
˛e modern neutral British pronunciation of /EÈ≤/ does not change any longer
according to context, but it is always (™‘) (with a strong tendency to a long mon-
ophthong, through (™É), up to ç(™:) /E:/Ç, as has, for a few generations, already hap-
pened to the previous ç/OÈ≤/Ç): ('b™;‘[Ω]) /'bEÈ≤[z]/ bear(s)˘ For /A:≤, È:≤, O:≤/, as we
have seen, /≤/ is lost and realized through a çzeroÇ phone, (`): ('khA:[Ω]) /'kA:≤[z]/
car(s), ('f‘:[Ω]) /'fÈ:≤[z]/ fur(s), ('Dø:[Ω]) /'dO:≤[z]/ door(s).
In absolute final position and before pauses, we find: ('b¤;å|) /'bIÈ≤|/ beer,
('khj¨;å|) (and (-jø:|)) /'kjUÈ≤|/ cure and (fÈ'ThØg>Èfå|) /fÈ'tØg<ÈfÈ≤|/ #otogra#er˘
But, if final in a rhythm group, we have: (È'b¤;‘ fÈ'mI;i) {(È'bI;≥ f≥'mI;i)a} /È'bIÈ≤ fÈ≤-
û 2.3. British /éÈ/ diphthongs.
/IÈ, IÈ≤, I˘</ (¤È>é, ¤‘z+, ¤‘D+, ¤å+|) /új/ˆûUÈ, -UÈ≤, -U˘</ (újû¨È>é, újû¨‘z+,
újû¨‘D+, újû¨å+|) (+ /újûO:≤, -</}
/EÈ≤, E˘</ (™‘) /aOÈ≤, aOÈ</ (aÖÈ, aÖå+|)

/aEÈ, aEÈ≤, aE˘</ (aÙÈ, aÙå+|) + "/aÈ/& (aÈ>é, a‘z+, a‘D+, aå+|)
+ "/aÈ/& (aÈ>é, a‘z+, a‘D+, aå+|) {+ "/AÈ/& (AÈ>é, A‘z+, A‘D+, Aå+|)}
2. english 53
'mIi/ a beer for me, (&∑πk'khj¨;È> '¤zô 'g¨;fl, -jø:> '¤z-) {(&∑πk'khjU;≥ '¤zô 'g¨;fl, -j≥: '¤z-)a}
/∑πt'kjUÈ≤ 'Izót 'gUd/ àt cure isn't good, (∑ÈfÈ'ThØg>Èf‘ 'D¤D¤T) ((∑ÈfÈ'ThAg<Èf≥ 'D¤D-
¤T)a) /∑ÈfÈ'tØg<ÈfÈ≤ 'dIdIt/ è #otogra#er did it.
Diphthongs
2.1.4.1. Let us now consider the seven phonemic diphthongs of American En-
glish. ˛ey have ten realizations, which are necessary for a good pronunciation (û
2.4). ˛e bla$ markers stand for the seven phonemes, while the three gr\ ones
show taxophones, or contextual variants. Meanwhile, we will see: (Ii) /Ii/, (™I) /EI/,
(aÙ) /aE/, (øÙ) /OE/, (aÖ) /aO/, (ø¨) /OU/, (Uu) /Uu/: ('ThI;i) /'tIi/ tea, ('D™;I) /'dEI/ dZ,
('ha;Ù) /'haE/ high, ('bø;Ù) /'bOE/ boy, ('na;Ö) /'naO/ now, ('gø;¨) /'gOU/ go, ('hU;u)
/'hUu/ who˘ Besides, we need: (iIı) /Iiı/, (j¯u) /jUu/, (Uu, ¯u) /Ûu/, ([j]uUı) /[j]Uuı/:
('fi;Iı, 'fiI®) /'fIiı/ feel, ('j¯u†) /'jUu†/ you`, ('nU;u, 'n¯;u) /'nÛu/ n[, ('ju;Uı, 'juU®)
/'jUuı/ yule, ('khu;Uı, 'khuU®) /'kUuı/ cool˘
˛e other diphthongs, even if followed by /ı/, do not change much their com-
ponents, apart from those with front second elements; besides (except for /OU/,
which has only /ı/, in neutral pronunciation), they freely fluctuate between /ı/ and
/®/ (with a possible realization of /®/ as /Èı/ (ûı)): ('s™;¤ı, 's™¤®) /'sEIı/ sail, ('fa;Éı,
'faÉ®) /'faEı/ file, ('bø;Éı, 'bøÉ®) /'bOEı/ boil, ('fa;Öı, 'faÖı) /'faOı/ fowl÷ but only
('sø;¨ı) /'sOUı/ soul.
û 2.4. American diphthongs.
/Iiı/ (iIı) /jUu/ (j¯u, jUu)
/Ii/ (Ii) /[ˆ]Uu/ (Uu, ¯u), /[j/ˆ]Uuı/ ([j/`]uUı)
/EI[ı]/ (™I, ™¤ı) /OU[ı]/ (ø¨[ı])

/OE[ı]/ (øÙ, øÉı)
/aO[ı]/ (aÖ[ı]) /aE[ı]/ (aÙ, aÉı)
2.1.4.2. For the corresponding Briti´ diphthongs, we find seven fundamental

types, plus six taxophones. ˛e modern pronunciation di‡ers only slightly from
the more traditional one (and so there is little di‡erence from the American one)
for /Ii, EI, aE, OE, aO/ and for /Iiı/, too, as can be seen better through a careful com-
parison between the British (û 2.5) and the American (û 2.4) vocograms. But
there is a bigger di‡erence for /Uu, OU/ and /Uuı, OUı/. Indeed, we have: ('ThI;i) /'tIi/
tea, ('D™;I) /'dEI/ dZ, ('ha;Ù) /'haE/ high, ('bø;Ù) /'bOE/ boy, ('na;Ö) /'naO/ now, and al-
so: ('fi;Iı, 'fiI®) /'fIiı/ feel, ('s™;¤ı, 's™¤®) /'sEIı/ sail, ('fa;Éı, 'faÉ®) /'faEı/ file, ('bø;Éı, 'bøÉ®)
/'bOEı/ boil, but only: ('fa;Öı) /'faOı/ fowl, ('ju;Uı) /'jUuı/ yule, ('khu;Uı) /'kUuı/ cool˘
We find then: ('sÖ;¨ı) /'sOUı/ soul and –above all– ('s‘;¨) /'sOU/ so, as well as: ('j¯u†)
/'jUu†/ you`, ('nj¯;u) /'nÛu/ n[, ('h¯;u) /'hUu/ who (/éé®/ can always be realized
as /ééÈı/ (ééûı)).
Of course, the most peculiar diphthong is /OU/ (‘¨), not followed by (ı): ('n‘;¨3 3
'G‘;¨2 5w‘¨˙ 'g‘;¨3 3) /'nOU. 'GOU, 'wOUnt 'gOU./ No, Joe won't go. ˛e first element of
/OU/ is central and unrounded, (‘¨), while in American pronunciation it is back
and rounded, (ø¨): ('nø;¨23 'Gø;¨2 'wø¨˙ 'gø;¨23)a. In the British accent, at the be-
ginning of the twentieth century, (o¨) was widespread; until the fifties it was (P¨),
always with lip rounding, while (È¨, ‘¨), at that time, sounded rather a‡ected.
û 2.5. British diphthongs.
/Iiı/ (iIı) /[j/ˆ]Uu/ ([j]¯u)
/Ii/ (Ii) /[j/ˆ]Uuı/ ([j]uUı)
/EI[ı]/ (™I, ™¤ı)
/OU[ı]/ (‘¨, Ö¨ı)
/aE[ı]/ (aÙ, aÉı) /aO[ı]/ (aÖ[ı])
2.1.4.3. In the vocogram showing /IÈ≤, EÈ≤, [j]UÈ≤/ (û 2.3), there are also /aEÈ≤,
aOÈ≤/. As a matter of fact, in a typical British pronunciation (besides remaining sta-
ble, as in American English), both can frequently reduce to ç/aÈ≤/Ç (a;È) (and
(a;å|)): ('faÙ‘Ω, 'faÙå|) and ('fa;‘Ω, 'fa;å|) /'faEÈ≤[z]/ fire(s). Otherwise, /aOÈ≤/ can be-
come ç/A:È≤/Ç (A;È) (and (A;å|)), up to coincide with /A:[≤]/: ('ThaÖ‘Ω, 'ThaÖå|),
('Tha;‘Ω, 'Tha;å|) (also ('ThA;‘Ω, 'ThA;å|), besides ('ThA:[Ω])) /'taOÈ≤[z]/ tower(s).
In this kind of pronunciation (sometimes defined çsmoothingÇ), even the rarer
/EIÈ≤, OEÈ≤, OUÈ≤/ can always be lessened, respectively, to ç/E:È≤, O:È≤, È:È≤/Ç. ˛us
ç/E:È≤/Ç (up to coincide with /EÈ≤/): ('l™I‘Ω, 'l™Iå|), ('l™;‘Ω, 'l™;å|), ('l™;‘[Ω]) (and also
('l™;É[Ω], 'l™:[Ω])) /'lEIÈ≤[z]/ lZer(s); ç/O:È≤/Ç (up to coincide with the old ç/OÈ≤/Ç): (¤m-
'phløÙ‘Ω, -øÙå|), (-ø;‘[Ω], -ø;å|), /Im'plOEÈ≤[z]/ employer(s); ç/È:È≤/Ç (up to coincide
with /È:≤/): ('m‘¨‘Ω, 'm‘¨å|), ('m‘;‘Ω, 'm‘;å|), ('m‘:[Ω]) /'mOUÈ≤[z]/ mower(s) (Ô
('faÙ≥[Ü], 'ThaÖ≥[Ü], 'l™I≥[Ü], ¤m'phløÙ≥[Ü], 'mø¨≥[Ü])a).
2.1.4.4. In neutral (both American and Briti´) pronunciation, /π</ remains:

('mπ<i)a ('mπ>i)b /'mπ<i/ marry÷ di‡erent from ('m™<i)a ('m™>i)b /'mE<i/ merry˘ Be-
sides, we have: ('sTA;<i)a ('sTA;>i)b /'stA:<i/ ®arry÷ ('sA<i÷ 'sO;<i)a ('sØ>i)b /'sØ<i/ sorry÷
('sTO;<i)a ('sTø;>i)b /'stO:<i/ ®or(e)y˘
˛e di‡erence –only by now in traditional American pronunciation– between
('O;<®) /'O:<®/ aural and ('o;<®) ç/'OÈ<®/Ç (sometimes, represented as ç/'o:<Èı/Ç or, even,
as in the misleading transcription ç/'OU<®/Ç) oral is neither neutral, nor any longer
modern: it is ('O;<®) for both. At most, sometimes (in both accents), one can resort
to /'Ø<®/ for oral˚ in order to avoid ambiguities. But, for this very reason, not infre-
quently, people even say ('aÖ<®) /'aO<®/ aural]˘
Vowel diaphonemes
2.1.5.1. ˛ere is a di‡erence, especially in British English, between ('f≥;i)a

('f‘;>i)b /'fÈ:<i/ furry and ('h≥;i)a ('hå>i)b /'hÈ;<i/ hurry, occurring in just a few words.
2. english 55
In a diaphonemic transcription, it is conveniently represented by /È:</ – /È;</, as

we have just seen.
We must now also introduce the diaphoneme /˘</, occurring in the context
/é˘<é/, especially in the set /I˘<é, E˘<é, U˘<é/ (corresponding to /IÈ≤, EÈ≤, UÈ≤/);
more rarely it occurs in /aE˘<é, aO˘<é, OE˘<é/, as well.
Typically, in American English, /˘/ is dropped and realized as çzeroÇ; so we have:
('m™<i)a ('m™‘>i)b /'mE˘<i/ Mary (consequently, in American pronunciation, it is
the same as merry, and, in current and widespread pronunciation, which howev-
er is not neutral –but mediatic, Ô § 2.4.2.2– the same goes for marry, too), ('khl¤<-
¤˙)a ('khl¤È>¤˙)b /'klI˘<I˙/ cleari«, ('khl¤<¤T)a ('khl¤È>¤T)b /'klI˘<It/ clear it, ('D¨<¤˙)a
('Dj¨È>¤˙)b /'dÛ˘<I˙/ duri«. Often, we have: ('D≥;¤˙)a /'dˆÈ:<I˙/ and ('Djø;>¤˙)b /'djO:-
<I˙/ (this example shows the diaphoneme /ˆ/, too).
˛erefore, in American English, ('sp¤<¤T, -ÈT) holds good both of /'spI<It/ spirit
{('sp¤<ÈT, -¤T) ('sp¤>¤T)b), and of /'spI˘<It/ spear it {('sp¤<¤T, -ÈT) ('sp¤È>¤T)b). On the oth-
er hand, some speakers may distinguish, saying: ('sp¤<ÈT, -¤T) /'spI<It/ and ('spI≥¤T, -ÈT)
/'spI˘<It/. Furthermore: ('hI;≥ Èn'∑™;≥)a ('h¤;È> Èn'∑™;‘)b /'hI˘< Èn[d]'∑EÈ≤/ here and
ère˘
2.1.5.2. ‹en /˘/ is preceded by a consonant, it may be dropped (more fre-

quently so in the British accent): (&™lÈ'm™n[[]È<i, -nT<i)a (&™l¤'m™N˛>i)b /El¢'mEnt˘<i/
elementary˘ ©th this kind of su‚x, in American English, a secondary stress is
kept, when it is preceded by an unstressed syllable: ('D¤kSó&™<i, -È&n™<i)a ('D¤kSó>i,
-Ènˇi)b /'dIkSóŒ<i/ dictionary˚ ('kh√sTÈ&m™<i)a ('khåsTÈm>i, -mˇi)b /'k√stÈmŒ<i/ cu®om-
ary˚ (A;<'Th¤kjÈlÈ&Tø<i)a (A;'Th¤kjÈlÈ˛>i)b /A:≤'tIkjÈlÈtK:<i/ articulatory˘ It may thus be
convenient to use the diaphonemes /Œ, K:/, as well. ˛is is very economical, because
it helps save some of the space given to transcriptions, especially in dictionaries,
without renouncing precious information. For the last example given, there is a
variant (chiefly British): (A;&T¤kjÈ'l™I˛>i)b /A:≤tIkjÈ'lEIt˘<i/).
Especially for Briti´ English, it may be useful to use the diaphoneme /È/, to
show the oscillation between (unstressed) /jÈ/ and /jU/ (jÈ, j¨): ('>™gj¨lå, -gjÈ-) /'<Eg-
jÈlÈ≤/ regular˚ /A:≤'tIkjÈlÈtK:<i÷ A:≤tIkjÈ'lEIt˘<i/ (-kj¨-, -kjÈ-), ('khØmj¨&n¤zõ, -mjÈ-); in
American English, /jÈ/ definitely prevails.
Besides, the handy diaphonemes /ju, u/ may be useful, to show the fluctuation
between (jUu'naÙT, j¨-)a (j¯u-, j¨-)b /ju'naEt/ unite, ('sTπcUu, -¯)a (-¯u, -¯)b /'stπcu/
®atue˘
It is convenient to use the diaphoneme /˘/ in other contexts, too: (vÈ'lAsÈ[i, -sTi)a
(vÈ'lØsÈTi, -sTi)b /vÈ'lØs˘ùi/ veloci“, ('nAvÈl¤sT, -vÍ¤sT)a ('nØ-)b /'nØv˘lIst/ noveli®, ('g√v-
≥n≥, -vÈn≥, -vn≥)a ('gåvóå, -vnå)b /'g√v˘≤nÈ≤/ governor˚ Â.
2.1.5.3. Two other diaphonemes, /π;, Ø;/, are more important in distinguishing
between the American and British modern neutral accents. ˛e first, /π;/, shows
the di‡erence between /π/a (but it often behaves like a long monophthong ç/π:/Ç)
and /A:/b (chiefly before /f, †, s/ and before /ö0/), as in: ('g<π[;]sp)a ('g>A;sp)b
/'g<π;sp/ grasp˚ ('lπ[;]sT)a ('lA;sT)b /'lπ;st/ la®˚ ('phπ[;]s)a ('phA;s)b /'pπ;s/ pa˛˚ ('hπ[;]f)a
('hA;f)b /'hπ;f/ half˚ ('π[;]fT≥)a ('A;fTå)b /'π;ftÈ≤/ after˚ ('phπ[;]†)a ('phA;†)b /'pπ;†/ pa`˘
More examples are: ('Dπ[;]ns)a ('DA;ns)b /'dπ;ns/ dance˚ ('phlπ[;]nT)a ('phlA;nT)b

/'plπ;nt/ plant˚ ('khπ[;]nT)a ('khA;nT)b /'kπ;nt/ can't˚ (¤g'zπ[;]mp®)a (¤g'zA;mp®)b /Ig-
'zπ;mp®/ example˚ (khû'mπ:nfl, -π;-)a (-A:nfl)b /kÈ'mπ;nd/ command˚ ('π[;]nT)a ('A;nT)b
/'π;nt/ aunt÷ ('<π[;]∑≥)a ('>A;∑å)b /'<π;∑È≤/ raèr˚ (mÈ'<π;ı)a (-'>A:ı)b /mÈ'<π;ı/ morale,
(bÈ'nπ[;]n√)a (bÈ'nA;nå)b /bÈ'nπ;nÈ/ banana.
Even in British English, there are forms with /π/: ('πsp) /'πsp/ asp˚ ('phπnT)
/'pπnt/ pant˚ Â, of course, besides: ('bπ;nD) /'bπnd/ band˚ ('mπ;n) /'mπn/ man˚
('mπ†s) /'mπ†s/ ma`s˚ Â.
2.1.5.4. ˛e second of these diaphonemes, /Ø;/, shows the di‡erence between

/O:/a (but /Ø/a occurs, too) and /Ø/b (in particular before /f, †, s, ˙, g/ and /<é/), as
in: ('O;f, 'Af)a ('Øf)b /'Ø;f/ o‡˚ ('khlO;†, -A†)a ('khlØ†)b /'klØ;†/ clo`˚ ('lO;s, 'lAs)a ('lØs)b
/'lØ;s/ lo˛˚ ('lO;sT, 'lAsT)a ('lØsT)b /'lØ;st/ lo®˚ ('sO:˙, 'sA;˙)a ('sØ;˙)b /'sØ;˙/ so«˚ ('DO:â,
'DA;â)a ('DØ;â)b /'dØ;g/ dog˚ ('hO;<Èb®, 'hA-)a ('hØ>Èb®)b /'hØ;<Èb®/ horrible˚ ('O;<ÈGÈn,
'A-)a ('Ø>¤G¤n)b /'Ø;<¢G¢n/ origin˚ ('flO;<ÈD√, 'flA-)a ('flØ>¤Då)b /'flØ;<¢dÈ/ √orida˚
('khwO;<®, 'khwA-)a ('khwØ>®)b /'kwØ;<Èı/ quarrel˚ ('gO:n, 'gA;n)a ('gØ;n)b /'gØ;n/ gone˘
But, for /Ø;/, there are even cases like: /Ø/a (but /O:/a is to be preferred) /Ø/b, as
in: ('sA<i÷ 'sO;<i)a ('sØ>i)b /'sØ<i/ sorry˚ (ThÈ'mA<ø¨÷ -'mO;-)a (ThÈ'mØ>‘¨)b /tÈ'mØ;<OU/ to-
morrow˚ ('wAc÷ 'wO;c)a ('wØc)b /'wØ;c/ wab˚ ('f<A;â÷ 'f<O:â)a ('f>Ø;â)b /'f<Ø;g/ frog˚
('chAklÈT÷ 'chO;-)a ('chØklÈT)b /'cØ;klÈt/ >ocolate˚ ('DA;ı÷ 'DO:ı)a and ('DAli÷ 'DO;li)a
('DØ;ı÷ 'DØli)b /'dØ;ı, 'dØ;li/ doll(y)˚ ('wAnT, 'wO;nT)a ('wØnT)b /'wØ;nt/ want˘
It is interesting to notice the peculiarity of ('wO;m≥, 'wAm≥)a ('wø;Tå)b /'wO;ùÈ≤/ wa-
ter˘ In England, ('wØTå) is no neutral pronunciation; it can be found most com-
monly in an area including Oxford and Reading. In a few words with /Ø;f, Ø;†, Ø;s,
Ø;ft, Ø;st/, even in British English, a minority pronunciation with /O:/ is possible,
besides the preferred one with /Ø/; they are: o‡˚ cough˚ trough˚ bro`˚ fro`˚ cro˛˚
lo˛˚ to˛˚ soft˚ croft˚ co®˚ fro®˚ lo®˚ oft˚ often˚ soften˘
2.1.5.5. ˛ere are another couple of diaphonemes, /A;, O;/, which are relatively
less significant, because /A;/ is used especially in words of foreign origin, written
with an a\ ('phA;sT√)a ('phπsTå)b /'pA;stÈ/ pa®a, (&vIi™T'nA:m, -™ö'-)a (-'nπ;m)b /vIiEt-
'nA;m/ Vietnam˘
‹ile /O;/ occurs in particular in words written with ausC˚ aunC˚ alC\ (O;'sTI;≥,
A-)a (ø;'sT¤;å, Ø-)b /O;'stIÈ≤/ au®ere, ('hO;nT, 'hAnT)a ('hø;nT)b /'hO;nt/ haunt˚ ('sO;ıT,
'sAıT)a ('sø;ıT÷ 'sØıT)b /'sO;ıt/ salt˘ As the examples show, /O;/ concerns, above all,
American English. On the other hand, /A;/ may present twofold possibilities, in
both accents, according to words and to speakers.
˛e (socio)diaphoneme /¢/
2.1.6.1. ˛e last vowel diaphoneme we must consider is /¢/ = /È, I/. ˛is refers
to the alternation in the realizations of /¢/: between /È/ and /I/. Clearly, /È/ (È) pre-
vails in the American accent, while /I/ (¤) prevails in the Briti´ one, even if things
are a little more complicated. Indeed, in American English, too, there are cases of
2. english 57
/¢/ = /I/, chiefly in a more refind and more conservative way of speaking. By the
same token, in British English, there are cases of /¢/ = /È/, chiefly in a less refined
and more innovative way of speaking. So, we find a greater convergence at a more
up-to-date and modern level.
Here are a few examples: (sÈ'vI;≥)a (s¤'v¤;å)b /s¢'vIÈ≤/ severe, ('™ksÈGÈnT, '™gz-)a
(-¤G-)b /'Eks¢GÈnt, 'Egz-/ exigent, (&khAmp<È'h™~SÈn)a (&khØmp>¤'h™~Só)b /kØmp<¢-
'hEnS˘n/.
2.1.6.2. It may be a good idea to take stock of the situation about some (real or
seeming) su‚xes and prefixes, because we still find old-fashioned and outdated tran-
scriptions, especially in bilingual dictionaries. ˛e modern neutral pronunciation,
British too, by now, has /È/ (while /I/ sounds quite pompous) in: -ace ('phπlÈs)
/'pπlÈs/ palace÷ -ate ('chAklÈT)a ('chØklÈT)b /'cØklÈt/ >ocolate÷ -iI ('hπpÈli) /'hπpÈ-
li/ happiI÷ -i“ ('khwAn[[]È[i)a ('khwØnTÈTi)b /'kwØnùÈùi/ quanti“˘
‹en /-Èùi/ is preceded by /s/, it can often become /-sti/. So, a notation like /-s˘ùi/
includes both possibilities, while excluding that the two diaphonemes /˘, ù/ may
work together, because of contextual incompatibilities. ˛at means that, if /˘/ falls,
then /ù/ automatically becomes /t/, because it is preceded by /s/): nece˛i“˚ univer-
si“˚ veloci“ /nÈ'sEs˘ùi, jUun¢'vÈ:≤s˘ùi, vÈ'lØs˘ùi/.
Besides, we have: -le˛ ('hø¨plÈs)a ('h‘¨plÈs)b /'hOUplÈs/ hopele˛÷ -ne˛ ('g¨DnÈs)
/'gUdnÈs/ goodne˛˘ For -e˛˚ /Ès/ prevails, chiefly in American English, while in Brit-
ish English /Is/ is also possible (actre˛˚ waitre˛); in some cases, /Es/ too (du>e˛);
for prince˛˚ we have: ('ph<¤nsÈs, -™s)a (p>¤n's™s, 'ph>¤ns™s)b. To end with, -let ('b<™Is-
lÈT)a ('b>-)b /'b<EIslÈt/ bracelet÷ -ret ('skA;<lÈT)a ('skA;lÈT)b /'skA:≤lÈt/ scarlet˘
2.1.6.3. We have /¢/ (which means, mainly /È/ in American, but /I/ in Briti´
English] for: -ed ('w™I[Èfl)a ('w™IT¤fl)b /'wEIù¢d/ waited÷ -es ('hø;<ßÈΩ)a ('hø;s¤Ω)b /'hO:≤-
s¢z/ horses÷ -e® ('b¤gûsT)a ('b¤g¤sT)b /'bIgIst/ bigge®÷ -et ('Th¤kûT)a (-¤T)b /'tIk¢t/ ti$et˚
('vEıvÈT)a ('v™ıv¤T)b /'vEıv¢t/ velvet (but ('¤nT<ÈsT, '¤n[[]È&<™sT)a ('¤n˛>ÈsT, '¤nTÈ&>™sT)b
/'Int<Èst, 'InùÈ<Est/ intere®]÷ -ite ('ApÈzÈT, -s-)a ('ØpÈz¤T, -s-)b /'ØpÈz¢t, -s-/ opposite˘
Besides: -ice ('AfÈs, 'O;-)a ('Øf¤s)b /'Ø;f¢s/ o‚ce÷ -ine (¤g'zπmÈn)a (-¤n)b /Ig'zπm¢n/
examine÷ -i« ('v™<È&faÙ)a ('v™>¤&faÙ)b /'vE<¢faE/ veri«˘
Furthermore: be- (bû'kh√m:)a (b¤'khåm:)b /b¢'k√m/ become÷ de- (DÈ'mπ;nfl,
-π:nfl)a (D¤'mA:nfl)b /d¢'mπ;nd/ demand (but ède¶ /dIi-/: (DIi'n™Ic≥)a (-cå)b /dIi'nEI-
cÈ≤/ denature]÷ pre- (ph<È'Th™n:fl)a (ph>¤-)b /p<¢'tEnd/ pretend÷ re- (<È'ThaÙ≥)a (>¤-
'ThaÙå)b /<¢'taEÈ≤/ retire (but çre-¶ /<Ii-/: (<Ii'g™;In)a (>Ii-)b /<Ii'gEIn/ regain]˘
In words like become˚ demand˚ pretend˚ retire˚ eleven˚ we could add that /¢/ has
a possible variant /i/ (or even /Ii/). ˛is, generally, belongs to a formal American
pronunciation; while, the British one is at the opposite side. ˛erefore, it is safer
to stick to what we have just said. Of course, everyone will decide for themselves,
especially through the regular consultation of a reliable pronunciation dictionary
(but it is much better to look up words, regularly, in more than one dictionary).
To end with, most internal -e-˚ -i- (in unchecked syllables), generally, have /¢/
(namely, as a trend, /È/ in American and /I/ in British pronunciation): ('™lÈmÈnT)a
('™l¤mÈnT)b /'El¢mÈnt/ element˚ (&¤nsTÈ'ThUuSÈn)a (&¤nsT¤'Thj¯uSó)b /Inst¢'tÛuS˘n/ in®i-
tution˘
2.1.6.4. On the contrary, regularly we have /I/ in: -ic(s) (fÈ'n™[¤k[s])a (-T¤k[s])b /fÈ-
'nEùIk[s]/ #onetic(s)÷ -ical (sÈ'Th¤<¤k®)a (->¤-)b /sÈ'tI<Ik®/ sa“rical÷ -i« ('sTπnD¤˙)
/'stπndI˙/ ®andi«÷ -íp ('f<™~S¤p)a ('f>-)b /'f<EndSIp/ friendíp÷ -ive (¤n'Th™ns¤Ñ)
/In'tEnsIv/ intensive˘
˛is group includes: -age ('v¤l¤ä) /'vIlIG/ village÷ -i´ ('¤˙gl¤S) /'I˙glIS/ Engli´÷ -i®
('l¤˙gw¤sT) /'lI˙gwIst/ li«ui®÷ e- and i- (at the beginning of words, in unchecked
syllables): (¤'l™vÈn) /I'lEvÈn/ eleven˚ (¤'Thπ¬jÈn) /I'tπljÈn/ Italian÷ im- and in- (in
checked syllables): (¤m'phø;<TóT, -<öóT)a (-ø;T-÷ -öóT)b /Im'pO:≤tót/ important˚ (¤n-
'sT™;fl) /In'stEd/ in®ead˘ In some American pronunciations, all these words may
have either /I/ or /È/.
As far as /¢/ is concerned, Oceanian and South African English are more like
American English.
Usually, /È/ is unstressed, being the weak vowel par excellence. ˛ere are two
forms, however, that are very often heard even with stressed /È/ (except in formal
pronunciation): ('ch¤ıD<Èn, 'chûı-, 'ch®-, 'ch¨ı-)a (-Ã>-)b /'cIıd<Èn, 'cÈı-, 'cUı-/ >il-
dren˚ ('DÈzóT, 'DÇóT, -óö) /'d√zót, 'dÈ-/ doesn't (this is given in an example in § 2.6.4,
too). Let us consider also the possibility of çrestressingÇ for emphasis, as in: Oh, I
didn't buy it: it wasn't the ('∑I;i, '∑Èö) dre˛, it was ju® a ('ö™;I, 'öÈö) dre˛ (example
adapted from a phonetics newsgroup).
Consonants
2.2.0. At the beginning of this section, we will show the table of the consonan-
tal articulations of (American and British) neutral English: û 2.6. It is useful to
make regular reference to it, in order to thoroughly understand the English conso-
nantal system.
û 1.9-15 show the orograms of all the contoids needed to describe English (and
the other languages dealt with in HPr), including secondary, occasional, or re-
gional variants, arranged according to their manner of articulation.
û 3.6. Table of neutral English consonants.

postalveolar prot.
prevelar round.
postalveopalatal
velarized alveol.
{postalveolariz.}
velar rounded
postalveolar
protruded
labiodental
prepalatal
laryngeal
alveolar
bilabial
palatal
dental
velar
ö m (M) (n) n (~) ˙

F pb (t d) T D (˛ Ã)b k g (ö)
Ô cG
ƒ f v † ∑
_ s z (ß fi)a S Z
ß (>)b j <a w h (H)
ó ([|m)a
‹ l ı (¬)
/ù/ ([a, ma, Tb), //l// /l, ı/ (lé, -lj, ¬-j, ı0, ıò), /</ (<a, >b)
2. english 59
Nasals
2.2.1.1. English has three nasal phonemes\ /m, n, ˙/. ˛e velar phoneme does
not occur at the beginning of English words, but it is normal in internal and final
positions: ('n™;Im) /'nEIm/ name, ('†¤n:) /'†In/ ìn, ('†¤˙:) /'†I˙/ ì«, ('bπ;˙) /'bπ˙/
ba«, (bû'kh√m¤˙)a (b¤'khåm¤˙)b /b¢'k√mI˙/ becomi«, ('s¤˙¤˙) /'sI˙I˙/ si«i«,
('lO:˙ û'gø;¨, 'lA;˙)a ('lØ;˙ û'g‘;¨)b /'lØ;˙ È'gOU/ lo« ago, ('sT<™˙[k]†ó¤˙)a ('s˛>-)b
/'st<E˙†óI˙/ ®re«èni«˘
In unstressed syllables, after /t, d÷ †, ∑÷ s, z/, there is a typical intense (çsyllabicÇ)
realization of /n/ {(ó) /ó/; after /†, ∑/, we find ((2))}. It is definitely worthwhile to
use it in (dia)phonemic transcriptions, as well, although clearly its origin is /Èn/:
('khATó, -öó)a ('khØTó, -öó)b /'kØtó/ cotton, ('w¨Dó) /'wUdó/ wooden, ('≥;†ó)a ('‘;†ó)b
((-†2)) /'È:≤†ó/ earèn, ('mø:< ∑ó'∑πT)a ('mø:)b ((∑2-)) /'mO:≤ ∑Èn'∑πt/ more àn àt,
('fπ[;]só)a ('fA;só)b /'fπ;só/ fa®en, ('chø¨zó)a ('ch‘¨zó)b /'cOUzó/ >osen˘ After /0t,
0d/, it is best to use /Èn/: ('w¤nsTÈn) /'wInstÈn/ Win®on˚ ('hø¨ıDÈn)a ('hÖ¨ı-)b
/'hOUıdÈn/ Holden˘
Furthermore, we have /˘n/ (= (Èn)a (ó)b) after /S, Z/: (ph<È&n√nsi'™ISÈn)a (-å-, -Só)b
/p<Èn√nsi'EIS˘n/ pronunciation˚ (phÈ'<¤ZÈn)a (->¤Zó)b /pÈ'<IZ˘n/ Parisian˘ In a prein-
toneme, (Èn) can easily become (ó), chiefly after /S, Z÷ c, G/.
After other consonants, /Èn/ (Èn, ûn) is more usual: ('l√~cÈn)a ('lå-)b /'l√ncÈn/
lun>eon˚ (<È'l¤GÈn)a (>¤-)b /<¢'lIGÈn/ religion˚ ('<¤bÈn)a ('>¤bÈn)b /'<IbÈn/ ribbon,
('√~jÈn)a ('å~jÈn)b /'√njÈn/ onion, ('Th™Ikûn) /'tEIkÈn/ taken˘
‹en speed is higher, especially in a preintoneme, we can go as far as (có, Gó÷
põ, bõ÷ kô, gô): ('l√~cÈn, -có)a ('lå-)b˚ (<È'l¤GÈn, -Gó)a (>¤-)b˚ ('ø¨pÈn, -põ)a
('‘¨-)b /'OUpÈn/ open˚ ('<¤bÈn, -bõ)a ('>¤-)b˚ ('Th™Ikûn, -kô), ('ø;<gûn, -gô)a ('ø;g-)b
/'O:≤gÈn/ organ˘ On the other hand, when speed is lower, or for emphasis, /ó/ can
easily become (Èn): ('l¤só, -sÈn) /'lIsó/ li®en˘
Regularly, we have: (n[D]Èn) /n[d]Èn/: ('l™nÈn) /'lEnÈn/ Lennon, ('l√nDÈn)a ('lån-)b
/'l√ndÈn/ London÷ but, ('wAnTó, -nöó, -nTÈn, 'wO;n-)a ('wØnTÈn÷ -nöó)b /'wØ;nt˘n/
wanton˘
2.2.1.2. A˛imilation is very important, and it must not be neglected either in
the description of languages, or in teaching and learning. Let us notice that, of the
three English nasal phonemes, the two marked ones, /m, ˙/, resist well; while, the
unmarked one, /n/, undergoes several changes, contrary to what phonemic tran-
scriptions generally seem to indicate.
However, proceeding in an organized manner, we have: ('D<I;imfl)a ('Ã>-)b
/'d<Iimd/ dreamed, ('D<™mT)a ('Ã>-)b /'d<Emt/ dreamt, ('s√m&ThaÙmΩ)a ('såm-)b /'s√m-
taEmz/ sometimes, ('s™;Im 'kha;Ùnfl) /'sEIm 'kaEnd/ same kind, (sÈm'G™li) /sÈm'GEli/
some jelI˚ ('s™;IM 'vøÙs, -m '6øÙs) /'sEIm 'vOEs/ same voice, ('s™;IM 'fπkT, -M] 'f-, -m
'åπkT) /'sEIm 'fπkt/ same fact, ('kh√Mf≥T, -M]f-, -må-)a ('khåMfÈT, -M]f-, -må-)b
/'k√mfÈ≤t/ comfort˘ As can be seen, only with labiodentals, /m/ shows a slight let-
-up, becoming labiodental, (Mf÷ M]f), but this happens just in trivial cases from a
lexical-semantic point of view. Otherwise, /f, v/ may become bilabial (constric-
tives): (må, m6).
Our examples also show that at present a homorganic (labiodental) stop may
very often be inserted into the sequence (mf) (¤ only with voiceless /f/); but a too
frequent use is better avoided. ˛is homorganic insertion can happen with other
sequences too: ('wø;<m†, -mp†)a ('wø;m-)b /'wO:≤m†/ warm`, ('™mTi, '™mpTi) /'Em-
ti/ emp“, ('s¤msó, 's¤mpsó) /'sImsó/ Sim(p)son.
Even /˙/ resists well: ('<O:˙fl, '<A;˙fl)a ('>Ø;˙fl)b /'<Ø;˙d/ wro«ed, ('w¤˙&bπk) /'wI˙-
bπk/ wi«ba$˘ Only for the su‚x -i« (¤˙) /I˙/ (but at a non-neutral level, not to
be followed), can we have /In, ¢n, ó/: ('s™l¤˙÷ ≠-¤n÷ ≠-Èn) /'sElI˙/ selli«. We can also
find: ('l™˙†, -˙k†) /'lE˙†/ le«`˚ ('kh¤˙sTÈn, -˙ks-, -˙z-, -Tó) /'kInst˘n/ Ki«®on˚ (π˙-
'zaÙÈ[i, π˙g-)a (-Ti)b /π˙'zaEÈùi/ anxie“, ('π˙SÈs, 'π˙k-) /'π˙SÈs/ anxious.
2.2.1.3. On the contrary, except in a very accurate way of speaking (even too
accurate!), /n/ assimilates to a following contoid: (¤m'blπk) /Im'blπk/ in bla$˚ (¤M-
'vaÙT) /In'vaEt/ invite˚ (¤M'f™kT÷ ¤M]-) /In'fEkt/ infect˚ (¤˙∑È'bAks, ¤˙˙È-)a (-Øks)b /In-
∑È'bØks/ in è box˚ ('Th™˙†÷ -˙t†) /'tEn†/ ten`˚ ('Th™ns÷ -˙ts) /'tEns/ tense˚ ('ph¤ns≥,
-ts≥)a (-å)b /'pInsÈ≤/ pincer (for ((˙)) see below).
For some time, /nzé/ has been simplified (but /ndzé/ can always be restored, ac-
cording to current spelling): ('w¤nz≥, -ndz≥)a (-å)b /'wInzÈ≤/ Windsor˚ ('l¤nzi, -dzi)
/'lInzi/ Linds\˘ Even in /nzò/, a /d/ can be inserted: ('khl™n:Ω, -n:dΩ) /'klEnz/ cleanse˚
('khl™nz¤˙, -ndz¤˙) /'klEnzI˙/ cleansi«. But this is less and less recommendable,
specially with grammemes: (¤'Thπ¬jÈnΩ÷ -ndΩ÷ È-) /I'tπljÈnz, È-/ Italians˚ ('GA;nΩ÷
-ndΩ)a ('GØ;-)b /'GØnz/ John's˘
Furthermore, we have (~) (postalveopalatal, ((n))): ('¤~c) /'Inc/ in>˚ (¤~'chaÙn√)a
(-å)b /In'caEnÈ/ in ≥ina˚ ('™I~G®) /'EInG®/ a«el˚ (È'Th™~SÈn÷ -~cÈn÷ -~+SÈn)a (-~Só÷
-~có÷ -~+Só)b attention˘ But we find (~) (prepalatal) before /j/ (if this is hetero-
syllabic): (khûm'phπ~jÈn) /kÈm'pπnjÈn/ companion˚ ('√~jÈn)a ('å-)b /'√njÈn/ onion˘
Besides: ('h™n<i)a ('h™N>i)b /'hEn<i/ Henry˚ (¤n'Th<¤ns¤k)a (¤N'˛h>-)b /In't<InsIk/ in-
trinsic˚ ('Th™˙ 'g≥:ıΩ, 'g≥;®Ω)a ('g‘:ıΩ)b /'tEn 'gÈ:≤ız/ ten girls˚ Â. Also (¤m'w¤n[m]≥)a
(-nTå)b /In'wInùÈ≤/ in winter should be noticed.
A better transcription for (~c, ~G, ~+S) would be ((nc, nG, ntS)), with ((n)) – and
even ç((t))Ç (for a çpostalveopalatal stopÇ). It was stated above that dental ((˙)) could
be represented with (n), as well, chiefly in (n∑), because the simple fact that /n∑/
has (dental) (∑) allows us to infer that we automatically have ((˙∑)), by assimilation.
On the contrary, a special symbol would be more important in ((˙˙)), to show
that it is not (nn) (alveolar, but dental, coming from ((˙∑)) /n∑/), as, for instance,
in: (¤n'nø;¨&Tha;Ùm)a (-‘;¨-)b /In'nOUtaEm/ in no time. On the other hand, for some
speakers, a less completely assimilated realization produces exactly (nn). ˛is is
not very di‡erent auditorily, so more precise symbols could even be avoided, with
no real drawbacks.
In lexical composition, as well as for the negative prefix un-, in a slow — careful
way of speaking, people try to keep (n), while –currently– assimilation to the place
of articulation of a following consonant is quite regular.
As an actual compromise, here we will show that it is possible to maintain an
apical contact while adding a secondary coarticulation (with no full contact) – bi-
labial, (º); labiodental, (¸); velar, (n): (&√mbÈ'lIivÈb®, &√º-)a (&åmb¤-, &åº-)b /√nb¢-
2. english 61
'lIivÈb®/ unbelievable˚ (√M'f<™nDli, √¸-)a (åM'f>-, å¸-)b /√n'f<Endli/ unfriendI˚ (√˙-

'g<™ITf®, √n-, -öf®)a (å˙'g>-, ån-, -öf®)b /√n'g<EItf®/ u«rateful.
In all other cases, with less di‡erent coarticulations, assimilation (which is of-
ten considered less recommendable, on mere written and grammatical bases) is
more elusive. It is therefore used spontaneously, though unconsciously.
To end, simplification is also possible, though less frequently than in the past,
in cases like: ('s™nts÷ -ns) /'sEnts/ cen_˚ ('pha;ÖndΩ÷ -nΩ) /'paOndz/ pounds˚ ('l√~c÷
-~S)a ('lå-)b /'l√nc/ lun>˚ ('l√~cÈn÷ -~SÈn)a ('lå-)b /'l√ncÈn/ lun>eon˚ (<È'v™~:ä÷ -~:Ë)a
(>¤-)b /<¢'vEnG/ reve«e˚ ('™I~G®÷ -~Z®÷ -Gûı, -Zûı) /'EInG®÷ -GÈı/ a«el˘
Stops
2.2.2.1. ˛ere are three diphonic pairs of ®ops (¤ pairs of both a voiceless and
a voiced articulation): /p, b÷ t, d÷ k, g/. Of course, /t, d/ are alveolar (T, D): (ThÈ'D™;I)
/tÈ'dEI/ todZ, ('D™sTÈ&TUuT)a ('D™sT¤&Tj¯uT)b /'dEst¢tÛut/ de®itute˘ However, before /†,
∑÷ s, z/, /t, d/ become dental (t, d): ('™It†) /'EIt†/ eigh`, ('w¤∂†) /'wId†/ wid`,
('hπts) /'hπts/ ha_, ('h™;dΩ) /'hEdz/ heads˘
On the contrary, before /</ (>)b, in British English, /t, d/ become postalveolar,
always due to assimilation: ('Th<a;Ù)a ('˛h>a;Ù)b /'t<aE/ try, ('kh√nT<i)a ('khåN˛>i)b
/'k√nt<i/ country, ('D<¤˙k)a ('Ã>¤˙k)b /'d<I˙k/ drink˘
For /t<, d</, however, several pronunciations are possible, mostly with /t, d/ real-
ized as stop-strictives (or ça‡ricatesÇ): in American English (ç[h]<, Ç<÷ C[h]<, ‚<÷
c[h]<, G<)a; in British English (ú[h]>, ∂>÷ fi[h]>, ">÷ C[h]>, ‚>÷ c[h]>, G>)b.
Furthermore, a (homorganic) constrictive realization is possible for /</ (which is
then, respectively, alveolar or postalveolar rounded, (ï, ø)): (T[h]ï, Dï)a (˛[h]ø, Ãø)b.
So: ('Th<a;Ù, 'çh<-, 'Ch<-, 'ch<-, 'Thï-)a ('˛h>a;Ù, 'úh>-, 'fih>-, 'Ch>-, 'ch>-, '˛hø-)b /'t<aE/
try, ('kh√nT<i, -ç<i, -C<i, -c<i, -Tïi)a ('khåN˛>i, -ú>i, -fi>i, -C>i, -c>i, -˛øi)b /'k√nt<i/
country, ('D<¤˙k, 'Ç<-, '‚<-, 'G<-, 'Dï-)a ('Ã>¤˙k, '∂>-, '">-, '‚>-, 'G>-, 'Ãø-)b /'d<I˙k/
drink˘
All these pronunciations are possible as neutral ones too, although opinions re-
garding their correctness may be influenced by spelling. On the other hand, from
a structural point of view, /c<, G</ could represent a fitting parallelism with /S</,
as in ('S<¤˙k)a ('S>-)b /'S<I˙k/ ´rink˘
2.2.2.2. Some other transformations of /t, d/ are much more significant; indeed,
although to foreigners (T, D) might seem more çmarkedÇ, actually, in the natives'
phonological system, /t, d/ are an unmarked diphonic pair of stops (as happens to
/n/ in comparison with /m, ˙/). From an articulatory point of view, /t, d/ are liable
to assimilation; not to çcomplicateÇ things, but rather to make them easier.
So, /t, d/, before /p, b, m, w/, generally, become (p, b): (&∑πp'mπ;n) /∑πt'mπn/
àt man˚ (&∑πp'bø;Ù) /∑πt'bOE/ àt boy˚ ('nAp 'w√n:)a ('nØp 'wån:)b /'nØt 'w√n/ not
one; likewise, before /k, g/, they become (k, g): ('wAk kû~jÈ'DU;u, 'w√-)a ('wØk kû~-
j¨'D¯;u)b /'wØt kÈnjÈ'dUu/ what can you do?˚ (&∑πk'g≥:ı, -≥;®)a (-‘:ı)b /∑πt'gÈ:≤ı/ àt
girl˘
Even the rare sequences /pf, bv/ present some kind of assimilation (in one direc-
tion or in the other): ('kh√på¨ı, -]f¨ı)a ('khå-)b /'k√pfUı/ cupful, ('Ab6iÈs, 'A7v-)a
('Ø-)b /'ØbviÈs/ obvious˘
Prevelar articulations, which are automatic by coarticulation, need not be ex-
pressly written down: ('†¤˙k¤˙, 'g™T) {(('†¤”´¤˙, 'Ò™T))} /'†I˙kI˙, 'gEt/ ìnki«˚ get˘
2.2.2.3. One fundamental thing, already seen in previous examples, which must
not be neglected in learning and teaching, is that, in stressed syllables, initial /p,
t, k/ are çaspiratedÇ (unless they are preceded by /s/ in the same syllable and in a
same lexeme), also after silence (even in an unstressed syllable) – (0h) /0/: (ThÈ-
'D™;I) /tÈ'dEI/ todZ, ('phIik) /'pIik/ peak (but: ('spIik) /'spIik/ speak]˚ ('Th™Ik) /'tEIk/
take (but we have: ('sT™Ik) /'stEIk/ ®ake]˚ ('kh™;≥)a ('kh™;‘)b /'kEÈ≤/ care (but: ('sk™;≥)a
('sk™;‘)b /'skEÈ≤/ scare]. Nevertheless, one should notice: (m¤s'ph<¤n[[]Èfl)a (m¤s-
'ph>¤nT¤fl)b /mIs'p<Inù¢d/ misprinted (with di‡erent phono-syllables and di‡erent
morphemes).
American t /ù/ ([, m)
2.2.3.1. An important characteristic of the neutral American accent (which is,

however, not neutral in the British accent, although it is fairly widespread) regards
/t/ which, in given contexts, is realized as a voiced alveolar flap, ([) (which before
(≥) is lateralized, as well, ¤ laterally contracted: (m)).
But, let us see, first, when it remains a voiceless alveolar stop (though, in certain
cases, it may become a laryngeal –or glottal– stop, (ö)).
In stressed (even çunaspiratedÇ, in /'st/) or in half-stressed syllable: ('Th™n:) /'tEn/
ten, ('sT™m:) /'stEm/ ®em, (A;<'Th¤kjÈlÈ&Tø<i)a (A;'Th¤kjÈlÈ˛>i)b /A:≤'tIkjÈlÈtK:<i/ articula-
tory (+ (A;&T¤kj¨'l™I˛>i)b /A:≤tIkjÈ'lEIt˘<i/}, ('<UumÈ&T¤zõ)a ('>¯u-)b /'<UumÈtIzõ/ rheu-
matism˘
After a pause or after consonants (di‡erent from /n, ≤, ı/): (ThÈ'Th™Ik) /tÈ'tEIk/ to
take, ('πkT≥)a (-å)b /'πktÈ≤/ actor, ('π[;]fT≥)a ('A;fTå)b /'π;ftÈ≤/ after, ('™m[p]Ti) /'Em[p]-
ti/ emp“˘
Before consonants\ ('ch√Tni, -öni)a ('chåTni, -öni)b /'c√tni/ ≥utn\, ('phø¨ÈT<i)a
('ph‘¨¤˛>i)b /'pOU¢t<i/ poetry, ('l™ITli, -öli) /'lEItli/ lateI, (ÈT'lπn[[]¤k, Èö'l-)a (ÈT'lπnT¤k,
Èö'l-)b /Èt'lπnùIk/ Atlantic.
It remains (T) even in words in -Vtic (with no secondary stress, too): ('lUunÈT¤k)a
('l¯u-)b /'lUunÈtIk/ lunatic, ('phAlÈT¤k)a ('phØ-)b /'pØlÈtIk/ politic, (È'<¤†mÈT¤k)a (È-
'>¤†-)b /È'<I†mÈtIk/ ari`metic˘ It is the same even between /≤, ı/ and /ó/: ('nø;<Tó,
-<öó)a ('nø;Tó)b /'nO:≤tó/ Norton, ('h¤ıTó, -ıöó)a ('h¤ıTó)b /'hIıtó/ Hilton˘ Besides, we
find: ('khl¤nTÈn, -nTó, -nöó)a ('khl¤nTÈn÷ -nöó)b /'klIntÈn, -ntó/ Clinton˘
2.2.3.2. Let us now turn to the contexts where /t/ (T) becomes /ù/ ([, m), in nor-
mal (not slow, nor particularly careful) speaking.
Between a stressed (or unstressed) vowel and another vowel, or (≥, ®): ('b™[i)a
('b™Ti)b /'bEùi/ Bet“, ('vIi[ø¨)a ('vIiT‘¨)b /'vIiùOU/ veto, (&v¤zÈ'b¤lÈ[i)a (-ÈTi)b /vIzÈ'bIlÈ-
2. english 63
ùi/ visibili“, (&π[È'm¤sT¤k)a (&πTÈ-)b /πùÈ'mIstIk/ atomi®ic, ('l™m≥)a ('l™Tå)b /'lEùÈ≤/ let-
ter, ('l¤[®)a ('l¤T®)b /'lIù®/ little˘
Between /n, ≤, ı/ and a vowel, or (≥, ®) (remembering that, as our examples show,
([, m) may often be dropped after /n/, (n[[], n[m])): ('bπn[[]Èm)a ('bπnTÈm)b /'bπnù-
Èm/ bantam, ('w¤n[m]≥)a ('w¤nTå)b /'wInùÈ≤/ winter˚ ('mπn[[]®)a ('mπnT®)b /'mπnù®/
mantel, ('†≥;[i)a ('†‘;Ti)b /'†È:≤ùi/ ìr“, ('phA;<[i)a ('phA;Ti)b /'pA:≤ùi/ par“, ('SEım≥, -T≥)a
('S™ıTå)b /'SEıùÈ≤/ élter˘
Even before a stressed vowel (provided it is heterosyllabic): (phÈ'Th™I[ø¨, phÈ[-
'™I[ø¨)a (phÈ'Th™IT‘¨)b /pÈ'tEIùOU÷ pÈù'EIùOU/ potato, (È['O:ı)a (È'Thø:ı)b /Èù'O:ı, È'tO:ı/ at
all (it should be noted that there is a di‡erence, between the two accents, for at all]˘
˛e sequences /nù, ≤ù, ıù/ may even have çfusedÇ realizations, (å, m, e): ('ph™Iå¤˙)a
/'pEInùI˙/ painti«, ('phA;mi)a /'pA:≤ùi/ par“, ('fO;ei)a /'fO:ıùi/ faul“.
However, in American English, when speed is reduced, or when more attention
is paid to the way of speaking, /ù/ ([) becomes /t/ (T): ('l™m≥, 'l™T≥) /'lEùÈ≤/ letter˚
('w¤n[m]≥, -nT≥) /'wInùÈ≤/ winter˘ ˛e same goes, even in a normal manner of speak-
ing, for /ıù/: ('SEım≥, -ıT≥) /'SEıùÈ≤/ élter, ('O;ım≥, -ıT≥, 'Aı-) /'O;ıùÈ≤/ alter˘ ˛is happens
even to less common words, such as: ('vIi[ø¨, -Tø¨) /'vIiùOU/ veto, ('phl™I[ø¨, -Tø¨)
/'plEIùOU/ Plato˚ (d¤'fIi[&¤zõ, -&T¤zõ) /dI'fIitIzõ/ defeatism.
Also in Australia, New Zealand, South Africa (and in towns in Wales and Ire-
land) /ù/ is ([, m); while, Scotland is well-known for /ù/ = (ö), even between vowels
and before (®) /®/ (and even before its typical pronunciation of (ÈR) /È≤/). ˛e same
change, /ù/ = (ö), occurs even in broad accents in England, in particular, in Lon-
don, Birmingham, Â.
Unexplosion
2.2.4.1. Notably, in English, stops (both voiced and voiceless) are unreleased,
chiefly after /é[m, n, ˙, ≤, ı]/, before pauses or consonants. ˛is means that their
third phase (¤ their o‡-glide) is inaudible, incomplete. It is useful to put the dia-
critic (æ) after a proper symbol, to show unreleased contoids, especially at first and,
of course, when it is the subject in question, as here.
˛erefore, (voiced or voiceless) stops are unreleased after (stressed or unstressed)
vowels, even followed by homorganic N (/mp, mb÷ nt, nd÷ ˙k, ˙g/), or by /≤, ı/.
˛is holds good except in very slow or careful pronunciation.
Here are some examples, although it is to be remembered that, when single
words are said in isolation, before a pause, it is more usual to produce (and let
hear) the o‡-glide, indicated by ($): ('bA;Êæ)a ('bØ;Êæ)b /'bØb/ Bob˚ ('kh√pæ)a ('khåpæ)b
/'k√p/ cup˚ ('khπmpæ) /'kπmp/ camp÷ ('hπTæ) /'hπt/ hat˚ ('hπ;nflæ) /'hπnd/ hand˚
('<™;flæ)a ('>™;flæ)b /'<Ed/ red˚ ('Sø;<Tæ)a ('Sø;Tæ)b /'SO:≤t/ órt˚ ('fO;ıTæ, 'fAıTæ)a ('fø;ıTæ, 'fØıTæ)b
/'fO;ıt/ fault˚ ('blπkæ) /'blπk/ bla$˚ ('bπ˙kæ) /'bπ˙k/ bank˚ ('D¤;âæ) /'dIg/ dig. ‹en
said in isolation, as plain examples, before a pause, they are released\ ('bA;Ê$)a
('bØ;Ê$)b˚ ('hπ;nfl$)˚ ('Sø;<T$)a ('Sø;T$)b˚ ('bπ˙k$), Â.
Before a consonant, they are unreleased: ('πkæT) /'πkt/ act˚ ('πkæT≥)a (-å)b /'πktÈ≤/
actor˚ ('<√;bæfl)a ('>å;bæfl)b /'<√bd/ rubbed, ('πTæk¤nsó, 'πkæk-) /'πtkInsó/ Atkinson,
('b™;gæfl) /'bEgd/ begged˚ ('sTApæT)a ('sTØpæT)b /'stØpt/ ®opped, ('hATæ&dAâ, -O;â, -öæ-)a ('hØTæ-
DØâ, -öæ-)b /'hØtdØ;g/ hotdog˚ ('sTApæ 'DUu¤˙)a ('sTØpæ 'D¯u¤˙)b /'stØp 'dUuI˙/ ®op doi«˘
More examples: ('Gπkæ 'phi;Iı, -iI®) /'Gπk 'pIiı/ Ja$ Peel, ('bA;bæ 'gø;¨Ω)a ('bØ;bæ
'g‘;¨Ω)b /'bØb 'gOUz/ Bob goes˚ ('skATælÈnfl)a ('skØTæ-)b /'skØtlÈnd/ Scotland˚ (¤pæ'baÙts÷
¤Tæ'b-) /It'baEts/ it bites˚ (¤Tæ'Th™Iks, ¤öæ'Th-) /It'tEIks/ it takes˚ (¤kæ'khπ<iΩ÷ ¤Tæ'kh-)a (->-)b
/It'kπ<iz/ it carries˘
Intermediate articulations are possible between the two extreme ones, above all
when people pay special attention to their speech (although this must not lead us
to think that these pronunciations are necessarily çbetterÇ). In fact, for /t, d/ (+ /p,
b÷ k, g/, in addition to (pp, pb÷ Êp, bb÷ kk, kg÷ âk, gg)), the alveolar contact can
be maintained, by adding either a bilabial, (B, ∫), or a velar, (Ú, ¢), coarticulation.
A bilabial or velar articulation is also possible, to which an alveolar coarticulation
can be added: respectively (Q, Á) or ($, ¢).
2.2.4.2. ˛e so-called çnasalÇ and çlateralÇ explosions are included in this group.
It is essential that transitions from /t, d/ to /n, ó÷ l, ®/ are direct, with no o‡-glide
similar to çaspirationÇ, and even with no insertion of vocoids.
˛erefore, we have: ('ph¤Tæni) /'pItni/ Pitn\, ('w¨Dæó) /'wUdó/ wooden, (khûm-
'phlIiTæli, -öæli) /kÈm'plIitli/ completeI, ('l¤[®)a ('l¤Tæ®)b /'lIù®/ little, ('sw¤nDæ®) /'swInd®/
~indle.
Laryngeal stop (ö)
2.2.5.1. It is a good thing to include the laryngeal (or glottal) stop (ö) in the
symbols inventory of the English phonological system, even if, strictly speaking,
there are no (classical) minimal pairs, in order to declare its phonological status.
˛e fact is that it is important, too, to have (ö) from a descriptive and teaching
point of view.
In the (American and British) neutral pronunciation (ö) is used, when there is
some emphasis, before vowels, especially stressed ones: (¤ts'öO;f®)a (-'öø;-)b /Its'[ö]O:f®/
it's Yful! In British pronunciation, (ö) may be used even to avoid the insertion of
a non-etymological /</ (çintrusiveÇ, at the end of § 2.2.9.4): ('lø: öÈn'ø;Då) /'lO: Èn[d]-
'O:≤dÈ≤/ lY and order˚ instead of the frequent ('lø:> Èn'ø;Då) (('lO: Èn'ø;<D≥)a).
2.2.5.2. Furthermore, even in neutral pronunciation, before consonants, we of-

ten have /t/ = (ö): ('skAöælÈnd)a ('skØöæ-)b˚ (¤öæ'baÙts)˚ (¤öæ'Th™Iks)˚ (¤öæ'khπ<iΩ)a (->-)b
(adjusting some examples just seen).
In a more systematic way, proceeding by groups, this occurs with vowels (chief-
ly, but not necessarily, stressed; and even with interspersed sonants, /m, n, ˙, ≤, ı/),
before /m, n, ˙÷ l, <÷ j, w/: ('naÙT&m™;≥, -p-, -ö-)a (-™;‘)b /'naEtmEÈ≤/ nightmare, ('nAT
'na;Ö, -ö)a ('nØ-)b /'nØt 'naO/ not now, ('nAT 'j™T, 'nAö)a ('nØ-)b /'nØt 'jEt/ not yet (also
(&nAc'™T, n√-, -™ö)a (&nØc'™T, nå-, -™ö)b), ('l™ITli, -öli) /'lEItli/ lateI˘
Before /t, d÷ c, G/: ('g™T 'Da;Ön, -ö) /'gEt 'daOn/ get down, ('g<™IT 'Gø¨k, -ö)a ('g>-,
-‘¨k)b /'g<EIt 'GOUk/ great joke˘ Also before /p, b÷ k, g÷ f, v÷ †, ∑÷ s, z÷ S, Z/: ('f¨p&bO;ı,
2. english 65
-ö-, -T-)a (-ø:ı)b /'fUtbO:ı/ football, ('khπk&g√T, -ö-, -T-)a (-å-)b /'kπtg√t/ catgut˚ ('aÖt '∑™;≥,
-ö)a (-™;‘)b /'aOt '∑EÈ≤/ out ère, ('n√T&SEı, -ö-)a ('nåT&S™ı, -ö-)b /'n√tSEı/ nutéll˘
Let us also notice: (aÙ'khπ[;]nT {'DUu¤T}, -nö, -n {-È-, -ö})a (-A;n- {-¯u¤T, -ö})b /aE-
'kπ;nt {'dUuIt}/ I can't [do it]˚ (wi'wø¨nT {'DUu¤T}, -nö, -n {-È-, -ö})a (-‘¨n- {-¯u¤T, -ö})b
/wi'wOUnt {'dUuIt}/ we won't [do it]˘ In absolute final position, (ö) is not used, ex-
cept for /It, Èt/, and this only in informal speech: (wi'wAnT, -O;nT)a (-ØnT)b /wi-
'wØ;nt/ we want˚ (wi'wAn[[]¤T, -ÈT, -ö)a (-ØnT¤T, -¤ö)b /wi'wØ;nùIt/ we want it˚ ('Th¤kÈT,
-ö)a (-¤T, -¤ö)b /'tIk¢t/ ti$et.
However, the change /t/ = (ö) is less frequent before /h/: ('™IT 'hπts÷ -ö) /'EIt 'hπts/
eight ha_˘ It sometimes occurs in /étó/: ('khATó, -öó)a ('khØTó÷ -öó)b /'kØtó/ cotton˘
In /ntó/, it is more frequent (but it is only possible with /≤, ı/): ('sk<πnTó, -öó,
-[[]Èn)a ('sk>πnTÈn÷ -öó)b /'sk<πnt˘n/ Scranton˚ ('khl¤nTó, -öó, -TÈn)a ('khl¤nTÈn÷ -öó)b
/'klInt˘n/ Clinton˚ ('EıTó, -öó, -[Èn)a ('™ıTó, -TÈn÷ -öó)b /'klInt˘n/ Elton˘
/t/ = (ö) is no neutral pronunciation, before /é, È≤, ®/: ('b™[i)a ('b™Ti)b /'bEùi/ Bet“,
('b™m≥)a ('b™Tå)b /'bEùÈ≤/ better, ('l¤[®)a ('l¤T®)b /'lIù®/ little ((≠'b™öi), (≠'b™ö≥)a, (≠'b™öå)b,
(≠'l¤ö®)). Nevertheless, it can occur in /tò'é/: (&nAT'IivÈn, &nA['-, &nAö'-)a ('nØ-)b /nØt'Ii-
vÈn/ not even˘ It is accepted even for it˚ before a pause: ('Th™Ik¤T, -¤ö) /'tEIkIt/ take it˘
‹ereas, it is possible, for /p/, (only) before /p, b/, and for /k/, (only) before /k,
g/ (otherwise, it is not neutral): ('sø¨p 'phaÖD≥, -ö)a ('s‘¨-, -Då)b /'sOUp 'paOdÈ≤/ soap
powder, ('b¨k&kh™Is, -ö&kh-) /'bUkkEIs/ bookcase, ('bπk 'gA;<Dó, -ö)a ('gA;Dó)b /'bπk
'gA:≤dó/ ba$ garden˘
British glottalization
2.2.6.1. As far as Briti´ pronunciation is concerned˚ we must report the çglot-

talizationÇ of /p, t, k/, before a pause or a consonant. By the end of the nineteenth
century, it was only occasional, but it is now very widespread, often, even among
fine neutral speakers.
Naturally, there are gradations, both in intensity and in frequency. It is there-
fore not really necessary to introduce glottalization into pronunciation. However,
its complete avoidance may sound too accurate or even pretentious.
In any case, it might be more advisable to restrict it to the first level, ¤ to simul-
taneous glottalization, or real glottalization (or çsynglottalizationÇ). Consequently,
while a stop –(0)– is being articulated, at the same time, a laryngeal (or glottal)
stop –(ö)– is produced. ˛is is not added before the contoid –(ö0)– giving two
phones (or two segments), but is simply coarticulated with that –(ô)– so that this
additional closure is not too intrusive: (P, T, ∏).
Here are some examples, showing the absence or presence of synglottalization:
('phIip, 'phIiP) /'pIip/ peep, ('hØT, 'hØT) /'hØt/ hot, ('bπk, 'bπ∏) /'bπk/ ba$.
Furthermore, before contoids: ('πkæT, 'π∏æT) /'πkt/ act˚ ('πkæTå, 'π∏æTå) /'πktÈ≤/ ac-
tor, ('πTæk¤nsó, 'πTæk-, 'πkæk-, 'π∏æk-) /'πtkInsó/ Atkinson, ('hØTæ&DØâ, -öæ-, 'hØTæ-) /'hØt-
dØ;g/ hotdog˚ ('sTØpæ 'D¯u¤˙, 'sTØPæ) /'stØp 'dUuI˙/ ®op doi«˘
More examples: ('Gπkæ 'phi;Iı, 'Gπ∏æ, -iI®) /'Gπk 'pIiı/ Ja$ Peel˚ (¤pæ'baÙts, ¤Pæ-, ¤öæ-÷
¤Tæ-÷ ¤Tæ-, -ts) /It'baEts/ it bites˚ (¤Tæ'Th™Iks, ¤Tæ-, ¤öæ-, -∏s) /It'tEIks/ it takes˚ (¤kæ'khπ>iΩ, ¤∏æ-÷
¤Tæ-÷ ¤Tæ-) /It'kπ<iz/ it carries˚ ('skØTælÈnfl, 'skØTæ-) /'skØtlÈnd/ Scotland˚ ('ThØpæ&m‘¨sT,

-Pæ&m-) /'tØpmOUst/ topmo®, ('phåTæni, -Tæni) /'p√tni/ Putn\.
Still more examples: ('ph™˛>®, -Ï>-) /'pEt<®/ petrol˚ ('Iikw®, -∏w-) /'Iikw®/ equal˚
('phØpjÈlå, -Pj-) /'pØpjÈlÈ≤/ popular˚ (¤k'saÙT¤fl, ¤∏-) /Ik'saEù¢d/ excited˚ ('b™ts, -ts)
/'bEts/ be_˚ ('b™ıts, -ts) /'bEıts/ bel_˚ ('b™nts, -ts) /'bEnts/ ben_˚ ('w¤ks, -∏s) /'wIks/
wi$s˚ ('w¤ıks, -∏s) /'wIıks/ Wilkes˚ ('w¤˙ks, -∏s) /'wI˙ks/ winks˘
For the substitution of /t/ with (ö) Ô § 2.2.5.2.
2.2.6.2. A stronger degree of glottalization is the çglottal reinforcementÇ, ¤ pro-

ducing (ö) just before /p, t, k/: (öp, öT, ök) (therefore, çpreglottalizationÇ). ˛is is
more evident and cumbersome since we have two segments, two phones, even if
the laryngeal stop is unreleased, while, in these cases, /p, t, k/ are actually released:
((öæp$, öæT$, öæk$)) before pauses (but not before contoids, in a sentence).
Let us see, now, our examples (in progression): ('phIip, 'phIiP, 'phIiöp) /'pIip/
peep, ('hØT, 'hØT, 'hØöT) /'hØt/ hot, ('bπk, 'bπ∏, 'bπök) /'bπk/ ba$.
Before contoids: ('πkæT, 'π∏æT, 'πökæT) /'πkt/ act˚ ('πkæTå, 'π∏æTå, 'πökæTå) /'πktÈ≤/ actor,
('πTæk¤nsó, 'πkæk-, 'πTæk-, 'π∏æk-, 'πöTæk-, 'πökæk-) /'πtkInsó/ Atkinson, ('hØTæ&DØâ, -öæ-,
'hØTæ-, 'hØöTæ-) /'hØtdØ;g/ hotdog˚ ('sTØpæ 'D¯u¤˙, 'sTØPæ, 'sTØöpæ) /'stØp 'dUuI˙/ ®op doi«˘
≈nally: ('Gπkæ 'phi;Iı, 'Gπ∏æ, 'Gπökæ, -iI®) /'Gπk 'pIiı/ Ja$ Peel˚ (¤pæ'baÙts, ¤Pæ-, ¤öp-÷
¤Tæ-÷ ¤T, ¤öTæ-, -ts÷ -öts) /It'baEts/ it bites˚ (¤Tæ'Th™Iks, ¤Tæ-, ¤öæ-, -∏s÷ -öks) /It'tEIks/ it takes˚
(¤kæ'khπ>iΩ, ¤∏æ-, ¤ökæ-÷ ¤Tæ-÷ ¤Tæ-¤öTæ-) /It'kπ<iz/ it carries˚ ('skØTælÈnfl, 'skØTæ-, 'skØöTæ-) /'skØt-
lÈnd/ Scotland˚ ('ThØpæ&m‘¨sT, -Pæ&m-, -öp&m-) /'tØpmOUst/ topmo®, ('phåTæni, -Tæni,
-öTni) /'p√tni/ Putn\.
And: ('ph™˛>®, -Ï>-, -ö˛>-) /'pEt<®/ petrol˚ ('Iikw®, -∏w-, -ökw-) /'Iikw®/ equal˚ ('phØp-
jÈlå, -Pj-, -öpj-) /'pØpjÈlÈ≤/ popular˚ (¤k'saÙT¤fl, ¤∏-, ¤ök-) /Ik'saEù¢d/ excited˚ ('b™ts, -ts,
-öts) /'bEts/ be_˚ ('b™ıts, -ts, -öts) /'bEıts/ bel_˚ ('b™nts, -ts, -öts) /'bEnts/ ben_˚ ('w¤ks,
-∏s, -öks) /'wIks/ wi$s˚ ('w¤ıks, -∏s, -öks) /'wIıks/ Wilkes˚ ('w¤˙ks, -∏s, -öks) /'wI˙ks/
winks˘
˛e çreplacementÇ of /t/ by (ö) has been dealt with above (§ 2.2.5.2).
Lenitions
2.2.6.3. In quick informal speech, in British pronunciation, simple /p, b÷ t, d÷

k, g/, before unstressed vowels may be weakened, and transformed into constric-
tive phones (more or less tense, while the two apical ones are slit constrictives,
di‡erent from the more usual grooved constrictives, (s, z)), (å, 6÷ Q, z÷ x, Ÿ): ('ph™I-
p‘Ω, 'ph™Iå‘Ω) /'pEIpÈ≤z/ papers, ('>åbå, '>å6å) /'<√bÈ≤/ rubber, ('l™Tå, 'l™Qå) /'lEùÈ≤/ let-
ter, ('f™ID¤˙, 'f™Iz¤˙) /'fEIdI˙/ fadi«, ('b™Ikå, 'b™Ixå) /'bEIkÈ≤/ baker, ('D¤g¤˙, 'D¤Ÿ¤˙)
/'dIgI˙/ diggi«.
In American pronunciation, one possible lenition is just a partial voicing of /p,
k/, (p, Ê÷ k, â): ('ph™Ip≥Ü, -p≥Ü, -Ê≥Ü) /'pEIpÈ≤z/ papers, ('b™Ik≥, -k≥, -â≥) /'bEIkÈ≤/ bak-
er˘ A further variation of /t/ = /ù/ = ([, m), may be (A, Ó÷ b, r) ({partially} devoiced or
{totally} voiceless): ('b™Ti, -[i, -Ai, -Ói) /'bEùi/ Bet“˚ ('l™T≥, -m≥, -b≥, -r≥) /'lEùÈ≤/ letter˘
In American English, the change /d/ = ([, m) is also frequent: ('lπD≥÷ 'lπòm≥) /'lπd-
2. english 67
È≤/ ladder (Ô ('lπm≥) /'lπùÈ≤/ latter˚ which may have a slight di‡erence in duration,
(ò) – shorter than a semi-chrone, (;)), ('<aÙD≥÷ '<aòÙm≥) /'<aEdÈ≤/ rider (Ô ('<aÙm≥) /'<aEùÈ≤/
writer]˚ ('b™Di÷ 'b™ò[i) /'bEdi/ beddy (Ô ('b™[i) /'bEùi/ Bet“]˘ However, such a pronun-
ciation may not be considered neutral, though very widespread, but only çmediat-
icÇ.
Another (and neutral) way to keep a di‡erence, partially recovers the voiceless-
ness of /ù/: ('lπb≥÷ '<aÙb≥÷ 'b™Ai), or –better still– totally: ('lπr≥÷ '<aÙr≥÷ 'b™Ói) (as men-
tioned and illustrated above), with no lengthening of the vocoid before /d/ ([, m).
In informal Briti´ pronunciation, chiefly in monosyllables of low semantic val-
ue, /tòé/ may be realized as ([): (Thû&g™TÈ'ph>™zóT, -&g™[È-) /tÈgEùÈ'p<Ezót/ to get a
present˚ (&gØTÈ'mπc, &gØ[È-) /gØùÈ'mπc/ got a mab˚ (&khwaÙTÈ&b¤TÈÑ'˛h>πf¤k,
&khwaÙ[È&b¤[È-) /kwaEùÈbIùÈv't<πfIk/ quite a bit of tra‚c˚ (¤Tû'kh‘;flTÈmi, ¤[-) /ItÈ-
'kÈ:≤tÈmi/ it occurred to me˚ (&sø;T*'GØ;Ê, &sø;[*-) /sO:≤ùÈv'GØb/ sort of job˚ ('wØT È-
'ph¤Ti, 'wØ[ È-) /wØùÈ'pIùi/ what a pi“˚ ('nØT ‘¨nli'∑¤s, 'nØ[ ‘¨n-) /nØùOUnli'∑Is/ not
onI ìs˚ (bÈT'ø;ıs‘¨ '∑πT, bÈ['-) /bÈù'O:ısOU '∑πt/ but also àt˚ (bÈTaÙ'D¯;u, bÈ[aÙ-)
/bÈùaE'dUu/ but I do.
Stop-strictives (or £a‡ricates∞)
2.2.7.1. English has just one (diphonic) pair of stopstrictives, (c, G) /c, G/. For
segments, or phones, articulatory terms are preferred over auditory ones (and, of
course, acoustic ones), because they are much more adequate and clear, generally
self-explanatory.
For this reason, we are happy to avoid ça‡ricateÇ, in favor of a more descriptive
and tangible (even checkable) term, such as pre®opped con®rictive, which we will
presently reduce to ®op-®rictive, after explaining that they are unitary phones, or
çsoundsÇ, in that they have a total duration comparable to that of any other sin-
gle phone, like (p, t, T, k) or (f, s, S, x), not like the sum of two of them (as in (ts,
kx)).
In addition, they must be homorganic (¤ produced at the same place of articul-
ation). So, the first half of a stop-strictive consonantal phone is a short stop, while
its second half is a short çfricativeÇ one (or, better, a constrictive one). ˛e place
of articulation is determined by the second component, to which the first one is
just a mere closure, correctly at the same place (even if no actual stop phone exists
at that place, in any real language).
˛e simpler and more convenient way to symbolize stop-strictive phones is by
means of two çmonographedÇ symbols. Of course, the second one is the more spe-
cific, so the first can be a looser one, because its only function is to show a closure,
which may be generically labial, pre-lingual or post-lingual. For this reason, the
stop phases of the various possible stop-strictive phones, are su‚ciently shown by
using simply (p, b÷ t, d÷ k, g).
As we said, the only (diphonic) pair of stop-strictives of the English language is
(c, G) /c, G/. In stressed syllables (or after pauses, even in the rare cases of un-
stressed syllable, as in ≥aucerian), /c/ is çaspiratedÇ, as /p, t, k/ are (although most
native phoneticians do not say that, in the least): ('ch¤mni) /'cImni/ >imn\.
Usually, /c, G/ have (a slight) labial protrusion, and, most often, they are artic-
ulated with the tongue tip in a high position (but we need not really use special
symbols, such as ((c, g))).
Besides, /G/ (as any other voiced phoneme in diphonic pairs) is partially de-
voiced before a pause or before a voiceless consonant: ('G√;ä)a ('Gå;ä)b /'G√G/
judge.
‹ile English stops are very often inaudibly released, English /c, G/ always
show an audible plosion, even when they occur before themselves (notice that we
prefer to mark this plosion only here, by means of (0$)): ('wAc$ 'kh™≥fÍi÷ 'wO;c$)a
('wØc$ 'kh™‘fÍi)b /'wØ;c 'kEÈ≤fÈli/ wab carefulI˚ ('w¤c$ 'chI;iΩ÷ 'W¤c$÷ 'hw-) /'·wIc
'cIiz/ whi> >eese˚ (È'lA:<ä$ 'ch≥;c)a (È'lA:ä$ 'ch‘;c)b /È'lA:≤G 'cÈ:≤c/ a large >ur>.
˛e only possible reduction may be in changing the first stop-strictive with the
corresponding constrictive (çfricativeÇ) one, (S, Z): ('w¤S 'chI;iΩ÷ 'W¤S÷ 'hw-), (È'lA:<Ë
'ch≥;c)a (È'lA:Ë 'ch‘;c)b˘ ˛is can also occur with /nG, nc/ before /c, G/ (seen that
/nG, nc/ have a less frequent variant /nZ, nS/): ('O;<È~G 'GUus, -~Z, 'A<-)a ('Ø>¤~G
'G¯us, -~Z)b /'Ø;<¢nG 'GUus/ ora«e juice˘
For British English, we must add that /c/, as well as /p, t, k/, can show the two
kind of glottalization we saw (§ 2.2.6.1-2), with the same frequence and degree of
advisability. But, for /c/, it occurs even before vowels: ('f™c, 'f™¸, 'f™öc) /'fEc/ feb,
('b™~c, -~¸, -~öc) /'bEnc/ ben>, ('s‘;cT, -¸T, -öcT) /'sÈ:≤ct/ sear>ed, ('s‘;cmi, -¸mi,
-öcmi) /'sÈ:≤cmi/ sear> me, ('f™c¤T, -¸¤T, -öc¤T) /'fEcIt/ feb it, ('Th¤icå, -¸å, -öcå)
/'tIicÈ≤/ tea>er.
≈nally, chiefly in British English, /c/ may become (öS), before a pause or a C\
('f™öS, 'b™~öS, 's‘;öST, 's‘;öSmi) (examples we have already seen) and ('khπc÷ 'khπöS)
/'kπc/ cab˚ (¿5w¤c 'b¨k3 3÷ ¿5w¤öS 'b¨k3 3) /'w·Ic 'bUk/ whi> book?
Constrictives (or £fricatives∞)
2.2.8.1. Also for this manner of articulation (as for the stop-strictive one, rather
than ça‡ricateÇ), we prefer to use an articulatory term, because of its greater clari-
ty.
˛ere are four (diphonic) pairs, /f, v÷ †, ∑÷ s, z÷ S, Z/ (f, v÷ †, ∑÷ s, z÷ S, Z). For /f,
v/ readers are referred to what has been said about /pf, bv/ (§ 2.2.2.2). We now add
some examples that show the frequent reduction or dropping of /v/: (aÙ'khπ[;]m
bÈ'lI;iv&∑πT, -iV&∑-, -i&∑-)a (-A;m b¤-)b /aE'kπ;nù b¢'lIiv∑πt/ I can't believe àt˚ ('g¤vmi
'fa;ÙÑ, 'g¤Vmi, 'g¤mi) /'gIvmi 'faEv/ give me five!˚ (aÙÑ'Sø;<TóD¤T, aÙV-, aÙ-)a (-ø;T-)b
/aEv'SO:≤tód¢t/ I've órtened it (in spite of an information loss in comparison with
I órtened it), (∑™≥'la;Ùvz ≥'Th™<Èb®, -ÙVz, -Ùz, ∑≥-)a (∑™È-, È'Th™>¤-)b /∑EÈ≤'laEvz È≤'tE<-
¢b®/ èir lives are terrible (in spite of the ambiguity with èir lies are terrible),
('fø:≥2 'fa;ÙÑ2 's¤ks2 's™vè2 '™IT2÷ 'fa;ÙV2 's¤k2 's™bõ2÷ 'fa;Ù2 's¤k2 's™õ2)a ('fø:2)b /'fO:≤ 'faEv 'sIks
'sEvó 'EIt/ …four, five, six, seven, eight… And, let us note: ('G™å 'ph¤T, 'fa;Ù6 'b¤ts)
/'GEf 'pIt, 'faEv 'bIts/ Je‡ Pit˚ five bits.
/†, ∑/ are slit dental (whereas in American English a çprodentalÇ or çinterdentalÇ
2. english 69
articulation is possible, perhaps more often indeed, which may be transcribed with
((w, W)); however, since their auditory impression is not very di‡erent, the o‚cial sym-
bols, (†, ∑), may be su‚cient. It is important for foreigners to acquire this slit ar-
ticulation well: ('†¤˙k) /'†I˙k/ ìnk, ('∑¤s) /'∑Is/ ìs, ('w¤;„) /'wI∑/ wi`. ‹en a sen-
tence begins with a more or less pleonastic I ìnk, generally, a semi-constrictive /†/
is used: (√&fl¤˙k)a (å-)b; the same can occur for the /ò∑/, (∂), of grammemes: è˚ ìs…
Besides, in quick informal speech, /ò∑/ in forms such as è˚ àt˚ ìs˚ bo` is
normally assimilated: ('w√ts zÈ'Tha;Ùm, 'wAts)a ('wØts)b /'wØts ∑È'taEm/ what's è
time?, ('w√ts 'zπT, 'wAts)a ('wØts)b /'wØts '∑πt/ what's àt?, ('bø¨s 'sa;ÙdΩ)a ('b‘¨s)b
/'bOU† 'saEdz/ bo` sides˚ (hiz∑û'w™Im≥, hiz∂û-, hizzû-)a (-Tå)b /hiz∑È'w™ItÈ≤/ he's è
waiter˚ (¤˙∑È'mø;<n¤˙, ¤˙∂È-, ¤˙˙È-)a (-ø;n-)b /In∑È'mO:≥nI˙/ in è morni«˚ ('O:Ï ∑È-
'Tha;Ùm, 'O:Ï∂È-, 'O:ÏlÈ-)a ('ø:Ï)b /'O:ı ∑È'taEm/ all è time˘
2.2.8.2. /s, z/ are grooved dental constrictives, usually pronounced with the tip
of the tongue raised, ¤ çdenti-alveolarÇ, so that they could be transcribed with (s,
z), especially for comparative purposes, in order to emphasize the di‡erence be-
tween (s, z), pronounced with the tip of the tongue lowered. On the other hand,
native speakers themselves may indi‡erently have one articulation or another, even
vacillating, so the plain symbols can safely be used: ('s™;Im) /'sEIm/ same, ('<ø¨zÈΩ)a
('>‘¨z¤Ω)b /'<OUz¢z/ roses, ('s¤z≥Ü)a ('s¤z‘Ω)b /'sIzÈ≤z/ sci˛ors˘
For word-initial sm-˚ sn-˚ sl- (as well as for the non-autochthonous sr-), /s/ (s) is
normal (contrary to some other languages): ('smO:ı)a ('smø:ı)b /'smO:ı/ small˚
('sn™Ik) /'snEIk/ snake, ('slIip) /'slIip/ sleep ((&s<Ii'lA;˙k√, s<¤-, &S<Ii-)a (-π˙kå)b /s<Ii'lA;˙-
kÈ, s<I-, S<Ii-/ Sri Lanka).
For dis- followed by a voiced stop, there are several possibilities, both phonetic
and phonemic: (&D¤sbÈ'lI;iÑ, -sÊ-) /dIsbÈ'lIiv/ disbelieve˚ (D¤s'D™;In, -s'fl-, -Ω'D-, -z'D-, -'sT-)
/dIs'dEIn, -z'd-, -s't-/ disdain˚ (D¤s'g√sT, -s'â-, -Ω'g-, -z'g-, -'sk-)a (-åsT)b /dIs'g√st, -z'g-, -'sk-/
disgu®˚ (D¤s'ga;ÙΩ, -s'â-, -Ω'g-, -z'g-, -'sk-) /dIs'gaEz, -z'g-, -'sk-/ disguise˘
Let us now observe (but only here) that /s, z/ preceded by one or more conso-
nants, are usually articulated as (dental/denti-alveolar) approximants, (∂, d), rather
than as constrictives: (('SAp∂))a (('SØp∂))b /'SØps/ óps˚ (('†π˙k∂)) /'†π˙ks/ ànks˚
(('bEı:D))a (('b™ı:D))b /'bEız/ bells˚ (('hπn:dD)) /'hπndz/ hands. But it is su‚cient to tran-
scribe: ('SAps)a ('SØps)b, ('†π˙ks, 'bEı:Ω, 'hπ;ndΩ)a ('b™ı:Ω)b.
In American English, the sequences /≤s, ≤z/ are realized as (<ß, <fi) (with alveolar
constrictives): ('f≥;ßT) /'fÈ:≤st/ fir®˚ ('ph≥;ß) /'pÈ:≤s/ purse˚ (h≥'ßk≥;T) /hÈ≤'skÈ:≤t/ her skirt˚
(f≥'ßmO:ı 'phIip®) /fÈ≤'smO:ı 'pIip®/ for small people˚ ('Dø:<Ü) /'dO:≤z/ doors˚ ('f≥:Ü) /'fÈ:≤z/
furs˘ In British English, /s<, z</ generally become (ß>, fi>): ('nj¯ufi&>iIı) /'nÛuz<Iiı/
n[sreel.
More often, /S Z/ are produced with the tip of the tongue raised, ¤ as çapico-
-postalveo-palatal roundedÇ contoids, so that more suitable symbols, contrastive-
ly, could be ((x, ç)). But, as several natives pronounce them with the tip of the
tongue lowered, (S, Z) will be su‚cient. ˛e most important thing to keep in mind
is that they have a certain degree of lip protrusion (indeed, they must be labeled
as protruded]: ('S¤p) /'SIp/ íp, ('phl™Z≥)a (-å)b /'plEZÈ≤/ pleasure˘
For /s, z/, too, assimilation is rather important. As a matter of fact, /s, z/ = /S, Z/
(S, Z) before /S÷ c, G÷ j/: (∑¤S'SAp)a (-Øp)b /∑Is'SØp/ ìs óp, (∑¤S'GA:<)a (-A:)b /∑Is-
'GA:≤/ ìs jar, (∑¤S'jI;≥)a (-¤;å)b /∑Is'jIÈ≤/ ìs year, (∑IiË'SU;uΩ)a (-¯;uΩ)b /∑Iiz'SUuz/ èse
óes, ('hπËSi, 'hπSSi) /'hπzSi/ has é?÷ even /sc/ = (Sc) is possible: ('khw™scÈn, -Sc-)
/'kwEsc˘n/ que®ion˘
Generally, with you˚ your˚ there is a complete fusion between elements: (aÙ'm¤S√,
-¯)a (aÙ'm¤S¯÷ -å)b /aE'mIsju/ I mi˛ you, (hi'nIiD Z≥'hEıp, -G ≥-÷ -U≥-)a (ZÈ'h™ıp, -G È-÷
-ø;-)b /hi'nIidz jK:≤'hEıp/ he needs your help, (ÈZÈ's™;I, ¶È-÷ &π-, -¯-) /⁄zju'sEI/ as you sZ.
Let us also consider: (È'Z™T÷ π-) /⁄z'jEt/ as yet. (Making use of diaphonemes like /⁄,
K:/ may help in reducing the space of a phonemic transcription, chiefly in a dic-
tionary.)
Approximants
2.2.9.0. In order to present the important components of this particular man-

ner of articulation in a simple way, we will proceed by specific categories.
English r /</ (<)a (>)b (“ /≤/)
2.2.9.1. ˛e English ç/r/Ç phoneme is completely di‡erent from that of most

languages, which have alveolar trills or taps (r, R). It is thus extremely important
to use a di‡erent symbol for English r, even at a phonemic level: /</. Furthermore,
American and British English have two quite di‡erent articulations, although
–from an auditory point of view– the impression is quite similar. However, there
are some perceptible di‡erences: su‚ce to say that the American type has a rela-
tively higher intrinsic timbre than the British.
Once and for all, it is of paramount importance to establish the exact articula-
tion of both kinds of approximants. Unfortunately, except in very few cases, even
among native English phoneticians, there exists odd and perhaps too-traditional
ideas about the precise nature and articulation of /</, which are not based on real
analyses of sounds and accurate kinesthesia as well. It is true that the American r
is articulated in a backer position than the British one, but its retraction refers to
the dorsum not to the tip of the tongue.
2.2.9.2. It is proved that the American /</ is a prevelar approximant, with a very
slight –and (almost) uninfluential– raising of the tip of the tongue towards the
postalveolar region. Instead, the British sound is decidedly postalveolar, (>), in the
specific meaning of an area after the alveolar one, approached by the tip of the
tongue (not by the lamina, as in the IPA o‚cial point of view). It is actually an
apico-postalveolar articulation.
It will be very important to observe the orograms of these two approximants
very carefully (û 1.13.3). Both of them are laterally contracted, just as real lateral
phones, but there is no contact with the roof of the mouth (as, instead, with real
laterals). ˛e absence of such a lateral contraction would simply deprive these ar-
2. english 71
ticulations of their typical timbre, which is so similar (in these two appoximant
phones), even though their actual articulations are relatively very di‡erent.
In addition, both (<) and (>) show a certain amount of lip rounding (more evi-
dent in stressed syllables), which –changing both towards a duller timbre– con-
tributes in making them less di‡erent auditorily, while remaining articulatorily ra-
ther di‡erent.
2.2.9.3. Once the exact articulations are clear, it is easy to understand why, for
/t<, d</, the British pronunciation regularly undergoes assimilation, giving (˛>, Ã>).
On the other hand, the fact that the auditory impression is so similar for these two
types of phones, may explain why, even in the American pronunciation, (˛>, Ã>)
can be used, besides the more usual ones, (T<, D<).
Certainly, it is very strange that the majority of phoneticians (even native ones)
keep on using the symbol (>) to hint at the American type, which is far from be-
ing postaveolar. By the way, the term po®alveolar corresponds to the o‚cial one
çretroflexÇ, which picturesquely tries hard to pass itself o‡ as a real point of articul-
ation, while, in fact, it is at most just a very peculiar articulatory modification.
But, as is well known, good kinesthetic, auditory (and even acoustic) skills are not
the same for all people…
Up to now, we have seen several examples of /</ (<)a (>)b, and several others will
follow. Let us remember only that our diaphonemic transcription rigorously dis-
tinguishes between /</, which is always pronounced in the two accents, and /≤/,
which is pronounced, as such, only in American English. As a matter of fact, in
British English, /≤/ corresponds to çzeroÇ, as r is pronounced only before vowels:
('<I;≥)a ('>¤;å)b /'<IÈ≤/ rear˚ ('<™;≥)a ('>™;‘)b /'<EÈ≤/ rare˚ ('<ø:<)a ('>ø:)b /'<O:≤/ roar.
In American pronunciation, /È≤/, preceded by vowels or consonants, is realized
as (≥). It is the same even for /˘</ (and, by and large, for /È</); /È:≤, È:<, È;</ are real-
ized as (≥:): ('m≥;D≥)a ('m‘;Då)b /'mÈ:≤dÈ≤/ murder˚ ('m≥;DÈ<≥, -D≥≥)a ('m‘;DÈ>å, -Ã>å)b
/'mÈ:≤dÈ<È≤, -d˘<È≤/ murderer˘ Also (È<, È:<)a, for (≥, ≥:)a are acceptable, even if less
frequent.
2.2.9.4. However, /≤/ is pronounced, even in British English, when it occurs

final in a rhythm group before a following rhythm-group initial vowel (and there
is no intervening pause, not even a short one). In this way, the two words are
bound together, and /≤/ becomes /</ (>): (∑û'khA:< È'<a;Ùvfl)a (∑û'khA:> È'>a;Ùvfl)b
/∑È'kA:< È'<aEvd/ è car arrived, ('Th™Ik 'kh™;≥ Èvj≥'ßEıf, -jU≥-)a ('Th™Ik 'kh™;‘> Èvjø;-
's™ıf, -jÈ-)b /'tEIk 'kE˘< ÈvjK:≤'sEıf/ take care of yourself˘
On the other hand, on the analogy of word-final /È≤, IÈ≤, EÈ≤, UÈ≤, O:≤, A:≤/, very
frequently, also final /È, IÈ, UÈ, O:, A:/ are realized as the previous ones, even if no
etymological r is present in their spelling: (∑iaÙ'D¤È[ö]Èv¤T÷ -¤È>Èv¤T) /∑iaE'dIÈÈvIt/ è
idea of it˚ (¤'laÙzÈ '™l¤s÷ -zÈ> '™l¤s) /¢'laEzÈ 'ElIs/ Eliza Ellis˚ ('GI;i&bIi 'Sø: 'A;s[k]T÷ -ø:>)
/'GIibIi 'SO: 'A:skt/ G. B. ShY asked.
˛is use is very widespread, chiefly for /È≤/, although good speakers try to avoid
it, but many others use it airily, even teaching it to foreigners (who should avoid
it, unless they are very fluent and have a very good command of British English).
In a broad New Zealand accent, /</ is (˛), instead of (>), usual also in neutral
New Zealand English. As in American English (except in typical Southern, East-
ern, and Black accents) and Canadian English, also Irish English (in the whole is-
land) has /≤/ = /</. ˛e same goes both for an area in the South Island in New Zea-
land and for the West Country in the southwest of England (as well as for some
more limited areas in the North of England). A typical Scottish accent, usually, has
/<, ≤/ = (R).
As a speech defect, /</ is realized as a labiodental (V). ˛is is so widespread, espe-
cially in Great Britain, that someone considers it to be normal (all the more so be-
cause it is frequent in the mediatic British accent).
˛e other approximants
2.2.9.5. ˛e voiced palatal approximant, /j/ (j), has no particular characteris-

tics. It is therefore more interesting to talk about the diaphoneme /ˆ/, that –restrict-
ing ourselves to the two neutral accents– distinguishes American English from
British English, because, between /n, t, d/ and /Uu, U/, in çnon-weakÇ syllables (¤
those with primary or secondary stress), in American pronunciation /ˆ/ becomes
çzeroÇ.
˛is means that, in American English, /nÛ[u], tÛ[u], dÛ[u]/ correspond to
/tU[u], dU[u], nU[u]/, while, in British English, they are /njU[u], tjU[u], djU[u]/:
('nU;u)a ('nj¯;u)b n[, ('ThU;uÊ)a ('Thj¯;uÊ)b /'tÛub/ tube, ('DUuk)a ('Dj¯uk)b /'dÛuk/
duke.
It is true that, in American pronunciation, one can even find ('nj¯;u, 'Thj¯;uÊ,
'Dj¯uk) and even a compromise realization, ('n¯;u, 'Th¯;uÊ, 'D¯uk). However, the
more usual pronunciation has (Uu), even if ('DU;u) may happen to correspond to
both /'dUu/ do and /'dÛu/ due˚ Â.
In you and your, due to the assimilation of /j/ to preceding /t, d/, there are note-
worthy expressions such as: ('Dø¨~c√, -¯)a ('D‘¨~c¯÷ -å)b /'dOUncu, -È/ don't you?,
('w¨Dóc√, -¯)a (-¯÷ -å)b /'wUdócu, -È/ wouldn't you?, ('kh¨G√, -¯)a (-¯÷ -å)b /'kUGu,
-È/ could you?, ('D¤G≥ 'b<√∑≥ 'gø;¨, -GU≥)a ('D¤Gø; 'b>å∑û 'g‘;¨÷ -GÈ)b /'dIGUÈ≤ 'b<√∑È≤
'gOU/ did your broèr go? For the assimilation to preceding /s, z/, see above (§ 2.2.4).
Although rarely, English phonotactics presents sequences such as: ('j¤p) /'jIp/ yip˚
('jIisT) /'jIist/ yea®. Before /Ii/, /j/ may be realized as a semi-constrictive contoid, (,),
which is stronger than (j): ((',IisT)). On the other hand, in unstressed syllables, /j/
(j) may lessen, up to a semi-approximant, (ã): (('n™b-ãÈlÈs)) /'nEbjÈlÈs/ nebulous.
2.2.9.6. ˛e velar rounded approximant, (w) /w/, has no particular characteris-

tics, apart from such rare sequences as in: ('w¨;fl) /'wUd/ wood˚ ('wUunDÈfl)a ('w¯un-
D¤fl)b /'wUund¢d/ wounded. Before /Uu/, /w/ may be realized as a semi-constrictive
contoid, (m): (('mUu-))a (('m¯u-)b; while, in unstressed syllables, it may lessen, up to
a semi-approximant, (j): ((j¤'∑aÖT)) /wI'∑aOt/ wiòut. It is important to remember
that /w/ has a strong bilabial component, which causes changes in the realization
of preceding /n, t, d/: ('khπp&wO;k, -ö-, -T-)a (-wø;k)b /'kπtwO:k/ ca‘alk˚ ('khø;<m-
2. english 73
wO;ı, -n-)a ('khø;mwø;ı, -n-)b /'kO:≤nwO:ı/ Cornwall.

By now, the sequence /·w/ (w, W, hw) has only a secondary role, which (at least
in theory) allows us to distinguish words beginning with wh- from those with a
simple w-. It is to be said that such a distinction is no longer neutral; it can still be
found either as a voluntary e‡ort, or –chiefly– in some non-urban American pro-
nunciations or in some northern British ones: ('w¤c) /'wIc/ wib˚ ('w¤c÷ 'W¤c÷
'hw¤c) /'·wIc/ whi>÷ ('w™T) /'wEt/ wet˚ ('w™T÷ W™T÷ 'hw™T) /'·wEt/ whet˘
˛is distinction is more stable in Scotland, Ireland (including Ulster) and in
New Zealand. For /hj/, we can have (âj, â): ('hj¯;uä, 'âj-, 'â-) /'hjUuG/ huge; where-
as (j) is acceptable only in American pronunciation.
2.2.9.7. ˛e last English approximant (although too many phoneticians –even

native speakers– insist in classifying it as a constrictive) is (h) /h/. It occurs before
vowels and –between voiced sounds– it can become voiced: ('hπT) /'hπt/ hat˚
('hU;u)a ('h¯;u)b /'hUu/ who˚ (ph≥'hπps, ph≥'Hπps)a (phÈ-)b /pÈ≤'hπps/ perhaps˚ (bÈ-
'ha;Ùnfl, -H-)a (b¤-)b /b¢'haEnd/ behind.
In British (and Welsh and Australian) uneducated pronunciation, /h/ often be-
comes çzeroÇ, /`/: ç/'`πt, 'Ùu/Ç, hat˚ who, Â. However, it must be clearly stated
that in non-emphatic grammemes (not occurring after a pause) the change /òh/ =
/`/ is quite normal: ('Th™l¤m) /'tElIm/ tell him, ('Th™Ik≥)a ('Th™Ikå)b /'tEIkÈ≤/ take her
(very di‡erent from ('ThEı: "h¤m:)a ('Th™ı: "h¤m:)b /'tEı "hIm/ tell ∆¤µ!, ('Th™Ik "h≥:)a
('Th™Ik "h‘:)b /'tEIk "hÈ:≤/ take ∆™®!]˘
On the other hand, in comparison with Romance languages, we must empha-
size the importance of çaspirationÇ for /p, t, k, c/, at the very beginning of stressed
syllables (and even of unstressed syllables after pauses), including second elements
of compounds: (ThÈ'Th™Ik) /tÈ'tEIk/ to take˚ ('ThEı&Th™¤®)a ('Th™-)b /'tEıtEIı/ telltale
(but ('sT™Ik) /'stEIk/ ®ake).
Laterals
2.2.10.1. ˛e only lateral English phoneme, from a strict intraphonemic point

of view, is \l\ (l, ı), with two very important taxophones, or contextual allophones
(together with others, by coarticulation, as we will see). In actual fact, given their
considerable importance, from a descriptive and teaching point of view, our dia-
phonemic transcription makes use of /l, ı/ (instead of a more abstract /&/ –which
is decidedly less çinterphonemicÇ– for /ı/). ˛ere is one caveat: although we have
decided to include /ı/ among our diaphonemic symbols, this does not imply that
we consider it a real phoneme, as no opposition exists in English between /ı/ and
/l/. It is simply a very useful guide for foreigners to make a safe and straightforward
choice between them. On the other hand, in an almost neutral pronunciation, cer-
tain speakers may present cases such as: ('khADl¤˙)a ('khØ-)b /'kØdlI˙/ codli« and
('khAD]¤˙)a ('khØ-)b, besides (-DÍ¤˙, -DÈl¤˙, -D–¤˙) /'kØd˘lI˙/ coddli«, including
(-Dl¤˙), which unifies di‡erent pronunciations into one.
Traditional transcriptions excessively hide many characteristics, including the
di‡erence between (®, Í), and the actual fact that, before (a heterosyllabic) /j/, not
only does (ı) not occur (as, instead, it does before any other consonants)˚ but it is
prepalatal, (¬), ('m¤¬-jÈn). In other contexts, it is alveolar, (l), as in: ('lUusaÙT)a ('l¯u-,
'lj¯u-)b /'lUusaEt, 'lˆ-/ leucite˘ Even between a stressed short vowel and another vow-
el, which makes one syllable with /l/, in the neutral (American or British) pronun-
ciation, (l) (not (ı)) is used: ('fAl-i)a ('fØl-i)b /'fØli/ folI˚ ('fAl-ø¨)a ('fØl-‘¨)b /'fØlOU/
follow˚ ('Th™l-¤m) /'tElIm/ tell him˚ ('fIil¤T) /'fIilIt/ feel it, ('fO:l 'aÖT)a ('fø:l)b /'fO:l 'aOt/
fall out˚ ('b¤l '™vÈnΩ) /'bIl 'EvÈnz/ Bill Evans.
2.2.10.2. ˛eir distribution is in any case rather simple, once it has been clear-
ly explained. As we have said, in diaphonemic transcriptions, it is convenient to
use the two primary symbols, /l, ı/; although (to be precise) it would be useful to
use at least four symbols, (l, ¬, ], ı) (besides (¯) in British {and British-like} pronun-
ciation, before /<, t<, d</), in addition to three intense ones, (Í, –, ®). Furthermore,
at least in specific descriptions, the taxophones with dental contact, ((l, Ï)), should
be indicated, and also those with lip-rounding after V or C which have a labial
component): ((t, ¥, 3, ∞, ®÷ ¬, ÿ)). Especially the coarticulation of labialization is au-
tomatic; therefore, it is necessary to mark it only where it is being explained, in or-
der to draw attention to the phenomenon.
Before V˚ we regularly have /l/ (l): ('lI;iÑ) /'lIiv/ leave, ('lπ[;]sT)a ('lA;sT)b /'lπ;st/ la®,
('l¨k) /'lUk/ look, ('lø;Ùn) /'lOEn/ loin. To be rigorous, lip-rounding also occurs be-
fore rounded V, by coarticulation: (('t¨k, 'tø;Ùn)); however, a special symbol –like
((t))– is not needed, since it is absolutely inevitable to prepare the lips for the round-
ed vocoids that follow, within the syllable.
In fact, an articulation of /l/ without lip-rounding, ((l)), would somehow be per-
ceived as something çstrangeÇ, exactly as for /k, g/ followed either by front V or
by /j/, or else by rounded V or by /w/: the articulations ((´, Ò)) and ((k, g)), respec-
tively, are natural and automatic: (('´h¤T)) ('kh¤T) /'kIt/ kit, (('Ò™T)) ('g™T) /'gEt/ get,
(('´âj¯;uÊ)) ('khj¯;uÊ) /'kjUub/ cube, (('kWø:<))a ('khø:<) (-ø:)b /'kO:≤/ core, (('gUus))a
(('g¯us))b ('g-) /'gUus/ goose, (('kWaÙT)) ('kwaÙT) /'kwaEt/ quite.
˛erefore, in particular for /®ò/, an çobjectiveÇ pronunciation, obtained by juxta-
posing /p/ and /®/, for instance, would produce an e‡ect that may perplex native
speakers. Strictly speaking, in fact, (p®) would have something less in comparison
with the genuine ((p¬)), as in (('phIip¬)) ('phIip®) /'pIip®/ people.
2.2.10.3. It is important to notice that, for postvocalic and tautosyllabic l, after

rounded V˚ in the various languages, labial coarticulation regularly occurs; there-
fore, it need not be marked, as instead we are doing here. Before heterosyllabic /j/,
we find (¬) (and ((¥))): ('m¤¬jÈn) /'mIljÈn/ million, (('b¨¥jÈn)) ('b¨¬-) /'bUljÈn/ bullion,
(('O:¥ jÈ'nI;ifl))a (('ø:¥))b (-¬) /'O:ı jÈ'nIid/ all you need÷ before /†, ∑÷ ts, dz/, we have ((Ï,
ÿ)), (ı): (('f¤Ï†i)) ('f¤ı†i) /'fIı†i/ fil`y˚ (('O:ÿ ∑È'Tha;Ùm))a (('ø:ÿ))b ('O:ı ∑È'Tha;Ùm)a ('ø:ı)b
/'O:ı ∑È'taEm/ all è time, (('bEÏts))a (('b™Ïts))b ('bEıts)a ('b™ıts)b /'bEıts/ bel_, (('fO;ÿts))a
(('fø;ÿts))b (-ıts) /'fO:ıts/ faul_. ©th /†, ∑/ + /l/, we have ((l)) (dental, but not velar-
ized): ((È'm√˙† 'l™IT))a ((È'må˙-))b (-n† 'l™IT) /È'm√n† 'lEIt/ a mon` late, ((w¤∑'l√;Ñ))a
(-å;Ñ)b (w¤∑'l-) /wI∑'l√v/ wi` love. In British English, before /<, t<, d</, it is realized
2. english 75
as postalveolar, ((¯, ®)): ('ch¤ıD<Èn)a ('ch¤¯Ã>Èn)b ('ch¤ı-)b /'cIıd<Èn/ >ildren, ((O;∞-

'<™Di))a ((ø;®'>™Di))b (O;ı-)a (ø;ı-)b /O:ı'<Edi/ already.
Before pauses, or another C, we have ((ı, ∞)), (ı): ('b¤ı:) /'bIı/ bill, ('b¤ıT) /'bIıt/
built, (('h,∞:))a ('h√ı:)b /'h√ı/ hull, (('fO:∞))a (('fø:∞))b (-ı) /'fO:ı/ fall, (('fO;∞k))a (('fø;∞k))b
(-ık) /'fO:ık/ Falk. In the case of words with /ıöò/, we generally find nasalization:
(('kh¤ı:n)) ('kh¤ı:n) /'kIın/ kiln˚ (('Eı:m))a (('™ı:m))b (-ı:m) /'Eım/ elm.
‹en /ıò/ and a word-initial V meet with no pause between, we have ((l, t)): ('fIi-
l¤T) /'fIilIt/ feel it, (('O:t 'ø¨v≥)a ('ø:l '‘¨vå)b ('O:ı)a ('ø:ı)b /'O:ı 'OUvÈ≤/ all over.
As far as intense l is concerned, //Í//, we find lip-rounding after C with a labial
component, /m, p, b÷ f, v÷ c, G÷ S, Z÷ <, w/. In addition, before V within words, we
have ((Í, K)): ('khADÍ¤˙)a ('khØDÍ-)b /'kØdÍI˙/ coddli« (Ô the beginning of § 2.2.10.1),
(('Th<√mbK¤˙))a ('˛h>å-)b (-bÍ¤˙) /'t<√mbÍI˙/ trumbli«. However, before V belonging
to a following word, a semi-velarized alveolar articulation is found, ((–, º)) (even be-
fore front V]\ (('l¤[– '¤[Èli))a (('l¤T– '¤TÈli))b ('l¤[®)a ('l¤T®)b /'lIù® 'IùÈli/ Little ItaI, (('phIip–
'Ii[¤˙))a ((-T¤˙))b ('phIip®) /'pIip® 'IiùI˙/ people eati«. Lastly, before a pause or a C˚ we
have ((®, ¬)): ('l¤[®)a ('l¤T®)b /'lIù®/ little, ('√˙k®)a ('å-)b /'√˙k®/ uncle, (('Th™Ib¬)) (-b®) /'tEI-
b®/ table, (('O;f¬))a ('ø;-)b (-f®) /'O:f®/ Yful. After /†, ∑/, the contact is dental: (('b™˙†%))
('b™n†®) /'bEn†®/ benàl.
Often, many transcriptions present sequences of /Èlé/, because they refer to
slow or careful speech: ('nAvÈl¤sT)a ('nØ-)b /'nØvÈlIst/ noveli®˚ (bÈ'lI;iÑ) /bÈ'lIiv/ be-
lieve˚ (phÈ'lIis) /pÈ'lIis/ police˚ (khû'l¤ZÈn)a (-Zó)b /kÈ'lIZ˘n/ collision÷ currently,
though, we find: (('nAvK¤sT))a ('nØ-)b, ((bK'I;iÑ)), ((phK'Iis)), ((khÍ'¤ZÈn))a (-Zó)b. It is inter-
esting to compare the following forms, which generally maintain a slight di‡er-
ence of syllabic structure, in comparison with the cases previously seen: ('blIic)
/'blIic/ blea>˚ ('phlI;iΩ) /'plIiz/ please.
2.2.10.4. We will now report, though not recommend, the frequent insertion
of a homorganic stop before /†, s, S/ (not /f/) preceded by /ı/: ('f¤ı†i÷ -ıt†i) ((-Ït†i))
/'fIı†i/ fil`y˚ ('fO;ıs÷ -ıts, 'fAı-)a ('fø;ıs÷ -ıts, 'fØı-)b ((-ÿts)) /'fO;ıs/ false˚ ('wEıS÷ -ıTS, -ıc)a
('w™ıS÷ -ıTS, -ıc)b /'wEıS/ Wel´˘ ˛is occurs with /z/, as well, but more rarely: ('bEı:Ω÷
-ı:dΩ)a ('b™ı:Ω÷ -ı:dΩ)b /'bEız/ bells˚ ('fi;IıΩ÷ -ıdΩ, 'fiI®-) /'fIiız/ feels. On the other hand,
the reverse simplification may be heard, too, as in: ('fi;IıdΩ÷ -ıΩ, 'fiI®-) ((-ÏΩ)) /'fIiıdz/
fields˚ ('bEıts, -ıs)a ('b™ıts, -ıs)b ((-Ïs)) /'bEıts/ bel_. Especially when there are possi-
ble ambiguities (and grammemes >-s˚ -'s≥), spelling is better respected.
In non-neutral American pronunciation, /l/ can be realized as (]) (sometimes
even (ı)) before V or /j/. ˛is can also occur in New Zealand, in northern Wales,
but most of all in Scotland. On the other hand, in Ireland, in South Africa, and
in southern Wales, usually, (l) may be heard, even before C or pauses.
Other less systematic di‡erences
2.2.11.1. ≈nally, there are some more or less isolated words, which are pro-
nounced di‡erently in the two neutral accents. Others often show both pronunci-
ations. In American pronunciation, word-initial syllables are commonly full, ¤
not pronounced with /È/: /vEI'kEIS˘n/a /vÈ-/b vacation˚ /nOU'vEmbÈ≤/a /nÈ-/b novem-
ber˘ Even the article a often has a full timbre (which could sound too formal in
British pronunciation): /∑È≤zÈ'gUd '<Iizó, -zEI-/a /-zÈ-/b ère's a good reason˘
Furthermore, bisyllabic verbs in -ate˚ more frequently in American English, bear
initial stress: /'dIktEIt, -'tEIt/a /-'tEIt/b dictate, /'vaEb<EIt/a /-'b<EIt/b vibrate. ˛e su‚x
-ile is /-˘ı÷ -aEı/a /-aEı/b: /'hØstAŒı/ ('hAsT®, -aÉı)a ('hØsTaÉı)b ho®ile (and mobile as
well), /'fÈ:≤ùAŒı/ ('f≥;[®÷ -aÉı)a ('f‘;TaÉı)b fertile˚ /'mIsAŒı/ ('m¤s®)a ('m¤saÉı)b mi˛ile
(and reptile˚ ®erile]˘ But we have: /'dØs®÷ -aEı/a /'dOUsaEı, 'dØsaEı/b docile and /'GUu-
v˘n®, -ÈnaEı/a /-ÈnaEı, -˘n®/b juvenile. We also find: /'p<Ø-/a /'p<OU-/b pro-: /'p<ØsEsI˙,
-È-/a /'p<OU-, 'p<Ø-/b proce˛i«, /'p<Øg<Es, -Ès/a /'p<OU-, 'p<Ø-/b progre˛ (but: /'p<OU-
g<πm/ programa, -mmeb).
To end with, let us see: /sIvÈl¢'zEIS˘n÷ -laE-/a /-laE-, -l¢-/b civilization, /'kπp¢lŒ<i/a
/kÈ'pIl˘<i/b capillary, /'kO:<ÈlŒ<i, 'kØ-/a /kÈ'<Øl˘<i/b corollary, /'lπb˘<ÈtK:<i/a /lÈ'bØ<È-
t˘<i/b laboratory, /'nOUb√di, -bØ-, -bÈ-/a ('nø¨&b√Di, -&bADi, -bÈDi)a /-Ø-, -È-/b ('n‘¨&bØ-
Di, -bÈDi)b nobody (and aJ-˚ every-˚ some-]˘ Let us also notice this (seemingly
çcuriousÇ) word: ç/'aE˘≤n/Ça ('aÙ≥n, 'a;Ù<n)a ç/'aEÈ≤n/Çb ('aÙÈn)b iron˘
2.2.11.2. Here is a collection of over 100 interesting cases, which we present ex-
ceptionally in alphabetic order, giving current spelling first. However, we must be
aware that, not infrequently, speakers of one of the two accents (a and b) use pro-
nunciations shown for the other accent. For single words, this is quite obvious:
addre˛ (an) /'πd<Es, È'd<Es/a /È'd-/b >irrup /'cÈ:<Èp, 'cI<-/a /'cI<-/b

advertisement /πdvÈ≤'taEzmÈnt, 'π-, cigarette /'sIgÈ<Et, -'<Et/a /-'<Et/b
Èd'vÈ:≤ù¢smÈnt, -¢z-/a /Èd'vÈ:≤-/b circumstances /'sÈ:≤kÈmstπns¢z, -tÈ-/a
agave /È'gA:vi/a /È'gEIvi, -A:-, 'πgEIv/b /-tÈ-, -tπ-, -tA:-/b
albino /πı'baEnOU/a /-'bIi-/b clerk /'klÈ:≤k/a /'klA:≤k/b
American (È'm™<ûkûn, È'm≥;û-)a (È- comrade /'kØm<πd, -¢d/a /-EId, -¢d,
'm™>¤kûn)b 'k√m-/b
anti- /&πnùaE-, -i-/a /-i-/b consommé /kØnsÈ'mEI, 'kØnsÈmEI/a
apparatus /πpÈ'<πùÈs/a /-πt-, -EIt-/b /kÈn'sØmEI, 'kØnsÈ-/b
artisan /'A:≤ù¢zó/a /A:≤ù¢'zπn, 'A:≤ù¢zπn/b controverÄ /'kØnt<ÈvÈ:≤si/a /'kØn-,
ate /'EIt/a /'Et, 'EIt/b kÈn't<ØvÈ≤si/b
ballet /bπ'lEI/a /'bπlEI/b cordial /'kO:≤G®/a /-dj-/b
because /b¢'k√z, -Ø;z/a /-Øz/b coupé /kUu'pEI/a /'kUupEI/b
Berkíre /'bÈ:≤kSIÈ≤, -SÈ≤/a /'bA:≤kSÈ≤, creek /'k<Iik, 'k<Ik/a /'k<Iik/b
-IÈ≤/b cu$oo /'kUukUu, 'kU-/a /'kUkUu/b
beta /'bEIùÈ/a /'bIiùÈ/b data /'dEIùÈ, -π-, -A:-/a /-EI-, -A:-/b
cabaret /kπbÈ'<EI/a /'kπbÈ<EI/b démodé /dEImOU'dEI/a /dEI'mOUdEI/b
cadre /'kπd<i, 'kA:-, -EI/a /'kA:dÈ≤, -d<È, derby /'dÈ:≤bi/a /'dA:≤bi/b
'kEI-/b deterrent /d¢'tÈ:<Ènt, -E<-/a /-E<-/b
centenary /sÈn'tEn˘<i, 'sEnùÈnŒ<i/a /-'tIi- doctrinal /'dØkt<¢n®/a /dØk't<aE-, 'dØk-/b
n˘<i, -'tE-/b drama /'d<A:mÈ, 'd<π-/a /'d<A:-/b
>arade /SÈ'<EId/a /-A:d/b dynas“ /'daEnÈsti/a /'dI-, 'daE-/b
>a˛is /'Sπsi, 'c-, -s¢s/a /'Sπsi/b eièr /'Ii∑È≤÷ 'aE-/a /'aE-, 'Ii-/b
2. english 77
erase /I'<EIs/a /-z/b prince˛ /'p<InsEs, -Ès/a /p<In'sEs, 'p<In-

figure /'fIgjÈ≤/a /'fIgÈ≤/b sEs/b
financier /faEnπn'sIÈ≤, -nÈn-, f¢'nπn- privacy /'p<aEvÈsi/a /'p<I-, 'p<aE-/b
siÈ≤, faE-/a /faE'nπn-, f¢-/b (just one puma /'pUumÈ, 'pjUu-/a /'pjUu-/b
stress pattern) quinine /'kwaEnaEn, -nIn/a /kwI'nIin,
fracas /'f<πkÈs, 'f<EI-/a /'f<πkA:/b 'kwInIin/b
from /'f<√m, 'f<Øm/a /'f<Øm/b raèr /'<π;∑È≤÷ '<√-/a ('<π[;]∑≥, '<√-)a
garage /gÈ'<A:Z, -G/a /'gπ<A:Z, -G, -IG/b /'<π;-/b ('<A;∑å)b
hara˛ /hÈ'<πs, 'hπ<πs/a /'hπ-, hÈ-/b ration /'<πS˘n, -EI-/a /'<π-/b
herb /'hÈ:≤b÷ 'È:≤b/a /'h-/b record (a) /'<EkÈ≤d/a /'<EkO;≤d/b
hero /'hI˘<OU, 'hIi<-/a /'hI˘<-/b reveille /'<EvÈli/a /<¢'vπ-, -'vE-/b
humble /'[h]√mb®/a /'h-/b (edule /'skEG®/a /'SEGUuı, 'sk-/b
humo[u]r /'hjUumÈ≤÷ 'j-/a /'hj-/b semi- /&sEmaE-, -i-/a /-i-/b
idea /aE'dIiÈ/a /aE'dIÈ/b óne /'SOUn/a /'SØn/b
idyll /'aEd®/a /'aE-, 'I-/b simultaneous /saEm®'tEIniÈs/a /'sIm-/b
inquiry /'I˙kwÈ<i, -'kwaE˘-/a /-'kwaE˘-/b sojourn /'sOUGÈ≤n/a /'sØGÈ[:]≤n, 's√-/b
isolate /'aEsÈlEIt÷ 'I-/a /'aE-/b solder /'sØdÈ≤, 'sO:-/a /'sOUı-, 'sØı-/b
khaki /'kA:ki, 'kπ-/a /'kA:-/b spina> /'spInIc/a /-G, -c/b
la˛o /'lπsOU, -Uu, lπ'sUu/a /lÈ'sUu, lπ-, squirrel /'skwÈ:<®÷ -I<-/a /-I<-/b
'lπsOU/b st[arde˛ /'stÛuÈ≤d¢s/a /'stˆ-, -'dEs/b
leisure /'lIiZÈ≤, 'lE-/a /'lE-/b stirrup /'stÈ:<Èp÷ -I<-/a /-I<-/b
lever /'lEvÈ≤, 'lIi-/a /'lIi-/b stratum /'st<EIùÈm, -π;-/ ('sT<™I[Èm,
lieutenent /lUu'tEnÈnt/a /lEf't-, lÈf't-/b -π-)a ('s˛>A;TÈm, -™I-)b
margarine /'mA:≤G˘<Èn, -È<Iin/a subaltern /sÈ'bO;ıùÈ≤n/a /'s√b®-/b
/mA:≤GÈ'<Iin, 'mA:≤GÈ<In, -gÈ-/b suggest /sÈ'GEst, sÈg'G-/a /sÈ'G-/b
ma˛age /mÈ'sA:Z, -G/a /'mπsA:Z, -G/b Ärup /'sÈ:<Èp, 'sI<-/a /'sI<-/b
melan>oI /'mElÈ˙kØli/a /-Èli, -Øli/b tomato /tÈ'mEIùOU/a /-A:-/b
migraine /'maEg<EIn/a /'maE-, 'mI-, tourniquet /'tUÈ≤n¢k¢t, -È:≤-/a /'tUÈ≤n¢-
'mIi-/b kEI, -O:≤-/b
miscellaJ /mIsÈ'lEIni/a /m¢'sElÈ-, mIsÈ- tra>ea /'t<EIkiÈ/a /'t<EI-, t<È'kIiÈ/b
'lEI-/b trait /'t<EIt/a /'t<EI, -t/b
multi- /&m√lùaE-, -i-/a /-i-/b upon /È'p√n, -Øn, -O:n/a /-Øn/b
musta>e [mou-] /'m√stπS, mÈ'st-/a vase /'vEIs, -z/a /'vA:z/b
/mÈ'stA:S, mU-/b water /'wO:ùÈ≤, 'wØ-/a /'wO:-/b
neièr /'nIi∑È≤÷ 'naE-/a /'naE-, 'nIi-/b what /'w√t, 'wØt÷ 'hw-/a /'wØt÷ 'hw-/b
nougat /'nUugÈt/a /'nUugA:, 'n√gÈt/b wigwam /'wIgwØm, -O:m)a (-πm)b
of /'√v, 'Øv/a /'Øv/b wra` /'<π†/a /'<Ø†, '<O:†/b
omega /OU'mEgÈ, -EI-, -Ii-/a /'OUmIgÈ/b xerox /'zI˘<Øks, 'zIi<-/a /'zI˘<-, 'zE<-/b
omicron /'ØmIk<Øn, 'OU-/a /OU'maE- yogurt, -ourt˚ -gh- /'jOUgÈ≤t/a /'jØ-, 'jOU-,
k<Øn, -Èn, 'ØmIk<Øn/b -UÈ≤t/b
on /Øn, O:n/a /Øn/b Z /'zIi/a /'zEd/b
patriot /'pEIt<iÈt/a /'pEI-, 'pπ-/b zebra /'zIib<È/a /'zE-, 'zIi-/b
plateau /plπ'tOU/a /'plπtOU/b zeni` /'zIin¢†÷ 'zE-/a /'zE-/b
premier /p<¢'mIÈ≤, 'p<Ii-, 'p<E-/a /'p<E-, zero /'zI˘<OU, 'zIi<-/a /'zI˘<-/b.
'p<Ii-/b
˛ere is an additional short list of words that in American English may often
have also /O:/ (O:)a, besides the more usual /Ø/ (A)a (Ø)b: >ocolate˚ doll˚ dolI˚ dol-
#in˚ god˚ golf˚ gone˚ mo$˚ on˚ resolve˚ revolver˚ rolf˚ solvate˚ solve˚ ®omp˚ ~amp˘
Structures
2.3.0. In this section, we will deal with various macro-segmental aspects, includ-
ing intonation.
Unstressed syllables and £reduced forms∞
2.3.1.1. As can be seen from many of the previous transcriptions, English un-
stressed syllables almost always have /È, ¢, I/: (mÈ'nA[ÈnÈs)a (-'nØTÈ-)b /mÈ'nØùÈnÈs/
monotonous, (ph<È'v™n[[]Èfl)a (ph>¤'v™nT¤fl)b /p<¢'v™nù¢d/ prevented, ('™DÈm≥Ü)a (-¤-
T‘Ω)b /'Ed¢ùÈ≤z/ editors, ('m¤nÈsT≥)a (-¤sTå)b /'mIn¢stÈ≤/ mini®er˘ On the contrary, in
foreign accents of English, unstressed syllables too often show full vowels.
Indeed, many vowels (and consonants) may disappear entirely in comparison
with spelling, as in: ('kh√Mf≥[Èb®, -fT≥-, -f≥-÷ -mT≥-)a (-åMfÈTÈ-, -fTÈ-, -fÈ-÷ -mTÈ-)b /'k√n-
fÈ≤ùÈb®, -mf-/ comfortable, ('mA;<g<ÈT, -≥ÈT)a ('mA;g>ÈT, -ˇÈT)b /'mA:≤g˘<Èt/ Margaret,
(&j¯unÈ'v≥;ßÈ[i, -ßTi)a (-'v‘;sÈTi, -sTi)b /jUun¢'vÈ:≤s˘ùi/ universi“˘
However, not all unstressed syllables have vowel reduction or fall: ('khAm™nT)a
('khØ-)b /'kØmEnt/ comment, ('πsfO;ıT, -A;ıT)a /'πsfO:ıt, -A:ıt/ (-ÅıT, -ø;ıT)b /'πsfπıt,
-O:ıt/ as#alt, ('khUupAn÷ 'khj-)a ('kh¯upØn)b /'kUupØn/ coupon˘
Only regular consultation of a pronunciation dictionary (or, better, dictionar-
ies) can give the exact structure of words and sentences, in English as in any oth-
er language.
In English sentences, respect of the reduction, or weakening, of many gram-
memes (or functional words) is vital: articles, prepositions, conjunctions, auxil-
iary and modal verbs, some pronouns and some other forms. ˛ere are not many
reduced forms (using a clearer term than the traditional one çweak formsÇ) – about
eighty – but they are the most frequent ones. ˛ey are listed below (with exam-
ples), in alphabetical order, for easy consultation.
2.3.1.2. ˛e examples given illustrate various elements simultaneously. It is
worthwhile to observe them very carefully and to consider all the variants given
(but only in phonetic transcription, for the sake of space, in a very economical
way, while full transcriptions would have been more monotonous, and would not
be able to show the same things with precision):
a\ (È'l™m≥)a (-Tå)b a letter˚ (È'mπ;n) a man˚ (û'ga;Ù) a guy˚ (¤nû'wa;Éı) in a while˚

(È'j¯unÈT)a (-¤T)b a unit˚ (È'n™;Im) a name÷
am\ (aÙm'wEı:)a (-™ı:)b I'm well˚ (aÙM'fa;Ùn) I'm fine˚ (aÙm'glπ;fl, aÙM-, aÙ˙-) I'm
glad˚ (ÈmaÙ'<O:˙, -A;˙, π-)a (-'>Ø;˙)b am I wro«?÷
an\ (Èn'πp®) an apple˚ ('gA[ Èn'aÙs&kh<Iim, -Tó'-)a ('gØ-, ->-)b got an ice cream?˚ (Èn-
2. english 79
'A:<m)a (Èn'A:m)b an arm˚ (Èn'™;Im) an aim÷

and\ (Èn'∑™n:, ó-) and èn˚ ('b<™D õ'b√m≥)a ('b>™D õ'båTå)b bread and butter˚
('bA;b ô'kh™IT)a ('bØ;b)b Bob and Kate˚ ('j¯;u Èn'a;Ù, ÈnD'-) you and I÷
aJ\ (¤z∑≥'™ni 'b<™;fl, -∑™≥-)a (-∑È>-, 'b>-, -∑™‘-)b is ère aJ bread?˚ ('hπvÈ~cû 'gA[
™ni'mø:<, Èni-, -T ói, -T ni, -ö ói, -ö ni, -c¯)a ('gØT, -ö)b haven't you got aJ
more?÷
are\ ('∑I;iz ≥'jU;≥Ü, ≥'jø:<Ü)a (È'jø:Ω÷ È'j¨;‘Ω)b èse are yours˚ (A<jû'wEı:, ≥jû-, ≥j¯-÷
&A;<j-)a (Ajû'w™ı:, Èjû-, Èj¯-÷ &A;j-)b are you well?÷ but notice how are you? (&haÖ-
'A;<j¯) (-'A;j¯) (since ('ha;Ö ≥'j¯;u) (È'-) would be contrastive)÷
as\ (ÈzÈ'mπm≥ ÈÑ'fπkT, ÇÈ-, *'f-, È'f-)a (-'mπTÈ>-, -˛>-)b as a matter of fact˚ (ÈËSi's™;fl,
ÈSSi-) as é said˚ ('G√sT Èz'g¨;fl, GÈsTÈ-)a ('Gå-)b ju® as good˚ ('nAt sø¨'laÙT È-
z¤ö'l¨ks, sÈ-, -aÙt s¤-, -T'l-)a ('nØt s‘¨-)b not so light as it looks÷
at\ (Èt∑È'Th™Ib®, Èö∑È-) at è table˚ (Èö'lIisT, ÈT'l-) at lea®˚ (ûk'khl™;I, Èö'k-) at
ClZ˚ (Èp'w≥;k, Èö'w-, ÈT'w-)a (-‘;k)b at work÷
be\ (bi'g¨;fl) be good!˚ ('l™[¤p bi'mI;i, -ö÷ -T)a ('l™T¤-)b let it be me˚ (aÙ'wø¨m[p] bi-
'lO:˙, √-, -A;˙)a (-‘¨-, å-, -Ø;˙)b I won't be lo«÷
been\ (aÙbb¤nû'w™;I, -b™n-÷ -bÈn-, aÙD-÷ aÙÈ-÷ aÙhÈ-)a (-b¤n-, -bIin-)b I had been
YZ [I'd]÷
but\ (bÈt'∑™n:, bÈö-) but èn˚ (bûk'gø;¨, bÈö-)a (-‘;¨)b but go˚ (bÈp'b¤li, bÈö-) but
BilI÷
by\ (baÙ'O:ı&mIinΩ, b√Ù-, b√-)a (-ø:ı, båÙ-, bå-)b by all means˚ ('sø;¨ıD baÙ∑È'pha;Önfl,
b√Ù-, bÈ-)a ('s‘;¨ı-, bå-, bÈ-)b sold by è pound÷
can\ (khûnaÙ'hπv¤T) can I have it?˚ (wikõ'plh™;I, -kûm-) we can plZ˚ (jûkô-
'gø;¨, -kû˙-, j¯-)a (-‘;¨)b you can go÷
could\ ('∑πk kûD'DU;u, -ö, -T)a (-¯;u)b àt could do˚ (wikûb'm™Ik¤T, -D'm-) we
could make it÷
did\ (D¤Di'sT™;I 'lO;˙g≥, DDi-, -A˙-)a (-Ø˙gå)b did he ®Z lo«er?˚ ('w™n D¤Di'kh√m:,
DDi-, Di-)a (-åm:)b when did he come?˚ ('ha;Ö D¤fl'SI;i&nø¨, DÈ-, flS-)a (-‘¨)b how
did é know?˚ ('ha;Ö D¤D¤k'gø;¨, DD¤-, D¤-, DÈ-, -ö'g-, -T'g-)a (-‘;¨)b how did it
go?˚ ('ha;Ö D¤d∑™I'laÙk¤T, DÈ-, dd∑-, d∑-) how did `\ like it?˚ ('w™;≥ D¤Gû'gø;¨,
-¯-, -Dj-, DG-, G-)a ('w™;‘, -‘;¨)b where did you go?÷
do\ (GÈ'nø¨¤T, G¯-, Dj-)a (-‘¨-)b do you know it? [d'you]˚ ('w™;≥ Gû'khIip¤T, G¯-,
Dj-÷ DÈj-)a ('w™;‘)b where do you keep it? [d'you]˚ ('sø;¨ Dû'wI;i, D¯-)a ('s‘;¨)b so
do we˚ ('w™;≥ DÈ∑™I'l¤;Ñ, D¯-)a ('w™;‘)b where do `\ live?˚ ('w√T Djû'wAnT, -j¯-,
DÈj-, D¤j-, Dij-, 'wA-, -ö, -O;nT)a ('wØnT)b what do you want?˚ (&D¯A;<'ch¤ıD<û˙
'gø;¨)a (&D¯A;'ch¤ıÃ>û˙ 'g‘;¨)b do our >ildren go?÷
does\ (DÈz¤p'w≥;k, -ö'w-, -T'w-)a (-'w‘;k)b does it work?˚ ('w√TDÈzi 'mI;in, -tdÇi, -tsi-,
-ö-, 'wA-)a ('wØ-)b what does he mean? [what's]˚ ('w™n DÈËSi'DUu¤T, 'w™~ Ëi-)a
(-'D¯u¤T)b when does é do it? [when's]˚ ('ha;Ö DÈz¤ö'l¨k, dz¤-, z¤, -¤T'l¨k) how
does it look? [how's]÷
for\ ('l¨kf≥¤T, -fÈ<¤T)a (-fÈ>¤T, -fˇ¤T÷ -fØ>¤T)b look for it˚ ('sT™;I f≥û'wIik, -f<û-)a (-fÈ>û-,
-fˇû-, -f>û-)b ®Z for a week˚ (¤tsf≥'j¯;u)a (¤tsfÈ'j¯;u, -f¤'j-, -f'j-)b it's for you÷
from\ (f<Èm'sku;Uı)a (f>Èm-)b from (ool˚ (f<õ'∑™;≥)a (f>õ'∑™;‘)b from ère˚ ('w™;≥
'A;<jÈ&f<√m, -Am÷ -j¯-, &w™<)a ('w™‘> 'A;jÈ&f>Øm, -j¯-, &w™‘>-)b where are you from?÷
had\ (hÈDaÙ'sIin¤T, hπ-) had I seen it˚ (∑™IÈD'Da;Ùfl, ∑™ID-÷ -IhÈD-) `\ had died
[`\'d]˚ (¤[Èbb¤n'D√n:, -Db-, -™n-÷ -Èn-÷ ¤ThÈ-)a (¤TÈ-, -¤n-, -Iin-, -ån:)b it had been
done [it'd]˚ (∑È'mπ;n ûg'gO:n, ÈD-, -A;n)a (-Ø;n)b è man had gone˚ (Si'hπfl TÈ-
'sT™;I, -πT) /Si'hπd tÈ'stEI/ é had to ®Z (+ (-π[ È-)a (-πT È-)b /-πù È-/);
has\ (hÈzi'gO:n, hπ-, -A;n)a (-Ø;n)b has he gone?˚ (Siz'D√n:, SiÈz-÷ SihÈz-)a (-ån:)b é
has done [é's]˚ (¤ts'b¤n:, ¤[Èz-÷ ¤thÈz-)a (¤ts-, -I;in, -¤n:, ¤TÈz-)b it has been [it's]˚
('Gø:<G ÈΩ'kh√m:, Ès-÷ -ä hÈ-)a ('Gø:G, -åm:)b George has come˚ (hi'hπΩ TÈ-
'sT™;I, -πs) he has to ®Z÷
have\ (hÈvjÈ'sIin¤T, hπ-, -j¯-) have you seen it?˚ (∑™Iv'gO:n, -A;n÷ ∑™IÈ-÷ -hÈ-)a
(-Ø;n)b `\ have gone [`\'ve]˚ (wiÑ'kh√m:, -f'k-÷ wiÈ-÷ wihÈ-)a (-åm:)b we have
come [we've]˚ (wi'hπÑ TÈ'sT™;I, -πf) /wi'hπv tÈ'stEI/ we have to ®Z˚ (jÈ'S¨DÈÑ,
j¯-, -πÑ, -&hπÑ) you óuld have˚ (jÈ'S¨DÈ 'D√n:, -*, -Èv, j¯-)a (-ån:)b you óuld
have done [óuld 've] + (-'kh¨-, -'w¨-, -'m√sT-a/-å-b, -'m™I-, -'maÙ[-a/-T-b) could˚
would˚ mu®˚ mZ˚ might÷
he\ (hi'w™nT) he went˚ ('w™ni 'sO;¤T, w™-, wû-)a ('sø;¤T)b when he sY it˚ ('hπzi) has
he?÷
her\ (h≥'a;ÙΩ)a (hÈ>'-)b her \es˚ ('Th™l≥)a (-å)b tell her˚ ('g¤v≥ ≥'hπT)a (-È>‘-, -È hÈ-)b
give her her hat˚ (Th¯≥'m√∑≥, ThÈh≥-, Thw-)a (ThÈhÈ'må∑å, Th¯‘-, Th¯È-, Thw-)b
to her moèr÷
him\ (aÙ'sO;¤m÷ -Èm)a (-ø;¤m)b I sY him˚ ('l™[¤m '¤n:÷ -Èm÷ -õ)a ('l™T-)b let him in÷
his\ (h¤Ω'ph™n:) his pen˚ (hi'Th¨k ¤z'b¨k) he took his book˚ (h¤Z'j¯u†) his you`÷
I\ (aÙ'sI;i, √Ù-)a (aÙ-, åÙ-)b I see˚ (aÉı'Th™Ik, ,ı-÷ -®-÷ -ûı-÷ -w®-)a (aÉı-, √ı-÷ -®-÷ -ûı-÷
-w®-)b I will take [I'll]˚ ('ha;Ö kûDaÙ'sT™;I, -√-÷ -È-)a (-aÙ-, -å-÷ -È-)b how could I
®Z?÷
if\ (¤faÙ'm™;I, Èf-, ≥-) if I mZ˚ (¤fjÈ's™;I&sø¨, Èf-, ≥-, -¯-)a (-‘¨)b if you sZ so˚ (¤f'nAö
f≥'j¯;u, Èf-, ≥-, -T)a (-nØö fÈ'-)b if not for you÷
in\ (¤n'l√nDÈn)a (-å-)b in London˚ (¤m'phπ<Ès)a (->¤s)b in Paris˚ (¤˙'khπnÈD√)a
(-å)b in Canada˚ (hi'sπ[ ¤n∑È'ch™;≥, ¤˙˙È-, ¤nnÈ÷ -T ó∑È-÷ -T ónÈ-)a (-πT, -™;‘)b he
sat in è >air˚ ('b<™Ik¤[ ¤n'ThU;u÷ -¤T ó-)a ('b>-, -¤T, -¯;u)b break it in ‘o˚ (aÙ-
m¤nÈ'h≥;i, √-÷ -mnÈ-÷ aÙÈm-)a (-å>i, å-)b I am in a hurry [I'm]÷
is\ (¤z¤ö'j¯;u, -T'j-÷ Ç¤-) is it you?˚ (¤ts'mI;i÷ ¤[¤z-)a (¤ts-÷ ¤T¤z-)b it is me [it's]˚ ('kh¤mΩ
'hI;≥÷ -m ¤-)a ('h¤;å)b Kim is here [Kim's]˚ ('∑¤s ¤zÈ'fa;Ùn 'D™;I, '∑¤s ÇÈ'-÷ '∑¤s sÈ'-) ìs
is a fine dZ, ('<ø;¨z ¤zÈ'naÙs 'w¨mÈn, '<ø;¨z ÇÈ'-, '<ø;¨z zÈ'-)a ('>‘;¨z)b Rose is a
nice woman, (∑¤s'D¤S ¤z'waÙT, Ç'-, s'-, ∑Ès-) ìs di´ is white÷
it\ (¤z¤ö'Th<U;u, Èz-, Ç, -T'T-)a (-'˛h>¯;u, -˛'˛-)b is it true?˚ (¤ts'O:ı '<aÙT, ts'-, s'-÷ ¤[¤z-)a
(-ø:ı '>-÷ ¤T¤z-)b it is all right [it's]˚ ('j™s ¤['¤;Ω÷ j™'sT¤;Ω)a (¤T'¤;Ω÷ j™'sT¤;Ω)b yes it is˚
('Th™Ik¤T, -ûT)a (-¤T)b take it˚ (¤[®biû'g¨;∂ '†¤˙:, T®-÷ ¤pw®-÷ ¤Tw®-)a (¤T®-)b it will
be a good ì« [it'll]˚ (¤[Èbbi'naÙs, Twû-, -Db-÷ ¤pw-÷ ¤Tw-)a (¤TÈ-, …)b it would
be nice [it'd]÷
i_\ (¤ts'Th™;¤ı) i_ tail˚ (¤T'hπ;D ¤ts'ThIi† 'b<ø¨kûn, Èts-)a ('b>‘¨-)b it had i_ tee`
broken÷
ju®\ (aÙvG√s[T]'sIin¤m, -GÈs-) (-Gå-, -GÈ-)b I have ju® seen him [I've]˚ (Siz'G√s-
gO:n û'w™;I, -Ès-, -A;n)a (-å-, -È-, -Ø;n)b é has ju® gone YZ [é's]˚ (G√s'laÙk
¤Ω's√n:, GÈs-, -T'l-)a (Gås-, -ån:)b ju® like his son÷
maJ\ ('m™ni 'bø;ÙΩ) maJ boys˚ ('ha;Ö m™ni'mø:<, mÈni-, mni-)a (-ø:)b how
maJ more?÷
2. english 81
mZ\ (jÈm™I'π[;]sk≥, j¯-÷ -mi-)a (-A;skå)b you mZ ask her˚ (wim™I'gø;¨÷ -mû-)a
(-‘;¨)b we mZ go˚ (Sim™I'sT™;I÷ -mÈ-) é mZ ®Z÷
me\ (hi'khO;ıbmi, -Dmi)a (-ø;ı-)b he called me˚ ('Sø¨mi ∑û'w™;I)a ('S‘¨mi)b ów
me è wZ÷
mu®\ (aÙmÈs'gø;¨, -m#-, √Ù-)a (åÙ-, -‘;¨)b I mu® go˚ (¤pmÈsbi'D√n:, ¤ö-)a (-ån:)b it
mu® be done˚ (SimÈs'ph™;I) é mu® pZ÷
my\ (maÙ'h™;fl, m√Ù-, m√-)a (måÙ-, må-)b my head˚ ('nAT TÈmaÙ'nAl¤ä, -√Ù-, -√-,
-È-÷ -¤-÷ -i-, -ö)a ('nØ-, -åÙ-, -å-)b not to my knowledge÷
no\ (nø¨'mø:< D¯'a;Ù÷ nÈ-)a (n‘¨'mø:÷ nÈ-)b no more do I˚ (nø¨'√∑≥ '<Iizó÷ n¯-)a
(n‘¨'å∑È '>-÷ n¯-)b no oèr reason˚ (¤tsnø¨'g¨;fl÷ -nÈ-)a (-‘¨-÷ -nÈ-)b it's no good÷
nor\ (&nIi∑≥'f¤S nø;<'fl™S, n≥-÷ &naÙ-)a (&naÙ∑È-, nø;-, nÈ-÷ &nIi-)b neièr fi´ nor fle´˚
(&nIi∑≥'hI;i n≥'a;Ù, nO;<-÷ &naÙ-)a (&naÙ∑È-, nÈ>-, nø;>-÷ &nIi-)b neièr he nor I÷
not, n't\ (¤['¤zóT)a (¤T'¤-)b it isn't˚ (aÙ'wø¨nT, √-)a (å-, -‘¨nT)b I won't˚ (hi'D√zóT,
-'DÈ-)a (-å-, -'DÈ-)b he doesn't˚ (wi'Dø¨m 'phl™;I)a (-‘¨-)b we don't plZ˚ (¤['¤zô
'g¨;fl)a (¤T'-)b it isn't good˚ ('¤zói, -óTi) isn't he?˚ ('¤zó¤ö, -ó¤T) isn't it?˚ (hi'j¯usó-
&T¯) he used not to÷
of\ (∑È'f¤f† Èv'm™;I, *'m-) è fif` of MZ˚ (û'kh√p ÈÑ'ThI;i, -È'T-, -≥'T-)a (-åp)b a cup
of tea˚ ('f≥;sT Èv'O:ı, *'-)a ('f‘;-, -ø:ı)b fir® of all÷
on (the most reduced form only occurs when no ambiguity with in is possible):
(&√pO;n∑È'bAks, -An-÷ -Èn-, -nnÈ-)a (&åpØ-, -Øks)b up on è box˚ (&¤tsO;mmaÙ-
'sa;Ùfl, -Am-, -m√Ù-÷ -mÈ-÷ ¤[¤z-)a (-Øm-, -måÙ-÷ ¤T¤z-)b it is on my side [it's]˚ ('w√[-
Èn '≥;†, 'wA-, -O;n, -An)a ('wØTÈn '‘;†, -Øn)b what on ear`!÷
once\ (w√ns'mø:<, wûn-)a (wåns'mø:, wûn-)b once more (= again] – (&w√ns-
'mø:<)a (&wåns'mø:)b once more (= one more time]÷
one(s) (the form without /w/ may be judged as dialectal or regional): (È'b¤g&w√n,
-wûn÷ -ûn)a (-wå-)b a big one˚ (&∑πtsû'g¨;b&w√n, -wûn, -D-÷ -DÈn÷ -Dó÷ &∑π[¤-
zÈ-)a (-wå-÷ &∑πT¤zÈ-)b àt is a good one [àt's]˚ (w√n'O;ıwûΩ 'hø¨ps, wû-, -¤Ω,
-™IΩ, -O;w-)a (wån'ø;ıw¤Ω 'h‘¨ps, -ûΩ, ™IΩ-, -ø;w-)b one alwZs hopes˚ (&∑ø¨z≥-
'naÙs&w√nΩ, -wûnΩ÷ -sÈnΩ)a (&∑‘¨zÈ-, -wå-÷ -sÈnΩ)b òse are nice ones÷
or\ (ThÈ'D™;I ≥TÈ'mO;<ø¨, ø;<T-÷ -mA<-)a (ÈT-, ø;T-, -Ø>‘¨)b todZ or tomorrow˚ ('ThU;u
≥'†<I;i 'pha;ÖndΩ÷ ø;<-)a ('Th¯;u ø;-, È'†-, ->-)b ‘o or `ree pounds˚ (≥'Eıs)a (È>-
'™ıs)b or else÷
our\ (A;<'sku;Uı)a (A;-)b our (ool˚ (&∑Iiz≥A;<'ph™n:Ω)a (-zÈ>A;-)b èse are our pens÷
per\ ('f¤fTi p≥'s™nT)a (pÈ-)b fif“ per cent˚ ('fa;ÙÑ p≥'s™mp p≥'πnÈm, -mö, -nT)a (pÈ's-,
pÈ>'π-)b five per cent per annum÷
áll (in American English it is a stylistic choice): (&SπlaÙ'Th™Ik¤T, -√Ù-)a (SÈlaÙ-
'Th™Ik¤T, SÍaÙ-, -åÙ-, -å-)b áll I take it?˚ (aÙS®'DU;u, aÉı-, ,ı-)a (-¯;u, √ı-)b I áll
do˚ (S®wi'gø;¨, Sûwi-, Swi-)a (-‘;¨)b áll we go?÷
é\ (Si'w™nT) é went˚ (Si'hπΩT¯, -sT¯) é has to˚ ('hπzóSi, -óTSi) hasn't é?÷
óuld\ (SÈDi'kh√m:)a (-åm:)b óuld he come˚ (jÈSÈD'DU;u¤T, j¯-)a (-'D¯u¤T)b you
óuld do it˚ (aÙSûg'gø;¨&naÖ, -Sg-, -ÈD'g-, √-)a (-‘;¨-, å-)b I óuld go now˚ (aÙ-
SÈ∂'†¤˙k&sø¨, -St'-, √-)a (å-, -‘¨)b I óuld ìnk so˚ (∑È[iSûâ'kh√m 'aÖT, -Èfl'-, -iS-
'kh-)a (-Ti-, -å-)b àt he óuld come out÷
sir\ ('j™ss≥, -s-)a (-å)b yes, sir˚ ('nø¨s≥)a ('n‘¨så)b no, sir˚ (s≥'GA;n)a (sÈ'GØ;n)b Sir
John˚ (s≥'πıf<Èfl)a (sÈ>'Åıf>¤fl)b Sir Alfred˚ (s≥'chA:<ıΩ, -A;<®Ω)a (sÈ'chA:ıΩ, sÈ-,
#-)b Sir ≥arles÷

so\ ('nAt sø¨'g¨;D Èz¤p'w√;Ω, sû'-, -A;Ω, -Èp-, -T'-)a ('nØt s‘¨-, -Ø;Ω, sû'-)b not so good
as it was˚ (¤ts'nAt sø¨'fa;Ùn TÈ'd™;I, sÈ-, ts-, s-÷ ¤[¤z-)a (-Øt s‘¨-÷ ¤T¤z-)b it is not so
fine todZ [it's]˚ ('nAt sø¨'ø;¨ıfl÷ s¯-)a ('nØt s‘¨'Ö;¨ıfl÷ s¯-)b not so old˚ ('™v≥ sø¨-
'm™ni, sÈ-)a (-È s‘¨-)b /'EvÈ≤ sOU'mEni/ ever so maJ÷
some (determ.): (wûGÈ'laÙk sõ'ThI;i, sÈm-) would you like some tea?˚ (Djû'wAn
sÈ'mø:<, sÈm-, Dj¯-, -'wO;-)a (-wØ-, -ø:)b do you want some more?˚ (aÙ'hπÑ&s√m)a
(-åm)b I have some÷
St˘, Saint\ (s™Im'phIim≥, -mp'ph-)a (sõ'phIiTå, s¤m-, s™Im-)b St. Peter˚ (s™I˙'khl™;≥,
-˙k'kh-)a (sô'khl™;‘, s¤˙-, s™I˙-)b St˘ Clair˚ (s™In[[]'πn†Èni, -T-)a (sóT'πnTÈni,
s¤n-, s™In-, -†-)b St˘ AnòJ÷
su>\ (&s√cÈ'ph≥;só÷ sÈ-)a (&såcÈ'ph‘;só÷ sÈ-)b su> a person˚ (&s√cÈ'†¤˙:÷ sÈ-)a (&så-÷
sÈ-)b su> a ì«÷
àn\ ('mø:< ∑ó'∑πT)a ('mø:)b more àn àt˚ (SiΩ'faÙn≥ ∑õ'm™<i, Sis-÷ Si¤-)a (-nÈ,
-™‘>i)b é is finer àn Mary [é's]˚ (¤ts'l™s ∑ÈnÈn'¤~c, óÈn, ts-÷ ¤[¤z-)a (÷ ¤T¤z-)b
it is le˛ àn an in> [it's]˚ (&∑πts'mø:< ∑ÈnaÙ'hπ;Ñ÷ Èn√-÷ &∑π[¤z-)a (-ø:÷ -ø:>
Ènå-÷ &∑πT¤z-)b àt is more àn I have [àt's]÷
àt (conj. “ rel. pron.): ('nAt ∑È[¤p'mπm≥Ω, 'nAö, -¤ö'm-, -¤T'm-)a ('nØ-, ∑ÈT¤-, -T‘Ω)b
not àt it matters˚ ('sI;in ∑ÈcÈ'nø¨&∑πT, ∑ÈTSÈ, ∑ÈTjÈ-, ∑ÈöjÈ-, -¯-) seen àt you
know àt÷ (∑È'D™;I {∑Èp}wi'm™T) è dZ (àt) we met÷
è\ (∑È'b¨k) è book˚ (∑È'mπ;n) è man˚ (∑È'jEı:, ∑¤'j-, ∑i'j-)a (-™ı:)b è yell÷ (∑i-
'™n:fl) è end˚ (∑i'√∑≥ 'D™;I)a (∑i'å∑È)b è oèr dZ˚ (∑È'hIiT÷ ∑¤-) è heat˚ ('w√ts
∑È'Tha;Ùm, zÈ-, 'wA-÷ -[¤z-)a ('wØ-÷ -T¤z-)b what is è time? [what's], (&¤z∑û'khπt
'∑™;≥, &¤zzÈ-÷ &¤zÈ-, -ö)a (-™;‘)b is è cat ère?, (¤n∑È'haÖs, ¤˙˙È-, ¤nnÈ-) in è
house˚ (û'w™;I f<Èm∑È's¤[i, -„'s-)a (f>-, -Ti)b /È'wEI f<Èm∑È'sIùi/ YZ from è
ci“÷
èir\ (∑™I'bO;t ∑™≥'bø¨T÷ ∑≥-)a (-ø;t ∑™‘'b‘¨T, ∑‘-÷ ∑È-)b `\ bought èir boat˚ (È-
'haÖs Èv∑™<'ø;¨n÷ -∑≥-, *∑-, È∑-)a (-™‘>'‘;¨n÷ -∑È>'-)b a house of èir own÷
èm\ (wi'sO;∑Èm, -∑õ, -O;Èm)a (-'sø;-, -ø;Èm)b we sY èm˚ ('g¤v∑Èm, -∑õ, -vÈm,
-vè) give èm÷
èn\ ('sUup 'f≥;sT ∑™~'ch¤kûn, ∑È-)a ('s¯up 'f‘;-, -k¤n)b soup fir® èn >i$en˚ (aÙ-
'maÙk&gø¨\ bÈö∑™nû'g™n:\ aÙ'maÙö 'nAT, -∑Èn-, √-, -T&g-, -T 'n-)a (-‘¨\, -ØT)b I
might go but èn again I might not˚ (∑™n'π[;]fT≥ È'Tha;Ùm, ∑Èn-)a (-'A;ftÈ> È-,
-˛>È 'Th-)b èn after a time…÷
ère (exist.): (∑™<≥'m™ni, ∑È<≥-, ∑≥≥, ∑<≥-)a (∑™‘>È-, ∑‘>È-, ∑È>È-, ∑>È-)b ère are
maJ˚ (∑™≥zÈ'lAT, ∑≥-)a (∑™‘zÈ'lØT, ∑‘-, ∑È-)b ère is a lot˚ ('hπvè∑™≥, -≥)a (-å)b
haven't ère?÷
`\\ (∑[™]≥'∑™;≥)a (∑™‘'∑™;‘)b `\ are ère˚ (&w™n∑™I'w™nT÷ ∑™-÷ ∑¤-) when `\
went˚ (∑™[I]ı's™;I÷ ∑™[¤]®-÷ -w®-) `\ will sZ [`\'ll]÷
ìs\ (∑¤s'Iivn¤˙, ∑Ès'-, ∑È's-) ìs eveni«˚ (∑¤s'ph™n:÷ ∑Ès-) ìs pen˚ (¤n∑¤s'w™;I, ¤n-
n¤-÷ ón-÷ -Ès-) in ìs wZ˚ (&O;n∑¤s'Th™Ib®, -nn-, &A-÷ -Ès-)a (&Ø-)b on ìs table˚
('w√ts '∑¤s, -ös, -s, 'z¤s, 'sIs, 'wA-÷ -[¤z)a ('wØ-÷ -T¤z)b what is ìs? [what's]÷
till\ ('w™IT T¤li'kh√m:Ω, TÍi-)a (-åm:Ω)b wait till he comes˚ (Th¤ı'ThUuzD™I, Th®-, -i)a
(-'Thj¯u-)b till tuesdZ÷
time(s)\ (∑È'f≥;s&ThaÙm aÙ'w™nt&∑™≥, -sT√Ùm, -sT√m, -sTÈm, -nö&-, -n&-)a (-‘;s-, -aÙm,
2. english 83
-åÙm, -åm, -Èm)b è fir® time I went ère˚ ('†<I;i&ThaÙmΩ 'fø:< ≥'ThwEı:Ñ, -T√Ù-,
-T√-, -TÈ-)a ('†>-, 'fø:> È-, -åÙ-, -å-, -È-, -™ı:Ñ)b `ree times four are ‘elve÷
to\ (ThÈ'l√nDÈn)a (-å-)b to London˚ (ThÈ'sku;Uı) to (ool˚ (Th¯'¤˙glÈnfl, 'Thw¤-) to
E«land˚ (ThÈ'j¯;u, Th¤'j-, Thi'j-) to you˚ (Th¯'π;n) to Ann˚ ('kh√mT¯¤T, -Tw¤T)a
('khåm-)b come to it˚ (jÈ'hπÑT¯, -fT¯, j¯-) you have to˚ (Thû'g¤;Ñ) to give˚ (Thû-
'w¤n:, Th¯-) to win˚ (Th¯'IiT÷ ThÈ-)a (÷ ThÈ'ö-)b to eat˚ (Th¯'O;f≥, -'A-÷ ThÈ-)a (÷ ThÈ-
'öØfå)b to o‡er – for to˚ before consonants˚ (È, û) can be very short; and, be-
fore voiceless consonants, they are often devoiced: ('Th™n TÈ'fa;ÙÑ) ten to five;
up\ ('m™Ik√p j≥'ma;Ùnfl, jU≥-÷ -ûp-)a (-åpjÈ-, -jø;-÷ -ûp-)b make up your mind˚ (∑≥z-
'w√n √p'∑™;≥÷ Èp-÷ ∑≥¤z-)a (∑Èz'wån åp'∑™;‘÷ Èp-÷ ∑È>¤z-)b ère is one up ère
[ère's]÷
upon\ ('w√n È&pO;nÈ'n√∑≥, È&pA-, È&p√-, ÈpÈ-)a ('wån È&pØnÈ'nå∑å, ÈpÈ-)b one upon
anoèr˚ ('la;Ùn ÈpO;n'la;Ùn, -pA-, -p√-, -pÈ-)a (-pØ-, -pÈ-)b line upon line÷
us\ ('Th™lÈs) tell us˚ (l™ts'gø;¨, l™ös-, l™s-)a (-‘;¨)b let's go! – but: ('l™[Ès 'gø;¨)a ('l™T-
Ès 'g‘;¨)b let us go÷
was\ (aÙwûz'<O:˙, -A;˙)a (-'>Ø;˙)b I was wro«˚ (hiwÇÈ'f<™n:fl)a (->-)b he was a
friend÷
we\ (wi'm™;I) we mZ˚ ('A;<nTwi, -mpwi, -möwi)a ('A;n-, 'A;m-)b aren't we?÷
were\ (∑™Iw≥'¤ı:)a (-wû>-)b `\ were ill˚ (w≥jÈ'∑™;≥, -j¯-)a (wû-, -™;‘)b were you
ère?÷
what\ ('sI;i w√TjÈv'D√n:, wA-, wû-, -TS-, -c-, -¯v-÷ hw-÷ W-÷ -j¯È-÷ j¯hÈ-)a (wØ-, wå-,
…)b see what you have done! [you've]˚ (hi'nU;u w√[i'wAn[[]Èfl, wA-, wû-, -'wO;n-÷
hw-÷ W-)a (-'nj¯;u wØTi'wØnT¤fl, wå-, …)b he kn[ what he wanted˚ (&w√m≥jÈ-
's™I¤˙, -j¯, &wA-, wû-÷ hw-÷ W-÷ -™;¤˙)a (&wØTÈ-, …)b what are you sZi«?
[what're]˚ (&w√TDjÈ 's™;I, -TGÈ, -TSÈ, -cÈ, -GÈ, -¯, &wA-, wû-÷ hw-÷ W-)a (&wØ-, …)b
what do you sZ? [d'you]˚ (&w√TDjÈ'DU;u, -TGÈ, -TSÈ, -cÈ, -GÈ, &w√DÈjÈ-, &w√DjÈ,
-¯, &wA-, wû-÷ hw-÷ W-)a (&wØ-, …)b what do you do? [d'you]÷
when (not interr.): (Èmw™naÙ'sO;¤T, õwû-, -nÈ'-)a (-ø;-)b and when I sY it…˚
(&sø¨w™~jû'g™ö '∑™;≥, -wû-, -T-)a (&s‘¨-, -™;‘)b so when you get ère…÷
where (not interr.): (∑È'phl™Is w™≥iwûΩ'fa;Önfl, w≥-)a (w™‘>i-, wû>i-)b è place
where he was found˚ (û'kh√nT<i w™≥'phIip® 's¤˙:, w≥-)a (-åN˛>i w™‘-, wû-)b a
country where people si«÷
who\ (∑È'mπ;n ¯'D¤D¤T, h¯-) è man who did it÷
will\ ('∑π[® 'DU;u÷ '∑πpw®÷ -Tw®)a (-T® 'D¯;u, …)b àt will do [àt'll]˚ (jûı'sI;i,
j¨ı-, juı-÷ j¯ûı÷ j¯w®) you will see [you'll]˚ (w¤l¤p'w≥;k, -ö'w-, -T'w-÷ wûl-)a
(-‘;k)b will it work?˚ (¤[®bi'mI;i÷ ¤pw®-÷ ¤Tw®-)a (¤T®-)b it will be me [it'll]˚
('GA;m wûıbi'hI;≥, -n ®bi-)a ('GØ;-, -¤;å)b John will be here [ John'll]˚ (∑È'ch≥;c
[w]ûıbi'f¨ı:, w®-)a (-‘;c)b è >ur> will be full÷
would\ (wûD¤pbi'g¨;fl, -öb-, -Tb-) would it be good?˚ (∑™ID'DU;u÷ ∑™IÈD-÷ -wûD-)a
(-¯;u)b `\ would do [`\'d]˚ (hiâ'kh√m:, -fl'k-÷ hiûâ÷ hiÈfl-÷ hiwû-)a (-åm:)b
he would come [he'd]˚ (¤[Èbbi'naÙs, -Db-÷ ¤pwû-÷ ¤Twû-)a (¤TÈ-)b it would be nice
[it'd], ('GI;im wûd's™;I&sø¨, -n Èd-)a (-‘¨)b Jean would sZ so÷
you\ (¤fjÈ'DU;u, -j¯-)a (-¯;u)b if you do˚ (aÉı'Th™¬j√, -j¯, ,ı-÷ aÉûı-÷ aÙwûı-)a …(-j¯,
√ı-)b I will tell you [I'll]˚ ('†π˙kj¯, -j√)a (-j¯)b ànk you˚ ('A;<~c¯, -√)a ('A;~-
c¯)b aren't you?˚ ('D¤DócÈ 'sI;i, -c¯, -óTS-) didn't you see?˚ ('D¤Dócû 'khw¤T, -¯,
-óTS-, -ó j-) didn't you quit?÷

your\ (j≥'phl™Is, jU≥-, jø;<-)a (jÈ-, jø;-)b your place˚ (&w√TS≥'n™;Im, -U≥-, -ø;<-, -tsS-,
-tsj-, &wA-÷ -[¤Z-÷ -[¤zj-)a (&wØ-, -È'n-, -ø;'n-÷ -T¤Z-÷ -T¤zj-)b what is your name?
[what's]˘
2.3.1.3. ‹en prepositions become çpostpositionsÇ, they have full vowels:

('hU;u ≥jû'w™I[¤˙&fø;<, -j¯-)a (Èj-, -T¤˙&fø;)b who are you waiti« for?˚ ('w™;≥ ≥jû'kh√m-
¤˙&f<√m, -Am, -j¯-)a ('w™;‘> Èjû'khåm¤˙&f>Øm)b where are you comi« from?˚ ('w√t
si'l¨k¤˙&πT, 'w√[ ¤zi-, 'wA-)a ('wØt si-, -T ¤zi-)b what is he looki« at?
And when a preposition is followed by an unstressed pronoun, there are two
possibilities, according to rhythm and speaking rate (or tempo): (hi'w™I[Èflf≥j¯, -j√,
-&fø;<j√)a (hi'w™IT¤flfÈj¯, -&fø;j¯)b he waited for you˚ (wI≥'l¨k¤˙ûm≥, -˙&π-)a (w¤È'l¨k¤˙û-
Tå, -&πTå)b we're looki« at her.
Of course, with emphasis, things change: (wI≥'l¨k¤˙ ûT"h≥:| 'nA[ ÈT"h¤m:)a (w¤È-
'l¨k¤˙ ûT"h‘:| 'nØT ÈT"h¤m:)b we're looki« at her˚ not at him, (aÙ"DU;u&nø¨)a (aÙ-
"D¯;u&n‘¨)b I do know˘
˛e forms beginning by h-˚ after a pause, never lose initial /h/: (hi'nø;¨Ω)a
(-‘;¨Ω)b he knows˚ (hÈvjÈ'sI;in≥, hπ-, -j¯-)a (-å)b have you seen her?˚ (h¯'A;<j¯, -j√)a (-'A;-
j¯)b who are you?˚ Â.
2.3.1.4. Here we will make some examples of compounds with reduced second
elements, especially in British English: ('sT<O:&b™<i)a ('s˛>ø;bˇi, -b>i)b ®rYberry
/-bŒ<i/ (in particular with monosyllabic roots, Ô § 2.3.5), ('kh√b≥fl)a ('khåbÈfl)b cup-
board, ('wEıkûm)a ('w™ı-)b welcome, ('s√nD™I, -Di)a ('sån-)b sunday (often /-dEI/ in
an intoneme, but /-di/ in a preintoneme, ç/-dŒE/Ç);
('phIim≥&b≥ø¨)a (-TÈbˇå, -b>å)b Peterborough /-b˘<KÈ/, ('™DÈm&b≥√)a (-¤mb>å, -bˇå)b
Edinburgh /-b˘<È/, ('nU;u&b™<i)a ('nj¯ubˇi, -b>i)b N[bury /-bŒ<i/ (in particular
with monosyllabic roots, Ô § 2.3.5), ('l™sT≥)a ('l™sTå)b Leicester, ('w¨sT≥)a ('w¨sTå)b
Worcester, ('nø;<fûk)a ('nø;fûk)b Norfolk, ('Aksf≥fl)a ('ØksfÈfl)b Oxford;
('khπsÈm) Casham, ('D≥;Èm)a ('Då>Èm)b Durham /È;</ and ('kh√n¤˙&hπm)a ('khån-
¤˙ûm)b Cunni«ham /-·⁄m/, ('¤˙glÈnD) E«land, ('phø¨smÈn)a ('ph‘¨s-)b po®-
man, ('G™n[[]®mÈn)a (-nT®-)b gentlemen, ('s™<È&mø¨ni)a ('s™>ÈmÈni)b ceremony /-mKÈ-
ni/, ('phl¤mÈ†) PImou$;
('sO;s&phπn)a ('sø;spÈn)b saucepan /-p⁄n/, ('nAns™ns, -sÈns)a ('nØnsÈns)b nonsense
/-sŒns/, ('jø;<kSI≥, -S≥)a ('jø;kSå, -S¤å)b Yorkshire /-SEÈ≤/, ('hπnsÈm) handsome, ('h™nD≥-
sÈn)a (-DÈ-)b Henderson, ('fø¨ksTÈn, -&sTø¨n)a ('f‘¨ksTÈn)b Folkestone /-stKÈn/.
Furthermore: ('laÙ&b<™<i, -b<È<i, -b≥i, -b<i)a ('laÙb>È>i, -b>ˇi, bˇi, -b>i)b library˚
('kh√sTÈ&m™<i)a ('khåsTÈmÈ>i, -Èmˇi, -Èm>i)b cu®omary˚ (DÈ'<™kTÈ<i, -T≥i, -T<i, DaÙ-)a
(D¤'>™kTÈ>i, -˛ˇi, -˛>i, DaÙ-)b directory˚ ('Dø;<mÈ&Tø<i)a ('Dø;mÈ˛>i, -TÈ>i)b dormitory.
Taxophonics
2.3.2.1. From the examples given thus far, the use of #onetic duration for the
various English phones will be su‚ciently clear. However, we will summarize its
2. english 85
characteristics. In stressed syllables, the long vowels (/A:, O:, È:/, and the possible
long ones from the diaphonemes /A;, π;, Ø;, O;, È;/) as well as the diphthongs (/Ii,
EI, aE, OE, aO, OU, Uu/) undergo a little shortening –half-órteni«, indeed: from
(é:, é;é) to (é;, éé)– when they are followed, within the same word or rhythm
group, by at least one of the following three elements: (1) a voicele˛ consonant, or
(2) an un®re˛ed vowel (and that changes them into diphthongs or triphthongs,
(éé, ééé)), or (3) a whole un®re˛ed Ällable. ˛e second elements of compounds
have secondary-stressed syllables; so they have no influence on length.
˛erefore, we have: ('phl™;I) /'plEI/ plZ, ('phl™;IΩ) /'plEIz/ plZs, ('phl™;Ifl) /'plEId/
plZed, ('phl™;I&bπk) /'plEIbπk/ plZba$, but ('phl™I¤˙) (or, possibly, ('phl™;¤˙))
/'plEII˙/ plZi«, ('phl™I≥)a (-å)b /'plEIÈ≤/ plZer, ('phl™IÈb®) /'plEIÈb®/ plZable, and
('phl™IT) /'plEIt/ plate, ('phl™Its) /'plEIts/ plates, ('phl™I[Èfl)a (-T¤fl)b /'plEIù¢d/ plated,
('phl™I[¤˙)a (-T¤˙)b /'plEIùI˙/ plati«, ('ph™InT) /'pEInt/ paint˘
Equally: ('khA:<)a (-A:)b /'kA:≤/ car, ('khA:<Ü)a (-A:Ω)b /'kA:≤z/ cars, ('khA:<fl)a (-A:fl)b
/'kA:≤d/ card, ('khA:<D&bø;<fl, -[b]&b-)a ('khA:D&bø;fl, -b&b-)b /'kA:≤dbO:≤d/ cardboard, but:
('khA;<T)a (-A;T)b /'kA:≤t/ cart, ('khA;<bÈn)a (-A;b-)b /'kA:≤bÈn/ carbon, ('khA;<D¤˙)a
(-A;D-)b /'kA:≤dI˙/ cardi«, ('khπ[;]nT)a (-A;nT)b /'kπ;nt/ can't˘
Besides, also unstressed or half-stressed syllables shorten, as seen in cardboard (a
true compound, as to cupboard /'k√bÈ≤d/, that is crystallized, by now, so that a
more suitable spelling for the latter could certainly be ècubbard¶]\ (phA;<'Th¤sÈ-
pÈnT)a (also (ph≥-)a) (-A;'Th¤s¤-)b /pA:≤'tIs¢pÈnt/ participant˚ (phA;<'Th¤sÈ&p™IT)a (also
(ph≥-)a) (-A;'Th¤s¤-)b /pA:≤'tIs¢pEIt/ participate˚ ('m™;I&D™I) /'mEIdEI/ MZdZ˘ Besides:
('w™Isp™Ip≥&bπ[;]skûT)a (-È&bA;sk¤T)b /'wEIstpEIpÈ≤-bπ;sk¢t/ wa®epaper basket˘
˛ese degrees of length hold good both in intonemes and preintonemes.
2.3.2.2. For the English stressed vowels (/I, E, π, √, Ø, U/), there is another inter-
esting fact about phonetic length. In syllables checked by final voiced consonants,
occurring in diphonic pairs (¤ /b, d, g, G÷ v, ∑, z, Z/), short stressed vowels under-
go a little lengthening – half-le«èni«, indeed: from (é) to (é;)– ('l¤;fl) /'lId/ lid
(but ('l¤T) /'lIt/ lit], ('mπ;fl) /'mπd/ mad (but ('mπT) /'mπt/ mat]˚ ('b√;Ω)a ('bå;Ω)b
/'b√z/ buzz (but ('b√s)a ('bås)b /'b√s/ bus]˘ ˛ese degrees of length hold good even
in both intonemes and preintonemes.
On the other hand, when final stressed syllables are checked by an isolated
voiced consonant (¤ not forming a diphonic pair – that is /m, n, ˙÷ ı/), instead of
the vocoid, the contoid is a little lengthened (but only in intonemes, before paus-
es): ('Th™n:) /'tEn/ ten, ('j√˙:)a ('jå˙:)b /'j√˙/ you«, ('b¨ı:) /'bUı/ bull (but ('b¨ı&hø;<n)a
(-ø;n)b /'bUıhO:≤n/ bullhorn˚ (∑È'b¨ı '<π;n)a ('>-)b /∑È'bUı '<πn/ è bull ran).
In both accents, though, there is an exception to the exception, insofar as /π, Ø/
are half-lengthened (in a preintoneme, too), instead of a following contoid:
('GA;n)a ('GØ;n)b /'GØn/ John, ('bπ;˙) /'bπ˙/ ba«, ('hπ;nfl) /'hπnd/ hand˘
In the sequences /IÈ≤, EÈ≤, UÈ≤/, the first element is half-lengthened, both in into-
nemes and preintonemes; this occurs before vowels as well, if final in rhythm groups:
('hI;≥)a ('h¤;å)b /'hIÈ≤/ here, ('∑™;≥)a ('∑™;‘)b /'∑EÈ≤/ ère, ('phjU;≥, 'phj≥:)a ('phj¨;å,
'phjø:)b /'pjUÈ≤/ pure˚ ('hI;≥ Èn'∑™;≥)a ('h¤;È> Èn'∑™;‘)b /'hI˘< Èn[d]'∑EÈ≤/ here and ère˘
We should notice that, in American English, /IÈ≤, EÈ≤, UÈ≤/ followed by vowels,
within words or rhythm groups, become ç/I<, E<, U</Ç: ('sp¤<¤T) both for /'spI˘<It/
('sp¤È>¤T)b spear it and for /'spI<It/ ('sp¤>¤T)b spirit˚ ('h¤<¤˙)a ('h¤È>¤˙)b /'hI˘<I˙/ hear-
i«˘
2.3.2.3. Even as far as (partial) devoici« is concerned, the examples thus far
will have already been a clear general survey. A short summary is, however, useful,
because there are also some particular remarks to be made, only here, even if we
need not mark them all in our transcriptions.
˛e devoicing of voiced diphonic consonants (/b, d, g÷ G÷ v, ∑, z, Z/), before
pauses or before voiceless consonants (çpo®devoicingÇ), is very important: ('bA;Ê)a
('bØ;Ê)b /'bØb/ Bob˚ ('Dπ;fl) /'dπd/ dad˚ ('G√;ä)a ('Gå;ä)b /'G√G/ judge˚ ('v≥:Ñ)a
('v‘:Ñ)b /'vÈ:≤v/ verve÷ ('bA;Ê 's™;Ω)a ('bØ;-)b /'bØb 'sEz/ Bob sZs˚ ('Dπ;fl 'Th¨k¤T) /'dπd
'tUkIt/ dad took it.
Of less importance is their devoicing after pauses or after voiceless consonants
(çpredevoicingÇ), which is slighter, too. It is true that for some speakers it is as
strong as postdevoicing, but it is usually less evident, and we need not mark it in
our transcriptions (although they could be shown by means of a dot under a sym-
bol: (b, a) (or above: (g, Z)): ('bA;Ê)a ('bØ;Ê)b /'bØb/ Bob, Â.
A dot could be used even after çaspiratedÇ /p, t, k, c/, but we will do that only
here, because (h) is su‚cient: (('ph&™;I)) /'plEI/ plZ˚ (('khwaÙT)) /'kwaEt/ quite˘ It is
the same also for the other voiceless consonants (although their devoicing is only
slight, and therefore usually it need not be marked): (('fˆ¯;u)) /'fjUu/ f[˚ (('†≤™T))a
(('†>-))b /'†<Et/ `reat˚ (('s2ø:<))a (('s2ø:))b /'snO:≤/ snore˘
Everyday-speech simplifications
2.3.3.1. In normal –non-slow– speech certain articulatory simplifications are

quite normal. In particular, /t, d/, between C˚ are easily dropped: ('mø¨sli)a
('m‘¨-)b /'mOUstli/ mo®I˚ ('hπnsÈm) /'hπndsÈm/ handsome˚ ('phø¨smÈn)a (-‘¨-)b
/'pOUstmÈn/ po®man˚ ('ph≥;f¤kli)a (-‘;f-)b /'pÈ:≤fIktli/ perfectI˚ ('n™ks 'D™;I) /'nEkst
'dEI/ next dZ˚ ('f≥;ß '†¤˙:)a ('f‘;s)b /'fÈ:≤st '†I˙/ fir® ì«˚ ('mπS pÈ'Th™I[ø¨Ω)a (-T‘¨Ω)b
/'mπSt pÈ'tEIùOUz/ maéd potatoes˘
˛is simplification occurs for /sts/, as well: ('phø¨sts, -sös, -ss)a ('ph‘¨-)b /'pOUsts/
po®s˚ ('Th™sts, -sös, -ss) /'tEsts/ te®s˚ ('Th™kst sÈ'l™kSÈn, -ks s-, sÍ'™-)a (-Só)b /'tEkst sÈ'lEk-
S˘n/ text selection.
Besides: ('mU;uv 'bπk)a ('m¯;uv)b /'mUuvd 'bπk/ moved ba$˚ ('l¨k 'laÙk) /'lUkt
'laEk/ looked like˚ ('<Iicmi)a ('>-)b /'<Iictmi/ rea>ed me˚ ('Thø;¨ı 'bA;Ê)a ('ThÖ;¨ı
'bØ;Ê)b /'tOUıd 'bØb/ told Bob˚ ('kh™p 'khwaÙÈT) /'kEpt 'kwaEÈt/ kept quiet˘
In addition to simplifications, there are assimilations: ('hπ;m 'm™;Ifl, -n 'm-)
/'hπnd 'mEId/ handmade˚ ('khlø;¨Ë 'SAp, -Ω)a (-‘;¨Ë 'SØp)b /'klOUzd 'SØp/ closed óp˚
('khπ[;]˙ 'gø;¨, -n)a (-A;˙ 'g‘;¨)b /'kπ;nt 'gOU/ can't go˘
Even for vowels, simplifications are frequent: ('g™[ Í'O:˙, -A;˙)a ('g™T Í'Ø;˙)b /'gEù
È'lØ;˙/ get alo«˚ ('π[;]fT <û'wa;Éı)a ('A;f˛ >û-)b /'π;ftÈ≤ È'waEı/ after a while˚ (T'<¤f¤k)a
(T'>-)b /tÈ'<IfIk/ terrific˚ (aÙb'lI;iÑ) /aEbÈ'lIiv/ I believe˚ (∑Èp'lIis) /∑ÈpÈ'lIis/ è police˘
2. english 87
And there are combinations, too: ('l¤T<Èli, -[È<È-)a ('l¤˛>Èli, -TÈ>È-)b /'lIù˘<Èli/ lite-
ralI˚ (ph≥'Th¤kjÈl≥li, -kj≥li, -kli)a (phÈ-, -kjÈlÈ-÷ -kj¨lÈ-)b /pÈ≤'tIkjÈlÈ≤li/ particularI˚
('ph<Abli, -bb-, -bÈb-, &ph<Ali)a ('ph>Ø-)b /'p<ØbÈbli/ probabI˘
2.3.3.2. In vowel combinations, within words or sentences, several simplifica-

tions are possible: ('s™;¤˙, 's™I¤˙) /'sEII˙/ sZi«˚ ('Sø;¤˙, 'Sø¨¤˙)a (-‘;¤˙, -‘¨¤˙)b /'SOUI˙/
ówi«˚ ('si;¤˙, 'sIi¤˙) /'sIiI˙/ seei«˚ (È'nø;¤˙, -øÙ¤˙) /È'nOEI˙/ annoyi«˘
Besides: ('d<a;¤T, -aÙ¤T)a ('Ã>-)b /'d<aEIt/ dry it˚ (∑™'IiT, ∑™I'IiT) /∑EI'Iit/ `\ eat˚
('s™;¤T, 's™I¤T) /'sEIIt/ sZ it˚ ('na: Èn'∑™n:, 'na;Ö) /'naO Èn[d]'∑En/ now and èn˚ ('bø;Ù
û˙'g≥:ı, -≥;®)a (-‘:ı)b /'bOE Èn[d]'gÈ:≤ı/ boy and girl˚ ('gø;¨ û'w™;I, 'gø:)a ('g‘;¨, 'g‘:)b
/'gOU È'wEI/ go YZ˚ ('gø;¨ 'A;n, 'gø:, 'O:n)a ('g‘;¨ 'Ø;n, 'g‘:)b /'gOU 'Ø;n/ go on˘
Here are some other frequent cases that it is good to know: ('πkcÈli, 'πkSÈli, -Sli÷
&πkSi) /'πkcÈli/ actualI˚ ('s≥;öóli, -T-, &s≥öói)a ('s‘;-)b /'sÈ:≤tóli/ certainI˚ (DÈ'<™kTli,
'D<™kli)a (D¤'>-, 'Ã>-)b /d¢'<Ektli/ directI˚ ('IizÍi, 'Iizli) /'IizÈli/ easiI˚ (¤g'zπkTli, 'gzπkli)
/Ig'zπktli/ exactI˚ (v™<i'g¨;fl, v≥i-)a (v™>i-, vˇi-)b /'vE<i 'gUd/ very good˚ ('†π˙[k]s v≥i-
'm√c)a (vˇi'måc)b /'†π˙ks vE<i'm√c/ ànks very mu>˚ ('†π˙kj¯, -j√, 'hπ-, 'ôkj¯, '˜-
kj¯) {(('˜ækj¯))} /'†π˙kju/ ànk you˘
Others: (bû&kÈΩ, p&k-, &kh-, -'khÈ;Ω÷ bû'kh√;Ω÷ -O:Ω÷ -A;Ω)a (-'khÈ;Ω÷ -Ø;Ω)b /b¢'kØ;z/ be-
cause˚ (ó'Th¤ı:, √n-)a (ån-)b /√n'tIı/ until˚ (ó'l™s, √n-)a (ån-)b /√n'lEs/ unle˛˚ (È'n√f,
ó'-)a (-åf, ó'-)b /¢'n√f/ enough˚ (&j™só'DI;ifl) /'jEs ¢n'dIid/ yes indeed˚ (ÈÑ'khø;<ß, Èf'- f&-,
&k-)a (-ø;s)b /Èv'kO:≤s/ of course˚ (ÈZ'¯uZ®, ¶'-, -Zw®, ÈZ'j-, ¶'j-) /Èz'jUuZw®/ as usual˚ (ph≥-
'hπps, -&Hπ-, &ph<π-, phπ-)a (phÈ-, &ph>-)b /pÈ≤'hπps/ perhaps˘
2.3.3.3. Some other cases: (wûı, w®, wû {,ı'Th™¬jû&w√T, -ö})a ({√ı-, -Ø-})b /wEı,
wÈı, w®/ well, [I'll tell you what]˚ (≥&ø¨nli√'kh¨;fl, -ni-)a (-‘¨-, -å'-)b /IfOUnliaE'kUd/ if
onI I could˚ ('skj¯uzmi, ¤k'-) /Ik'skjUuzmi/ excuse me!˚ (baÙ'ba;Ù, b√-, bÈ-, &baÙ'ba;Ù)a
(bå-)b /baE'baE/ bye-bye˚ (g¨b'ba;Ù, gûb-, g¨'-, gû'-÷ -D'b-, 'ba;Ù) /gUd'baE/ goodbye˚
(g¨b'mø;<n¤˙, gûb-, g¨'-, gû'-÷ -D'm-, 'mø;<n¤˙)a (-ø;n-, 'mø;n-)b /gUd'mO:≤nI˙/ good
morni«˘
Besides: ('j™s, 'j™hs, 'j™h, 'j™Ès, 'j™È, 'j™ö, —j™, —jÈs), and ('j™√, 'jπ√, 'ja:, 'jA:)a (-å)b,
('j™û, 'j™pæ, 'j√pæ, 'j√öæ, —j√)a (-åpæ, -åöæ, -å)b /'jEs÷ 'jEÈ÷ 'jEp÷ 'j√p/ yes!˚ ('nø;¨, 'nø¨ö,
'nø¨p)a ('n‘-)b /'nOU/ no!˚ (&O;ı'<aÙT, O;'-, -ö)a (&ø;ı-, ø;-)b /O:ı'<aEt/ all right˚ (khûm'A;n,
-'O:n)a (-'Ø;n)b /k√m'Ø;n/ come on!˚ (khûm'¤n:) /k√m'In/ come in!˚ (khûm'I;≥, -'H-)a
(-¤;å)b /k√m'hIÈ≤/ come here!
More examples: (s¤ö'Da;Ön, s¤-, s¤T-) /sIt'daOn/ sit down˚ (√Dó'ø;¨, aÙDø¨'nø;¨)a
(åD'ó‘;¨, aÙD‘¨'n‘;¨)b /aEdOUn[t]'nOU/ I don't know˚ (√D¤ó'ø;¨, aÙ&D¤Dó'ø;¨)a (åD¤ó-
'‘;¨, aÙ&D¤Dó'‘;¨)b /aEdIdó[t]'nOU/ I didn't know˚ (√'sp™k&sø¨, aÙ¤k-)a (å'sp™k&s‘¨)b
/aEIk'spEktsOU/ I expect so˚ (aÙ'spø¨Ω, √sÈ-)a (-‘¨Ω, åsÈ-)b /aEsÈ'pOUz/ I suppose˚ (√'†¤˙k
j≥'<aÙT, -˙ö)a (å-, jÈ'>-)b /aE'†I˙k jÈ≤'<aEt/ I ìnk you're right˘
≈nally: (aÙ˙gûnÈ'DUu¤T, å˙û-÷ -&gø¨nÈ-, -√-, -O;-, -A-, -ÈT)a (å-, -¯u¤T÷ -&g‘¨nÈ-, -å-,
-ø;-, -Ø-)b /aEmgÈnÈ'dUuIt÷ -gOUnÈ-÷ -'gOUI˙tÈ-/ I'm goi« to do it [gonna do it]˚ (hizgû-
n¯'πD¤T÷ -&gø¨n¯-, -√-, -O;-, -A-, -ÈT)a (-&g‘¨n¯-, -å-, -ø;-, -Ø-)b /hizgÈnu'πdIt÷ -OU-÷ -'gOUI˙-
tÈ-/ he's goi« to add it˚ (wi&wAnÈ's™;I, -wO;-, -nT-, -nö-)a (-wØ-)b /wiwØ;nùÈ'sEI/ we want
to sZ [wanna]˚ (wi&wAn¯'IiT, -wO;-, -nT-)a (-ØnT-)b /wiwØ;nùu'Iit/ we want to eat˚ ('s√m-
†¤˙ 'D¤f<ÈnT, 's√mpõ)a ('såm-, ->ÈnT, 'såmpõ)b /'s√m†I˙ 'dIf<Ènt/ someì« di‡erent˚
(f¨ı'f¤ı:, fûı'-, f¨'-, fÈ'-) /fUı'fIı/ fulfill˚ (¤M'vaÙ<ÈnmÈnT, -ÈmmÈ-, -ÈmÈ-, -aÙ<mÈ-, ™-,
È-)a (->Ènm-, ->ÈmmÈ-, ->ÈmÈ-, -aÙÈmÈ-, -aÈmÈ-, ™-, È-)b /In'vaE<ÈnmÈnt, E-, È-/ en-
vironment˚ ('g√v≥nmÈnT, -v≥m-, -vÈm-, -võ-, -vm-÷ -bõ-÷ -mm-)a ('gåvÈnm-, -vÈmm-,
-vÈm-, -võ-, -vm-÷ -bõ-÷ -mm-)b /'g√vÈ≤nmÈnt/ government.
American English has, too: ('khπnDÈ&D™IT, 'khπnÈ-, -DÈT) /'kπnd¢dEIt, -d¢t/ candi-
date˚ (πnT'A;<kT¤k, πn['-, πn'-, -'A;<T¤k) /πnù'A:≤ktIk/ antarctic˘
2.3.3.4. It is important to know that, in English, phonic syllabification general-

ly follows morphemic divisions. ˛is allows some slight di‡erences to be main-
tained that Romance languages, instead, usually lose: (È'n™;Im) /È'nEIm/ a name˚
(Èn'™;Im) /Èn'EIm/ an aim÷ (È'nπ<ø¨ 'sa;Ùn)a (->‘¨)b /È'nπ<OU 'saEn/ a narrow sign˚
(Èn'π<ø¨ 'sa;Ùn)a (->‘¨)b /Èn'π<OU 'saEn/ an arrow sign˘
In addition, let us note: ('wa;Ù 'chU;uΩ)a (-¯;uΩ)b /'waE 'cUuz/ why >oose˚ ('waÙT
'SU;uΩ, -ö)a (-¯;uΩ)b /'waEt 'SUuz/ white óes÷ (maÙ'Th<™;In)a (-'˛h>-)b /maE't<EIn/ my
train˚ ('maÙT '<™;In, -ö)a ('>-)b /'maEt '<EIn) might rain÷ (È'blπk 'Tha;Ù) /È'blπk 'taE/ a
bla$ tie˚ (È'blπkT 'a;Ù) /È'blπkt 'aE/ a bla$ed \e˘
Forms like (m¤s'spEı:)a (-™ı:)b /mIs'spEı/ mi˛pell and (m¤s'sm¤†) /mIs'smI†/ Mi˛
Smi` may seem a bit strange. Indeed, as consonants often fall between others, so,
in less slow manners of speaking, even (m¤'spEı:, m¤'sm¤†)a (-™ı:)b occur.
For British English, the following examples are usual, too: (s‘¨'b¤;g û'mπ;n, sÈ-)b
/sOU'bIg È'mπn/ so big a man˚ (È'b¤g‘ 'mπ;n)b /È'bIgÈ≤ 'mπn/ a bigger man÷ ('laÙT È-
'faÙå)b /'laEt È'faEÈ≤/ light a fire˚ (È'laÙT‘ 'faÙå)b /È'laEtÈ≤ 'faEÈ≤/ a lighter fire÷ (¤tsÈz'w™ı
Tû'w™IT)b /ItsÈz'wEı tÈ'wEIt/ it's as well to wait˚ (hizû'w™ıT‘&w™IT)b /hizÈ'wEıtÈ≤wEIt/
he's a welterweight˘
Let us add an important remark about the syllabic structure regarding /'é0é/,
which has /I, E, π, √, Ø, U/, even preceded by /j, w, <, l/, or with final /ó, ®/. Al-
though we will not mark it systematically, but only here (as it would be an almost
useless increase in weight of our transcriptions), it is worthwhile knowing that a
single consonant and the preceding short stressed vowel belong to the same sylla-
ble: ('l¤m-≥)a ('l¤T-å)b /'lIùÈ≤/ litter˚ ('b™g-≥)a ('b™g-å)b /'bEgÈ≤/ letter˚ ('phπk-≥)a ('phπk-
-å)b /'pπkÈ≤/ pa$er˚ ('kh√m-≥)a ('khåT-å)b /'k√ùÈ≤/ cutter˚ ('hAm-≥)a ('hØT-å)b /'hØùÈ≤/ hot-
ter˚ ('l¨k-≥)a ('l¨k-å)b /'lUkÈ≤/ looker˚ ('s™l-≥)a ('s™l-å)b /'sElÈ≤/ seller˚ ('kh™<-i≥)a ('khπ>-
-iå)b /'khπ<iÈ≤/ carrier˚ ('skπn-≥)a ('skπn-å)b /'skπnÈ≤/ scanner˘
More examples: ('<√n-¤˙)a ('>ån-¤˙)b /'<√nI˙/ runni«˚ ('l√v-¤˙)a ('låv-¤˙)b /'l√vI˙/
lovi«˚ ('m√T-ó, 'm√ö-ó)a ('måT-ó÷ 'måö-ó)b /'m√tó/ mutton˚ ('khAT-ó, 'khAö-ó)a ('khØT-
-ó÷ 'khØö-ó)b /'kØtó/ cotton˚ ('l¤s-ó) /'lIsó/ li®en˚ ('m¤D-®) /'mId®/ middle˚ ('m™[-®)a
('m™T-®)b /'mEù®/ metal˚ ('D™v-®) /'dEv®/ devil˚ ('m™T-<¤k)a ('m™˛->¤k)b /'mEt<Ik/ metric˚
('πk-jÈ<ÈT)a ('πk-jÈ>ÈT)b /'πkjÈ<Èt/ accurate˚ ('<Ak-w®)a ('>Øk-w®)b /'<ØkwÈı/ Ro$well˚
('<Ak-li)a ('>Øk-li)b /'<Økli/ Ro$l\˚ ('<¤p-li)a ('>¤p-li)b /'<Ipli/ Ripl\˘
On the contrary, stressed long vowels and diphthongs belong to di‡erent sylla-
bles as to following single consonants: ('nO;-[i)a ('nø;-Ti)b /'nO:ùi/ naugh“˚ ('nUu-Tó,
'nUu-öó)a ('nj¯u-Tó÷ 'nj¯u-öó)b /'nÛutó/ N[ton˚ ('l™I-m≥)a ('l™I-Tå)b /'lEIùÈ≤/ later˚
('b™I-k¤˙) /'bEIkI˙/ baki«˚ ('Ii-kw®) /'IikwÈı/ equal˚ ('nUu-T<®)a ('nj¯u-˛>®)b /'nÛu-
t<Èı/ neutral˚ ('<aÙ-pli)a ('>aÙ-pli)b /'<aEpli/ ripeI˘
2. english 89
American dissimilation of r
2.3.3.5. To simplify the articulation of words and rhythm groups with two /≤/'s,
American pronunciation can have variants with /`/ for the first /≤/, although not
very frequently, even in stressed syllables: ('fA;<∑≥, 'fA;∑≥) /'fA:≤∑È≤/ farèr˚ ('f≥;∑≥,
'fÈ;∑≥) /'fÈ:≤∑È≤/ furèr˚ ('ø;<D≥, 'ø;D≥) /'O:≤dÈ≤/ order˚ ('m≥;D≥, 'mÈ;D≥) /'mÈ;≤dÈ≤/ mur-
der˚ ('khø;<n≥, 'khø;n≥) /'kO:≤nÈ≤/ corner˚ (†≥'mAmÈm≥, †È'-) /†È≤'mØm¢ùÈ≤/ èrmom-
eter˚ ('fø;<w≥D, 'fø;w≥D) /'fO:≤wÈ≤d/ forward˚ ('fø;<&w≥;D, 'fø;&w≥;D) /'fO:≤wÈ:≤d/ for[ord˚
(s≥'ph<a;ÙΩ, sÈ'-) /sÈ≤'p<aEz/ surprise˚ ('g√v≥n≥, -vÈn≥, -vn≥) /'g√vÈ≤nÈ≤/ governor˚ (ph≥-
'Th¤kjÈl≥, phÈ'-) /pÈ≤'tIkjÈlÈ≤/ particular˘
Also: ('khπn[m]≥&b™<i, -È&b-) {('khπnTÈbˇi, -b>i, -&b™>i)b} /'kπnùÈ≤bŒ<i/ Canterbury˚
('wO;m≥&b™<i, -[È-, 'wA-) {('wø;TÈbˇi, -b>i, -&b™>i)b} /'wO;ùÈ≤bŒ<i/ Waterbury˚ ('Am≥&b≥;n, 'A[-
È-) /'ØùÈ≤bÈ:≤n/ Otterburn˚ ('b≥;n≥fl, 'bÈ;-, b≥'nA:<fl, bÈ-) /'bÈ:≤nÈ≤d, bÈ≤'nA:≤d/ Ber-
nard˚ ('khπm≥&p¤l≥, -[È-) /'kπùÈ≤pIlÈ≤/ caterpillar˚ ('EıD≥'b™<i, -DÈ&-) {('™ıDÈ&b™>i, -Èbˇi, -È-
b>i)b} /'EıdÈ≤bŒ<i/ elderberry˚ ('<™z≥&vwA;<, -zÈ&-÷ -&vwø;<) /'<EzÈ≤vwA:≤/ reservoir˚ ('nø;<-
†<Èp, 'nø;†-) /'nO:≤†<Èp/ Nor`rup˚ ('s√∑≥n≥, 's√∑Èn≥) /'s√∑È≤nÈ≤/ Souèrner˚ ('m≥;DÈ-
<≥, -D≥≥, 'mÈ;D-) /'mÈ:≤dÈ<È≤/ murderer˚ ('nø;<∑≥n≥, 'nø;<∑Èn≥, 'nø;∑Èn≥) /'nO:≤∑È≤nÈ≤/
Norèrner˘
Less systematically, dissimilation is possible even in rhythm groups: (h≥'hA;<T,
hÈ'-) /hÈ≤'hA:≤t/ her heart˚ (j≥'m≥;ßi, jÈ'-) /jÈ≤'mÈ:≤si/ your mercy˚ (A;<'phø;<c, A;'-) /A:≤-
'pO:≤c/ our por>˚ (∑™≥'f≥:mΩ, ∑™È'-, ∑≥'-, ∑È'-) /∑EÈ≤'fÈ:≤mz/ èir firms˚ (∑™≥'D≥;[i, ∑™È'-,
∑≥'-, ∑È'-) /∑EÈ≤'dÈ:≤ùi/ `\'re dirty˚ (f≥'w≥:fl, fÈ'-) /fÈ≤'wÈ:≤d/ for word˚ (ø;<'hI;≥, ø;'-, ≥'-,
È'-, -'H-) /O:≤'hIÈ≤, È≤'-/ or here˘
In addition to /≤/, the following examples will show dissimilation for /</ (which
is used in British pronunciation too, due to a kind of simplification, even by anal-
ogy): ('laÙ&b<™<i, -b<È<i, -b≥i, -b<i, -&b™-, -bÈ-)a ('laÙb>È>i, -b>ˇi, bˇi, -b>i, -bÈ>i)b /'laE-
b<Œ<i/ library˚ ('f™b<¯&™<i, -b<È<i, -bj¯-, -bjÈ-)a ('f™b>¯È>i, ->¨>i, -b>ˇi, bˇi, -b>i, -bj¨>i,
-bjÈ-)b /'fEb<uŒ<i, -bju-/ February˚ ('s™k<È&T™<i, -kû-)a ('s™k>È˛>i, -È&T™>i, -kû-)b /'sEk<È-
tŒ<i/ secretary.
In addition: (sTÈ'nAg<Èf≥÷ -gû-)a (-Øg>È-÷ -gû-)b /stÈ'nØg<ÈfÈ≤/ ®enogra#er˚ (fÈ-
'ThAg<Èf≥÷ -gû-)a (-Øg>Èfå÷ -gû-)b /fÈ'tØg<ÈfÈ≤/ #otogra#er˚ (ph<È'f™s≥÷ phÈ-÷ ph≥-)a
(ph>È'f™så÷ phÈ-)b /p<È'fEsÈ≤/ profe˛or˚ (ph<È&n√nsi'™ISÈn÷ phÈ-÷ ph≥-)a (ph>È&nånsi'™I-
Só÷ phÈ-)b /p<Èn√nsi'EIS˘n/ pronunciation˚ (ph<È'phπ<È&Tø<i÷ phÈ-÷ 'ph<™p≥È-, 'ph<™-
p<È-)a (ph>¤'phπ>È˛>i, ph>È-÷ phÈ-)b /p<¢'pπ<ÈtK<i÷ 'p<Ep˘<ÈtK:<i/ preparatory˘
All in all, we can see that dissimilation mostly occurs with: ('ø;<) /'O:≤/, usually,
in stressed syllables (where, even if /≤/ is not pronounced, words do not become
ambiguous, because the vowel timbre alone is distinctive; see the examples above),
and with: (≥) /È≤/ in unstressed syllables: surprise˚ particular˚ caterpillar˚ governor˚
èrmometer…
Morphonological remark
2.3.3.6. Now, thanks to transcriptions (which do not hide reality, as spelling

does) we will resolve a widespread problem for foreigners – knowing which pro-
nunciation to use for the grammemes >-ed÷ -(e)s÷ -'s, -s'≥.
Simply, we have:
/d/ (D) after voiced phonemes (¤ vowels, diphthongs, and voiced consonants,
except the very /d/): /'plEId/ plZed, /'hÈ;<id/ hurried, /'bA:≤d/ barred, /'<√bd/ rubbed,
/'G√Gd/ judged, /'plπnd/ planned÷
/t/ (T) after voiceless consonants (except the very /t/): /'stØpt/ ®opped, /'wØ;St/
waéd, /'swIct/ ~ibed, /'lπ;ft/ laughed÷
/¢d/ (ÈD)a (¤D)b after /t, d/, in order to be able to pronounce them: /'wEIù¢d/ wait-
ed, /'nIid¢d/ needed, /'stA:≤ù¢d/ ®arted˘
≈nally, we have:
/z/ (z) after voiced phonemes (¤ vowels, diphthongs, and voiced consonants,
except the grooved ones, /z, Z, G/): /'gOUz/ goes, /'flaEz/ flies, /'dEIz/ dZs, /'lEIdiz/
ladies, /'<√bz/ rubs, /'wEIvz/ waves, /'plπnz/ plans, /'GØnz/ John's, /'<IcÈ≤dz/ Ri>-
ard's÷
/s/ (s) after voiceless consonants (except the grooved ones, /s, S, c/): /'tØps/ tops,
/'<aEts/ writes, /'b<E†s/ brea`s, /'GEfs/ Je‡'s, /maE'pE˘<Ènts/ my paren_'÷
/¢z/ (Èz)a (¤z)b after /s, z÷ S, Z÷ c, G/, in order to be able to pronounce them: /'kIs-
¢z/ ki˛es, /'<OUz¢z/ roses, /'dIS¢z/ diés, /'swIc¢z/ ~ibes, /'πks¢z/ axes, /'cA:≤ız¢z/
≥arles's˘
Stress
2.3.4.1. We know that (the position of) stress may be distinctive, in English:
('¤mpø;<T)a (-ø;T)b import (noun, adj.), (¤m'phø;<T)a (-ø;T)b import (verb); ('ph<™z-
óT)a (->-)b present (noun, adj.), (p<¤'z™nT)a (p>-)b present (verb).
English sentences usually keep the stresses of their words well, even in lexical
monosyllables, while grammatical monosyllables lack any stress (as, in general, do
polysyllabic unstressed syllables): ('sπmz 'bO;t '†<I;i 'nU;u 'smO:ı 'blπk 'khπts)a ('bø;t
'†>I;i 'nj¯;u 'smø:ı)b Sam has bought `ree n[ small bla$ ca_÷ but we have: (ó∑≥-
wÇÈ'lA:<ä 'kh<a;ÖD *'phIip®)a (-ûwÇÈ'lA:ä)b and ère was a large crowd of people,
(bÈ[&¤ts*∑û'g<™I[ÈsT ¤m'phø;<Tós, -öós)a (bÈT&-, -'g>™IT-, -ø;-)b but it's of è greate® im-
portance˘
However, in long words (and in sentences as well), many syllables with full vow-
els generally receive secondary stresses (especially when they occur near unstressed
and reduced syllables): (&ø¨v≥'™sTÈ&m™IT)a (&‘¨vÈ>'™sT¤-)b overe®imate, (&v¤zÈ'b¤lÈ[i)a
(-Ti)b visibili“, (&ph≥;pÈn&D¤kjÈ'lπ<È[i)a (&ph‘;-, ->ÈTi)b perpendiculari“, ('<™kûg&naÙΩ)a
('>™-)b recognize, ('m™ks¤&kø¨)a (-‘¨)b Mexico.
In compounds, the more frequent structure is ('à&à) (more rarely (&à'à): (&f¤f'ThI;in)
fifteen). Sometimes, even ('à'à) occurs, as in çcollocationsÇ (or occasional –or free–
compounds, which are, then, modifiable): ('blπk&b≥;fl)a (-‘;fl)b bla$bird (but ('blπk
'b≥:fl)a ('b‘:fl)b bla$ bird), ('b¨ı&DAâ, -O;â)a (-Øâ)b bulldog˘
Of course, there are also many instances like: ('¤˙gl¤S&ThIic≥)a (-å)b E«li´ tea>er
ça teacher of EnglishÇ and ('¤˙gl¤S 'ThIic≥)a (-å)b E«li´ tea>er ça teacher who is
EnglishÇ.
2. english 91
2.3.4.2. Let us now consider compounds such as fir® cla˛ (noun and adverb)
and fir®-cla˛ (adjective), and the collocation fir® cla˛˚ in a sentence like àt was
è fir® cla˛ to be considered˘ From a phonetic point of view, they are alike: ('f≥;ß[T]
'khlπ[;]s)a ('f‘;s[T] 'khlA;s)b; however, from a phonemic point of view, and for teach-
ing and lexicographical purposes as well, it could be very useful to distinguish
them as: /'fÈ:≤st'klπ;s/ (compounds: ç/'à'à/Ç) and /'fÈ:≤st 'klπ;s/ (collocation: ç/'à 'à/Ç).
Besides, patterns are flexibly structured. As a matter of fact, we have: (&f¤f'ThI;in)
fifteen and ('ph™;Iä f¤f'ThI;in) page fifteen˚ but ('f¤f&ThIim 'ph™;IGÈΩ)a (-¤Ω)b fifteen
pages÷ ('b<π;n[D] 'nU;u)a ('nj¯;u)b brandn[˚ but (È'b<π;n[D]&nUu kûm'phj¯um≥)a
(-&nj¯u, -Tå)b a brandn[ computer˘
Moreover: ('s™kûn[D] 'hπ;nfl) secondhand˚ but ('s™kûn&hπnfl 'khlø;¨[∑]Ω)a
(-‘;¨[∑]Ω)b secondhand cloès÷ and (∑[™]≥'O:ı &s™kûn'hπ;nfl)a (∑™‘>'ø:ı)b `\'re all sec-
ondhand÷ also (&πfT≥'nU;un)a (&A;fTÈ'n¯;un)b afternoon and (&g¨DπfT≥'nU;un, g¨D&-,
gûD&-)a (&g¨DA;fTÈ'n¯;un, g¨D&-, gûD&-)b good afternoon˚ but ('πfT≥&nU;un 'ThI;i)a ('A;f-
TÈ&n¯;un 'ThI;i)b afternoon tea˘
A few cases can vary according to speech rate, but also whether they occur in
intonemes or preintonemes, as well as according to personal choices. Here, we will
make use of di‡erent degrees of intermediate stress, too, which (without an em-
phatic one, (")) are, in descending order: ('), (“), (&), (÷), ( ). It is worthwhile observ-
ing nuances carefully: (&D™mÈn'sT<™ISÈn '™ks≥&saÙzÈΩ, 'D™mÈn&s-, -'sT<™ISÈn“™ks≥&saÙzÈΩ)a
(-'sT>™ISó '™ksÈ&saÙz¤Ω)…b demon®ration exercises˚ ('™lÈ&v™Im≥ 'Ap≥&™Im≥, '™lÈ&v™Im≥“Ap≥&™I-
m≥, '™lÈv™Im≥&Ap≥÷™Im≥)a (-TÈ> 'ØpÈ&>™ITå)…b elevator operator˚ ('laÙT&haÖs 'khIip≥, 'laÙT-
&haÖs“khIip≥, 'laÙThaÖs&khIip≥)a (-å)…b lighòuse keeper÷ let us notice: ('laÙT 'haÖs-
&khIip≥)a (-å)b light housekeeper˘
2.3.4.3. To feel certain about the stress patterns of compounds, it is necessary

to look them up in reliable dictionaries. But pronunciation dictionaries are not al-
ways the best choice, for this aspect, although, of course, they have to be consult-
ed. We willingly recommend the Random House dictionaries which, for second-
ary stress, are almost perfect; of course, the stress patterns shown are American
ones, but, in general, they may hold good even for British English, which, in the
meanwhile, may have added — kept some other possible variants (mainly colloca-
tion-like, rather than compound-like, so less useful ones: weekend˚ icecream˚ N[
York˚ N[ Zealand˚ N[ Hampíre…).
In addition, the Oxford çAdvanced Learner'sÇ dictionaries show the çmarkedÇ
cases of primary stress in several lexical collocations (which are quite unpredicta-
ble, above all for foreigners).
In (dia)phonemic transcriptions such as ours, the most typical and numerous
compounds are shown with a single primary stress /'àà/; the secondary one is easi-
ly recoverable, because the second lexeme necessarily bears a secondary stress.
cce versa, most dictionaries printed in the ¨ßå include secondary stress, ç/'à&à/Ç;
but usually the non-IPA symbols they use put stresses after stressed syllables, unfor-
tunately, not before, and simply through a di‡erence in thickness (which, some-
times, is not evident enough, even with both of them in præsentia); as a matter of
fact, we happen to find, ™ çin scrib’Ç instead of /In'sk<aEb/ inscribe and çviz‘æ bil’æ
teÇ for /vIzÈ'bIlÈùi/ (&v¤zÈ'b¤lÈ[i)a (-ÈTi)b visibility˘ But some American dictionaries
are misleading, because they mark secondary stress for most unstressed syllables
bearing full vowels.
Regrettably, mainly dictionaries published in the ¨º (even pronouncing diction-
aries) do not use secondary stress wisely enough. As a matter of fact, a collocation
like ('s™nT<® 'hIi[¤˙)a (-˛>-, -T¤˙)b /'sEnt<® 'hIiùI˙/ central heati« is, usually, represent-
ed as */&sentrÈl 'hi:tI˙/, exactly like (&s™nT<È'l¤sT¤k)a (-˛>-)b /sEnt<È'lIstIk/ centrali®ic
(their */&sentrÈ'lIstIk/).
However, the more they mark the better, even when things are predictable, pro-
vided they do so in an exact and accurate way. Indeed, teaching transcriptions, es-
pecially for beginners, should show several characteristics, with no absurd and
groundless fear that they may confuse. In reality, too simple a transcription is less
useful and, sometimes, misleading.
2.3.4.4. As regards diaphonemic transcriptions in compounds with su‚xes, it

is su‚cient to know which of them are always non(half)®re˛able (ç/’à/Ç) and
which are prosodically (half)®re˛able (ç/%à/Ç). As a matter of fact, the others, that
have full vowels, are always (half)®re˛able (ç/&à/Ç). In addition to those with /È, È≤,
¢/, the following are always unstressed: /-Ik, -Iks, -I˙, -IS, -Ist, -Iv, -fIı/ -ic˚ -ics˚ -i«˚
-i´˚ -i®˚ -ive˚ -#il\ /'<™ùÈ<Ik, 'pØlÈtIks, 'lI˙gÈ<I˙, 'jElOUIS, 'nØvÈlIst, d¢'sk<IptIv, 'π˙-
glÈfIı/ rhetoric˚ politics˚ li«eri«˚ yellowi´˚ noveli®˚ descriptive˚ a«lo#il (for
-#ile˚ we have /-&faEı, -’fIı/).
Instead, the following are half-®re˛ed (if preceded by an unstressed syllable), but
un®re˛ed (if preceded by a stressed syllable): /-hUd, -IzÈm, -aEt, -aEz, -SIp, -jUuı/
-hood˚ -ism˚ -ite˚ -ize [-ise]˚ -íp˚ -ule\ /'wUmÈn(&)hUd/ womanhood (– /'caEı[d]hUd/
>ildhood]˚ /'tE<È(&)<IzÈm/ terrorism (– /'bUdIzÈm, 'bUu-/ Buddhism]˚ /'t<Øtski(&)aEt/
Tro_kyite (– /'s√ıfaEt/ sulfite]˚ /'k<Iù¢(&)saEz/ criticize (but /'bπptaEz/ baptize˚ in addi-
tion to /bπp'taEz/]˚ /'skØlÈ≤(&)SIp/ (olaríp (– /'f<En[d]SIp/ friendíp]˚ /'mØl¢-
(&)kjUuı/ molecule (– /'glØbjUuı/ globule]˘
Intonation
2.3.5. As far as intonation is concerned, close observation of the tonograms for

preintonemes and intonemes (û 2.7-8) of both accents is su‚cient. Technically,
we talk about intonation groups (or tone groups, for short), which are generally
composed of a first part, the preintoneme, and a second, or intoneme. ˛e latter is
the most important for conveying pragmatic meanings, such as ®atement,
que®ion, Â. It is common knowledge that these structures depend on oròlogy (¤
expressive speech) and semantics. ˛ese will produce particular e‡ects, but always
within usual primary intonation patterns, which are flexible, though systematic.
An added çcomplicationÇ is para#onics (which marks attitudes, moods, feelings
and social roles). All this is typical of any common messages, even in every-day sim-
ple conversation:
/./: (aÙv'G√s[p] 'bO;[ È'nU;u 'D¤kSó&™<i23)a (aÙv5Gås[p] 'bø;T È'nj¯;u 'D¤kSó>i3 3)b /aEv-
2. english 93
'G√st 'bO:t È'nÛu 'dIkSóŒ<i./ I've ju® bought a n[ dictionary˘

/?/: (¿DjÈ'spIik '¤˙gl¤S •wEı:21, ¿GÈ-)a (¿DjÈ5spIik '¤˙gl¤S 'w™ı:21, ¿GÈ-)b /¿djÈ'spIik 'I˙-
glIS 'wEı?/ Do you speak E«li´ well?
/÷/: (j¯kûn'hπ;Ñ 6sT<O:&b™<iz2 2 ≥'blU;u&b™<iΩ23)a (j¯kûn5hπ;Ñ 's˛>ø;bˇiz32 ø;'bl¯ubˇiΩ3 3)b
/jukÈn'hπv 'st<O:bŒ<iz÷ K:≤'blUubŒ<iz./ You can have ®rYberries or blueberries˘
2.3.6. ˛ere are several and quite varied que®ion tags, or tag que®ions˚ in En-
glish, while, other languages generally have fixed formulas. In the English lan-
guage, they are morphologically determined (by modifying auxiliary and modal
verbs and changing their positive/negative polarity). ˛ey have two di‡erent func-
tions: confirmations of somebody's suppositions (by means of conclusive into-
nemes), or actual que®ions, to really ask something, for lack of any certainty.
Let us see a few examples: It's cold todZ, isn't it? or You're American, aren't you?
or †\ aren't well, are `\? For confirmation, we will have: /Its'kOUıd tÈ'dEI. ¿'Isó{ù}-
¢t./, /jÈ<È'mE<¢kÈn. ¿'A:≤ntjUu./, /∑EI'A:≤nt 'wEı. ¿'A:≤∑EI./; while, for information: /Its-
'kOUıd tÈ'dEI. ¿'Isó{t}¢t?/, /jÈ<È'mE<¢kÈn. ¿'A:≤ntjUu?/, /∑EI'A:≤nt 'wEı. ¿'A:≤∑EI?/.
û 2.7. American intonation.
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3)
/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /?/ (2 • 2 1)
/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /÷/ (2 6 2 2)
/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /,/ (2 ' 2)
û 2.8. British intonation.
/ / (2 2 5 1 1 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 3 3)
/¿ / (¿ 2 2 5 1 1 ' 2 2 ' 2) /?/ (2 ' 2 1)
/¡ / (¡ 2 2 5 1 1 ' 2 2 ' 2) /÷/ (2 ' 3 2)
/˚ / (˚ 2 2 5 1 1 ' 2 2 ' 2) /,/ (2 ' 2)
Other accents
2.4.0. ˛is section is likely to be very important for descriptive and communi-
cative purposes, as it deals with pronunciations going beyond the neutral accents.
£International∞ neutral accent
2.4.1.1. As a teaching application for foreigners, the proposal of an çinterna-

tionalÇ accent seems to be welcome and useful. It will certainly have more real ad-
vantages than learning without a method, in a wild and uncontrolled way, and ac-
quiring elements of both neutral accents, together with many personal (and re-
gional) peculiarities and interferences due to spelling inconsistencies.
˛ings will become simpler and more straightforward, when, at long last, a dic-
tionary with diaphonemic transcriptions is available. ˛e çinternationalÇ accent
is mainly based on the ©~~ pronunciation, which covers the whole globe. Al-
though it is slightly more American-like, which is the more widespread accent and
also the less diverging –if possible– from current spelling, still it is not too Amer-
ican. Of course, we are referring to newsreaders, not to local correspondents, who
in certain cases may even be speaking English as a second language.
Indeed, it simplifies actual complexities of real accents, above all the British
one, eliminating unnecessary and unwanted distinctions (not shown by spelling,
among other things), to recover a more organic and general situation. All this is
done, starting from actual pronunciations, which, moreover, lack any connota-
tions that can be easily localized. Many singers and actors use it.
So, roughly, this international pronunciation is intermediate between the
American and British neutral pronunciations. Besides, it does not sound çstrangeÇ
to any native speaker. It simply is more çorganizedÇ, but with no undue or far-
-fetched exaggerations.
2.4.1.2. Starting from our diaphonemic transcription, the international accent

is obtained mainly by bringing the diaphonemes /π;, A;÷ Ø;, O;÷ È;, ¢/ to their most
natural çmatricesÇ (/π, A:÷ Ø, O:÷ È:, È/ (π, A:÷ Ø, ø:÷ È:, È)), ¤ more traditional and
widespread, as well as less apart from spelling, as we have already said. In this way,
we can simplify the hard task of foreigners, who –unfortunately– are forced to
çlearnÇ from spelling. Actually, our modern-language teaching is still in a pitiful
condition as far as pronunciation is concerned, as it is often completely neglect-
ed.
˛us, we have: ('lπsT)i ('lπ[;]sT)a ('lA;sT)b /'lπ;st/ la®, ('phA;sTå)i ('phA;sT√)a ('phπs-
Tå)b /'pA;stÈ/ pa®a, ('sØ<i)i ('sA<i÷ 'sø;-)a ('sØ>i)b /'sØ<i/ sorry, ('lØsT)i ('lO;sT, 'lA-)a ('lØsT)b
/'lØ;st/ lo®, ('fø;ùs)i (see below for (ù), which is a semi-lateral contoid, with no real
contact) ('fO;ıs, 'fA-)a ('fø;ıs, 'fØ-)b /'fO;ıs/ false, ('D¤SÈΩ)i ('D¤SÈΩ)a ('D¤S¤Ω)b /'dIS¢z/ diés,
('wØnTÈfl)i ('wAn[[]Èfl, 'wO;-)a ('wØnT¤fl)b /'wØ;nù¢d/ wanted, ('hÈ;<i)i ('h≥;i)a ('hå>i)b
/'hÈ;<i/ hurry˘ û 2.9-10 give the vocalic articulations of the çinternationalÇ English
accent.
2.4.1.3. As for unstressed syllables with possible full timbres, the international
pronunciation, instead, has the less prominent ones, even if not extreme ((‰) is a
semi-approximant, û 1.13.3): ('<™gjÈlÈ‰)i /'<EgjÈlÈ≤/ regular ('D¤kSÈn<i)i /'dIkSÈnŒ<i/
dictionary˚ ('Dø;‰mÈc<i)i /'dO:≤mÈtK:<i/ dormitory. ˛us, for /t, d/ + /{é}</, ç/c<, G</Ç
are preferable (as many native speakers do themselves, all over the world).
û 2.9 shows that the çinternationalÇ phonemes /√, Ø, O:, u/ are (å, Ø, ø:, u):
2. english 95
û 2.9. International monophthongs.
/i+/ (i)÷ /ié/ (i) /ué/ (u)

/I/ (¤ú§û) /U/ (¨ú§û)
/¢/ = /È/, /È/ (È, å+|) /È:<, È;</ (È:<), /È</ (È<), /È≤/ (Èq), /È:≤/ (È:q)
/E/ (™ú§û) /O:, O;/ (ø:)
/√/ (åú§û) /Ø, Ø;/ (Ø)
/π/ (πú§û), /π;/ (π) /A:, A;/ (A:)
û 2.10. International diphthongs.
/Iiúıû/ (iiú§û) /új/ˆûUuúıû/ (újûuuú§û)
f
f
/EIúıû/ (™¤ú§û) /OUúıû/ (ø¨ú§û), /OEúıû/ (ø™ú§û)
/aEúıû/ (a™ú§û) /aOúıû/ (aøú§û)
('håT)i ('h√T)a ('håT)b /'h√t/ hut, ('hØT)i ('hAT)a ('hØT)b /'hØt/ hot, ('sø:)i ('sO:)a ('sø:)b
/'sO:/ sY, (&s¤cu'™¤SÈn)i (&s¤c¯'™ISÈn)a (&s¤c¯'™ISó)b /sIcu'EIS˘n/ situation˘
For /È:≤/, we have (È:‰): ('wÈ:‰fl)i ('w≥:fl)a ('w‘:fl)b /'wÈ:≤d/ word÷ for /È:<, È;</ (È:<):
('hÈ;<i)i ('h≥;i)a ('hå>i)b /'hÈ;<i/ hurry÷ for /È≤/, in unstressed syllables, we find (È‰):
('b<å∑È‰[Ω])i ('b<å∑≥[Ω])i (-≥[Ü])a (-å, -‘Ω)b /'b<√∑È≤[z]/ broèr[s]˘
For /IÈ≤, EÈ≤, UÈ≤/ we have (é;È‰): ('h¤;È‰)i ('hI;≥)a ('h¤;å)b /'hIÈ≤/ hear, ('∑™;È‰)i ('∑™;≥)a
('∑™;‘)b /'∑EÈ≤/ ère, ('ph¨;È‰)i ('phU;≥)a ('ph¨;å)b /'pUÈ≤/ poor÷ and for /I˘<, E˘<, U˘</ we
have (¤<, ™<, ¨<): ('h¤<¤˙)i ('h¤<¤˙)a ('h¤È>¤˙)b /'hI˘<I˙/ heari«, ('m™<i)i ('m™<i)a ('m™‘-
>i)b /'mE˘<i/ Mary, ('Dj¨<¤˙)i ('D¨<¤˙, 'D≥;-)a ('Dj¨È>¤˙, 'Djø;>-)b /'dÛ˘<I˙/ duri«˘
2.4.1.4. As to diphthongs, it is su‚cient to notice: /Ii, Uu, OU/ (ii, uu, ø¨) (no-
tice that (ii, uu) are diphthongs, although very narrow): ('Thi;i)i ('ThI;i)a:b /'tIi/ tea,
('fju;u)i ('fj¯;u)a:b /'fjUu/ f[, ('Thu;u)i ('ThU;u)a ('Th¯;u)b /'tUu/ ‘o, ('nø;¨)i ('nø;¨)a
('n‘;¨)b /'nOU/ no. Besides, for /aE, OE/, a second element like (™í) is enough (Ô û
2.10, to avoid introducing/learning another vocoid; so much so that a pronunci-
ation with (™í) is much better than çforeignÇ *(ai, Oi), and it is near the native
one): ('ga;™)i ('ga;Ù)a:b /'gaE/ guy, ('bø;™)i ('bø;Ù)a:b /'bOE/ boy˘ Little has to be said
about /EI, aO/: ('D™;¤)i ('D™;I)a:b /'dEI/ dZ, ('na;ø)i (na;Ö)a:b /'naO/ now˘
Neither the (û) taxophone of /È/ near velars, nor other taxophones of /I, E, π,
U÷ √, Ii, Uu÷ EI, aE, OE/ + /ı, ®/ are necessary, but their use makes one's pronunciation
more çauthenticÇ, although this çinternationalÇ model is already definitely more
realistic than those o‡ered in so many textbooks, even by English-speaking phone-
ticians (where, among other thing, ç/i:, u:/Ç are still indicated). ˛us, taxophones
like (û÷ ¤#, ™#, π#, ¨#÷ √@, iI, uU÷ aÉ, øÉ) (but (™I, ™¤ù)) can really change one's pro-
nunciation from simple çinternationalÇ (for foreigners) into çnative internationalÇ
pronunciation. Instead, the use of (i:, u:) clearly indicates either a non çnative-likeÇ
pronunciation, or one which is regional or socially inappropriate.
For /ı, ®/, it is better to use (ù, æ) (semilateral, û 1.15.1), which, articulatorily,
are decidedly simpler than (ı, ®) (in case, even velar can be used –velar semilater-
al (), £)– which, auditorily, are decidedly better than (l, Í)).
As for consonants, su‚ce to say that (ö) is acceptable for /t/ (§ 2.2.2.4) and that
([) may be good for /ù/, mainly after vowels, while, (T) is more recommendable, af-
ter /n, ≤, ı/: ('b™Ti, -[i)i ('b™[i)a ('b™Ti)b /'bEùi/ Bet“, ('Thw™nTi)i ('Thw™n[[]i)a ('Thw™n-
Ti)b /'twEnùi/ ‘en“˘
˛us, for r˚ we have: /</ (<), /≤/ (‰). Besides, /·w/ simply corresponds to /w/:
('w™n:)i /'·wEn/ when, and /ˆ/ to /j/: ('Thju;un)i /'tÛun/ tune, ('Dju;un)i /'dÛun/ dune,
('nju;u)i /'nÛu/ n[˘
˛e intonation of çinternationalÇ English has a restrained and more general
movement, as can be seen from û 2.11 (although the first stressed syllable in a pre-
intoneme could be half-high, (Ì), instead of just raised mid).
2.4.1.5. Both the ç®πÇ and the American models have some problems of social
acceptability. ç®πÇ, though still very widely used, both in the ∫∫© news and in
some kinds of British sitcom and movies, has always had a strong connotation of
artificial a‡ectation, which makes it disagreeable to many native speakers. ®π is
generally associated with a çhighÇ social position (™ members of the aristocracy,
of the higher clergy or military ranks, Tory MP's, prestigious university professors,
Â), and a certain age group (over 50 years of age). Clothing, too, should be su‚-
ciently formal, to be suitable for the ®π accent. If these conditions are lacking –¤
for common natives– the British neutral accent could prove to be definitely inap-
propriate.
It is to be said that, paradoxically, even an impersonation of an ®π speaker (even
only partially successful, especially if belonging to certain particular varieties) may
give rise to negative feelings from British listeners belonging to the middle or
working class. Indeed, these people might find a few snobbish phonetic traits, easi-
ly recognizable as marked ones, even if mixed with foreign traits, especially if the
speakers are young(er).
Against these (empirically checked) di‚culties, it might be better to choose the
American neutral accent. ˛is is certainly recommendable to learners in North
America, but not in the British Isles, where most people would consider it inap-
propriate.
û 2.11. International intonation.
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3)
/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /?/ (2 ' 2 1)
/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /÷/ (2 ' 2 2)
/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /,/ (2 ' 2)

2. english 97
We reckon that this dilemma may be faced, in a practical and diplomatic way,
aiming at acquiring an çinternationalÇ accent, which –although it might seem to
be çnobody's accentÇ– would have none of the possible negative connotations of
the two mediatic accents (we will be dealing with below), or even of the two na-
tional neutral ones (which some people seem to consider çnobody's accentÇ, as
well, since –in both nations– only about 3% of native speakers actually use them).
£Mediatic∞ accents
2.4.2.0. In addition to the two neutral accents, the American and the British
ones, and to the international accent, we believe it is important to show the two
kinds of accent actually used by American and British native speakers. Naturally,
çmediaticÇ pronunciations are often used by North-American people in the mid-
western states, and by English people in the southeastern counties, respectively, as
well as by most spoken-word mass media (¤ radio and television) that do not use
the neutral accents nor more local ones.
˛erefore, û 2.12-18 (which speak for themselves) must be carefully analyzed,
comparing them with the neutral ones, in order to capture the di‡erences, which
are sometimes not slight! In ordinary people's opinion, mainly if their own pro-
nunciation is directly concerned, these mediatic accents are thought to be less pe-
culiar than the neutral ones.
On the other hand, as everyone knows, neutral pronunciation –in percentage
terms– is used the least by native speakers; but, it is the one generally aimed at by
advanced foreign learners, except for more or less frequent interferences, especial-
ly from their mother tongue, and individual peculiarities.
For this reason, we do not hesitate to show these actual realities, although we
will not get to the point of recommending an active usage by foreigners. On the
contrary, a passive usage is certainly welcome, to really understand native speak-
ers, when they talk… ças they canÇ. Actually, this happens every day, all over the
world, because school and society usually ignore (good) pronunciation.
However, as these mediatic pronunciations are really very widespread, and of-
ten considered as çalmostÇ neutral (or, at least, less a‡ected and less artificial than
the neutral accent), many people would be willing to declare them to be neutral.
˛ey would do so, on the one hand, in opposition to pronunciations which are
more recognizable as local ones, and, on the other hand, to an çunsubstantialÇ neu-
tral kind of pronunciation… It is no rare fact that some çmediaticÇ speakers fluc-
tuate towards the neutral type (or away from it), for some words.
Here we wish to briefly draw attention to some details, with reference only to the
respective (American or British) variant, for a direct (çinternalÇ) comparison. In the
light of what has been seen so far, it will not be di‚cult to find the corresponding
neutral forms of the other accent. On the contrary, it will be a very useful exercise.
£Mediatic∞ American English pronunciation
2.4.2.1. Traditionally it was called çGeneral American accentÇ, since it is di‡er-

ent from the stereotyped accents of New York City, and Eastern New England, or
of the Great Lakes (¤ Ontario, Erie, Huron, Michigan, Superior), or the South
(either the çDeep SouthÇ and its variants, or its mountains, ¤ Appalachia, Ozarks),
or of the American Blacks.
2.4.2.2. As can be seen from û 2.12, /I, U, E/ are (Ù, „, E): ('hÙT)m;a ('h¤T)a /'hIt/ hit,
('ph„T)m;a ('ph¨T)a /'pUt/ put˚ (']E;â)m;a ('l™;â)a /'lEg/ leg (let us also note ('f¢ı:)m;a ('f¤ı:)a
/'fIı/ fill, ('fPı:)m;a ('f¨ı:)a /'fUı/ full]÷ whereas, /IÈ≤, UÈ≤, O:/ are (¤>, ¨>, ù:): ('h¤;>)m;a
('hI;≥)a /'hIÈ≤/ here˚ ('ph¨;>)m;a ('phU;≥)a /'pUÈ≤/ poor˚ ('wù:ı)m;a ('wO:ı)a /'wO:ı/ wall˚
('sù:)m;a ('sO:)a /'sO:/ sY (instead, /O:≤, O:</ are slightly raised). Equally, in /—I˙/ it has,
(more) often, (I) (sometimes (i) too, Ô û 2.14): ('sI˙I˙÷ 'si˙i˙)m;a ('s¤˙¤˙)a /'sI˙I˙/
si«i«˘
In addition, /u/ is fronter, (%): (&sÙc%'™IS'n)m;a (&s¤c¯'™ISÈn)a /sIcu'EIS˘n/ situa-
tion÷ /√/ is fronter and higher, (x) (and in /√ı/ it is rounded, (Öı)): ('hxT)m;a ('h√T)a
/'h√t/ hut˚ ('hÖı:)m;a ('h,ı:)a /'h√ı/ hull˘ ˛ere are some further slight modifications
which however do not change the phonetic symbols.
Let us rather talk about /π;/, which is diphthongized, (πÄ): ('phπÄsT)m;a
('phπ[;]sT)a /'pπ;st/ pa®, as well as /πö/ (™’ö) (which is considerably raised and
nasalized, too): ('m™;’n)m;a ('mπ;n)a /'mπn/ man˚ ('™’n'mà)m;a ('πnÈm®)a /'πn¢m®/
animal˚ (f™’n'ThπÄsTÙk)m;a (fπn'ThπsT¤k)a /fπn'tπstIk/ fanta®ic˚ ('†™’˙kj%, -jx)m;a
('†π˙kj¯, -j√)a /'†π˙kj¯, -jÈ/ ànk you˘
Some phonemes neutralize, which leads to the merging into ('mí<i) for /'mE<i,
'mE˘<i, 'mπ<i/ merry˚ Mary˚ marry˘ In addition, /Ø;/ merges into /Ø/ or /O:/, gener-
ally as in American neutral pronunciation: ('sA;<i)m;a ('sA<i)a /'sØ<i/ sorry˚ ('sŒ:˙)m;a
('sO:˙)a /'sØ;˙/ so«˘
We also find the neutralization of /A:/ and /Ø/ into (A[:]), including /A:<, A:≤/,
with an oscillating phonetic length: (A:, A;, A). Generally, in monosyllables (or in
final-stressed words), we have (A:), when absolutely final or followed by voiced C:
('bA:Ê, 'n˙:fl, 'spA:, 'b<A:, 'fA:<, 'khA:<fl)m;a ('bA;Ê, 'nA;fl÷ 'spA:, 'b<A:, 'fA:<, 'khA:<fl)a
/'bØb, 'nØd÷ 'spA:, 'b<A:, 'fA:≤, 'kA:≤d/ Bob˚ nod˚ spa˚ bra˚ far˚ card. However, we have
(A), when followed by voiceless C: ('sTAp, 'hAT, 'SAk)m;a ('sTAp, 'hAT, 'SAk)a /'stØp,
'hØt, 'SØk/ ®op, hot, ó$˘
In bisyllables (or penultimate-stressed words) we find (A;) in intonemes, but (A)
in preintonemes: ('fA;<∑>, 'fA;∑>, 'bA;∑>, 'hA;m> 'mA;]i, 'khA;öó, 'phA;pi, 'DA;gm≈)m;a
('fA;<∑≥, 'fA;∑≥÷ 'bA∑≥, 'hAm≥, 'mAli, 'khAöó, 'phApi, 'DAgm√)a /'fA:≤∑È≤, 'fA:∑È≤÷ 'bØ∑È≤,
'hØùÈ≤, 'mØli, 'pØpi, 'dØgmÈ/ farèr˚ faèr˚ boèr˚ hotter˚ MolI˚ cotton˚ poppy˚
dogma; ('hAm> ¯n'hA;m>)m;a ('hAm≥ Èn'hAm≥)a /'hØùÈ< Èn[d]'hØùÈ≤/ hotter and hotter˚
('hA<D> ¯n'hA;<D>)m;a ('hA<D≥ Èn'hA<D≥)a /'hA:≤dÈ< Èn[d]'hA:≤dÈ≤/ harder and harder˘
On the contrary, in plurisyllables (or in prepenultimate-stressed words) we have
(A): ('DAkj'm'nT, 'phA]ûTÙks, 'DAgm'TÙsT, 'khA<DÙg¯n)m;a ('DAkjÈmÈnT, 'phAlÈT¤ks,
'DAgmÈT¤sT÷ 'khA;<D¤gûn)a /'dØkjÈmÈnt, 'pØl¢tIks, 'dØgmÈtIst÷ 'kA:≤dIgÈn/ document˚
politics˚ dogmati®˚ cardigan˘
As can be seen from û 2.12, the articulation of (ù:) and (A:) is mainly distin-
2. english 99
guished by labialization (which is slight since the two vocoids are low). ˛us many
speakers can unify them (but, productively — perceptively, things are rather com-
plex and oscillating) by also obtaining ('sA;<i, 's˙:˙)m;a (('sA<i)a /'sØ<i/ sorry˚ ('sO:˙)a
/'sØ;˙/ so«), all the more so because, for /O:/, some çintermediateÇ articulations be-
tween /O:/ and /A:/ are decidedly common: (ùA), as in ('sŒ:˙, 'sŒ;˙˙)m;a /'sØ;˙/ so«
and ('sù:, 'sù;A)m;a /'sO:/ sY˘
Besides, we have /È/ (x)m;a (ç/√/Ç), not only when final before a pause, but even
after a pause, even if near velar(ized) C, where –in the neutral accent– we find
(û)a: (x'ph]√;Ù) /È'plaE/ appI˚ (x's√;Ùfl) /È'saEd/ aside˚ (x'ThímpT) /È'tEmpt/ attempt˚
(xÊ'Th™;In) /Èb'tEIn/ obtain˚ (x']Ô;sn) /È'lOUn/ alone˚ (x'gÖ;¨) /È'gOU/ ago˚ (x'w™;I) /È-
'wEI/ YZ˚ (x'<π;Ônfl) /È'<aOnd/ around˚ (x'kh>:) /È'kÈ:≤/ occur˘
û 2.12. Mediatic American monophthongs.

/iò, ié/ (i), /[']I˙/ (I˙) /ué/ (%)
/U[ı]/ („, Pı), /UÈ≤/ (¨>), /U˘</ (P<)
/I[ı]/ (Ù, ¢ı), /IÈ≤/ (¤>), /I˘</ (Ù<) /¢, È/ (È, û*, xò|, |òx)
/π[˘]ö/ (™Ù) /È:≤, È:</ ('>:), /È≤/ (>), /È</ (û<, >)
/√[ı]/ (x, Öı)
/E[ı]/ (E, Eı), /EÈ≤/ (E>) /E˘<, π</ (E<) /O:/ (ù:, A:), /O:≤/ (ø:<), /O:</ (ø:<, ù:<)
‡
/π[ı]/ (π, πı), /π;/ (πÄ) /A:, Ø/ (A:), /Ø;/ (ù:, A:),
/Ø;</ (A:<, ù:<, ø:<)
‡
2.4.2.3. û 2.13 gives the diphthongs. Let us observe the di‡erences for /Ii, aE,
aO, OU, [j]Uu, Uuı/ (¤i, √Ù, πÖ, Ö¨, [j]%¯, ¯¨ı)m;a (Ii, aÙ, aÖ, ø¨, Uu, j¯u, Uuı)a:
('b¤;i)m;a ('bI;i)a /'bIi/ bee˚ ('g√;Ù)m;a ('ga;Ù)a /'gaE/ guy˚ ('Dπ;Ôn)m;a ('Da;Ön)a /'daOn/
down˚ ('nÔ;s)m;a ('nø;¨)a /'nOU/ no˚ ('Th%;¯)m;a ('ThU;u)a /'tUu/ ‘o˚ ('nß;*)m;a ('nU;u)a
/'nÛu/ n[˚ ('fj¯;¨ı)m;a ('fj¯;uı)a /'fjUuı/ fuel˘
û 2.13. Mediatic American diphthongs.
/Ii[ı]/ (¤i, i¤ı) /jUu/ (j%¯), /[ˆ]Uu/ (%¯)

(“ /IÈı/} /[j/ˆ]Uuı/ ([j/`]¯¨ı) (“ /UÈı/}
/EI[ı]/ (™I, ™Ùı) /OU[ı]/ (Ö¨[ı]), /OE[ı]/ (øÙ, øÉı)
/aO[ı]/ (πÖ[ı]) /aE[ı]/ (√Ù, √Éı)
2.4.2.4. As far as V are concerned, then, we have to pay attention to frequent

neutralizations (+ /ı/), which however can present oscillations depending on words
or speakers. In extreme cases, which are not at all rare indeed, we can find: ('f¤;®)m;a
both for ('f¤ı:)a /'fIı/ fill and ('fi;Iı, 'fiI®)a /'fIiı/ feel÷ ('w™;®)m;a both for ('wEı:)a /'wEı/
well and ('w™;¤ı, 'w™¤®)a /'wEIı/ wale÷ ('vÄ;®)m;a both for ('vπ;ı)a /'vπı/ Val and ('va;Öı,
'vaÖ®)a /'vaO˘ı/ vowel÷ also ('fP;®)m;a both for ('f¨ı:)a /'fUı/ full and ('fu;Uı, 'fuU®)a
/'fUuı/ fool˚ and ('gÖ;®)m;a both for ('g,ı:)a /'g√ı/ gull and ('gø;¨ı)a /'gOUı/ goal. Two
further variants are fairly frequent, which produce: /I˙/ (i˙), /A:≤=, A:≤’0é/ (A<):
('khi˙:, 'si˙i˙)m;a for ('kh¤˙:, 's¤˙¤˙)a /'kI˙, 'sI˙I˙/ ki«˚ si«i« and ('phA<k, 'khA<m>,
'DA<]i˙)m;a for ('phA;<k, 'khA;<m≥, 'DA;<l¤˙)a /'pA:≤k, 'kA:≤ùÈ≤/ park˚ carter, darli«.
û 2.14. Mediatic American neutralizations (and two further possible variants).

/[']I˙/ (i˙)
/Iı, iiı/ (¤;®) /Uı, uuı/ (¨;®)
/Eı, EIı/ (™;®) /åı, OUı/ (Ö;®)

/πı, aOı/ (Ä;®)
/A:≤/+/’0é, =/ = ç/Ø≤/Ç (A<)
2.4.2.5. As far as C are concerned, keeping in mind that these observations are
general (and not absolutely çobligatoryÇ for all speakers — words) and that our
transcriptions are çnormalizedÇ, let us say that for /l[j]éı/ we have (][j]éı): (']¢ıT)m;a
('l¤ıT)a /'lIıt/ lilt˚ (']Öı:)m;a ('l,ı:)a /'l√ı/ lull˚ ('mK]j'n)m;a ('m¤¬jÈn)a /'mIljÈn/ million˚
('n˙v–ûsT)m;a ('nAvÍÈsT)a /'nØvÍ¢st/ noveli®˘
Besides, /</ has a uvularized velar rounded articulation, which is darker (or
çharderÇ): ('<¤;>)m;a ('<I;≥)a /'<IÈ≤/ rear˚ ('<ø:<)m;a ('<ø:<)a /'<O:</ roar˚ ('w’n≥)m;a ('w¤n≥)a
/'wInÈ≤/ winner˘ Please note that generally (<) exerts on /È/ the same retracting and
raising e‡ect of /k, g, ˙÷ ı, w/: (Thû'<™;In)m;a (ThÈ'<™;In)a /tÈ'<EIn/ to rain.
As we have seen, a N nasalizes the following V˘ It often also nasalizes the preced-
ing V (as we indicate). Even intense C in contact are nasalized. ‹en we find syl-
lables with /{é}é/ + /mp˘, nt˘, ˙k˘/, we very frequently have ({–}–) + (Mp, Möp)
(∫T, ∫öT, ∫ö) («k, «ök) (which are too often described simply as ç(–0)Ç à la françai-
se): ('kh™’Möp)m;a ('khπmp)a /'kπmp/ camp˚ ('sT≈Möp)m;a ('sT√mp)a /'st√mp/ ®ump˚
('kh™’∫ö, -∫öT)m;a ('khπ[;]nT)a /'kπ;nt/ can't˚ ('DÔs∫ö, -∫öT)m;a ('Dø¨nT)a /'dOUnt/
don't˚ ('†I«ök)m;a ('†¤˙k)a /'†I˙k/ ìnk˚ ('D<™’«ök)m;a ('D<π˙k)a /'d<π˙k/ drank˘
/ù/ behaves as in neutral American pronunciation, but often this use spreads to
/d/ as well, so that (']πm>)m;a can represent either ('lπm≥)a /'lπùÈ≤/ latter or ('lπD≥)a
/'lπdÈ≤/ ladder÷ (&≈n≥'ßT™;’nfl, &≈nm>-)m;a (&√nD≥'ßTπ;nfl)a /√ndÈ≤'stπnd/ under®and˘
˛e same goes for /ˆ/ = (`), as seen in n[÷ and it is also possible to have /·w/:
û 2.15. Mediatic American intonation.
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3)
/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /?/ (2 Ì 2 1)
/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /÷/ (2 Ì 2 2)
/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /,/ (2 ' 2)

2. english 101
('wín:, 'W-, 'hw-)m;a ('w™n:÷ 'W-÷ 'hw-)a /'·wEn/ when˘

˛ere is a tendency to slightly shorten stressed final vowels and diphthongs,
which we will only mark here, because they oscillate (by indicating /O:, A:/ as dou-
blings, (éé)m;a, for (é;é)a): ('s¤i) /'sIi/ see˚ ('Th%¯) /'tUu/ ‘o˚ ('D™I) /'dEI/ dZ˚ ('gÖ¨)
/'gOU/ go˚ ('h√Ù) /'haE/ high˚ ('nπÔ) /'naO/ now˚ ('bøÙ) /'bOE/ boy˚ ('spAA) /'spA:/ spa˚
('sùù) /'sO:/ sY (also ('sùA, 'sAA)).
£Mediatic∞ British English pronunciation
2.4.3.1. Journalists love to call it çEstuary EnglishÇ, in reference to the ˛ames

estuary, but it is not limited to this area, since –from the south-eastern coasts of
England– it surely stretches to Cambridge, Oxford, and Southampton, too. Of
course, the direct influence of London is real, especially on the çnew townsÇ (such
as Milton Keynes /'mIıtó 'kIinz/, in northern Buckinghamshire, 1967), which have
been built since 1946, each one planned as an autonomous whole (with factories,
houses, shops, Â), in order to decentralize masses of populations, particularly
from London.
However, in general, the South-East has always shared –to a lesser or greater ex-
tent– the London-type pronunciation characteristics. ˛us, this accent rather than
çspreadingÇ has been çemergingÇ more and more, with the actual recognition of
its existence.
Many speakers find that this accent is more genuine and authentic, in compar-
ison with traditional çrpÇ (çReceived PronunciationÇ), which used to be the sym-
bol of the prestigious and expensive –and definitely private– çPublic SchoolsÇ,
such as Eton, Harrow, and ©nchester. ç®πÇ –/'A:≤ 'pIi/– is also known as çbbc En-
glishÇ, because it was used by the bbc right from the beginning (1927 {and televi-
sion, 1932}). But today it can be mainly heard only on international transmissions
of the çbbc World ServiceÇ radio broadcastings and the çbbc WorldÇ television
broadcastings, since most English people –who do not use it– find it to be too
a‡ected and élitist.
û 2.16. Mediatic British monophthongs.
/iò/ = /Ii/ (ÙI) /ué/ (%), /U[ı]/ (¨, UP[§])
/ié/ (i), /I[ı]/ (¤, ÙP[§]) /[j]UÈ≤, [j]U˘</ = /[j]O:≤, -</
/È/ (È, û*, aò|) ([j]oo0, -oo<é, [j]oø[Ω/fl]ò)
/¢/ = /È/, /È:/ (È‘) /O:/ (oo0, oø[Ω/fl]ò)
/Ø/ (O)
/E[ı]/ (™, ÉP[§])
/√, Èò|/ (a), /√ı/ (√P§)
/π[ı]/ (E, ÄP[§]) /A:/ (Aå)
˛erefore, foreigners must be familiar with the mediatic British accent too, but
with no real need to actually use it. However, often, the native speakers' concep-
tion of this accent is subjective and contrasting. In fact, if on the one hand they
may consider it to be neutral, or almost neutral, with respect to çcommonÇ peo-
ple, when çpublicÇ people are concerned –as politicians are– the same pronuncia-
tion can be defined as çCockneyÇ, that is very dialectal (and hardly appropriate).
But we do know that linguistic opinions are very colorful and personal.
2.4.3.2. As can be seen from û 2.16, /π, Ø, O:/ are higher, (E, O, oo). ˛e last one
is doubled (since it moves upwards slightly), or diphthongized (downwards) when
lexeme final, or followed by the /zò, dò/ (oø[fl/Ω]ò) grammemes. Also /E/ is higher,
though remaining within its own box, (™°) (to be better distinguished from /π/ (E)):
('[h]Eöç)m;b ('hπT)b /'hπt/ hat˚ ('<Oök)m;b ('>Øk)b /'<Øk/ ro$˚ ('lo;on)m;b ('lø:n)b /'lO:n/
lYn˚ ('lo;ø)m;b ('lø:)b /'lO:/ lY˚ ('mo;ø)m;b ('mø:)b /'mO:≤/ more˚ ('lo;øΩ)m;b ('lø:Ω)b
/'lO:z/ lYs˚ ('pho;øfl)m;b ('phø:fl)b /'pO:≤d/ pored˘ In the vocogram, the diphthongs due
to the vocalization of /ı/ are marked in grey: /Iı, Eı, πı, √ı, Uı/. Note the di‡erent
symbols: ('bÙ;P[§])m;b ('b¤ı:)b /'bIı/ bill˚ ('bÉ;P[§])m;b ('b™ı:)b /'bEı/ bell˚ ('Ä;P[§])m;b ('Å;ı)b
/'πı/ Al˚ ('kh√P[§]öç)m;b ('kh√ıT)b /'k√ıt/ cult, ('bU;P[§])m;b ('b¨ı:)b /'bUı/ bull.
˛ose who systematically realize /π/ as (Å) are influenced by a sort of strategy
in reaction to the mediatic (and Cockney proper) closer articulation, which is real-
ized as (E), but it does not belong to neutral pronunciation. In addition, it can
cause confusion with /√/, not neutralization (as some think), since these realiza-
tions are uttered by di‡erent speakers, not the same, although in the same places.
Besides, /u/ is fronter, (%): (&s¤öc%'ÄISÈn)m;b (&s¤c¯'™ISó)b /sIcu'EIS˘n/ situation;
/√, È[≤]|/ are lower (and fronter), (aï): ('baöça)m;b ('båTå)b /'b√ùÈ≤/ butter˚ ('b¤;a)m;b
('b¤;å)b /'bIÈ≤/ beer; whereas, /È:≤, A:{≤}/ are diphthongized, (È‘, Aå): ('fÈ;‘[Ω])m;b
('f‘:[Ω])b /'fÈ:≤[z]/ fur[s]˚ ('khA;å[Ω])m;b ('khA:[Ω])b /'kA:≤[z]/ car[s]˘
2.4.3.3. û 2.17 gives us the positions of /IÈ≤, I˘<÷ EÈ≤, E˘</. We have just seen
/IÈ≤|/ (beer]÷ instead, for /I˘</ (and /I˘<, IÈ≤/ not before pauses) more often we have
(¤:): ('[h]¤;<¤n, -¤È-)m;b ('h¤È>¤˙)b /'hI˘<I˙/ heari«˚ ('[h]¤:< Èn'∑™:, -¤È-, -™;‘)m;b ('h¤;È> Èn-
'∑™;‘)b /'hI˘< Èn[d]'∑EÈ≤/ here and ère˚ ('[h]¤: 'khamz ∑È'san:, '[h]¤;‘, &[h]¤;'-, &[h]¤È'-)m;b
('h¤;‘ 'khåmz ∑È'sån:, &h¤È'-)b /'hIÈ≤ 'k√mz ∑È's√n/ here comes è sun. It is to be noted
that even /E˘<, EÈ≤/ are more often long monophthongs than narrow diphthongs:
('m™;<ÙI, 'm™‘-)m;b ('m™‘>i)b /'mE˘<i/ Mary (beside ère, just seen); /UÈ≤/ practically
becomes /O:≤/: ('pho;ø)m;b ('phø:, 'ph¨;å)b /'pUÈ≤/ poor˘
Generally, in this accent, for /ééÈ/ sequences we have (ééÈ, ééa|): ('sÙIa)m;b
('sIiå)b /'sIiÈ≤/ seer (and also (AÙ'DÙIa)m;b (aÙ'D¤;å)b /aE'dIÈ/ idea), ('DT%a)m;b ('D¯uå)b
û 2.17. Mediatic British /éÈ/ diphthongs.
/IÈ≤, I˘</ (¤È, ¤:[ò], ¤aò|, ¤:<é)

/IÈ[z/d]ò/ = /IiÈ/ (ÙiÈ, Ùiaò|) /[j]UÈ≤, -U˘</
= /[j]O:≤, -</ ([j]oo0, -oø[Ω/fl]ò)
/EÈ≤, E˘</ (™:[<é], ™‘[<é])
/aEÈ≤/ (AÙÈ, AÙaò|), /aOÈ≤/ (πPÈ, πPaò|), /EIÈ≤/ (ÄIÈ, ÄIaò|), /OUÈ≤/ (x¨È, xäò|), /OEÈ≤/ (oÙÈ, oÙaò|),
/IiÈ≤/ (ÙIÈ, ÙIaò|, ÙI<é), /UuÈ≤/ (T%È, T%aò|, T%<é), /A:≤/ (Aå) + ç/A:È≤/Ç (AåÈ, Aåaò|), /éé˘<é/ (éé[È]<é)
2. english 103
/'dUuÈ≤/ doer˘ In addition: ('phlÄIa)m;b ('phl™Iå)b /'plEIÈ≤/ plZer˚ ('fAÙa)m;b ('faÙå)b

/'faEÈ≤/ fire˚ ('çhπPa)m;b ('ThaÖå)b /'taOÈ≤/ tower˚ and even: ('gxä)m;b ('g‘¨å)b
/'gOUÈ≤/ goer˚ (¤mö'phloÙa)m;b (¤m'phløÙå)b /Im'plOEÈ≤/ employer (all with /-È≤z/ (-ÈΩ)).
For ('fA;å)m;b ('fA:)b /'fA:≤/ far˚ ('khA;åΩ)m;b ('khA:Ω)b /'kA:≤z/ cars it is also possi-
ble to have ç/'fA:È≤, 'kA:È≤z/Ç ('fAåa, 'khAåÈΩ)m;b.
2.4.3.4. û 2.18 shows that there is a more retracted first element for /Ii, Iiı, aE/,
¤ (ÙI, I¤ı, AÙ): ('bÙ;I)m;b ('bI;i)b /'bIi/ bee˚ ('çhA;Ùm)m;b ('Tha;Ùm)b /'taEm/ time. ˛e
first element is lower and backer for /EI, OU/ (this last one is unrounded too, when
not followed by /ı/, as in neutral British pronunciation), (ÄI, x¨): ('DÄ;I)m;b ('D™;I)b
/'dEI/ dZ˚ ('gx;¨)m;b ('g‘;¨)b /'gOU/ go (('gO;U[§])m;b ('gÖ;¨ı)b /'gOUı/ goal]. ˛e first el-
ement is fronter for /aO, Uu/, (πP, T%) (besides, /Uuı/ is (ü[§])): ('çhπ;Pn)m;b
('Tha;Ön)b /'taOn/ town˚ ('çhT;%)m;b ('Th¯;u)b /'tUu/ ‘o˚ ('chT;%Ê)m;b ('Thj¯;uÊ)b
/'tÛub/ tube˚ ('fj¨;u[§])m;b ('fju;Uı)b /'fjUuı/ fuel÷ whereas, the first element is high-
er for /OE/ (oÙ): ('bo;Ù)m;b ('bø;Ù)b /'bOE/ boy˘
For the diphthongs with front second elements, there are some remarkable
triphthongs which derive from the vocalization of /ı/ (and realized with or with-
out (ù)); /Iiı, EIı, aEı, OEı/ (I¤P[§], ÄÙP[§], AÉP[§], oÉP[§]): ('[h]I¤P[§])m;b ('hi;Iı, 'hiI®)b
/'hIiı/ heel˚ ('<I¤P[§])m;b ('>™;¤ı, '>™¤®)b /'<EIı/ rail˚ ('fAÉP[§])m;b ('fa;Éı, 'faÉ®)b /'faEı/ file˚
('oÉP[§])m;b ('ø;Éı, 'øÉ®)b /'OEı/ oil.
In [n]eièr the American-like pronunciation prevails: ('[n]ÙI∑a÷ -AÙ-)m;b ('[n]aÙ-
∑å÷ -Ii-)b. Generally, /i/ is realized as if it were /Ii/ (and in the prefix /0I-/ as well):
(<ÙI'Eökç)m;b (>i'πkT)b /<i'πkt/ react˚ ('s¤öçÙI)m;b ('s¤Ti)b /'sIùi/ ci“˚ (<ÙI'gA;åfl)m;b (>¤-
'gA:fl)b /<¢'gA:≤d/ regard˘ For /È≤[0]ò/ (‘) is more frequent (thus, we have an exten-
sion of what happens in neutral pronunciation for /È≤[z/d]ò/): ('l™öp‘fl)m;b ('l™pÈfl)b
/'lEpÈ≤d/ leopard˘
Seeing that native phoneticians continue to overlook phonetic particulars, we
add some sociolinguistic variants for several phonemes (drawing from our archives
for the description of regional accents) for now without adding figures, and with-
in the limits of the seven most typical diphthongs.
As regards what we have said above, we also provide the transcription of both
the most marked variants (çbroaderÇ, ç(≠)Ç), and the least marked ones (more
çrefinedÇ, that is more controlled, ç(±)Ç): /Ii/ (ÙI, ≠¢i, ±¤i), /EI/ (ÄI, ≠å¤, ±EI), /aE/ (AÙ,
≠ØÙ, ±åI), /aO/ (πP, ±ÅP), /OE/ (oÙ, ±øÙ), /OU/ (x¨, ≠√¨, ±êT), /Uu/ (T%, ≠¢%, ±¨¯).
˛ose who are really interested in them will quite easily manage to draw useful
comparisons, even without specific vocograms (however they can be found in
English Pronunciation*]˘
û 2.18. Mediatic British diphthongs.
/Ii[ı]/ (ÙI, I¤P[§]) /[j]Uu[ı]/ ([j]T%, [j]ü[§])
/OE[ı]/ (oÙ, oÉP[§])

/EI[ı]/ (ÄI, ÄÙP[§]) /OU[ı]/ (x¨, OU[§])
/aO[ı]/ (πP[§]) /aE[ı]/ (AÙ, AÉP[§])
û 2.19. Mediatic British neutralizations.
/I[i]ı/ (¤P[§]) /[j]U[u]ı/ ([j]Ü[§]) {“ /[j]O:ı/ ([j]oU[§])}

/-Èı, -®/ (P[§]) /O:ı/ (oU[§])
/Øı, OUı/ (OU[§]), /OUlé/ (x¨lé)

/πı, EIı, aOı, √ı/ (aP[§]) {in derivatives, also (OUlé)}
2.4.3.5. Even for çmediaticÇ British English, neutralizations are frequent be-
fore /ı/ (although less frequent than in Cockney, the typical and popular –and less
educated– dialect and accent of the East End of London). In fact, Ô û 2.19, we of-
ten find ('f¤;P[§])m;b both for ('f¤ı:)b /'fIı/ fill and ('fi;Iı)b /'fIiı/ feel÷ in addition,
('[h]a;P[§])m;b both for ('hÅ;ı)b /'hπı/ Hal and ('h™;¤ı)b /'hEIı/ hail˚ and both for
('ha;Öı)b /'haOı/ howl and ('h√ı:)b /'h√ı/ Hull, as well. Besides, we find ('DO;U[§])m;b
both for ('DØ;ı)b /'dØı/ doll and ('DÖ;¨ı)b /'dOUı/ dole÷ and ('f¨;U[§])m;b both for
('f¨ı:)b /'fUı/ full and ('fu;Uı)b /'fUuı/ fool (the last one is possible for ('fo;U[§])m;b
('fø:ı)b /'fO:ı/ fall too]˘ (We will deal with (§) shortly.)
2.4.3.6. For the consonants, the strong preglottalization of /p, k, c/ must not
be forgotten as it practically occurs in all the cases indicated in § 2.2.6.1-2 “ §
2.2.7.1; in addition, it is important to mention the massive substitution of /t/ with
(ö), in all the cases indicated in § 2.2.5.2; whereas we can say that, generally, (ç)
replaces (T) /t, ù/ of neutral pronunciation. ˛erefore: ('D<Oöp)m;b ('Ã>Øp)b /'d<Øp/
drop˚ ('D<Oöpç)m;b ('Ã>ØpT)b /'d<Øpt/ dropped˚ ('phEök)m;b ('phπk)b /'pπk/ pa$˚
('phEökç)m;b ('phπkT)b /'pπkt/ pa$ed˚ ('<ÙIöc, -öS)m;b ('>Iic, -öS)b /'<Iic/ rea>˚
('<ÙIöcç, -öSç)m;b ('>IicT, -öST)b /'<Iict/ rea>ed˚ ('<AÙöça)m;b ('>aÙTå)b /'<aEùÈ≤/ writer÷
('f¨ö&boU[§])m;b ('f¨p&bø;ı, -ö-, -T-)b /'fUtbO:ı/ football˚ ('g™ö 'Dπ;Pn)m;b ('g™T 'Da;Ön, -ö)b
/'gEt 'daOn/ get down˚ ('lÄIölÙI)m;b ('l™ITli, -öli)b /'lEItli/ lateI˚ ('çhAåöç)m;b ('ThA;T)b
/'tA:≤t/ tart˚ ('çh™sça, -ßça)m;b ('Th™sTå)b /'tEstÈ≤/ tester˘
˛e preglottalization of /p, t, k/ (and of /c/, as in neutral British English) also
occurs between V˚ both within words and in sentences: ('ph™öpa)m;b ('ph™på)b
/'pEpÈ≤/ pepper˚ ('b™öça)m;b ('b™Tå)b /'bEùÈ≤/ better˚ ('bÄIöka)m;b ('b™Ikå)b /'bEIkÈ≤/
baker˚ ('l™öç¤ç, -¤ö)m;b ('l™T¤T, -¤ö)b /'lEùIt/ let it˘ In the /st, sc/ sequences, there is the
possible variant /s/ (ß) (by further assimilating to the following contoid, which is
typical of broader accents): ('sçOöp, 'ßç-)m;b ('sTØp)b /'stØp/ ®op˚ ('sç<Ä;I~ä, 'ßç<-,
'ß˛>-)m;b ('s˛>™;I~ä)b /'st<EInG/ ®ra«e˚ ('khw™scÈn, -ßc-, -ëcÈn, -ScÈn)m;b ('khw™scó,
-Scó)b /'kwEsc˘n, -Sc-/ que®ion˘
For /ù/, ([) can occur, too: ('ph<¤öçÙI, 'ph<¤[ÙI÷ 'çhw™nöçÙI, -™n[ÙI)m;b ('ph>¤Ti,
'Thw™nTi)b /'p<Iùi, 'twEnùi/ pret“˚ ‘en“˘ Even (ùöó) (in addition to (ùöçÈn, -ó)):
('khl¤nöó, '™P[§]öó, 'bÈ‘öó)m;b ('khl¤nTó, '™ıTó, 'b‘;Tó)b /'klInt˘n, 'Eıt˘n, 'bÈ:≤t˘n/ Clin-
ton˚ Elton˚ Burton˘
Besides, we find (¤n) for the grammeme >-i«≥: ('<x¨l¤n, '<OU-)m;b ('>‘¨l¤˙)b /'<OU-
lI˙/ rolli«÷ this example also shows the oscillation for /OU/ before /lé/, under the in-
2. english 105
fluence of /OUı/ (OU[§])m;b (Ö¨ı)b, whereas in non-derivatives the normal realization

occurs: ('phx¨la)m;b ('ph‘¨lå)b /'pOUlÈ≤/ polar˘ It is possible to have /˙k/ in: ('sam-
†¤˙ök, '™nÙI&†¤˙ök)m;b ('såm†¤˙, '™ni&†¤˙)b /'s√m†I˙, 'Eni†I˙/ someì«˚ aJì«.
From the examples, one can notice that the most frequent realization of /</ is not
postalveolar rounded ((>), as in neutral pronunciation), but (postalveolarized) pre-
velar rounded ((<), corresponding to the neutral American articulation). But there
are also four further quite frequent variants: the labiodental, (V), and its combina-
tions with other articulations, labiodental rounded, (¶), velarized labiodental, (◊),
and postalveolarized labiodental, (S): (<ÙIÈ'<Ä;I~ä, VÙIÈ'V-, ¶ÙIÈ'¶-, ◊ÙIÈ'◊-, SÙIÈ'S-)m;b
(>iÈ'>™;I~ä)b /<iÈ'<EInG/ rearra«e. In the case of /t<, d</, a realization which çcor-
respondsÇ to the neutral articulation is possible: ('çh<Ä;In, -V-, -¶-, -◊-, -S-, 'fih>-)m;b
('˛h>™;In)b /'t<EIn/ train˚ ('D<¤˙ök, -V-, -¶-, -◊-, -S-, '">-)m;b ('Ã>¤˙k)b /'d<I˙k/ drink˘
Very frequently, a non-etymological /≤/ is inserted: (AÙ'soø<¤öç)m;b (aÙ'sø;¤T)b
/aE'sO:It/ I sY it, even in cases like: (AÙ&x¨vÈ<'È;‘fl, -È'hÈ;‘fl)m;b (aÙ&‘¨vÈ'h‘:fl)b /aEOU-
vÈ≤'hÈ:≤d/ I overheard.
2.4.3.7. Our examples have already shown that one of the most evident charac-
teristics, which is socially stigmatized, is the çzeroÇ realization of /h/ (= (`)):
('[h]A;Ù)m;b ('ha;Ù)b /'haE/ high. Consequently, even hypercorrections are frequent,
as happens with the name of the letter h (not without a certain çinternalÇ logic):
('[h]ÄIöc)m;b ('™Ic)b /'EIc/. On the other hand, the reduced form of him is less fre-
quent: ('çhÉP[§]h¤m)m;b ('Th™l¤m)b /'tElIm/ tell him÷ equally for the reduced form
of a\ (ÄI'mE;n)m;b (È'mπ;n)b /È'mπn/ a man˘ Also for /0˘nò/, a less reduced form is
more frequent: (ph<È&nansi'ÄISÈn, 'GEöksÈn)m;b (ph>È&nånsi'™ISó, 'Gπksó)b /p<Èn√n-
si'EIS˘n, 'Gπks˘n/ pronunciation˚ Ja$son˘
˛e sequences /tˆ, dˆ, nˆ/ have the peculiarity of typically corresponding to /c,
G/ and (~): ('chT;%n)m;b ('Thj¯;un)b /'tÛun/ tune˚ ('GT;%n)m;b ('Dj¯;un)b /'dÛun/
dune˚ ('~T;%)m;b ('nj¯;u)b /'nÛu/ n[ (in Cockney we actually find ('nÈ;%) = /'nUu/).
Occasionally, /†, ∑/ can become /f/ and /òd, v/ respectively (which is a typical
Cockney pronunciation, and can be heard even on the borders of the çEstuaryÇ
area {and in further –mostly metropolitan– areas, which have been influenced by
this accent}): ('†<Ù;I, 'f<-)m;b ('†>I;i)b /'†<Ii/ `ree˚ ('∑¤s, 'D-)m;b ('∑¤s)b /'∑Is/ ìs˚ ('ma∑a,
-va)m;b ('må∑å)b /'m√∑È≤/ moèr.
2.4.3.8. ˛ere is nothing to say about /l/, while for /ı/ there is a typical çvocal-
izationÇ of (ı, ®) which become (P) (û 2.19), after V or C˚ as many examples have
already shown (particularly those of the neutralization before /ı/). ˛e lateralized
velar rounded approximant (§) (in brackets in the figure) indicates a less marked
pronunciation, where the lateralized contoid is added to the vocalization, (P), in
order to try to attenuate this characteristic, which is often socially stigmatized. So,
we can find (ù), without lip-rounding, as a kind of halfway compromise.
Here are some examples, to complete the survey: ('l¤öçP[§])m;b ('l¤T®)b /'lIt®/ lit-
tle˚ ('phÙIöpP[§])m;b ('phIip®)b /'pIip®/ people˚ ('D™vP[§]Ω)m;b ('D™v®Ω)b /'dEv®z/ devils˚
('m¤P[§]k)m;b ('m¤ık)b /'mIık/ milk˚ ('woP[§]öça)m;b ('wø;ıTå)b /'wO:ıùÈ≤/ Walter˚
('G™nöçP[§]mÈn)m;b ('G™nT®mÈn)b /'GEnù®mÈn/ gentleman. ≈nally, (&a˙ökPl'È‘-
b‘öç, -P'h-)m;b (&å˙k®'h‘;bÈT)b /'√˙k® 'hÈ:≤bÈ≤t/ uncle Herbert˚ where we can see the
normal kind of prevocalic l ((l)), and the intense one, again prevocalic: ('nOvÍ¤sç,
-ßç)m;b ('nØvÍ¤sT)b /'nØvÍIst/ noveli®˘
2.4.3.9. In cases like the following, we often find secondary stresses: ('D¤kSÈ&n™-
<ÙI, 's™mÈ&ç™<ÙI, 'DoomÈ&ço<ÙI)m;b ('D¤kSó>i, 's™m¤˛>i, 'Dø;m¤˛>i)b /'dIkSÈnŒ<i, 'sEm¢tŒ-
<i, 'dO:≤m¢tO:<i/ dictionary˚ cemetery˚ dormitory.
Regarding intonation, we have to say that the pitch of the first stressed syllable
and of the following internal unstressed syllables in a preintoneme is less high than
in the neutral pronunciation, as can be seen from û 2.20. ˛e suspensive into-
neme is more similar to the American one; and, often, the interrogative intoneme,
besides being as in neutral British English, can be rising-falling (again in û 2.20,
where we show only the di‡erent type): (¿GÈÌspÙIök '¤˙gl¤S 'wÉ;P[§]12)m;b (¿DjÈ5spIik
'¤˙gl¤S 'w™ı:21, ¿GÈ-)b Do you speak E«li´ well?
û 2.20. Mediatic British intonation.
/ / (2 2 Ì 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3)
/¿ / (¿ 2 2 Ì 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /?/ (2 ' 1 2)
/¡ / (¡ 2 2 Ì 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /÷/ (2 Ì 2 2)
/˚ / (˚ 2 2 Ì 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /,/ (2 ' 2)
Text
2.5.0. ˛e story †e North Wind and the Sun (by Aesop) follows. It is given in
five di‡erent (çnormalizedÇ) versions. In fact, they systematically and coherently
present the most typical characteristics, which are acknowledged as peculiar. We
start with the American and British versions in (neutral) English, which is the first
step of the phonetic method. ˛e international version follows together with the
two mediatic versions of American and British English.
In the other chapters of the book, for each language dealt with, at least two kinds
of foreign pronunciations are given: first the foreign pronunciation of English, and
lastly the British English pronunciation of the foreign language in question, accord-
ing to the same principles. ˛e speakers are supposed to be neutral speakers of their
own language, fluent in English (after prolonged contact with native speakers, but
with no help from the phonetic method), who have adequately learned the rela-
tive prominences, but who substantially use segments (vowels “ consonants) and
intonation elements, which are typical of neutral English (although, of course, a
neutral accent is not so common). Obviously, the same principle is valid for the
foreign pronunciations of English, given first. Sometimes further accents have been
added as can be seen in the correspondent chapters.
2. english 107
Graphemic text
2.5.2.0. †e Nor` Wind and è Sun were disputi« whi> was è ®ro«er,
when a travel(l)er came alo« wrapped in a warm cloak. †\ agreed àt è one
who fir® succeeded in maki« è travel(l)er take his cloak o‡ óuld be considered
®ro«er àn è oèr.
†en è Nor` Wind bl[ as hard as he could, but è more he bl[ è more
closeI did è travel(l)er fold his cloak around him; and at la® è Nor` Wind gave
up è attempt. †en è Sun óne out warmI, and immediateI è travel(l)er took
o‡ his cloak. And so è Nor` Wind was obliged to confe˛ àt è Sun was è ®ro«-
er of è ‘o.
Did you like è ®ory? Do you want to hear it again?
Neutral American pronunciation
2.5.2.1. (∑È'nø;<† 'w¤n:D2 Èn∑È's√n:2 w≥D¤'spj¯u[¤˙ 'w¤c wûz∑È'sT<O;˙g≥23| 'w™n È-

'Th<πvl≥2 'kh™;Im È'lO;˙2 ì'<πpT ¤nû'wø:<m 'khlø¨k23œ| ∑™Iû'g<I;iD2\ ∑Èt∑û'w√n ¯'f≥;s sûk-
'sIiDÈD2 ¤m'm™Ik¤˙ ∑È'Th<πvl≥2 'Th™Ik ¤Ω'khlø¨k 6O;f2 2| &S¨bbikûn's¤D≥fl "sT<O;˙g≥ ∑Èn∑i-
'√∑≥23||
'∑™n:2 ∑È'nø;<† 'w¤m:2 'blU;u2 ÈΩ'hA:<D2 Èzi'kh¨;fl23| bÈt∑È'mø:< i6blU;u2 2| ∑È'mø:<
'khlø¨sli2 &D¤d∑È'Th<πvl≥2\ 'fø;¨ıD ¤Ω'khlø¨k û'<aÖnD¤m23| ìÈn[D]Èö'lπ;sT2œ\ ∑È'nø;<† 'w¤˙:2
'g™;Iv '√p ∑iÈ'Th™mpT23|| ì'∑™n:2œ ∑È's√n 'Sø;¨n 'aÖT23 ì'wø;<mli23œ| Èn¤'mIiDiÈTli2\ ˚∑È'Th<πvl≥
'Th¨k 'O;f23 ˚¤Ω'khlø¨k23|| ìó'sø;¨2œ ∑È'nø;<† 'w¤n:D2\ wûzÈ'bla;Ùä TûkûM'f™s2| ∑Èt∑È's√n:23
wÇ∑È'sT<O;˙g≥23 ìÈv∑È'ThU;u23œ||
¿&D¤GÈ•laÙk21 ¿∑È'sTø;<i2| ¿Dj¯'wAn [[]È'h¤<¤[ û•g™n:21|||)
Neutral British pronunciation
2.5.2.2. (∑È5nø;† 'w¤n:D2 Èn∑È'sån:2 wûD¤5spj¯uT¤˙ 'w¤c wûz∑È's˛>Ø˙gå3 3| 5w™n È-

'˛h>πvl‘2 5kh™;Im È'lØ˙2 ì5>πpT ¤nû'wø:m 'khl‘¨k3 3œ| ∑™Iû'g>I;iD2\ ∑Èt∑û5wån ¯'f‘;s
sûk'sIiD¤D2 ¤m5m™Ik¤˙ ∑È'˛h>πvl‘2 5Th™Ik ¤Ω'khl‘¨k 'Øf32| &S¨bbikûn5s¤D‘fl "s˛>Ø˙g‘
∑Èn∑i'å∑å3 3||
'∑™n:2 ∑È5nø;† 'w¤m:2 5bl¯;u2 ÈΩ'hA:D2 Èzi'kh¨;fl3 3| bÈt∑È5mø:> i'bl¯;u32| ∑È5mø:
'khl‘¨sli2 &D¤d∑È'˛h>πvlå2\ 5fÖ;¨ıD ¤Ω'khl‘¨k û'>aÖnD¤m3 3| ìÈn[D]Èö'lA;sT2œ\ ∑È5nø;† 'w¤˙:2
5g™;Iv 'åp ∑iÈ'Th™mpT3 3|| ì'∑™n:2œ ∑È5sån 'SØn 'aÖT3 3 ì'wø;mli3 3œ| Èn¤'mIiDiÈTli2\ ˚∑È5˛h>πvl‘
'Th¨k 'Øf3 3 ˚¤Ω'khl‘¨k3 3|| ìó's‘;¨2œ ∑È5nø;† 'w¤n:D2 wûzÈ5bla;Ùä TûkûM'f™s2| ∑Èt∑È'sån:3 3
wÇ∑È's˛>Ø˙g‘>3 3 ìÈv∑È'Th¯;u3 3œ||
¿&D¤G¯'laÙk21 ¿∑È'sTø;>i2| ¿Dj¯5wØn TÈ'h¤È>¤T û'g™n:21|||)
£International∞ English pronunciation
2.5.2.3. (∑È'nø;‰† 'w¤n:D2 Èn∑È'sån:2 wÈ‰D¤'spjuuT¤˙ 'w¤c wÈz∑È'sc<Ø˙gÈ‰23| 'w™n È-

'ch<πvlÈ‰2 'kh™;¤m È'lØ;˙2 ì'<πpT ¤nÈ'wø:‰m 'khlø¨k23œ| ∑™¤È'g<i;iD2\ ∑Èt∑È'wån u'fÈ;‰s
sÈk'siiDÈD2 ¤m'm™¤k¤˙ ∑È'ch<πvlÈ‰2 'Th™¤k ¤Ω'khlø¨k 'Øf2 2| &S¨bbikÈn's¤DÈ‰fl "sc<Ø˙gÈ‰
∑Èn∑i'å∑È‰23||
'∑™n:2 ∑È'nø;‰† 'w¤m:2 'blu;u2 ÈΩ'hA:‰D2 Èzi'kh¨;fl23| bÈt∑È'mø:< i'blu;u22| ∑È'mø:‰ 'khlø¨s-
li2 &D¤d∑È'ch<πvlÈ‰2\ 'fø;¨ùD ¤Ω'khlø¨k È'<aønD¤m23| ìÈn[D]Èö'lπsT2œ\ ∑È'nø;‰† 'w¤˙:2 'g™;¤v
'åp ∑iÈ'Th™mpT23|| ì'∑™n:2œ ∑È'sån 'Sø;¨n 'aøT23 ì'wø;‰mli23œ| Èn¤'miiDiÈTli2\ ˚∑È'ch<πvlÈ‰ 'Th¨k
'Øf23 ˚¤Ω'khlø¨k23|| ìó'sø;¨2œ ∑È'nø;‰† 'w¤n:D2 wÈzÈ'bla;™ä TÈkÈM'f™s2| ∑Èt∑È'sån:23 wÇ∑È-
'sc<Ø˙gÈ<23 ìÈv∑È'Thu;u23œ||
¿&D¤GÈ'la™k21 ¿∑È'sTø;<i2| ¿Dju'wØn TÈ'h¤<¤T È'g™n:21|||)
£Mediatic∞ American pronunciation
2.5.2.4. (∑''n9;<† 'w’n:D2 'n∑È's≈n:2 w>DÙ'spj%¯[I˙ 'wÙc wûz∑È'sT<Œ;˙g>23| 'wín '-

'Th<πv]>2 'kh™;Im ¯']Œ;˙2 ì'<πpT ’n¯'wø:<m 'kh]Ö¨k23œ| ∑™Iû'g<¤;iD2\ ∑Èt∑û'w≈n %'f>;s
sûk's¤i[ÈD2 ’m'm™IkI˙ ∑È'Th<πv]>2 'Th™Ik ÙΩ'kh]Ö¨k Ìù;f2 2| &SPbbik¯n'sÙm>fl "sT<Œ;˙g>
∑'n∑i'x∑>23||
'∑ín:2 ∑''n9;<† 'w’m:2 'b]%;¯ ÈΩ'hA:<D2 Èzi'kh„;fl23| bÈt∑''m9:< iÌb]%;¯2 2| ∑''m9:<
'kh]Ö¨s]i2 &DÙd∑È'Th<πv]>2\ 'fÖ;¨ıD ÙΩ'kh]Ö¨k û'<πÔnD’m23| ì'n[D]Èö']πÄsT2œ\ ∑''n9;<†
'w’˙:2 'g™;Iv 'xp ∑iÈ'ThímpT23|| ì'∑ín:2œ ∑È's≈n 'SÔ;sn 'πÔT23 ì'wø;<m]i23œ| 'n’'m¤i[iÈT]i2\
˚∑È'Th<πv]> 'Th„k 'ù;f23 ˚ÙΩ'kh]Ö¨k23|| ìó'sÖ;¨2œ ∑''n9;<† 'w’n:D2 wûzÈ'b]√;Ùä Tûk¯M'fEs2|
∑Èt∑È's≈n:23 wÇ∑È'sT<Œ;˙g>23 ìÈv∑È'Th%;¯23œ||
¿&DÙGûÌ]√Ùk21 ¿∑È'sTø;<i2| ¿Djû'w˙n ''hÙ<Ù[ ûÌgín:21|||)
£Mediatic∞ British pronunciation
2.5.2.5. (∑ÈÌnoo† 'w¤n:D2 Èn∑È'san:2 wûD¤ÌspjT%öç¤˙ 'w¤öc wûz∑È'ßç<O˙ga3 3|

Ìw™n È'çh<Evl‘2 ÌkhÄ;Im È'lO˙2 ìÌ<Eöpç ¤nû'wo;om 'khlx¨ök3 3œ| ∑ÄIû'g<Ù;ID2\ ∑Èö∑û-
Ìwan %'fÈ‘s sûök'sÙID¤D2 ¤mÌmÄIök¤˙ ∑È'çh<Evl‘2 ÌçhÄIk ¤Ω'khlx¨ök 'Of32| &S¨bbiökûn-
Ìs¤D‘fl "ßç<O˙g‘ ∑Èn∑i'a∑a3 3||
'∑™n:2 ∑ÈÌnoo† 'w¤m:2 ÌblT;%2 ÈΩ'[h]A;åD2 Èzi'kh¨;fl3 3| bÈö∑ÈÌmo;ø< i'blT;%32| ∑ÈÌmo;ø
'khlx¨slÙI2 &D¤d∑È'çh<Evla2\ ÌfO;UıD ¤Ω'khlx¨ök û'<πPnD¤m3 3| ìÈn[D]Èö'lAåßç2œ\ ∑ÈÌnoo†
'w¤˙:2 ÌgÄ;Iv 'aöp ∑iÈ'çh™möpç3 3|| ì'∑™n:2œ ∑ÈÌsan 'SOn 'πPö3 3 ì'woomlÙI3 3œ| Èn¤'mÙIGÈölÙI2\
˚∑ÈÌçh<Evl‘ 'çh¨ök 'Of3 3 ˚h¤Ω'khlx¨ök3 3|| ìó'sx;¨2œ ∑ÈÌnoo† 'w¤n:D2 wûzÈÌblA;Ùä çûö-
kûM'f™s2| ∑Èö∑È'san:3 3 wÇ∑È'ßç<O˙g‘<3 3 ìÈv∑È'çhT;%3 3œ||
¿&D¤GÈ'lAÙök12 ¿∑È'ßçoo<ÙI2| ¿G%ÌwOnö çÈ'h¤;<¤öç û'g™n:12|||)
2. english 109
Appendix: further accents
2.6.0. Concisely, we now provide the phonosyntheses of six accents. ˛e prac-

tice had with the five preceding accents (¤ the two neutral and two mediatic
American and British, and the international one) will surely allow us to identify
their peculiarities, starting from the diaphonemic transcriptions to see how they
are actually realized in the indicated areas. Obviously, if the readers cannot imme-
diately find some appropriate examples, they can use those given in the whole
chapter, depending on its sections. Clearly, the readers who are already familiar
with these other accents will more easily and spontaneously find both the exam-
ples and the phonic values (together with connections and analogies). A more sys-
tematic treatment will be done in E«li´ Pronunciation* (in the bibliography); al-
though a careful examination of the vocograms given here will certainly provide
more detailed information.
Canadian English pronunciation
2.6.1. ˛ere are many peculiar unifications of vowels, with the merging of /O:,
O;, Ø, Ø;/ into (Ø:) and of /O:≤, O:<, Ø<, Ø;</ into (ø:<) (('sø;<i) /'sØ<i/ sorry). In addition,
there are peculiar diphthongs with narrow taxophones of /EI, OU/ (eI, oU), and of
those of /aE, aO/ followed by a voiceless C within the word, (åÛ, √¯): ('nåÛT, '√¯T)
/iò, ié/ (i), /’I˙/ (I˙) >-ing≥ /ué/ (¯), /UÈ≤/ (U≥)
/IÈ≤/ (I≥), /I˘</ (I<), /I[ı]/ (¤, ¤ı) /U˘</ (U<), /U[ı]/ (¨, Uı)
f
/¢/ = /È/, /È/ (È, û*, å|)

/È≤/ (≥), /È</ (È<, ≥), /È:≤, È:</ ('≥:)
/E[ı]/ (™, ™ı),
‡ /E˘</ (™<),
‡ /EÈ≤/ (™≥)
‡
/√[ı]/ (å, √ı)
/π[ı]/ (π, Åı), /π</ (π<), /π;/ (π) /O:≤, O:<, Ø<, Ø;</ (ø:<)
/A:/ (A:), /A:<, A:≤/ (A:<) /O:, O;, Ø, Ø;/ (Ø:)
/jUu/ (j¯u), /Uu/ (Uu)
/Ii[ı]/ (Ii, iIı) /Ûu/ (j¯u, Uu)
/[j/ˆ]Uuı/ ([j/`]uUı)
/EI[ı]/ (eI, e¤ı) /OU/ (oU)
/aE[ı]/ (aÙ, aÉı, åÛ=, å¤ı=) /aO/ (aÖ, √¯=)
/ / (2 2 Ì 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3)
/¿ / (2 2 Ì 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /?/ (2 ' 2 1)
/¡ / (2 2 Ì 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /÷/ (2 ' 2 2)
/˚ / (2 2 Ì 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /,/ (2 ' 2)

Current and mediatic variants

/iò|/ ([I]i), /I[ı]/ (Ù[ı])
/I˙/ (In) >-ing≥ /U[ı]/ (P[ı])
/E<, E˘</ (e<), /EÈ≤/ (e;≥) /O:≤/ (o:<, O:<)
/O:<, Ø<, Ø;</ (o;<, O;<)
/π[˘]ö/ (™Ùö), /E[ı]/ (E, Äı)
/√ı/ (∏ı, Öı, xı)
/πÊò/ (Eπ) {“ (π;))
/π[ı]/ (Å, aı) /O:, O;, Ø, Ø;/ (A:, ØA) {“ (Ø:)}
/Ûu/ (%¯, ¯u) {“ (Uu)}

/Uu/ (¯u) {“ (Uu)}
/aE=/ (‘i) /OE[ı]/ (oÙ, oÉı)
/EI[ı]/ (™e, ™Ù) /OU/ (ÖP)
/aO/ (π¨, ÅÖ), /aO=/ (x¯) /Ii, EI, aE, aO, OE, OU, Uu/ + /ı/ = /éé®/
/'naEt, 'aOt/ night˚ out. ˛ere are neutral and non-neutral taxophones for many vow-
els and diphthongs + /ı/. ˛e neutral ones which change phones are: /πı, √ı, Uı÷
Iiı, EIı, aEı, OEı, Uuı/; the others are /Iı, Eı/ and /√ı/ with other variants; in addi-
tion to a possible insertion of (û) before (ı). As far as phoneme distribution is con-
cerned, certain words are pronounced with çBritishÇ vowel elements, others with
çAmericanÇ ones. For the consonants, the use is similar to the American one.
In current and mediatic pronunciations (given in the second set of vocograms),
we find that hypercorrection can produce /jUu/ for /Uu/ [noon˚ too˚ do…), due to
the fact that, for /Ûu/, careful speakers prefer /jUu/, after /n, t, d/. In addition, we
find the nasalization of /éöò, éö˘/ (–öò, –ö˘), even in /é˘ö/ (above all for /π/);
lastly, for /l/, we have (]é), in these kinds of pronunciations.
Australian English pronunciation
2.6.2. We present four di‡erent accents separately: neutral (çcultivated Austra-

lianÇ, in the first three vocograms, which is used by a limited number of speakers,
who have learned it intentionally, as happens for all neutral accents).
˛e mediatic accent (çgeneral AustralianÇ, in the second series of three voco-
grams, typical of mass media and many speakers), the broad accent (çbroad Aus-
tralianÇ in the third series of three vocograms, typical of uneducated people, which
is heavily nasalized, too), and also the a‡ected accent (çmodified AustralianÇ, in
the fourth series of three vocograms, used by a very small group of élite speakers,
who aim at imitating traditional or a‡ected British pronunciation, which is con-
sidered to be too mannered and unacceptable).
For each accent, we will first see the monophthongs (given in the first voco-
gram), moving then to the diphthongs, and lastly to centering diphthongs (in the
third vocogram; in this case, the peculiarities of broad accents are quite evident).
For /¢/, we regularly have /È/, except in a‡ected pronunciations.
2. english 111
Neutral accent/èCultivated Australian E.¶

/i/ (i) /u/ (¯)
/I[ı]/ (I, ¤ı) /U/ (U)
/È:≤/ (È:), /È/ (È, û*, å|)
/E[ı]/ (e, Ùı)
/O:/ (o:) {/O:|/ (oø), /O:0/ (oo)}
‡
/π[ı]/ (E, Äı)
/Ø[ı]/ (Ø, Øı)
‡
/√[ı]/ (å, √ı), /A:/ (a:)
/Ii[ı]/ /Uu[ı]/ /IÈ[≤],

(¤i, i¤ı) (¨¯, Uuı) I˘</ /[j/ˆ]UÈ[≤],
(IÈ[|]) -U˘</
/OE[ı]/ ([j]UÈ[|])
(o¤, oÙı) /EÈ≤,
/EI[ı]/ E˘</ {“ /[j]O:≤/}
(ÄI, Ä¤ı) /OU[ı/l]/ (ÖT,
OUı, OUl) (™È[|])
/aE[ı]/
(ÅÙ, ÅÉı) /aO/ (Å¨)
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3)
/¿ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /?/ (2 ' 2 1)
/¡ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /÷/ (2 ' 3 2)
/˚ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /,/ (2 ' 2)
Mediatic accent/èGeneral Australian E.¶

/i/ (Û)
/I[ı]/ (I, ¤ı) /U/ (U)
/È:≤/ (È:)÷ /È/ (È, û*, Å|)
/E[ı]/ (e, Ùı)
/O:/ (o:)
/π[ı]/ (E, Äı) /Ø[ı]/ (O, Øı)
/√[ı]/ (Å, åı)÷ /A:/ (a:)
/iò/ (¢Û, Û) /Uu[ı]/ (T%, /IÈ[≤], /[j/ˆ]UÈ[≤],

¢¯, T¯ı, ¢uı) I˘</ -U˘</
/OE[ı]/ (I¤[|]) ([j]U¨[|])
/Ii[ı]/ (¢Û, Û¤ı) (o¤, oÙı) {“ /[j/ˆ]O:≤/}
/EÈ≤,
/OU[ı/l]/ E˘</
/EI[ı]/ (å¤, åÙı) (åT, OUı, OUl) (eÙ[|])
/aO/ (π¨) /aE[ı]/ (A¤, AÙı)
˛e most typical characteristic (similar to mediatic British and Cockney pro-

nunciations) consists in a wider pronunciation of the diphthongs /Ii, EI, aE, OE, aO,
OU, Uu/, as can be seen from the respective vocograms (in addition to (I, e) for /I,
E/, since, only in a‡ected pronunciations, can we find (™°) for /E/). ˛e diapho-
neme /≤/ follows British use (although some young Australians, especially females,
who live abroad, present a fluctuating and non-neutral use of (>)). Let us notice
(and very well too) the various taxophones + /ı/.
We systematically find ç/OUlé/Ç (whereas in Cockney and in mediatic British
English minimal pairs occur such as ç/√Ulé/Ç – ç/OUlé/Ç, as polar]˘ Occasionally, we
can have ç/O:È≤/Ç, for /O:≤/ (either ç/Or/Ç, or ç/or/Ç). Except in neutral pronunciation,
for the /Ii, EI, aE, OE/ diphthongs, we have (ééı, éé®); besides, /{é}éÈı/ ({é}éûı,
{é}é®), without vocalizations (with (ı, ®), after phones with labial component).
˛e diaphoneme /ù/ has ([), as in American English. For /0®ò, 0Èıò/, neutral
pronunciation has (0®ò, 0ûıò); thus, it has (léı), without vocalizations (which are
present, though, in broad pronunciations). It is possible to hear a non-neutral pro-
nunciation with /l/ (]), for l + -y˚ -ie˚ -i«˚ -er… (grammemes {or even pseudo-gram-
memes} added to /ıò/).
Broad accent/èBroad Australian E.¶

/i/ (Û) /u/ (¯)
/I[ı]/ (I, ¤ı) /U/ (U)
/E[ı]/ (e, Ùı) /O:/ (o:)
/È:≤/ (¢:), /È/ (È, û*, Å|)
/π[ı]/ (E, Äı)
/Ø[ı]/ (O, Øı)
/√[ı]/ (Å, åı), /A:/ (Å:)
f
/iò/ (ÈÛ, Û) /Uu[ı]/ /IÈ[≤], I˘</ /UÈ[≤, -˘<]/

(È%, È¯ı) = /Ii/ (ÈÛ)+ =/Uu/ (È%)
(>é, È0, Å|) +(>é, È0, Å|)
/Ii[ı]/ (ÈÛ, Û¤ı) /OE[ı]/ {“ /O:[≤]/}
(o¤, oÙı) /EÈ≤, E˘</
(e:[|])
/aO/ (EÖ) /OU[ı/l]/
(ÅT, OUı, OUl)
/EI[ı]/ (Å¤, ÅÙı) /aE[ı]/ (Ø¤, ØÙı)
A‡ected accent/èModified Australian E.¶

/i/ (i) /u/ (u), /U/ (U)
/I[ı]/ (I, ¤ı) /U/ (U), /È:≤/ (È:), /È/ (È, û*, å|)
/E[ı]/ (™, Éı) /O:/ (ø:÷ ø:ò, øøò÷

f ø:0, øo0)
/√[ı]/ (å, √ı)
/π[ı]/ (π, Åı)
f
/Ø[ı]/ (Ø, Øı)

/A:/ (a:)
/Ii[ı]/ /Uu[ı]/
(Ii, iIı) (ü, Uuı) /IÈ[≤], I˘</ /[j]UÈ[≤]/
(IÈ>é, IÈ0, Iå|) ([j]PÈ>é,
/OU[ı/l]/ (êT,
øUı, øUl) PÈ0, På|)
/EI[ı]/ {“ /[j]O:≤/}
(EI, E¤ı) /OE[ı]/ /EÈ≤, E˘</
(ø¤, øÙı) (™È>é,
™È0, ™å|)
/aO/ (ax) /aE[ı]/ (aÙ, aÉı)
2. english 113
New Zealand English pronunciation
2.6.3. In addition to the neutral accent, with three vocograms (the first three),
we present the mediatic accent (whose centering diphthongs {fourth and fifth vo-
cograms} correspond to the neutral ones) and the broad accent (whose monoph-
thongs {sixth and seventh vocograms} correspond to the mediatic ones, whereas
the centering diphthongs are peculiar, including the unification of /EÈ≤, E˘</ with
/IÈ≤, I˘</, and the possible unification of /UÈ≤, U˘</ with /O:≤, O:</). ˛us, for /E˘</
(e>, e;>, e‘>) (even in less neutral speech, the timbre is always (e): (e>, e˛)). For /I</
we have (Ù>÷ ¢>, ¢˛); whereas, for /I˘</, (I>, iI˛); for idea\ /aE'dIiÈ/.
/π</ (E>÷ ™>) is always distinct (in all accents). Occasionally, we can find ç/O:È≤/Ç,
for /O:≤/ (both ç/Or/Ç, and ç/or/Ç). ˛e triphthongs are not attenuated into diph-
thongs. Even in neutral pronunciation, we have /I˙/ (¤˙) (not ç(Ù˙, ¢˙)Ç). In New
Zealand, /π;, A;/ = /A:/, /Ø;, O;/ = /Ø/, /¢/ = /È, ±I/ (¤ /I/ is only an intentional choice);
fini´ /'fInIS/ ('fÙnÙS÷ 'f¢n¢S), visit /'vIz¢t/ ('vÙzÈT, 'v¢zÈT).
˛e most typical characteristic consists in (Ù, e) for /I, E/, in neutral pronunci-
ation (but (¢, ¤), in the other accents), in addition to the pronunciation of the diph-
thongs /Ii, EI, aE, OE, aO, OU, Uu/ (which is similar to the Australian, mediatic Brit-
ish, and Cockney accents), as can be seen from the respective vocograms. Besides,
/È:<, È:≤/ is rounded, (ê:) (or only partially so, (+È, +‘|), in the other pronunciation
kinds).
/i/ (i) /u/ (¯)
/I[ı], I˙/ (Ù, ¢ı, ¤˙) /U[ı]/ (¨, Uı)
/O:/ (o:)
/E[ı]/ (e, ™ı)
/È:≤/ (ê:), /È/ (È, û*, å|)
/π[ı]/ (E, Äı) /√[ı]/ (å, √ı)
/A:/ (a:) /Ø[ı]/ (O, Øı)
/Ii[ı]/ /Uu[ı]/ /IÈ≤, I˘</

(¨¯, uuı) /UÈ≤, U˘</
(Ii, iIı) (I‘, Iå|) (U‘, Uå|)
/EÈ≤, E˘</ /O:≤, O:</
/OE[ı]/ (øI, øÙı) (e‘, eå|)
/EI[ı]/ (o‘, oå|)
(EI, E¤ı) /OU[ı/l]/ (∑¯,
∏Uı, ∏Ul)
/aO/ (aP) /aE[ı]/ (aÙ, aÉı)
/ / (2 2 Ì 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 3 3)
/¿ / (2 2 Ì 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /?/ (2 ' 2 1)
/¡ / (2 2 Ì 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /÷/ (2 Ì 2 2)
/˚ / (2 2 Ì 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /,/ (2 ' 2)

Mediatic-accent variants
/i/ (Ii) {“ /Ii/ (¤i, Ùi)} /u/ (%)
/U[ı]/ (w, Uı)
/I[ı]/ (¢, ûı)
/È/ (È, û*, å|÷ ‘)
/E[ı]/ (¤, ¤[Ù]0ò, Ùı) /O:[ı]/ (oø, oUı)
/È:≤/ (+È, +‘|)
/Ø[ı]/ (O,
° Oı)
#
/π[ı]/ (™, ™[É]0ò, Éı) /√[ı]/ (å, √ı, ∏ı)
/A:/ (Åa)
/Ii[ı]/ (¤i, i¤ı) /Uu[ı]/ (T%, Uuı)

/OE[ı]/ (o¤, oÙı)
/EI[ı]/ (ÄI, ÄÙı) /OU[ı/l]/ (@T, OUı, OUl)

/aO/ (πÖ) /aE[ı]/ (AÙ, AÉı)
Broad-accent variants
/Ii[ı]/ (Ùi, i¤ı) /Uu[ı]/ (¢%, üı)
/OE[ı]/ (PI, PÙı)
/OU[ı]/ (x%, ÖUı, ÖUl)
/aO/ (Ex)
/EI[ı]/ (a¤, aÙı) /aE[ı]/ (ùÙ, ùÉı)
/IÈ≤, I˘</ “ /UÈ≤, U˘</ (uU‘, uUå|)

/EÈ≤, E˘</ (iI‘, iIå|) {“ /UÈ≤, U˘</ “
{“ /IÈ≤, I˘</ /O:≤, O:</ “ ç/OÈ≤/Ç
“ /EÈ≤, E˘</} (o;‘, o;å|)}
˛e diaphoneme /≤/ is distributed like in British English (although in the south-

ern and rural part of the South Island, /≤/ is not silent, as in American pronuncia-
tion). On the other hand, even in non-neutral pronunciations of other New-Zea-
land areas, /≤/ can be pronounced in words –mostly in monosyllables– ending in r.
Neutral /</ is (>) (while non-neutral accents can even have (˛)); as in British En-
glish, /t<, d</ can be realized as (fi[h]>, ">), in addition to normal (˛[h]>, Ã>) (where-
as the other accents can also have (c[h]>, G>) and (c[h]˛, G˛), including /st</ (Sc>,
Sc˛)). In non-neutral pronunciation, often /tˆ, dˆ/ = (c, G).
˛e neutral accent can have /hw/ (W), still rather extensively used, even in cur-
rent pronunciation; besides, it has (léı); whereas, non-neutral pronunciation has
(]éı) and also (ıéùò, ı≠§ò, ıé¨ò). Except in neutral pronunciation, for the diph-
thongs /Ii, EI, aE, OE/, we find /ééı, éé®/; unless they are vocalized as (éé¨). For
/0®ò, 0Èıò/, the neutral accent has ((0®ò, ±¬ò, 0ûıò)); the other accents have (0¨ıò,
0¨§ò, 0¨ò÷ 0Pò): milk /'mIık/ ('m¢ık÷ 'm¢¨k÷ 'mûùk÷ 'mû¨k).
2. english 115
We systematically find ç/OUlé/Ç (whereas in Cockney and in mediatic British

English there are minimal pairs with ç/√Ulé/Ç – ç/OUlé/Ç, as in polar). ˛e reader is
invited to carefully observe the numerous taxophones + /ı/, both neutral and non-
-neutral.
In non-neutral pronunciation, there are more or less regular vowel neutraliza-
tions — mergers (realized as in the given vocograms; those appearing in round
brackets occur less often): normal – /Iiı, Iı/ = /Iı/ {/Iiı/}÷ /IiÈ≤, IÈ≤/ = /iIÈ≤/ {/IÈ≤/}÷
/OUı{0/ò}÷ Øı{0/ò}/ = /OU/ {/Ø/}; frequent – /IÈ≤, EÈ≤/ = /IiÈ≤/ {/IÈ≤, EÈ≤/}÷ /I˘<, E˘</ =
/Ii</ {/IÈ<, E</}÷ /E˘<, E</ = /E</÷ /El, πl÷ Eı, πı/ = /Eı÷ πı/; /πı, aOı/ = /πı, aOı/÷ /Øı, √ı/
= /Øı/ {/OUı/}÷ /Uı, Uuı/ = /Uı/ {/Uuı/}÷ /O:≤, UÈ≤/ = /O:≤/.
˛e following are occasional\ /{j}UÈ≤, È:≤/ = /È:≤/, /Iı, Uı/ = /Uı/÷ /Iı, √ı/ = /√ı/÷
/aO, A:/ = /A:/. In addition, non-neutral pronunciation can have, for own˚ ç/OUÈn/Ç
and the diphthonging of /E, π/, particularly frequent for /éö{0}/. Currently, wom-
en is pronounced like its singular form.
/t, ù/ (and /p, k, c/) behave as in American English (without glottalization; but,
between V˚ they can behave as in British English, with continuous –non-occlusive–
realizations of /p, t, k/). Neutral pronunciation regularly has linking /≤/, but avoids
linking when no etymological /≤/ occurs.
Generally, reduced forms are less frequent and less systematic. Tendentially,
there is no systematic reduction of you˚ her÷ more often (even unstressed) been has
its full form: /bIin/. In cases such as a‡ect˚ e‡ect and allusion˚ illusion˚ above all in
less neutral pronunciations, for a˚ we have /π/ (É÷); for i˚ e˚ /I, ¢, È/, we have (‘/).
Frequently (‘/) occurs for the article a, too.
For -ary˚ -ery˚ Â, the American stressing is frequent, but neutral pronunciation
prefers the British one.
Traditional British English pronunciation
2.6.4. ˛is is the classic pronunciation known as ®π (Received Pronunciation),

which was the only one to be admitted by the ∫∫© up to one or two generations
ago, with narrow /Ii, EI, OU, Uu/ (Iíi, eI, P¨, Uïu), and /aE, aO, OE/ with well distin-
guished first elements, (ÅÙ, AP, OÙ) (and diametrically opposed to the mediatic real-
izations, (AÙ, πP, oÙ)). It has no glottalization of /p, t, k, c/ (not even (ö0), nor
(ô), with the only possible occurrence of (ö) for /t/, before sonants: ('skØTlÈnfl,
'skØölÈnfl) Scotland). Let us notice carefully the taxophones of the short vowels and
diphthongs with front first elements before /ı/.
In addition, it has /<òé/ only when it is etymological and spelt as r (in which case,
it rather has (òöé), except in informal or colloquial speech, at times). Besides, ç/tj,
dj, sj, zj, †j/Ç are highly frequent, as in ('khw™sTjÈn, -scÈn÷ 'sjUup√, 'sUu-), que®ion˚
super (with (S Z, Sj Zj) only in colloquial or informal pronunciation, for /'kwEscÈn,
'sUupÈ≤/ ('khw™scÈn, 's¯upå)); /Ø;f, -†, -s, -ft, -st/ = /O:/ (O:) (as in ('O;f, 'lO;sT) o‡˚ lo®˚
for /'Ø;f, 'lØ;st/ ('Øf, 'lØsT)); /</ (>, 'éRé, †R, ∑R, pR, bR, kR, gR).
It invariably presents (-¤˙) /-I˙/÷ it has (h, `) for /ò’h/ hotel, and (`) in reduced
forms with ¸h and in -ham¸; /·w/ (w), ('w™n:) when; in addition, unstressed my is
/’mÅÙ, ’mI, ’mÈ/÷ besides, /’EI, ’OU/ are (™, P) before ('): vacation˚ november; /-OU/ is
(P) in compounds when it is at the end of the first lexeme (even if separated): win-
dow sill. For ar, ç/A√/Ç (A;√) is possible; even ç/OÈ≤/Ç for /O:≤/. ≈nally, it has (é‘>é)
for /éÈ<é, é˘<é/, and (¤) for /iò, ié/: ('khA:, 'khA;√÷ 'mO;√÷ 'mE‘>¤, -R¤) /'kA:≤, 'mO:≤,
'mE˘<i/ car˚ more˚ Mary.
Triphthong attenuation is very frequent (but less than in a‡ected pronuncia-
tion or in Cockney), even between word, also for /ééò’I/: ('fÅ;√, 'fÅ:÷ ÅÙ¤~'GO¤T, Å¤~-)
/'faEÈ≤, aEIn'GOEIt/ fire˚ I enjoy it. Substantially, its intonation patterns correspond
to the neutral ones; with the conclusive and suspensive intonemes, a creaky phona-
tion type is very frequent.
/I[ı], i, ié/ (¤, ¤ı) /U[ı], ué/ (¨, Uı)

f
/¢/ (¤) {desinential as well)

/E[ı]/ (™, ™ı)
‡ /È/ (È, û*, √|), /È:≤/ (È:)
/√[ı]/ (√, ∏ı), /O:/ (O:)
/π[ı]/ (π, Åı)
/A:/ (A:), /Ø/ (Ø)
/Ii[ı]/ (Ii, iIı) /[j]Uu[ı]/ ([j]Uu, [j]uUı)

/EI[ı]/ (eI, e¤ı) /OU[ı]/ (P¨, oUı)
/OE[ı]/ (OÙ, OÉı)

/aE[ı]/ (ÅÙ, ÅÉı) /aO/ (AP)
/[j]UÈ[≤], -U˘</ ([j]¨‘, [j]¨√|)

/IÈ[≤], I˘</ (¤‘, ¤√|) {“ ([j]P‘, [j]P√|) “ /[j]O:≤/
“ ç/[j]OÈ≤/Ç)
ç/OÈ[≤], O˘</Ç (O‘, O√|)
/EÈ≤, E˘</ (E‘, E√|) (“ /O:/ (O:, O:|)}
/UuÈ≤/ {(ü‘, ü√|) “) (U:‘, U:√|)

/IiÈ≤/ {(Ii‘, Ii√|) “) (I:‘, I:√|) (“ /IÈ≤/} (“ /UÈ≤/, not /O:≤, OÈ≤/!}
/EIÈ≤/ {(eI‘, eI√|) “) (e‘, e√|) (“ /EÈ≤/} /OUÈ≤/ {(P¨‘, P¨√|) “) (P‘, P√|)
/OEÈ≤/ {(OÙ‘, OÙ√|) “) (O‘, O√|)
/aOÈ≤/ (A‘, A√|) (“ (AP‘, ÅP√|)}
/aEÈ≤/ {(Å‘, Å√|) “) (ÅÙ‘, ÅÙ√|) (“ /A:È≤/ (A:‘, A:√|)}
A‡ected British English pronunciation
2.6.5. It can be flaunted by aristocrats and people of high social, religious, and
cultural standings. But it is generally thought of as too a‡ected. It is characterized
2. english 117
by more peripheral /I, U/, ¤ (I, U) (instead of (¤, ¨)); but they are more centralized
in /IÈ≤, I˘<÷ EÈ≤, E˘<÷ UÈ≤, U˘</ (Ùx, Ù√|÷ Äx, Ä√|÷ Px, P√|); it presents /éÈ<é/ (éx>é),
and (Ù) for /’iò|/, as well: ('mÄx>Ù) Mary.
‹en the phoneme /I/ is fully unstressed, it is (Ù), as /iò/ too (instead of (i)),
and, before pauses, it even becomes (É): (&v¤zÙ'b¤lÙTÙ, -TÉ); it has /-I˙/ (-Ùn, Ù˙)÷ also
/¢/ is (Ù), as many /È/ are, as well.
Besides, /E, π/ are closer (e, E); when /I, E, π/ are final, in stressed checked sylla-
bles ending in voiced C before a pause, they diphthongize as (IÙ, eÉ, EÄ): ('bIÙâ,
'weÉÊ, 'bEÄfl) big˚ web˚ bad.
/È:≤, È:<÷ √÷ A:/ are backer, (x:, √, å:) (and the last one occurs more frequently
than in neutral pronunciation); for ar, ç/A√/Ç (å;√) is possible. ˛e diphthongs are
considerably narrow and have particular timbres, manly /Ii, Uu/ (ii, uu) and /aO,
OE, OU/ (Ax, @Ù, É+) (and (‘Pı), for (Ii, ¯u, aÖ, øÙ, ‘¨) and (Ö¨ı)). For short vow-
els and for diphthongs with front first elements, there are taxophones requiring
di‡erent symbols.
f
/U[ı], ué/ (U, Uı)
/I[ı], ié/ (I[ÙÊ|], ¤ı, Ié), /’I/ (Ù)
/iò/ (Ù, É|) /O:/ (o:)
/È/ (È, û*, √|), /È≤:/ (x:)
/E[ı]/ (e[ÉÊ|], ™ı) /È≤z˙d/ (È, x|), /È≤/ (È, √|), /¢/ (Ù)
/π[ı]/ (E[ÄÊ|], Äı) /√[ı]/ (√, ∏ı)
/A:/ (å:), /Ø/ (Ø)
/Ii[ı]/ /[j]Uu[ı]/ /[j]UÈ[≤], -U˘</
([j]uu, /IÈ[≤], I˘</
(ii, iiı) (Ùx, Ù√|) ([j]Px, [j]P√|)
f ‡
F
[j]uuı)
f
(“ (jx:) (“ /[j]O:≤/ “
/’OU+/ (P) = /jÈ:≤/} (jx:) = /jÈ:≤/}
/EI[ı]/
(™Ù, ™Éı) /OU[ı]/ (É+, ‘Pı) /O:≤˙z˙d|/
/OE[ı]/ /EÈ≤, E˘</ = /O:[È]≤/
/aE[ı]/ (@Ù, @Éı) (Ä‘, Ä√|) (o:|, o:√|,
(ÅÙ, ÅÉı) /aO/ (Ax) o:[x]z˙D|)
/IiÈ≤/ /UuÈ≤/ (u:x,
(i:x, i:√|) u:√|) (“ /UÈ≤/,
(“ /IÈ≤/
(Ix, I√|)} not /O:≤/! “
(Ux, U√|)}
/EIÈ≤/ /êUÈ≤/ (É‘,
(™‘, ™√|) É√|)+/È:≤/ /OEÈ≤/
(“ /EÈ≤/} (@x, @√|)
/aEÈ≤/ /aOÈ≤/
(Å:, Å√) (A:, A√)
It has no glottalization of /p, t, k, c/ (¤ neither (ö0), nor (ô); with the only pos-
sible occurrence of (ö) for /t/, before sonants: ('skØTlÈnfl, 'skØölÈnfl) Scotland]÷ ç/tj,
dj, sj, zj, †j/Ç are fairly frequent, as in ('khwesTjÈn, -scÈn÷ 'sjuup√, 'suu-), que®ion˚
super (with (S Z, Sj Zj) only in colloquial or informal pronunciation, for /'kwEscÈn,
'sUupÈ≤/ ('khw™scÈn, 's¯upå)); /Ø;f, -†, -s, -ft, -st/ = /O:/ (o:), in addition to /Ø/ (Ø) in
some words, today, but o‡ maintains /O:/.
/</ (>, 'éRé, †R, ∑R, /</ (>, 'éRé, †R, ∑R, pR, bR, kR, gR) (also ('éVé), and even ('éeé,
'é=é) in some frequent words: very˚ terrible˚ sorry˚ tomorrow); non-written and
non-etymological /<òé/ is frequent. Often, the çaspirationÇ of /p, t, k, c/ is very
weak (contrary to Cockney usage). In addition, it has (`) for /ò’h/ hotel÷ /·w/ (w),
('weÉn) when÷ unstressed my is /’mI, ’mÈ/÷ /-OU/ is (P) in compounds when it is at
the end of the first lexeme (even if separated): window sill.
Triphthong attenuation is extremely frequent (as in Cockney), even between
words, also for /ééò’I/: ('fÅ;√, 'fÅ:÷ ÅÙ¤~'G@¤T, Å¤~-) /'faEÈ≤, aEIn'GOEIt/ fire˚ I enjoy it.
Substantially, its intonation patterns correspond to the neutral ones; with the con-
clusive and suspensive intonemes, the creaky phonation type is very frequent; para-
phonic pitch expansion is typical; in intonemes, syllables are lengthened.
Cockney pronunciation (London)
2.6.6. Most typically, it is the speech of the working-class of è Ea® End of

London˚ which includes the harbor. ˛e main vocalic characteristics reside in its
diphthongs, which we present in the second vocogram, while in the third voco-
gram we add both the le˛ broad variants (», seven) and the broade® ones (*, two
{with grey edges}). Frequently, speakers can fluctuate between these three types:
/Ii/ (ÈÛ, ¢i»), /EI/ (ÅÙ, Ä¤»), /aE/ (ØÉ, åÙ»), /aO/ (EX, πX», Åå*) (the last variant, which
is generally çdescribedÇ as ç(π:, a:)Ç, is the most narrow diphthong of all), /OE/ (o¤,
oÙ»), /OU/ (åP, @+», åX*), /Uu/ (È%, ¢%»). Usually, the diaphoneme /¢/ is /I/ (¤).
For the monophthongs, the most evident characteristics –in addition to some
timbres– are contextual diphthongizations. In fact, in the most typical and broad
accent, /E, π, Ø/ occurring in stressed monosyllables in (bi)checked syllables –¤
with /0ò, 00ò/– are pronounced (™¤, EÙ, Oø). For the first two phonemes, this fact
is particularly clear with /n, nd, t, d÷ ˙, k, ks, g/ (although /t/ = (ö)) and with oth-
er voiced C (but also with voiceless ones), as in: ('ÇEÙ§) /'dπd/ dad (for ('Dπ;fl).
Something similar happens to /O:{≤}/, which most typically is (oU) (although in
a less broad pronunciation it is (o:)), as in ('lo;Un, 'woUöÅ, 'ßçoU>ÈÛ) /'lO:n, 'wO;ùÈ≤,
'stO:<i/ lYn˚ water˚ ®ory (for ('lø:n, 'wø;Tå, 'sTø;>i)). In an intermediate accent as in
the less broad one, in all positions, we always find (o:, oU), respectively; instead,
in the most typical and broadest, we find (oUÅ), when in word-final position be-
fore pauses.
However, in final position, within sentences, or with the grammemes /zò, dò/,
we have (oU‘): ('phoUÅ) pY˚ pore˚ pour˚ poor (for ('phø:) /'pO:, 'pO:≤/, and ('phø:,
-¨;å) /'pUÈ≤, -O:</ for the last one {following the most international phonemic or-
der}); ('phoU‘Ω) pYs˚ pores˚ pours˚ poor's (for ('phø:Ω) /'pO:z, 'pO:≤z/, and ('phø:Ω,
-¨;‘Ω) /'pUÈ≤z, -O:<z/).
/O:/ occurs more frequently (and the same is true of traditional and a‡ected pro-
nunciations) than in the neutral accent, especially for /Ø;/: ('oUf, 'whloUf, 'wh>oUs)
/'Ø;f, 'klØ;†, 'k<Ø;s/ o‡˚ clo`˚ cro˛. Even /È:≤/ can be diphthongized (È:, È;‘); and al-
so the timbres of /A:, √/ are quite remarkable (for /È{≤}ò|/, too): ('whå:, -Ø:*÷ 'fÈ;vÅ,
'fÈ‘-) /'kA:≤, 'fÈ:≤∑È≤/ car˚ furèr˘ ˛e vowels which are followed by nasal consonants
(and often those which are preceded by nasals, too) are nasalized (as is the diph-
2. english 119
/ié/ (i), /i|/ = /Ii/ (ÈÛ) /ué/ (%), /U[ı]/ (¨, UP, ’¨)
/I[ı]/ (¤, ¤P, ’¤), /¢/ (¤) /È/ (È, û*, Å|)
/E[ı]/ (™[¤0], ™P) {(™)»} /O:/ (oU) {(o:)»} {(oUÈ +
/È:≤/ (È:) “ (È‘) z/D, oUÅ|, oU>é) = /UÈ/}
/π[ı]/ (E[Ù0], ÄP) {(E)»} /Ø/ (O[ø0]) {(O)»}
/√[ı]/ (Å, aP) /A:/ (å:) {(Ø:)*]
/Ii[ı]/ /[j]Uu[ı]/ /[j]Uu/

(ÈÛ, ¤¢P) ([j]È%, [j]¢¨P) /Ii/ (¢i)» ([j]¢%,
/OE[ı]/ [j]T%)»
/EI/ (Ä¤)»
(o¤, oÙP) /OE/ (oÙ)»
/OU/ (@+)»
/aO/ (EX) /OU/ (åP) {(åX)*}
/EI[ı]/ /aE[ı]/ /aO/ (πX)»
(ÅÙ, ÅÉP) (ØÉ, Ø‘P) {(Åå)*] /aE/ (åÙ)»
/IÈ≤/ /[j]UÈ≤/
(I‘, I:ò, IÅ|) ([j]U‘, -U:ò, -UÅ|)
/I˘</ (I:>é) /[j]U˘</
/EÈ≤/ ([j]U:>é) “ /[j]O:≤/
/aEÈ≤/
(e‘, e:ò, eÅ|) (Ø‘, ØÅ|) “
/E˘</ (e:>é) /aOÈ≤/ (E‘, EÅ|) (ØÉ‘, ØÉÅ|)
/aE˘</ (Ø‘>)
/IÈ≤/ (IÛ‘, IÛò,

IÛÅ|, IÛ>é)* /[j]UÈ≤/ ([j]oU‘,
-oUò, -oUÅ|,
/EÈ≤/ (e¤‘, e¤ò, -oU>é)* = /[j]O:≤/
e¤Å|, e:>é)*
/aOÈ≤/ (Å:)* “ /aEÈ≤/

(Åå‘, ÅåÅ|)* (Ø‘, ØÅ|)*
/aOÈ≤/
/aEÈ≤/
(πX‘, πXÅ|)»
(åÙ‘, åÙÅ|)»
“ (π‘, πÅ|)»
“ (å‘, åÅ|)»
/IÈ≤/
(¤‘, ¤:ò, ¤Å|, ¤:>é)» /[j]UÈ≤/
([j]o‘, [j]o:ò, [j]oÅ|,
/EÈ≤/ [j]o:>é)» = /[j]O:≤/
(™‘, ™:ò, ™Å|, ™:>é)»
thong /aO/, quite often independently from context). For the grammeme /I˙/ we
have (In, ’n, ó); and, for -ì«˚ (-f¤˙ök) is frequent: ('mÕ3n, 'samf¤˙ök, '™n'I&f¤˙ök)
/'maEn, 's√m†I˙, 'Eni†I˙/ mine˚ someì«˚ aJì«.

˛e fourth and fifth vocograms show the realizations of /IÈ≤, I˘<÷ EÈ≤, E˘<÷ {j}UÈ≤,
-˘<÷ aEÈ≤, aE˘<÷ aOÈ≤, aO˘</ (often /{j}U-/ becomes /{j}O:-/); instead, the sixth and sev-
enth vocograms show the broadest variants, whereas the eighth to the tenth voco-
grams give the least broad variants.
In addition, we have: /EIÈ≤, -˘</ (ÅÅ÷ ÅÙ‘, ÅÙÅ|)* (Ä¤‘, Ä¤Å|÷ A‘, ÄÅ|)», /OUÈ≤, -˘</
(å‘, åÅ|÷ åP‘, åPÅ|)* (@+‘, @+Å|)», /OEÈ≤, -˘</ (o¤‘, o¤Å|)* (oÙ‘, oÙÅ|)» (o‘, oÅ|), /IiÈ≤,
-˘</ (¤‘, ¤Å|÷ ÈÛ‘, ÈÛÅ|)* (¢i‘, ¢iÅ|)», /UuÈ≤, -˘</ (¨‘, ¨Å|÷ È%‘, È%Å|), /IÈ≤, -˘</ (¤‘, ¤:ò, ¤Å|,
¤;>é)», /EÈ≤, -˘</ (™‘, ™:ò, ™Å|, ™;>é)», /UÈ≤, -˘</ (o‘, o:ò, oÅ|, o;>é)» (thus, as /{j}O:≤, -</»).
We will now consider, in the last vocogram, the many (and typical) neutraliza-
tions of /é{é}/ + /ı/, which is vocalized into (P) (in broader pronunciations, we
find (U), while in less broad ones, (PU), which we do not mark): /Iı, IÈı, Iiı, IiÈı/
(¤P), /Eı, EÈı, È:≤ı/ (ÉP), /EIı, πı, aOı, aOÈı/ (ÅP), /√ı/ (aP, åP*) (in the broadest ac-
cent, the diphthong may coincide with /OUlé/ (åPlé), when it is lexeme-internal),
/A:ı, aEı, aEÈı/ (åP), /Øı, OUı/ (OP) (in derivatives of /OUı/ we find (OPlé), instead of
(åPlé), exactly as in mediatic pronunciation), /{j}Uı, -UÈı, -Uuı, -UuÈı, -O:ı/ ({j}ou)
(for /{j}Uı, -UÈı, -Uuı, -UuÈı/, we also find a less broad realization, ({j}Uu)»).
For /OEı, OEÈı/, we have (oÙP) (even in less broad accents); for /-Èı, -®, -ı/ we have
(P) (and (U)*, (PU)»); -el˚ -al and 'll˚ after vowels, can be slightly lengthened (P;, PU»)
(and the same is true of /-Èı, -®/). For /-Èıòé, -®òé, -ıòé/, we find (Plé, Ulé*), uncle
Herbert [è'Erbert¶] (&Å˙ökPl'È‘bÈö{ç}).
In the first two vocograms, we have marked in grey also five V and five VV,
which before /ı/ may not undergo the typical neutralization shown in the last vo-
cogram.
/[j]U[È]ı, -Uu[È]ı, -O:ı/ ([j]ou)
{/[j]U[È]ı, -Uu[È]ı/ ([j]Uu)»}
/I[È]ı, Ii[È]ı/ (¤P)
/-[È]ı, -®/ (P) (“ (PU)», (U)*}
/E[È]ı, È:≤ı/ (ÉP) /OUı/ (OP) /OUlé/ (åPlé)
{in deriv. + (OPlé)}
/√ı/ (aP) {(OP)*}, /Øı/ (OP)
/πı, EI[È]ı, aO[È]ı/ (ÅP) /A:ı, aE[È]ı/ (åP)
As far as C are concerned, the most typical characteristic refers to /p, t, k, c/,
which are typically preglottalized, (ö=), even (öÒ), in all cases where in the British
accent synglottalization is possible (Ô § 2.2.6.1-2, § 2.2.7.1), or where in mediatic
British English preglottalization occurs (Ô § 2.4.3.6). Even for the phonetic reali-
zations we find some di‡erences. In fact, in the most typical and broadest pronun-
ciations, /p, t, k/ are realized as the corresponding stopstrictives: (p, ç, w), even
çaspiratedÇ (in the normal contexts expected for neutral pronunciation, too): (ph,
çh, wh) (which can give the impression of stronger çaspirationÇ). However, the
most typical and broad element is the substitution of /t, ù/ with (ö) in all the cases
seen in § 2.2.5.2, but with further typifying contexts (¤ except before a tautosyl-
labic stressed nucleus, or after pauses, or after /s/, ('çh, |çh, 'sç, sç)).
Examples: ('bÅöÅ) /'b√ùÈ</ butter˚ ('woUöÅ) /'wO;ùÈ≤/ water˚ ('whOöó) /'kØtó/ cot-
ton˚ ('s¤öó) /'sItó/ sitti«˚ ('bOöõ) /'bØùÈm/ bottom˚ ('bÈ‘öó) /'bÈ:≤tó/ Burton˚ ('ÉPöó)
2. english 121
/'Eıtó/ Elton˚ ('whl¤nöó) /'klInt˘n/ Clinton˚ ('l¤öP) /'lIù®/ little˚ ('phå;öna, -Ø;ö-)
/'pA:≤tnÈ≤/ partner˚ ('s™öp>¤ölÈÛ) /'sEp˘<Ètli/ separateI˚ ('lOös) /'lØts/ lo_˘
More examples: ('pha’nöÅ, -n,Å, -nÅ, -n[Å, -nöçÅ) /'pEInùÈ≤/ painter˚ ('pha’n-
ö¤ö, -n,¤ö, -n¤ö, -n[¤ö, -nöç¤ö) /'pEInù¢t/ paint it˚ ('woUöÅ) /'wO:ıùÈ≤/ Walter˚ ('oUö¤ö,
-,¤ö, -[¤ö, -öç¤ö) /'hO:ıù¢t/ halt it˚ ('ßçå;ö¤ö, -,¤ö, -[¤ö, -öç¤ö) /'stA:≤ù¢t/ ®art it˚ ('¤ö¤ö, '¤,¤ö,
'¤[¤ö, '¤öç¤ö) /'hIù¢t/ hit it˚ (È'l¤öP 'b¤ö È'bÅöÅ) /È'lIù® 'bIù Èv'b√ùÈ≤/ a little bit of butter˚
('ph¨ö 'Åöp) /'pUù '√p/ put up˚ ('ph¨ö¤ö 'Åöp) /'pUù¢ù '√p/ put it up˘
In less broad pronunciations, an incomplete, attenuated stop is possible: (,),
which is less çinvasiveÇ; the vocoid preceding (ö) can even be laryngealized, where-
as (ö) can become çzeroÇ, especially before another vocoid (adding, however, the
creaky phonation type), (éöé = é,é = ü,é = üé): (È'l¤P 'b¤ È'bÅÅ). Generally, forms
such as lill ('l¤P) /'lIù®/ and little ('l¤P, 'l¤P;, 'l¤PU) /'lIù®/ maintain some di‡erences
even if the latter is actually pronounced in this way; as a matter of fact, in addi-
tion to the creaky phonation type, /®/ is often lengthened (at least in an intoneme).
Before V (even if derived from /®/, and even between words), also a less broad
variant, ([), is possible (or even (öç) in çelegantÇ speech, which we do not indi-
cate). It is also possible for (n[) to become (n); here we will report the relevant ex-
amples, without spelling, following the order in which they are given above (in-
cluding water and Walter): ('bÅ[Å, 'woU[Å, 's¤[’n, 'bØ[’m, 'l¤[P), ('pha’n[Å, -nÅ÷
'pha’n[¤ö, -n¤ö), ('woU[Å, 'oU[¤ö, 'ßçå;[¤ö, '¤[¤ö, È'l¤[P 'b¤[ È'bÅ[Å, 'ph¨[ 'Åöp, 'ph¨[-
¤[ 'Åöp).
Other consonants can become (ö), especially /p, k/: ('ßçOöõ) /'stØpI˙/ ®oppi«˚
('f¤l¤ö 'lØÉöç¤ö) /'fIlIp 'laEktIt/ Philip liked it˚ ('whOönÈÛ) /'kØkni/ Co$n\˘ In a previ-
ous example, we have seen that typically /d/ becomes stopstrictive, (Ç); besides,
commonly, /éd/ is realized as (éö), when it is word-final and followed by C or V˚
and in the grammeme sequence >-dn't≥ /-dót/, as well: ('b>™öõ 'bÅöÅ) /'b<Edó 'b√ùÈ≤/
bread and butter˚ ('g¨ö 'bo;Ù) /'gUd 'bOE/ good boy˚ (ØÉ'Ç¤öó{öç}) /aE'dIdót/ I didn't˘
For /st, st<, sc/, broad pronunciations have (ßç, ß˛>, Sc): ('ßçÅ;Ù) /'stEI/ ®Z˚
('ß˛>O;˙) /'st<Ø;˙/ ®ro«˚ ('wwh™ScÈn, -có) /'kwEsc˘n/ que®ion˘ In broad pronuncia-
tions, /†, ∑/ become /f, v/; however, there are many intermediate nuances, includ-
ing the realizations of normal pronunciation: (f, v÷ ƒ, √÷ Ï, ƒ÷ fl, ∂÷ †, ∑). More of-
ten, /ò∑/ can be realized as (`, Ã, d, D): (¤s'EXs ¤z'mÕ3n, Ã¤s-, d¤s-, D¤s-) /∑Is'haOs Iz-
'maEn/ ìs house is mine. As we have seen, the typical realization of /h/ is (`),
which is a stigmatized pronunciation, and therefore can lead many speakers to hy-
percorrecting: ('hÈÛö{ç}) /'Iit/ eat. For /nˆ, tˆ, dˆ/, the typical Cockney pronuncia-
tion has no /ˆ/, but, in less broad pronunciations, mediatic-like types are possible,
as well: ('nÈ;%, 'n¢;%, '~¢;%, '~T;%) /'nÛu/ n[˚ ('çh';ßn, 'çhK;ßn, '⁄hK;ßn, '⁄hfi;ßn,
'chK;ßn, 'chfi;ßn) /'tÛun/ tune˚ ('ÇÈ%öw, 'Ç¢%öw, 'Á¢%ök, 'ÁT%ök, 'G¢%ök, 'GT%ök)
/'dÛuk/ duke.
Triphthong attenuation is extremely frequent, even between words, also for
/ééò’I/: ('fØ;Å, 'få;Å÷ Ø¤~'Go¤T, å¤~-) /'faEÈ≤, aEIn'GOEIt/ fire˚ I enjoy it. Substantially,
its intonation patterns correspond to the neutral ones. For [n]eièr we generally
find /Ii/.
3. Italian
3.0.1. ˛is chapter will analyze modern neutral Italian pronunciation, keeping
it separate from traditional pronunciation, which will be looked at later, in order
to demonstrate the accepted and shared di‡erence between them. However, this
di‡erence is not evident in dictionaries and grammar books, which is hardly sur-
prising given the inertia and lack of dynamism shown by schools and obviously
dictionaries and grammar books. ˛ey continue to perpetuate çconventional con-
victionsÇ, a legacy from grammar books and dictionaries from the 1800's, without
even doubting that things may have changed in the meantime… Endless plagiariz-
ing, with very few innovations as far as orthoepy (¤ pronunciation) is concerned.
˛is can be seen in the way çcàsaÇ for casa, ¤ /'kasa/ is still given. ˛is is the tradi-
tional pronunciation, while the modern one has /'kaza/. Evidently, this shows a
lack of attention for the phonic aspect of the language. It is also true that this kind
of notation can, almost systematically, escape non-attentive dictionary-users, who
can thus presume that when a dictionary reads >-s-≥ it means /z/. ˛is case is not so
serious as it coincides exactly with modern pronunciation; but what would hap-
pen for -asi in qualsiasi?
In the Zingarelli dictionary (çcarrying the yearÇ 1997), the present writer has
given two variants, indicated as cà{a (= /'kaza, -sa/), and many other words, increas-
ing the double possibilities for /e, E÷ o, O÷ q, Q/ as well, though not reaching the
variety of pronunciation in DiPI, with its modern, traditional, acceptable, tolerat-
ed, slovenly, intentional and lofty variants (explained in MaPI, as well).
However, before we even begin to deal with these çsubtletiesÇ, we will have to
discredit a good few beliefs which are part of çcommon cultureÇ, especially upheld
by teachers (even language teachers, abroad too), perpetuated by society and
schools worthy of the first millennium of our era…
Earlier we mentioned the pronunciation shown in dictionaries and grammar
books, which, instead of depicting the actual reality, as can be perceived by mere-
ly paying attention with çopen earsÇ, they are çeasilyÇ satisfied with using and reus-
ing what has always been printed, without checking to verify if it is still in current
use.
Unfortunately, the same happens in various brief guides to diction and pronun-
ciation, that continue to proliferate, regardless of objective change (that one
should be able to perceive or, above all, want to perceive). Even in books about lin-
guistics, glottology, dialectology and in historical grammar books or text books or
–even– descriptive grammars, one can find a continual perpetration, as if it were
real, of what is unproposable as far as both vowels and consonants, or word-stress
and co-gemination are concerned.
3. italian 123
3.0.2. ˛at brings us to the sore points. Writing is (erroneously) considered a

faithful indication of pronunciation; if pronunciation is looked at –at all– in teach-
ing. More often than not it is spelling that is dealt with, relegating pronunciation
to quite a secondary position or else, it is even considered bothersome. Indeed,
very few people have a real perception of what exactly Italian pronunciation is (the
same goes for any other language). ˛e most common belief amongst çlanguage
workersÇ, ¤ language teachers, is that dealing with pronunciation is not part of
their duties, as if it were an unrelated aspect, or just an added complication to their
work.
Nevertheless, the first manifestation of language is exactly through sound, there-
fore through pronunciation. Only telepathy could possibly make pronunciation
superfluous. Despite this, for the whole of the third millennium we will have to
face this çproblemÇ whether we like it or not… ˛is being the case we should final-
ly begin to look at it properly; no more pushing the problem aside, finding all
kinds of excuses.
‹at is actually lacking here, is a çfriendlyÇ approach, one which is not mislead-
ing. As pronunciation is inevitable, at least for us common mortals, we have to
learn to accept it for what it is: the objective and perceptible manifestation of lan-
guage.
It is neither, therefore, a wicked invention, nor a task comparable to çSisyphus'
e‡ortsÇ; it is merely a part of the teaching–learning process of any language. In
some languages spelling is (still) quite close to pronunciation, in others the gap is
wider, to greater or lesser extents, due to natural linguistic evolution, which is un-
stoppable, whereas the written word is always left behind, like an eternal defeat,
it never comes first.
However, schools and society consider it –instead– to be the real indication of
pronunciation, when it is only a çrough and poorÇ way to render pronunciation.
Indeed, its aim is not to indicate pronunciation, but more modestly, to permit the
conservation of written documents independently from its pronunciation, so as
to allow people, who know the language, to find the contents put in writing.
3.0.3. ˛e very act of confusing spelling with pronunciation, inevitably leads

to interpretations and deductions which often have little to do with pronuncia-
tion. Let us now look at the çconcrete factsÇ. ‹en a person with no adequate
reading into pronunciation is asked how many vowel phonemes there are in Ital-
ian, the answer is, inevitably (from teachers themselves onwards), five: a˚ e˚ i˚ o˚
u. ˛is erroneous answer, results from the examination of the wrong object. For
the Italian language the following procedure was undertaken: starting with the al-
phabet and excluding all consonants, obviously leaving only the five letters: a˚ e˚
i˚ o˚ u.
Clearly, the result is erroneous, because the calculation was reckoned on enti-
ties which have very little to do with pronunciation. letters are not sounds! In
neutral Italian, the letters: e and o, each indicate two phonemes, that are –respec-
tively– /e, E/ and /o, O/, which are çclosedÇ and çopenÇ e and o, like in (se) corresse
(più velocemente) çif she ran fasterÇ with /e/ (çéÇ), which is di‡erent from (lei) cor-
resse (i compiti) çshe corrected the homeworkÇ, with /E/ (çèÇ), or in (se) fosse (vero)
çif it were trueÇ with /o/ (çóÇ), which di‡ers from (le) fosse (&avate) çthe dug
gravesÇ, with /O/ (çòÇ). ˛erefore, there are seven Italian vowel phonemes: /i, e, E,
a, O, o, u/.
Let us continue our çsearchÇ for the number of phonemes, looking at consonant
phonemes. ˛e automatic answer (from a person with normal schooling, without
appropriate reading or consideration) is sixteen: b˚ c˚ d˚ f˚ g˚ h˚ l˚ m˚ n˚ p˚ q˚ r˚ s, t˚
v˚ z. ˛e very order of letters inevitably betrays the fact that the incredible figure
of sixteen was reached by means of an arithmetical operation, using the alphabet,
instead of actual sounds.
Hence, if you take the çLatinÇ alphabet, take away the five çItalian vowelsÇ and
the five çnon-Italian consonantsÇ [j˚ k˚ w˚ x˚ y), it seems logical to get to the çsadÇ
list given above.
˛e number of phonemes in a language, however, cannot be obtained through
spelling, but through the distinctive sounds of that language. Just to begin with,
the list contains two letters which have nothing to do with Italian sounds: q is
practically useless; and h is only a diacritic, it is necessary to distinguish ha from
a, ho from o, hanno from anno, and also º /ki*/ from ci /ci»/, ªro /'giro/ from
giro /'Giro/; there is even a vowel di‡erence between ho /O*/ and o /o*/. Incidental-
ly, we can but disapprove of the çmethodÇ used by those teachers who, worried
only and exclusively about spelling (and not really understanding anything about
the pronunciation of the language!) dictate things such as */has'kritto, hannostu-
'djato/ to students, for ha &ritto˚ hanno studiato çhe/she has written, they have
studiedÇ. ˛e poor (selfish and dishonest) result of managing to obtain çcorrectÇ
written tests –to show them o‡ shamelessly– produces, instead, a much worse (and
absurd) error in making pupils believe that above all, in formal situations, you re-
ally should say such çobscenitiesÇ as */hOs'kritto/ ho &ritto, instead of the only pos-
sible and admissible version: /Os'kritto/.
3.0.4. For the moment, let us say that there are 23 consonant phonemes in Ital-
ian and they are certainly not in alphabetical order, but in a phonic order, accord-
ing to places and manners of articulation and phonation type, after having çdis-
coveredÇ them, not by graphic deduction, but by looking for opposites in mini-
mal pairs, that contain two similar words, but with one di‡erent phoneme, which
makes the meaning of the two words change, as seen with /ki*, ci»/ and /'giro, 'Gi-
ro/ (respectively º and ci, ªro and giro).
Furthermore, in the number of phonemes, we must bear in mind that the two
graphemes s and z each have (as do e˚ o) two di‡erent phonemic values, as in pre-
sento [una persona çI introduce a personÇ, /pre'zEnto/, from presentare] and presen-
to [un avvenimento çI have a presentiment of an eventÇ, /pre'sEnto/, from presen-
tire˚ ¤ pre-sentire) – in the same way we have razza (çray, spokeÇ: /'raQQa/) and
razza (çrace, breedÇ: /'raqqa/)…
We must not forget other spelling çproblemsÇ that derive from the fact that Ital-
ian represents a transformation and evolution of Latin, which had a certain num-
ber of phonemes (obviously di‡erent from Italian, both phonically and numerical-
3. italian 125
ly speaking, as can be seen in the phonosyntheses of NPT/HPh, 22.1-4 or from é

18 of MaPI {from 1999” onwards}).
As a matter of fact, classical Latin did not have /c, G/, which are still expressed
by ci˚ gi in Italian (because Latin /ki, gi/ were transformed in time using the palatal
(©i, ái) of imperial Latin, to (ci, Gi) of medieval Latin {as well as clerical and aca-
demic Latin in Italy}). ˛erefore, Italian has to then render /ki, gi/ with º˚ ª.
Similarly, Latin did not have /S, N, L/ or even /q, Q/, so in Latin, amicitia was /a-
mi:'kitia/ (&åmi'kItIå) not /ami'ciqqja/ as in Italian, and in Italian clerical and aca-
demic Latin (whereas in {clerical and academic} Latin in other countries, the
phonic result –obviously– depends on the pronunciation of their national lan-
guages); hence, Italian spelling resorts to &(i)˚ √˚ ∫(i), and z for /q, Q/, as they
are new phonemes, foreign to classical Latin.
Furthermore, one must not believe everything that is –unfortunately– pub-
lished; as a matter of fact, neutral Italian does not have vowels reduced to schwa,
not even in unstressed syllables, (È) (or (‘, å), é § 11.19 of NPT/HPh; nor to (Û, Ù,
É, å, Ö, P, ¯), that are –all– regional pronunciations), nor assimilations such as
ç/ss/Ç –actually, (sfl)– for /st/ (like in questo), and /00/ for /r0/ [giorno]˚ that are
very regional; nor /0wjé/ like ç(0¥jé)Ç [continuiamo]˚ which is not even Italian
(although some Italian {!} authors tried to pass it o‡ as Italian). Obviously, in spon-
taneous speech, one can stammer or mu·e some sounds, but we certainly do not
get (È, ¥), Â÷ the only real possibilities for a neutral çreductionÇ of vocoids are ex-
plained in û 10.11 of NPT/HPh (since in neutral pronunciation, one never has a
full (È), not even in cases such as /'sum, 'frak/ sum (Lat.), frac (Fr.), which are
('frak:$, 'sum:$), where ($) at the most, stands for (È); while, most coarticulation for
/wj/ can consist of ((°3)) (provelar rounded + postpalatal approximants, instead of
canonical velar rounded + palatal approximants, (wj)).
Vowels
3.1.1. As examined in § 3.0.3., for the five graphemes a˚ e˚ i˚ o˚ u˚ neutral Italian

has seven vowel phonemes, /i, e, E, a, O, o, u/, realized by nine taxophones, (i, e, ™,
E, a, O, ø, o, u), as can be seen in û 3.1. Before presenting the examples, we will
analyze the two taxophones which are seemingly foreign to the çharmonyÇ of the
seven phonemes, ¤: (™, ø).
˛e most çintriguingÇ aspect is that it deals with the pronunciation on the basis
of di‡erent principles of both /E, O/ and /e, o/. In the first case we have the manifes-
tation of half-closing, in fact, starting with /E, O/ we get to (™, ø), when there is no
longer a primary –or strong– stress, as is the case for the first elements of compound
words from independent lexemes: (&pR™ndi'so:le) /prEndi'sole/ prendisole, (b™˙'ke)
/bEn'ke*/ ben>é, (&køpRi'lEt:to) /kOpri'lEtto/ copriletto, (pøi'ke) /pOi'ke*/ poi>é.
˛e other case regards the manifestation of half-opening, because starting with
/e, o/ we –again– get to (™, ø). ˛is happens in /e, o/ endings after stressed sylla-
bles, when the stressed vowel is /i, u/, as in: ('vi:v™, 'vi:vø) /'vive, 'vivo/ vive˚ vivo,
('ku:c™, 'ku:cø) /'kuce, 'kuco/ cuce˚ cucio. Moreover, in an intoneme, the same can
also occur for /'e-oò/: ('ve:do, -dø) /'vedo/ vedo (but not for /'o-eò/: ('do:ve) /'dove/
dove). ‹at remains to be said, as can be guessed (and confirmation is always pre-
cious), is that this happens with a final C too: ('ri:d™R, 'ri:døn) /'rider/ rider(e)˚ ri-
don(o), ('ip:siløn, 'su:tøR) /'ipsilon, 'sutor/ ipsilon, sutor (Lat.). ˛ere are however,
other less regular cases which are dealt with in § 3.3 of MaPI.
Let us take a look at some examples of the seven vowel phonemes: ('vi:ni) /'vini/
vini˚ ('se:te) /'sete/ sete˚ ('sEt:te) /'sEtte/ sette˚ ('ra:na) /'rana/ rana˚ ('Ot:to) /'Otto/ otto˚
('sot:to) /'sotto/ sotto˚ (kul'tu:Ra) /kul'tura/ cultura. Clearly, /j, w/ are not vowels, but
(approximant) consonants, as in: ('pju) /'pju*/ più˚ ('kjE:do) /'kjEdo/ ºedo˚ ('kwa)
/'kwa*/ qua˚ ('bwO:no) /'bwOno/ buono. It is equally true that /ju, jE, wa, wO/ Â are
not çdiphthongsÇ at all (Ô § 3.1.2) but simply sequences of CV˚ like /su, tE, va, nO/,
Â.
û 3.1. Italian monophthongs.
/i/ (i) /u/ (u)
/e/ (e), ({'i/'u…)™ò) /o/ (o), ({'i/'u…)øò)
/E/ (E), (™{…'}) /O/ (O), (ø{…'})

/a/ (a)
Diphthongs
3.1.2. Italian grammar books put a lot of e‡ort into complicating what is, in
fact, quite simple. Indeed, instead of the three very common structures, ¤ the re-
al diphthong (('éé, &éé, ’éé)), the hiatus ((é'é, é&é)) and the heterophonic sequence
((0é)), ™, (jé), (wé), and the like), they continue to consider only two of them:
çdiphthongÇ (with fusion: çsyneresisÇ) and çhiatusÇ (with separation: çdieresisÇ),
but with strained interpretations of medieval origin, of a graphic-grammatical and
graphic-metric nature. In fact, çsemi-vowelsÇ or çsemi-consonantsÇ do not exist:
they are merely an çincredibly successfulÇ magic trick!
As a matter of fact (unless one expects to do çmagicÇ in phonetics using graphic-
-grammatical categories), it is phonetically absurd to speak about a çdiphthongÇ
for (—jé, —wé) (('pjE:no) /'pjEno/ pieno˚ ('gwan:to) /'gwanto/ guanto]˚ as only (—éi,
—éu) (('fai) /'fai/ fai˚ ('pa;uza) /'pauza/ pausa] are real diphthongs, as any sequence
of ('éé, &éé, ’éé) (('a;uto) /'auto/ auto˚ (au'tEn:tiko) /au'tEntiko/ autentico]˘
It is equally absurd to speak about çhiatusÇ for ('ié, 'ué), as only (i'é, u'é) are re-
al hiatuses, as any other sequence like (é'é, é&é) ((pa'u:Ra) /pa'ura/ paura]˚ compared
to (pau'ro:zo) /pau'rozo/ pauroso˚ a real diphthong. Hence, one cannot believe liter-
ature that only uses two categories (¤ diphthong and hiatus) and, what is more,
they dangerously mix them up to a point where they include –in çdiphthongsÇ–
the heterophonic sequences (/jé, wé/), and –in çhiatusesÇ– the real diphthongs (as
in ('ma;i, 'ca;o, 'bO;a) /'mai, 'cao, 'bOa/ mai˚ ciao˚ boa… – Ô § 1.4.4).
3. italian 127
3.1.3. ˛us, in languages like Italian, diphthongs are vowel sequences, which
are more or less common, formed by a combination of the seven vowel phonemes
and nine taxophones (/i, e, E, a, O, o, u/ (i, e, ™, E, a, O, ø, o, u)), that writing tidi-
ly reproposes without the problems presented –for example– by Germanic lan-
guages. ˛ese really do have monophonemic diphthongs, because, in di‡erent ac-
cents they vary as to their realizations, independently from monophthongs (and
more than monophthongs do), and also because they have varied historical spell-
ings.
˛erefore for Italian, it seems pointless –in this chapter– to make a list of diph-
thongs, of very di‡erent frequency; it would be appropriate however, to look at §
8.26 of NPT/HPh (as well as § 5.1.2-3 of MaPI]˘
By forcing (and violating) reality, grammar and metrics continue to call, above
all, /jE, wO/ çascendant diphthongsÇ, because they derive from the Latin /E, O/ (™,
ø), and they find they need to have to çinventÇ (as the best lawyer for the worst
criminals) fictitious realities, like çsemi-consonantsÇ and çsemi-vowelsÇ.
˛ese seem to be nearly cinematographic special e‡ects, that make one believe
one is facing something real, but which is completely invented! If phantaphonet-
ics –or virtual phonetics– is not our aim, then sequences like (jé, wé) are –natural-
ly– part of /{0}0é/ groups, as in /'fjanko, 'franko÷ 'gwado, 'grado÷ 'twOno, 'trOno÷
'gjande, 'grande, 'glande/ fianco˚ franco÷ guado˚ grado÷ tuono˚ trono÷ ªande˚ gran-
de˚ ∫ande. Paradigmatically, /j, w/ are in opposition with /0/, clearly not with /é/
and can under no circumstance belong to vowel groups.
Even çsemi-vowelsÇ are a truly distorted reality and have been invented to try to
explain (but they are only deceived into trying to explain) what has no need of ex-
planations. Indeed, what need do normal diphthongs, like /ai, au/, have for alibis
to defend themselves from grammatical and metric fanaticism, so as to demon-
strate that they constitute one syllable and not two: ('ma;i, 'ka;u{to}) /'mai, 'kau{to}/
mai˚ cau(to)?
Even /ia/ is a –monosyllabic– diphthong, as in ('mi;a) /'mia/ mia. It is evident,
in the same way as the Earth is round and rotates around the Sun; and yet, it has
not been at all easy for it to be accepted…! ˛e diphthong, hiatus, and /CV/-se-
quence matter, is much simpler: one does not have to be a scientist; all it takes is
observation and thought (using both ears)! Yet… there is no change! Let us trust-
ingly refer to § 5.1.2-3 of MaPI as well.
Consonants
3.2.0. û 3.2 shows the table of the neutral Italian consonant articulations, in-
cluding their taxophones ((M, ~, ˙÷ R÷ ¬)), which are necessary for satisfactory pro-
nunciation.
Instead, û 1.9-15 gives orograms, grouped by manners of articulation of all con-
toids given in the chapters of this volume, even as secondary, occasional or region-
al variants of the 12 languages dealt with.
û 3.2. Table of Italian consonants.
atal protruded
velar rounded
postalveo-pal-
labiodental
postalveo-
-palatal
alveolar
bilabial
palatal
dental
velar
ö m (M) (n) n (~) N (˙)
F pb t d k g
Ô qQ c G
ƒ f v
_ s z S {Z}
ß j w
ó r|(R)
‹ (l) l (¬) L
Nasals
3.2.1. ˛ere are three nasal phonemes, /m, n, N/ (m, n, N), and four taxophones,
for /n/, that can be rendered by three supplementary symbols (M, ~, ˙) (a fourth
symbol, ((˙)), in front of /t, d÷ q, Q÷ s/, can be useful to bring attention to the as-
similation, from alveolar to dental, even if the di‡erence, though real, is less im-
portant than in other cases): ('mam:ma) /'mamma/ mamma˚ ('ma:ma) /'mama/ m'a-
ma˚ ('nOn:no) /'nOnno/ nonno˚ ('nO:no) /'nOno/ nono˚ ('baN:No) /'baNNo/ ba√o˚ (peR-
'NOk:ki) /per'NOkki/ per √ocº˚ ('toM:fo) /'tonfo/ tonfo˚ ('dEn:te) /'dEnte/ dente˚
('fra~:Ga) /'franGa/ frangia˚ ('fa˙:go) /'fango/ fango.
In neutral Italian, /N/ is self-geminant (Ô § 3.3.1.5.): ('soN:No, loN'NO:mo) /'soNNo,
loN'NOmo/ so√o˚ lo √omo. We can observe that the self-geminant /N/ is in opposi-
tion to geminates, as in ('soN:No) /'soNNo/ so√o and ('son:no) /'sonno/ sonno, but
not simple C (('so:no) /'sono/ sono); the minimal pair is between the first two exam-
ples, not the third.
In order to closely examine the manifestation of nasal assimilation in neutral
Italian, a whole series of nouns could be shown (beginning with all possible C, Ô
§ 3.4 of MaPI]˚ preceded by (kon) /kon/ con çwithÇ, but we will limit ourselves to
(kom'mar:ko) /kom'marko/ con Marco and to the improbable (koN'NE;o) /koN'NEo/
con Gneo (a rare male name, even in ancient Rome).
Various problems (not only with consonants, but with vowels and intonation,
too) deriving from various regional pronunciations are examined in some chap-
ters of MaPI, as well. We can now briefly mention the fact that, very often, in the
north of Italy, the sequences of /n0/ are not homorganic by assimilation, but have
a velar articulation, (˙), or semi-prevelar (without full contact), («), as in (&u˙ba˙-
'bi:nø, &u«ba«'bi:nø) (concentrating, here, only on the nasals, because the actual re-
gional di‡erences, doubtlessly, also regard other C, many V˚ the type of phonation,
the syllabic structure and the intonation), for neutral (&umbam'bi:nø) /umbam'bi-
no/ un bambino.
In the same way, in the north, /N/ is very often not self-geminant: ('sO:No, 'so:No÷
3. italian 129
lo'NO:mo); but, generally, /N, nj/ are confused with something intermediate, which
we show quite generally here: (ka˙'pa;~ja, ka«-) which stands both for /kam'panja/
Campania and for /kam'paNNa/ campa√a. In central areas, /nj/ becomes (N) (but
in this case not self-geminant): (an'tO:No) /an'tOnjo/ Antonio˚ (aN'NEn:to) /an'njEnto/
anniento˘
Stops
3.2.2. Italian has three diphonic pairs of stops, /p, b÷ t, d÷ k, g/ (p, b÷ t, d÷ k, g):
(peR'bE:ne) /per'bEne/ per bene˚ (ti'dO) /ti'dO*/ ti do˚ (ko˙'gwaL:Lo) /kon'gwaLLo/
congua˙o. Although before a front V –and in front of /j/– /k, g/ are realized as pre-
velar, it is not necessary to systematically use the special symbols ((´, Ò)): (&kjakkje-
'ra:Re) /kjakkje'rare/ ºacºerare˚ ('kik:kø) /'kikko/ ºcco˚ ('gE˙:ga) /'gEnga/ ghen-
ga.
˛e greatest regional problem concerning stops is provided in the çgorgia tosca-
naÇ (¤ çTuscan throatÇ) and in the çcentral-southern voicingÇ, which will be exam-
ined in general terms (also because there are di‡erences between areas; but for
more precise details, various chapters of MaPI can be consulted). ˛erefore, the
following gives just a general idea: (&ihaFi'Ïa:ni) /ikapi'tani/ i capitani and ('ci˙âwe
im'Êun:∂ø) /'cinkwe im'punto/ cinque in punto˘
Stopstrictives
3.2.3. ˛ere are two diphonic pairs, dental and postalveopalatal protruded, /q,
Q÷ c, G/ (q, Q÷ c, G): ('dan:qa, 'pjaq:qa) /'danqa, 'pjaqqa/ danza˚ piazza˚ ('QO:na,
aQ'QO:to) /'QOna, aQ'QOto/ zona˚ azoto˚ ('ce:na, 'fac:co) /'cena, 'facco/ cena, fac-
cio˚ ('GEn:te, 'OG:Gi) /'GEnte, 'OGGi/ gente˚ oggi.
˛e main regional problems regarding the north concern the sequential realiza-
tions of /q, Q/, as: ('da˙tsa, -fia, -†a, 'da«-÷ 'pja{t}tsa, -ßa, -†a÷ d'zO:na, d'fi-, d'∑-÷ ad'zO:-
to, ad'fi-, ad'∑-) (or, in broader accents, simply as constrictive: ('da˙sa, -ßa, -†a, 'da«-÷
'pjassa÷ -ßßa, -††a÷ 'zO:na, 'fi-, '∑-÷ a'zO:to, a'fi-, a'∑-)), instead of real stopstrictive
phones, (q, Q). For almost the whole center and many parts of the south, with-
out going into too much detail, the most obvious characteristic is given by the
change of /écé/ to its corresponding constrictive, (éSé): ('pe:Se) /'pece/ pece˚ (&diSe-
'Si:lja) /dice'cilja/ di Cecilia˚ ('ka:So) /'kaco/ cacio. In Tuscany the same goes for /é-
Gé/ = (éZé): ('a:Zile, la'Zak:ka) /'aGile, la'Gakka/ agile˚ la giacca.
It is important to focus on the fact that we are dealing with single postvocalic
/c, G/ (and hence, in this case, intervocalic too), thus avoiding ridiculous imita-
tions which have, unfortunately ended up amongst examples shown in books
about linguistics, dialectology, language history, language teaching and sometimes
even in… phonetics and phonology!
˛erefore, it is legitimate to give (la'Zi:†a) /la'Gita/ la gita, as an example (al-
though the o‚cial symbol (†) is hardly recommendable), but not simply *('Zi:†a)
/'Gita/ gita, because after silence or after C, it stays for (G), ('Gi:†a), as does, obvi-
ously, (aG'Gi:na) /aG'Gina/ a Gina (because of co-gemination, Ô § 3.3.2.1-3; cer-
tainly not *(aZ'Zi:na)). Naturally, the same is true of (la'Se:na) /la'cena/ la cena˚
while we can only have: (peR'ce:na, ac'ce:na) /per'cena, ac'cena/ per cena˚ a cena
(absolutely not *(peR'Se:na, aS'Se:na))!
Apart from Tuscany (and some northern parts of Umbria and the Marches), in
the center and south (still generalizing the area and the precision in transcription,
too), we have /éGé/ = (éGGé): ('aGGile, laG'Gi:∂a)…
Constrictives
3.2.4. Neutral Italian has two diphonic pairs of constrictives, /f, v ÷ s, z/ (f, v÷ s,
z) as well as a voiceless postalveopalatal protruded self-geminant /S/ (S) (Ô §
3.3.1.5.), with the voiced correspondent, but non-geminant (Ô the beginning of
the same paragraph), in foreign words, above all French: ('fa:va) /'fava/ fava˚ ('sO:-
zja) /'sOzja/ sosia˚ ('peS:Se, loS'Sa:me, {laS}'SE:na) /'peSSe, loS'Same, {laS}'SEna/ pe&e, lo
ßame, (la) &ena˚ (&aba'Zu:r, &aZi'go) /aba'Zur, aZi'go/ abat-jour˚ à gigot˘
In front of any voiced C there is always /z/ in Italian: (biz'bE:tiko, zve'ni:R™, zle-
'ga:Re, zden'ta:to) /biz'bEtiko, zve'nire, zle'gare, zden'tato/ bisbetico˚ svenire˚ slegare˚
sdentato (Ô (sten'ta:to) /sten'tato/ stentato]˘
As far as VsV is concerned, modern neutral pronunciation resolves the problem
of the traditional one (Ô § 3.3.5.2.); actually, every postvocalic intralexemic -s- (¤
in simple words, not compound] is voiced, /z/ (z): ('ka:za, 'ri:zø, 'pre:za, ci'ne:ze, Ge-
'lo:zo) /'kaza, 'rizo, 'preza, ci'neze, Ge'lozo/ casa˚ riso˚ presa˚ cinese˚ geloso˘ Only in
compounding, is the initial -s- of lexeme or grammeme /s/ (s): (&pR™ndi'so:le, &sotto-
&segRe'ta:Rjo, &pResa'la:Rjo, kwal'si;asi, Ri'sal:to) /prEndi'sole, sottosegre'tarjo, presa'la-
rjo, kwal'siasi, ri'salto/ prendisole˚ sottosegretario˚ presalario˚ qualsiasi˚ risalto˘ ˛e
last example means çI jump againÇ; whereas, the noun means çto stand outÇ and
is (Ri'zal:to) /ri'zalto/… Forms such as prosieguo, whose composition –nowadays–
is heard in a less definite way, vary: (pRo'sjE:gwo, -z-) /pro'sjEgwo, -z-/.
For /s, z/, in the north, an alveolar instead of dental articulation is frequent; ('ßO:-
fija) /'sOzja/ sosia (be warned that, too often, neutral Italian articulation, which is
dental {with lowered tip}, is defined çalveolarÇ, even in phonetic books!).
In central-southern regional pronunciations (except in Tuscany), for VsV (even
if with an approximant inserted after s), we do not have /z/, but /s/: ('rO:se, 'a:sja)
/'rOze, 'azja/ rose˚ Asia. However, the prestige of voiced pronunciation, with /z/, is
such that, many speakers try to go from (s) to (z); but from a regional situation
without /z/ (and with no help from the written word), the substitution often gen-
eralizes (z) (or (Ω)), even in words like: *(&laza'lu:t™, &laΩa-) /lasa'lute/ la salute, that
is (&lasa'lu:t™).
In the center (except ∫orence and Prato) we find the typical change /s/ = (q) af-
ter /n, r, l/: /'pEnso, 'pErso, 'falso/ ('pEn:qo, 'pEr:qo, 'fal:qo) penso, perso, falso. The
same happens in Tessin and in northern and easter Lombardy. It is very frequent
also in some areas of southern Italy, including its partial or complete voicing: (ë,
3. italian 131
Q) (Ô MaPI). However, speakers who have a kind of defective r produce ('pEV:so,

'pE˜:so, 'pEK:so)… (not a stopstricive).
In the center and south of Italy, above all, there are areas in which preconsonan-
tal /s, z/ are seen to be prepalatal, (À, =): ('viÀ:ta, ='bat:to) /'vista, z'batto/ vista˚ sbat-
to (¤ in the south-eastern parts of the Marches, Umbria, and Latium; and in west-
ern Sicily, and southern Calabria and Salento; as well as in northern Lombardy).
In Campania, /s0, z0/ are typically realized as postalveopalatal protruded constric-
tives, (S, Z), but only in front of non-apical C; thus, for instance: (S'pA;√Rø, Z'gar:Rø)
/s'paro, z'garro/ sparo˚ sgarro. We cannot but reveal that too many third-rate çimi-
tatorsÇ (even in books!) show absurd pronunciations, for example in Neapolitan,
™: *(S'ta:Re) /s'tare/ stare˚ for (s'tA;√R™).
In the north, /S/ is often without lip protrusion, but, above all, it is not self-gem-
inant: ('pe:ëe, lo'ëa:me, {la}'ëe:na) pece˚ lo ßame˚ la scena; so, the first and third ex-
amples are closer to the central-southern pronunciation of ('pe:Se, la'Se:na) /'pece,
la'cena/ pece˚ la cena!
We can see how self-geminant /S/ opposes geminates, as in ('faS:Se) /'faSSe/ fa&e
and ('fac:ce) /'facce/ facce, but not single, as in ('fa:ce) /'face/ face (a literary
word), which in central Italian pronunciation (and very often in southern ones)
is ('fa:Se); however, the minimal pair is between the first two examples, not the
third.
Approximants
3.2.5. ˛e two Italian approximants are /j, w/ (j, w): ('jE:Ri) /'jEri/ ieri˚ (gjac'ca:-
jo) /gjac'cajo/ ªacciaio˚ ('wO:vo) /'wOvo/ uovo˚ (kwa'lu˙:kw™) /kwa'lunkwe/ qua-
lunque˘
In central-southern pronunciation, we sometimes find /j/ = (jj): ('paj:jo, 'pa;jjo)
for ('pa:jo) /'pajo/ paio˘ In the south we often have even (i'e:Ri, u'o:vø) for /'jEri, 'wO-
vo/ ieri˚ uovo (simplifying a little).
Trills
3.2.6. ˛ere is only one trill phoneme, /r/, with two important taxophones, (r,
R), which depend on the strength of the syllables; in stressed syllables, before or af-
ter the syllabic nucleus we find a trill, (r) (lengthened, (r:), if in a checked syllable
of an intoneme); whereas in unstressed (or half-stressed) syllables we have a tap:
('ra:Ro) /'raro/ raro˚ ('pOr:ta) /'pOrta/ porta˚ (Ri'prE:ndeRe) /ri'prEndere/ riprendere˚
(&pRepa'rar:si) /prepa'rarsi/ prepararsi˚ ('kar:Ro) /'karro/ carro˚ (aR'ri:vø) /ar'rivo/ arri-
vo˚ (&aRRi'va:Re) /arri'vare/ arrivare˘ As one can see, even for /rr/, the choice between
(r, R), depends on the position of the stress.
˛ere are various types of accents with a çFrench rÇ, in Italian, that range from
uvular, like (K, º, ˜, r), to labiodental (with or without uvularization), (V, ◊).
For regional pronunciations (as shown in MaPI), we could have a generalized
(R) or (r), independently of the stress; we could also have uvularization, (5, R); or
in Venice, (¸, Í, ®).
Let us take a detailed look at the çSicilian typeÇ (in Sicily, of course, and in
southern Calabria and the Salentina Peninsula as well) for /òr, rr, tr, dr, str, sdr/.
Indeed, simplifying a little (even the transcriptions) for /òr, rr/, we have the voiced
slit alveolar constrictive, (z), self-geminant if postvocalic: ({laz}'za:djo) /{la}'radjo/
(la) radio˚ ('kaz:zø) /'karro/ carro˘ It is clearly not the postalveolar trill phone ((#),
çcacuminalÇ, çó¶), as it has been çdescribedÇ for generations, without proof.
Relative to this, we also have the çbizarreÇ pair ç=ó, ƒóÇ which is persistently pre-
sented as ç(˛#, Ã#)Ç, without listening carefully. In fact the most normal articula-
tion is given, simply, by the stopstrictives which correspond to (z), ¤ (., …) (slit
alveolar): ('.a:v™) /'trave/ trave˚ ('…a:gø) /'drago/ drago˘
Lastly, the /str/ sequence (lexically quite common), is more often rendered by
the voiceless postalveo-prevelar constrictive (self-geminant, if postvocalic) (.): ('na.:-
.ø) /'nastro/ nastro˚ ({la.}'.a:da) /las'trada/ (la) strada; instead, the (less common)
sequence /zdr/ is more often rendered by a voiced (grooved + slit) alveolar se-
quence, (fi…): ({la}fi'…a:jø) /{la}z'drajo/ (la) sdraio (much less commonly by (la{÷}-
'÷a:jø)).
We will conclude by indicating the assimilation of /r0/, which is more typical
of eastern Sicily: ('pat:tø) /'parto/ parto.
Laterals
3.2.7. Italian has two lateral phonemes, /l, L/, alveolar and palatal (this last is
quite rare in languages, and – in neutral Italian – it is self-geminant, as well): ('la:la)
/'lala/ l'ala˚ ('lal:la) /'lalla/ Lalla˚ ('dir:Li) /'dirLi/ dir˙˚ ('fOL:La) /'fOLLa/ fo˙a.
We can observe how the self-geminant /L/ opposes to geminates, as in ('paL:La)
/'paLLa/ pa˙a and ('pal:la) /'palla/ palla, not to (('pa:la) /'pala/ pala); the minimum
pair is between the first two examples not the third, which is a single consonant.
In some central areas, /L/ becomes /j/, or /lj/ becomes (L) (in this case it is not
self-geminant): ('paj:ja, 'pa;jja) /'paLLa/ pa˙a˚ ('O:Lo) /'Oljo/ olio˚ (&paLLa'ti:vø) /pal-
lja'tivo/ palliativo˘ On the other hand, in the north, generally, /L, lj/ are mixed in-
to something intermediate that we can render quite generally here: (li'ta;¬-ja) that
stands for /li'talja/ l'Italia and for /li'taLLa/ li ta˙a. Neutral Italian has /l/ = (¬) +
/c, G, S/: ('a¬:ce) alce˘
Structures
3.3. We will now look at the characteristics which go beyond simple segments,
those with syllable, length, stress, and intonation relevance.
˛e intermediate vocoids, (™, ø), were mentioned in § 3.1.1; for assimilations
and consonant taxophones, the relevant characteristics are shown, including the
most common regional peculiarities, in their respective paragraphs.
3. italian 133
It has already been stated that in Italian, diphthongs are biphonemic and are
formed by joining two vocalic phonemes/phones, retaining their normal typical
realizations, with no modification, in particular of the second element, that is al-
ways distinct, even in the case of /ai, au/ (ai, au), contrarily to many languages,
above all Germanic (Ô § 8.26-8 of NPT/HPh).
Taxophonics
3.3.1.1. It is necessary and useful to speak out against the widespread practice,
led by journalists and unrefined publishers, of yielding to laziness of various forms
regarding the spelling of grammemes, ™: la˚ una˚ della…, -re (in infinitives) –we
refer to the linguistic convention, that places an asterisk (*) in front of undesir-
able forms, which report a decidedly inaccurate use– like in *la esattezza, *una op-
portunista, *della università, *voltare pagina… for the more usual and definitely
more harmonious: (&lezat'teq:qa, &unop&poRtu'nis:ta, del&luni&veRsi'ta, &voltaR'pa:Gina)
/lezat'teqqa, unopportu'nista, delluniversi'ta*, voltar'paGina/ l'esattezza, un'oppor-
tunista, dell'università, voltar pagina…
As a matter of fact, Italian is a real native language only in central Italy (where
local dialects present substantially, the same structure as the Italian language, on-
ly with di‡erences of register); ¤ in Tuscany, Umbria, the Marches and Latium (al-
though their linguistic borders do not coincide exactly with administrative bor-
ders, but are a little less widespread, for the four regions and above all for the
Marches, as even the whole province of Pesaro and Urbino do not come into the
çlinguistic CenterÇ).
In the center, the dropping of grammeme endings [-i˚ -e˚ -a˚ -o {in clear phonic
order}), even for nouns, adjectives, conjunctions, adverbs and verbs, is a normal
and natural procedure, as seen in: ancor indietro˚ sempr'avanti˚ er'andato˚ quant'al-
tri mai˚ cinqu'anni˚ or'ott'e trenta (o&Røttet'tren:ta), Dant'Aliªeri˚ Â.
For words in connected speech (unless there are particular reasons, such as high-
lighting, or emphasis, which should be present or risk lacking expressiveness), neu-
tral pronunciation resorts to elision, ¤ the dropping of one of two identical V (in-
cluding the dropping of the final V of the articles and some pronouns {considered
by grammar, in front of even di‡erent V}): (lat'te:za, &unat&tivi'ta, le&zeRcitaq'qjo:ni,
aL&Lita'lja:ni, su&naRgo'men:to÷ la'mi:ka, u'nal:tRa, u'nal:tRo, lin'seN:No) /lat'teza, unat-
tivi'ta*, lezercitaq'qjoni, aLLita'ljani, sunargo'mento÷ la'mika, u'naltra, lin'seNNo/
l'attesa˚ un'attività˚ l'esercitazioni˚ a∫'italiani˚ s'un argomento÷ l'amica˚ un'altra˚
l'inse√o.
If one is not influenced by spelling without elision, and one is, at the same time,
free from non-central and non-neutral sounds, one can easily see that normal pro-
nunciation really is not: *(laat'te:za, &unaat&tivi'ta, le&ezeRcitaq'qjo:ni, &aLLi&ita'lja:ni,
su&unaRgo'men:to÷ laa'mi:ka, &una'al:tRa, liin'seN:No), even for the words written as:
le esercitazioni, a˙ italiani, su un argomento, li inse√o.
For this reason, it is more advisable to use writing which accurately considers
these facts, explicitly showing how closely linked genuine pronunciation and spell-
ing elision is (indicated by an apostrophe; whereas, it is defined as truncation, if

there is no apostrophe). ˛e following is by no means a counterexample: (sa'peres
'kri:veR™) /sa'peres 'krivere/ sapere &rivere, with no vocalic omissions, as it falls per-
fectly, into the genuine Italian structure (based on the use of central Italy), which
barely tolerates things such as (sa'pers 'kri:veR™) /sa'pers 'krivere/ saper &rivere, but
prefers: (&sapes'kri:v{eR}™) /sapes'krive{re}/ sapé &rive(re), which are of local/dialec-
tal use.
3.3.1.2. Amongst the bad habits we have just examined, unfortunately we can
find, propagated by schools, the (humiliatingly mechanical, ¤ without the slight-
est consideration, resulting in a damaging conditioned reflex) use of the notorious
çeuphonic dÇ –¤ çwell-sounding dÇ, however, the only euphonic part of it is its
high-sounding name– as in: *ad Emilia, *ed an>e, *od altro, (not to mention: *ed
educazione, *ad Adele, *od odore!).
Once more, the central way of speaking, which is not ruined by schools or jour-
nalism, spontaneously and correctly, gives: (ae'mi:lja, e'a˙:ke, o'al:tRo) /ae'milja, e-
'anke, o'altro/ a Emilia, e an>e, o altro˚ and even: e educazione, a Adele, o odore
(not including the really çcacophonous dÇ, forming sequences such as ç/édédé/Ç).
Contrarily, neutral language, prefers cases such as: (&ada˙'ko:na, e&deve'li:na, &o-
dol'fat:to) /adan'kona, edeve'lina, odol'fatto/ ad Ancona˚ ed Evelina˚ od olfatto.
However, we obviously have: (e'E:va, o'Ot:to) /e'Eva, o'Otto/ e Eva˚ o otto, as the V˚
in these cases are not the same at all (phonically speaking)!
˛e cases of the preposition da and of pronouns una and uno as well followed
by an adjective are clearly di‡erent. ˛ey must never be elided (or çtruncatedÇ for
uno), as they are necessary to maintain an important distinction between the pre-
position di and the articles (written una˚ uno as well): (dan'da:Re) /dan'dare/ d'an-
dare is only çdi andareÇ, not çda andareÇ; in the same way, (u&nita'ljana, &unan'ti:kø)
/unita'ljana, unan'tiko/ un'italiana˚ un antico are nouns; hence, di‡erent from: (&u-
na&ita'ljana, &unoan'ti:kø) /unaita'ljana, unoan'tiko/ una italiana˚ uno antico, as in:
ne cerco… (for instance: canzone, mobile) çI'm looking for an Italian song/piece of
furnitureÇ.
A last reflection, linked to spelling and school wrongdoings, has to be cast re-
garding the absurd complication of insisting on teaching çthe exception to the
ruleÇ, where the pronoun sé is written with an acute (accent) in order to di‡er
from se (conjunction and also allotrope, or variant, of sé in front of other weak pro-
nouns or ne): (&sevveR'ra;i, &sela'ri:d™, &sene'va) /sevver'rai, sela'ride, sene'va*/ se verrai˚
se la ride˚ se ne va˘
It is not at all çclearÇ why, once the spelling rule is formulated, to distinguish sé
from the other se, one must rack one's brains to excogitate the çexceptionÇ to sé
stesso, sé medesimo… which some grammars –and many pedants– would rather we
wrote *se stesso and *se medesimo, with no good reason to do so. Indeed, we can-
not exclude the possibility of finding (even in an ambiguous initial position) sen-
tences such as: Se stessi male, non potrei venire çIf I were ill, I couldn't comeÇ, which
is di‡erent from: Sé stessi malediranno ˙ azzeccagarbu˙ della grammatica ç˛e
pettifogging lawyers of grammar will curse themselvesÇ; or: Se medesime compa√e
3. italian 135
di gioco perdono, vengono e&luse… çIf equal playmates lose, they are excludedÇ,
di‡erent from: Sé medesime comparano a tutte le altre ç˛ey compare themselves
to all the othersÇ.
˛erefore, eliminating the accent from sé is not only utterly pointless, but caus-
es awkward ambiguity, as well as undue analogies that lead to many people writ-
ing *a se stante, instead of the only form possible: a sé stante çseparate, apartÇ.
Let us briefly turn our attention to the çimproperÇ use (decidedly incorrect –
proudly lead by a fair number of çintellectualsÇ) of *e non˚ *o non, as in: *italiani
e non. In Italian, the negative non /non/ çnotÇ has to be followed by the term
which is denied, as in: giallo, non verde; cotto, non crudo; un ºlo, non due (ºli);
coßa, non petto; essere, o non essere? Instead, the absolute negation (hence, final in
the sentence) is only no /'nO*/ çnoÇ (Eng. /'nOU/ ('n‘;¨, 'nø;¨)) – even if the given
term is not expressed or repeated. ˛erefore, logically, we must even have: italiani
e no. Is it possible to imagine an Italic Hamlet saying *Essere, o non? – or, *Io ti a-
mo, ma tu non!? (for correct English çTo be, or not to be?Ç, of course, and çI love
you, but you don'tÇ). Such usage is much worse than English cases like: *I don't
want no bread˚ *We ain't going (no more)˚ *She don't love you (no more)˘
Syllabification and length
3.3.1.3. Distinctively, in Italian, length (or quantity) only concerns consonants

not vowels. ≈rst and foremost, we must firmly repeat that this is about true gem-
ination, not length or lengthening; hence, the only suitable way of rendering the
length of Italian C, consists –even phonologically– of the gemination (or dou-
bling) of the symbol in question: (af'fat:to) /af'fatto/ a‡atto˚ (&koRReG'Ges:se) /kor-
reG'Gesse/ correggesse; certainly not: *(a'f:at:o, kor:e'G:es:e) */a'f:at:o, kor:e'G:es:e/
(even */kor:e'd:Zes:e/!), which have no reason or justification (neither theoretical
nor acoustic), and rather pose problems for the syllabification, which is: (af-'fat:-
to, &koR-ReG-'Ges:-se) /af-'fat-to, kor-reG-'Ges-se/.
On the subject of syllabification, apart from unsatisfactory çmodern phonolog-
ical modesÇ, one must recall that even traditional grammars are not the most objec-
tive – quite the opposite, in fact! As well as the absurd graphic syllabic division of
-sC- (which, despite its obvious flaws, has been entrusted to computers too, so, un-
fortunately there is no hope of changing it), from a phonic point of view, the on-
ly real division (and natural: just listen to it!) for /s0/ is after /s/, not before (as for
other sequences, which are heterosyllabic; therefore, di‡erent from /0j, 0w, 0r,
0l/, which are all tautosyllabic, in neutral Italian): ('pas:-ta) /'pas-ta/ pasta >pa-sta!≥˚
('par:-te) /'par-te/ parte >par-te≥˚ ('al:to) /'al-to/ alto >al-to≥˚ ('pas:-so) /'pas-so/ passo
>pas-so≥ (but: ('ma:-Rjo) /'ma-rjo/ Mario >Ma-rio≥˚ ('a:-kwi-la) /'a-kwi-la/ aquila >a-qui-
la≥˚ ('a:-pRo) /'a-pro/ apro >a-pro≥˚ ('du:-pli-c™) /'du-pli-ce/ duplice >du-pli-ce≥.
It is also true that in northern Italian, especially in the more typical, broader re-
gional accents, the structures /0j, 0w, 0r, 0l/, after a stressed V˚ are very often het-
erosyllabic: ('a;k-wi-la) for ('a:-kwi-la) /'a-kwi-la/ aquila˚ ('a;p-Ro) for ('a:-pRo) /'a-pro/
apro˚ ('ma;R-jo) for ('ma:-Rjo) /'ma-rjo/ Mario˚ ('du;p-li-c™) for ('du:-pli-c™) /'du-pli-ce/
duplice.
˛is aspect can be hard to grasp, especially if accurate transcriptions are not
availed of (and obviously, if no keen listening is made); so it is quite a common
problem for many actors, dubbers and presenters of northern descent, who –as
çvoice professionalsÇ– are somewhat lacking; unfortunately they are more like
çsemi-professionalsÇ…
As seen, phonically we have (bas-'ta:-Re) /'bas-ta-re/ bastare, but also (las-'tO:-Rja)
/las-'tO-rja/ la storia÷ therefore, likewise (s'tO:-Rja) /s'tO:rja/ storia˚ with (s't) /s't/, as
–when there is a V in front– the phono-syllabification is (s-'t) /s-'t/, as in the second
example [la storia]˘ Even acoustic data confirm the fact that (|s'té) /|s'té/ (after a
pause, or çsilenceÇ) is part of the same syllable (a little particular, possibly, on the
scale of syllabicity, but nothing really surprising) whereas, obviously, (és'té) /és'té/
constitute two phono-syllables bordering between two C (Ô § 12.2-6 of NPT/HPh]˘
3.3.1.4. From a phonetic point of view, neutral Italian, in an intoneme, under-

goes a lengthening of the last element of the phono-syllable (with one exception,
which will be looked at presently): ('fa:-Re) /'fa-re/ fare˚ (de-'ci:-zø) /de-'ci-zo/ deciso˚
(Ri-'pE:-te-Re) /ri-'pE-te-re/ ripetere˚ (&Ri-ka-&pi-to-'la:-Re) /ri-ka-pi-to-'la-re/ ricapitolare÷
('kan:-to) /'kan-to/ canto˚ ('mol:-to) /'mol-to/ molto˚ ('ver:-de) /'ver-de/ verde˚ ('pos:-
to) /'pos-to/ posto (>po-sto≥!), (&i˙-kon-'tran:-do) /in-kon-'tran-do/ incontrando˚ (aR-&Ri-
ve-'der:-ci) /ar-ri-ve-'der-ci/ arrivederci.
We must be careful not to misunderstand the meaning of çin an intonemeÇ,
which should be understood as in a prominent position in a sentence; this does
not mean only çat the end of a sentenceÇ, but çevery time there is an intonemeÇ
even in the middle of syntactic sentences, which –after all– has very little to do
with phonic sentences, which are decidedly richer and more variable than tradi-
tional-grammar sentences (and even çgenerative-grammarÇ ones).
˛e exception (to the rule of phonetic length) is made up of a single final
stressed V, which is always short (except for possible emphatic or communicative
reasons): (ko'zi) /ko'zi*/ così˚ (kaf'fE) /kaf'fE*/ ca‡è÷ however: (poR'ta;i) /por'tai/ por-
tai˚ (&paRa'ti;a) /para'tia/ paratia, as in the middle of the word as well: ('ka;uza) /'kau-
za/ causa˚ (in'trO;ito) /in'trOito/ introito.
A partial exception is formed by the final stressed /érò/ sequence in an intomene:
('fa:r{e}) /'far{e}/ far(e)˚ (&Rive'de:r{e}) /rive'der{e}/ riveder(e)÷ in other contexts, we
have: (pe'Ro:Ra, peR'di:R™) /pe'rora, per'dire/ per ora˚ per dire˘ ˛e other final C˚ in an
intoneme, are lengthened as they are in stressed checked syllables within a word:
(peR'don:÷ peR'do:no) /per'don{o}/ perdon(o)˚ (ka'nal:÷ ka'na:le) /ka'nal{e}/ canal(e).
Even geminate C in an intoneme have the first element lengthened: ('sas:so) /'sas-
so/ sasso˚ ('vet:ta) /'vetta/ vetta˚ ('son:no) /'sonno/ sonno˚ ('brac:co) /'bracco/ brac-
cio˚ ('daq:qjo) /'daqqjo/ dazio˚ ('peS:Se) /'peSSe/ pe&e˘ In any other position, ™ be-
fore the stress, there is no further lengthening: (sas'set:to, vet'to:Re, son'nam:bulo,
&peSSo'li:nø) /sas'setto, vet'tore, son'nambulo, peSSo'lino/ sassetto˚ vettore˚ sonnambu-
lo˚ peßolino, or in a preintoneme: ('sasso pe'zan:te, 'vetta ele'va:ta, 'sonno pRo'fon:-
do, 'bracco 'lu˙:gø, 'daqqjo ob&bliga'tO:Rjo, 'peSSe 'frit:tø) /'sasso pe'zante, 'vetta e-
le'vata, 'sonno pro'fondo, 'bracco 'lungo, 'daqqjo obbliga'tOrjo, 'peSSe 'fritto/ sasso
pesante˚ vetta elevata˚ sonno profondo˚ braccio lungo˚ dazio obbligatorio˚ pe&e fritto˘
3. italian 137
In a di‡erent position from that in an intoneme, as also in a preintoneme, even

the vowel lengths change, dropping the semichrone ((;)): (kau'za:Re) /kau'zare/ cau-
sare˚ ('kauze &natu'ra:li) /'kauze natu'rali/ cause naturali (Ô ('ka;uza) /'kauza/ causa).
3.3.1.5. However, in neutral Italian, not all C are geminable; in fact, /z, j, w/
are always single (¤ non-geminable, as also the xenophoneme /Z/, which has been
integrated into the Italian phonological system for centuries now): ('pO:za) /'pOza/
posa˚ ('kwO:jo) /'kwOjo/ cuoio˚ (a'Zu:r) /a'Zur/ à jour˘ Nevertheless, phonetically, in
the appropriate contexts, /z/ is lengthened: ('riz:ma) /'rizma/ risma.
˛ere are also five self-geminant C (/N, S, L÷ q, Q/), which, in a postvocalic posi-
tion, are necessarily geminated; but with no chance of phonological opposition
with a single C: ('baN:No) /'baNNo/ ba√o˚ ('laS:So) /'laSSo/ laßo˚ ('vOL:Lo) /'vOLLo/ vo-
˙o˚ ('viq:qi) /'viqqi/ vizi˚ ('viq:qjø) /'viqqjo/ vizio˚ (oQ'QO:no) /oQ'QOno/ ozono˘
˛e reason for this is to be found in Latin; as a matter of fact, these five phonemes
were not part of that language, and generally derive from two or more C (or from
other languages); therefore, by assimilation, the result is a geminate C (Ô § 5.6.1-
7 of MaPI “ § 1.6 of DiPI]˘
We can observe that (only) phonetics can supply explanations about the gram-
mar rules (which are çtroublesomeÇ for foreigners and for northern Italians), as the
articles (&uno, lo, Li) /&uno, lo, Li/ uno˚ lo˚ ˙ must be used in cases such as: (&unoS-
'Se:mø, loQ'Qa;ino, LiQ'Qi;i, LiN'NOk:ki) /unoS'Semo, loQ'Qaino, LiQ'Qii, LiN'NOkki/
uno &emo˚ lo zaino˚ ˙ zii˚ ˙ √ocº (as also (&unos'trac:co, los'kOp:pjo, Lis'kOL:Li)
/unos'tracco, los'kOppjo, Lis'kOLLi/ uno straccio˚ lo &oppio˚ ˙ &o˙). In fact, it is a
question of two –heterosyllabic– consonants, whereby the neutral Italian structure
could not tolerate more complicated sequences, as they would make these sylla-
bles too heavy to pronounce.
˛e remaining 15 C, /m, n÷ p, b, t, d, k, g÷ c, G÷ f, v, s÷ r÷ l/, in a postvocalic po-
sition, can be single or geminate, distinctively, as shown in the example chosen:
('va:no) /'vano/ vano and ('van:no) /'vanno/ vanno˚ ('fa:to) /'fato/ fato and ('fat:to)
/'fatto/ fatto˚ ('mO:Go) /'mOGo/ mogio and ('mOG:Go) /'mOGGo/ moggio˚ ('be:ve)
/'beve/ beve and ('bev:ve) /'bevve/ bevve˚ ('ka:Ro) /'karo/ caro and ('kar:Ro) /'karro/ car-
ro˚ ('pa:la) /'pala/ pala and ('pal:la) /'palla/ palla˘ We can see that ('ka:za) /'kaza/ casa
and ('kas:sa) /'kassa/ cassa do not constitute a minimal pair, in modern neutral pro-
nunciation (but only in traditional pronunciation or… as far as spelling is con-
cerned).
3.3.1.6. In regional pronunciations in the whole of Italy, in checked syllables in

an intoneme, it is quite frequent to find a length shifting from the consonant to
the vowel element: ('pa;sso, 'paasso) /'passo/ passo˚ ('pa;sta, 'paasta) /'pasta/ pasta˚
('ka;nto, 'ka;˙to, 'ka;«to, 'kaa-) /'kanto/ canto˚ ('di;rti, 'diirti) /'dirti/ dirti˚ ('mo;lto,
'moolto) /'molto/ molto˚ for the neutral ('pas:so, 'pas:ta, 'kan:to, 'dir:ti, 'mol:to).
Above all in the south, it is typical to find diphthongization, or doubling, of the
vocoid (in checked syllables and in a preintoneme as well), but over all in un-
-checked syllables (which are shown here generally; but can be seen in é 9-15 of
MaPI and in the dialect phonosyntheses in é 16 of NPT/HPh): ('pa;ane, 'pa;åne)
/'pane/ pane˚ ('ve;Ido, 've;edo) /'vedo/ vedo˚ ('do;Uve, 'do;ove) /'dove/ dove˚ for the
neutral ('pa:ne, 've:do, 'do:ve)…
In the north, geminates, do not often have su‚cient length, even where vowel
length does not present the lengthening mentioned at the beginning of this sec-
tion: (af'fatto, af'fa;tto) /af'fatto/ a‡atto.
In the central-southern areas, there can be other self-geminant consonants (Ô §
3.3.1.5.); which takes place more widely for /b, G/ – in parts of the centre for /j/
too: ('rOb:ba, 'rO;bba) /'rOba/ roba˚ (lab'bar:ka, lab'ba;rka) /la'barka/ la barca˚ ('viG:-
Gil™, 'vi;GGil™) /'viGile/ vigile˚ (laG'Gak:ka, laG'Ga;kka) /la'Gakka/ la giacca˚
('nOj:ja, 'nO;jja) /'nOja/ noia˚ (daj'jE:Ri) /da'jEri/ da ieri˚ for the neutral ('rO:ba, la'bar:-
ka, 'vi:Gil™, la'Gak:ka, 'nO:ja, da'jE:Ri).
In Rome (and other central areas), instead, we can find the degemination of /r/,
in broad and typical accents: ('ko:ReRe) /'korrere/ correre˚ (e'ro:Re) /er'rore/ errore˚ (a-
'ro:ma) /ar'roma/ a Roma (with co-gemination, Ô § 3.3.2.1.), for the neutral ('kor:-
ReRe, eR'ro:Re, aR'ro:ma).
Co-gemination
3.3.2.1. We will now briefly introduce an example of interlexical consonant

gemination, choosing the most significant from other similar types, occurring in
neutral Italian. Traditionally it is (widely) known as ra‡orzamento sintattico çsyn-
tactic strengtheningÇ or raddoppiamento fonosintattico çphonosyntactic doublingÇ,
but it is best defined as co-gemination, the occurrence of which, in neutral pro-
nunciation, gives us: (ak'ka:za) /ak'kaza/ a casa˚ (faf'fred:do) /faf'freddo/ fa freddo˚
(™v've:Ro) /Ev'vero/ è vero.
In order to explain this, it is worth first considering examples such as (Gak'ke,
tRep'pjE:de) /Gak'ke*, trep'pjEde/ giac>é˚ treppiede, which do not pose any prob-
lems as the pronunciation and the spelling correspond.
However, we can also find cases such as (Gak'kjEs:to, tRep'pjE:di) /Gak'kjEsto,
trep'pjEdi/ già ºesto˚ tre piedi. Furthermore, we also have: (am'met:to) /am'met-
to/ ammetto and (am'me) /am'me*/ a me as well, which both derive from the Latin
sequences /dm/ –admitto˚ ad me– giving /mm/, by assimilation, which operated
within words and between them.
˛erefore, one or more of the final consonants assimilated to the first consonant
of the following word, as the assimilation of certain di‡erent consonants in a word
occurred; indeed, even septem and octo gave sette and otto in Italian (/pt, kt/ = /tt/).
Hence, as we have had /am'me*/ from ad me, also /trek'kapre/ comes from tres ca-
præ. Even /E*/ è (from Lat. est) causes co-gemination as in è vero, as seen above.
Separately, in phonemic transcriptions, these words are indicated, as just seen,
by /*/: /'tre*, E*/ (here tre çthreeÇ has the phonic stress marked, because generally it
is stressed, as in (&sono'tre) /sono'tre*/ sono tre çthey're threeÇ, unless it immediate-
ly precedes another stress, as in tre capre çthree goatsÇ /trek'kapre/ (from a theoretic-
al structure //'tre 'kapre//, unlike English /'†<Ii 'gOUts/); whereas è çisÇ is given with
no /'/, because it is not usually stressed in sentences (as in English).
3. italian 139
Not all Italian monosyllables have this characteristic as far as co-gemination is

concerned. For example the preposition di çofÇ does not co-geminate (and is not
stressed), /di»/, whereas the noun dì çdayÇ co-geminates, /'di*/; on the other hand,
the imperative di' çsay!Ç can co-geminate, as a second choice /'di», 'di*/: (di'kwes:ta)
/di'kwesta/ di questa çof this (f]Ç, ('dik kwa'lu˙:kw™) /'dik kwa'lunkwe/ (un) dì qua-
lunque çjust any dayÇ, ('di kwal'kO:za, 'dik k-) /'di kwal'kOza, 'dik k-/ di' qualcosa çsay
somethingÇ.
3.3.2.2. Amongst the most frequent co-geminant monosyllables (¤ activating)˚

we find a /a*/˚ è /E*/˚ e /e*/˚ né /ne*/˚ se (conj.) /se*/˚ già /Ga*/˚ più /pju*/˚ là /la*/˚ lì
/li*/˚ qua /kwa*/˚ qui /kwi*/˚ º /ki*/˚ >e /ke*/˚ tre /tre*/: /ammi'lano/ a Milano˚
/Ek'kjaro/ è ºaro, /ep'pOi/ e poi, /net'tun nel'lui/ né tu né lui, /sep'parti/ se parti,
/Gad'detto/ già detto, /pjut'tEmpo/ più tempo, /las'sopra/ là sopra, /kwikkon'lEi/ qui
con lei, /kikko'noSSi/ º conoß, /kettene'pare/ >e te ne pare, /'trep pun'tini/ tre
puntini.
˛e preposition da does not co-geminate in modern pronunciation: /dafi'rEnqe/
da „renze (contrary to traditional {and Tuscan} pronunciation: /daffi'rEnqe/).
˛e following also co-geminate dà˚ do˚ fa˚ fu˚ ha˚ ho˚ può˚ sa˚ so˚ sta˚ sto˚ va: /mi-
darra'Gone/ mi dà ragione, /fam'male/ fa male, /Oppa'ura/ ho paura, /pwOssa'lire/
può salire, /sat'tutto/ sa tutto, /stOvve'nEndo/ sto venendo, /vas'solo/ va solo.
Amongst non-geminant monosyllables (¤ inactivating), the following must un-
doubtedly be included di /di»/, de' /de»/, i /i»/, la /la»/, le /le»/, li /li»/, lo /lo»/, ˙
/{*}Li»/, ˙e /{*}Le»/, mi/me /mi», me»/, ti/te /ti», te»/, si/se /si», se»/, ci/ce /ci», ce»/˚
vi/ve /vi», ve»/, ne /ne»/, 'sta /sta»/, 'sto /sto»/, 'ste /ste»/, 'sti /sti»/, as well as the Latin
monosyllables (a˚ de˚ pro˚ quo˚ si˚ tu˚ væ): /di'nOtte/ di notte, /de'mEdici/ de' Medi-
ci, /i'gatti/ i gatti, /la'lana/ la lana, /le'reti/ le reti, /li'prEndo/ li prendo, /losa'pevo/
lo sapevo, /Lirak'konta/ ˙ racconta, /cisene'rEnde 'konto/ ci se ne rende conto, /sta-
'sera/ 'sta sera÷ /kwO'vadis/ quo vadis˚ /vE'viktis/ væ victis.
≈nal-stressed polysyllables (¤ with stress on the last syllable, or tronº çtrun-
catedÇ co-geminate, even if they can lose their stress (for rhythmic reasons): (kaf'fEk
kolom'bja:no, sa&Rappar'ti:tø, &toRnøt'tar:di) /kaf'fEk kolom'bjano, sarappar'tito, tor-
nOt'tardi/ ca‡è colombiano˚ sarà partito˚ tornò tardi.
˛e systematic description of this phenomenon (and other similar ones, linked,
but di‡erent, often confused with co-gemination, in many previous treatments {or
in all those which uncritically perpetuate the hypothetical state of things}) is giv-
en in § 5.6-9 (and § 4.8.1.) of MaPI, and also –entry by entry– in DiPI˘
3.3.2.3. Co-gemination is part of neutral pronunciation, exactly as lexical gemi-

nation, which is marked in spelling, as in: ('Ot:to) /'Otto/ otto. However, this is not
the case in the north (natively, except in some common, set expressions, as è vero,
ha detto, used by young people raised with high levels of exposure to the televi-
sion). Too often, it is erroneously considered as if it were a regional characteristic
of the central-southern areas.
˛is opinion, but above all the fact that co-gemination does not figure in writ-
ing (apart from crystallized forms, such as giac>é, davvero, soprattutto]˚ is often
believed –even by Italians from the central-southern areas– that it is to be avoid-

ed; in that case, one should consider even normal lexical gemination (which is
distinctive, Ô § 3.3.1.5.) abnormal and unsuitable.
Clearly, in the central-southern areas, there are regional di‡erences which are
contrary to neutral use. In particular, the most systematic and widespread use is
met in Tuscany (which, however, is not totally homogeneous), followed by Rome;
the other central-southern areas follow, all of them with local, more or less strong
di‡erences.
˛e most normal type of co-gemination, in modern neutral pronunciation, is
generally represented by a sort of compromise or of average, based on Roman use
(including the cases of de-gemination of articles and pronouns, formed by /lé/: la˚
lo˚ le˚ li˚ l']˚ with further simplifications. ˛e kind of co-gemination which is more
similar to traditional pronunciation (Ô § 3.3.5.3), follows Tuscan usage.
A few other examples follow, including one of de-gemination (given as the last
one): (pjuf'fOr:te) /pjuf'fOrte/ più forte˚ (cit&takkos'tjE:Ra) /cittakkos'tjEra/ città co-
stiera˚ (&tRenta'trek koRRi'do:Ri) /trenta'trek korri'dori/ trentatré corridori˚ (™l'la:na)
/El'lana/ è lana˚ (&™los'tes:so) /Elos'tesso/ è lo stesso.
In modern neutral pronunciation, come çlike, asÇ (appositive and comparative
with nouns and pronouns) is co-geminant, as well: (&komek'ka:ni, &komev've;Ri 'ka:-
ni, &komet'te) /komek'kani, komev'veri 'kani, komet'te*/ come cani˚ come veri cani˚
come te˘
Stress
3.3.3.1. Generally, in Italian, stress is assigned to rhythm groups, according to

(lexical) word stresses. Rhythm groups are stress groups (Ô § 3.2.7, 6.4.2, 12.1, 13.2-3
of NPT/HPh) made up of a syllable with strong –or primary– stress, and others
with weak –or secondary– stress, as in: (&peRfetta'men:te) /perfetta'mente/ perfetta-
mente˚ (in'trE:no) /in'trEno/ in treno˚ (&peRil'ka:ne) /peril'kane/ per il cane˚ (&v™Rsola-
&finedel'me:ze, &v™Rsola'fi;ne del'me:ze) /vErsolafinedel'meze, vErsola'fine del'meze/
verso la fine del mese˘
˛e last example shows that, according to the prominence given to certain parts
of sentences, the number of rhythm groups can change, as in (un&nwøvo'li:bRø)
/unnwOvo'libro/ un nuovo libro ça new bookÇ, compared to (un'nwO;vo 'li:bRø) /un-
'nwOvo 'libro/ ça book (which is) newÇ, written in the same way (un nuovo libro),
but with di‡erent prominence, corresponding to a semantic gradation, where in
the second case, nuovo takes on greater importance.
˛e communicative importance given to nuovo can be even greater, in an utter-
ance that, in its written form, remains – once more – the same (given the consider-
able deficiency of current punctuation): (un'nwO:vo2 'li:bRø23) /un'nwOvo, 'libro./.
˛e introduction of the post-stress syllables of the continuative ((2) /,/) and con-
clusive ((23) /./) intonemes were necessary here, because the new greater prominence
is given, in this case, by the presence of two intonemes, for a single utterance. (Let
us also note the presence of the full chrone, even in the first rhythm group, bear-
3. italian 141
ing a continuative intoneme, (O:).)

On the other hand, the communicative prominence would still increase, by us-
ing a conclusive intoneme, for the first rhythm group too: (un'nwO:vo23 'li:bRø23)
/un'nwOvo. 'libro./.
3.3.3.2. Going back to the examples of the rhythm groups given above, we can
observe that unstressed syllables (or rather, with weak stress), and those with half-
-stress (¤ with mid or secondary stress), alternate in such a way as to have one or
two weak phono-syllables amongst others with secondary (or primary) stress.
Secondary stress is assigned rhythmically, bearing in mind –as far as possible–
the position of the stress in the original forms (¤ fundamental forms, from which
they derived {certainly not in an evolutive sense, from Latin}), as occurs in lexical
compounds: (&pøRtasa'po:ne) /pOrtasa'pone/ portasapone˚ (pu&liSSis'kar:pe) /puliSSis-
'karpe/ puliß&arpe.
In derivatives, instead, the origin counts for less than rhythmic reasons, even if,
in case of a double possibility (rhythmic or original), the stress of the original form
can exert a decisive influence: (&pata'ti:n™) /pata'tine/ patatine (notwithstanding
(pa'ta:ta) /pa'tata/ patata), (&atten'qjo:ne) /atten'qjone/ attenzione (notwithstand-
ing (at'tEn:to) /at'tEnto/ attento]˘
For syllables that follow a stressed syllable of a word, furthermore, they behave
as follows: ('fab:bRo) fabbro, ('fab:bRika) fabbrica, ('fab:bRika&no, 'fab:bRika&mi) fab-
bricano˚ fabbricami, ('fab:bRikame&lo) fabbricamelo (let us also add a rather improb-
able ('fab:bRika&mice&lo) fabbricamicelo – Ô the end of § 6.4.2 in NPT/HPh]˘
3.3.3.3. As regards the syllables of a word that precedes a stressed syllable, the
spontaneous formation of a rhythmic alternation of weak and half-strong stresses
is formed, going back towards the beginning of the word, starting from the strong
syllable, of this kind: (ò{&à}à&àà&àà'à). However, given that polysyllabic words are
generally derivatives or compounds, there is a clear and agreed tendency to place
secondary stresses on the same syllables of the simple forms of the lexeme which
are originally stressed.
˛e only exception, so to speak, is made up of the rhythmic tendency that inter-
rupts both sequences of weak syllables that are too long, introducing some second-
ary stresses, and sequences of stressed syllables (¤ strong and half-strong), suppress-
ing some secondary stresses or shifting them one or two syllables.
Some examples: (&soce'ta) società, (ka&paci'ta) capacità, (pRo&babili'ta) probabili-
tà, (be&ati'tu:din™) beatitudine, (&Raqqjo&naliQ&Qabili'ta) razionalizzabilità, (aR&tifi-
&cali'ta) artificialità, (u&tilita&Ristika'men:te) utilitaristicamente, (e&zeRcita'to:Re) eser-
citatore, (aR&tikolaq'qjo:ne) articolazione, (as&socaq'qjo:ne) associazione, (o&ceano-
'gra:fiko) oceanografico, (ka&RatteRiQ'Qa:bile) caratterizzabile, (in&telliGen'tis:sima)
intelligentissima, (oS&Sillo'gram:ma) oßllogramma, (ef&feRveSSen'tis:simø) e‡erve&en-
tissimo˘
Other examples: (do&loRo&zissima'men:te) dolorosissimamente, (as&tuta'men:te) a-
stutamente, (im&maGinaq'qjo:ne) immaginazione, (mo&difikaq'qjo:ne) modificazio-
ne, (kom&poziq'qjo:ne) composizione, (ak&kjappafaR'fal:le) acºappafarfalle, (e~&c™-
falo'gram:ma) encefalogramma, (&ultRakon&seRva'to:Re) ultraconservatore, (&inteRkon-

&tinen'ta:le, -&konti-) intercontinentale, (&pRemedi&tata'men:te, pRe&me-) premeditata-
mente, (pRe&køce'men:te, &pReko-) precocemente.
3.3.3.4. Considering isolated words, normal (¤ neutral, spontaneous) second-

ary stressing complies to the rules of lexical composition and derivation. However,
obviously, there are also di‡erences in the distribution of secondary stresses, due
to the rhythmic context in which the words are placed at any given moment.
˛erefore, if –in isolation– a form like partitocrazia is (paR&titokRaq'qi;a) –where-
as (&paRti%tokRaq'qi;a) is a çfalse noteÇ, deriving from the lack of compound analy-
sis– in actual sentences, there is some alternation: (&lapaR&titokRaq'qi;a, la&paRti&to-
kRaq'qi;a) la partitocrazia˚ ('molto as&tuta'men:te) molto astutamente, (pRo'cE;deRe
&astuta'men:te)˚ procedere astutamente˚ ('vE˙go &m™Rkole'di) vengo mercoledì˚ (can-
'drOm meR&kole'di) ci andrò mercoledì˘
We will not broach the subject of two possible stress patterns for some words,
¤: /dia'triba ˙ di'atriba/ diatriba˚ /skle'rOzi ˙ s'klErozi/ &lerosi˚ /te'zEo ˙ 'tEzeo/ Teseo˚
/e'dipo ˙ 'Edipo/ Edipo; the interested reader is referred to DiPI.
3.3.3.5. Neutral Italian does not in any way accept strong stress on two contigu-
ous syllables (in an intoneme), but attenuates the first, even by shifting it or, if nec-
essary, it shifts it (without attenuation), as in the third (and fourth) variants giv-
en, which are possible, but less common: /fa'rOk 'kwesto = farOk'kwesto/ (&faRøk-
'kwes:to), (fa&Røk'kwes:to), ('faRøk 'kwes:to), ('fa;Røk 'kwes:to) farò questo, /skoper'kjO
il'tetto = skoperkjOil'tetto/ (s&kopeRkjøil'tet:to), (s&kopeR&kjøil'tet:to), (s'kopeRkjø il-
'tet:to), (s'ko;peRkjø il'tet:to) &operºò il tetto, /nonnepo'tep 'pju* = nonnepotep-
'pju*/ (&nonne&potep'pju), (&nonnepo&tep'pju), (&nonne'potep 'pju), (&nonne'po;tep
'pju) non ne poté più, /bEn'kek k'reda = bEnkek'kreda/ (&b™˙kek'kre:da), (b™˙&kek-
'kre:da), ('bE˙kek 'kre:da) ben>é creda, /me'tad 'dOze = metad'dOze/ (&metad'dO:ze),
(me&tad'dO:ze), ('metad 'dO:ze), ('me;tad 'dO:ze) metà dose˘
One aspect of attenuation, owing to rhythmic reasons, can concern the moving
back of the reduced stress too, as seen in the following examples: /'vEngo 'dopo di-
'te* = 'vEngo dopodi'te*/ ('vE˙go &dopodi'te), ('vE˙go do&podi'te) vengo dopo di te˚
/'karo pa'pa* = karopa'pa*/ ('ka;Ro pa'pa), (&kaRopa'pa), (ka&Ropa'pa) caro papà˚ /lo-
'facco 'anke per'te* = lo'facco ankeper'te*/ (lo'facco &a˙kepeR'te), (lo'facco∞a˙&ke-
peR'te) lo faccio an>e per te˚ /si'kjama 'forse ko'zi = si'kjama forseko'zi*/ (si'kja;ma
&foRseko'zi), (si'kja;ma foR&seko'zi) si ºama forse così?
3.3.3.6. In the case of syntagms like //fuG'Gi z'vElto// /fuGGiz'vElto/ (&fuGGiz-

'vEl:to, &fuGGiz'vEl:to÷ fuG&Giz'vEl:to) fuggì svelto çhe ran away quicklyÇ, compared
to similar expressions as //'fuGGi z'vElto// /'fuGGiz 'vElto/ ('fuGGiz 'vEl:to) fuggi
svelto çrun away quickly!Ç, there are slight phonetic and prosodic di‡erences,
which alone, however, are not always able to maintain the distinction, as even in
the case of fuggi svelto, attenuation of the first stress is possible, above all in fast
pronunciation (&fuGGiz'vEl:to). Co-gemination does not apply with syllable struc-
tures like /éò_0/, which actually are syllabified /é_˘0/.
3. italian 143
In the case of //fuG'Gis 'subito// /fuGGis'subito/ (&fuGGis'su:bitø÷ fuG&Gis'su:bi-

tø) fuggì sùbito çhe ran away at onceÇ, compared to /'fuGGi 'subito/ ('fuGGi 'su:-
bitø) fuggi sùbito çrun away at once!Ç, the co-gemination contributes a better dis-
tinction, in neutral pronunciation: //pa'gOt 'tutto// /pagOt'tutto/ (&pagøt'tut:tø, 'pa-
gøt 'tut:tø, 'pa;gøt 'tut:tø÷ pa&gøt'tut:tø) pagò tutto˚ /'pago 'tutto/ ('pa;go 'tut:tø, &pa-
go'tut:tø) pago tutto÷ //losen'tim 'male// /losentim'male/ (lo&sentim'ma:le, lo'sentim
'ma:le÷ &losen&tim'ma:le) lo sentì male˚ /lo'sEnti 'male, losEnti'male/ (lo'sEnti 'ma:le, lo-
&s™nti'ma:le) lo senti male˘ Lastly: //lostrap'pOv 'via// /lostrappOv'via/ (los&tRappøv-
'vi;a, los'trappøv 'vi;a÷ &lostRap&pøv'vi;a) lo strappò via˚ /los'trappo 'via, lostrappo'via/
(los'trappo 'vi;a, los&tRappo'vi;a) lo strappo via˘
Intonation
3.3.4. û 3.3 shows the preintonemes and intonemes in neutral Italian (both
modern and traditional), which we will illustrate with simple examples:
/./: (Ri'partono 'tutti 'sa:bato23) /ri'partono 'tutti 'sabato./ Ripartono tutti sabato.
/?/: (¿Ri'partono 'tutti 'sa:bato21) /¿ri'partono 'tutti 'sabato?/ Ripartono tutti saba-
to?
/÷/: (&seRRi'partono 'tutti 5sa:bato12| &mene'va;do a˙'ki;ø23) /serri'partono 'tutti 'saba-
to÷ mene'vado an'kio./ Se ripartono tutti sabato, me ne vado an>'io.
In the north, regional intonation has consistent and varied shifts; in the south
they are rather repetitive; while, in the center, they are more contained (and, gen-
erally, more similar to neutral patterns). ˛e major di‡erences are found in the sus-
pensive intoneme, /÷/, as can also be seen in the phonosyntheses of é 16 of NPT/
HPh (and of é 10-15 of MaPI).
û 3.3. Italian preintonemes and intonemes.
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3)
/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /?/ (2 ' 2 1)
/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /÷/ (2 5 1 2)
/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /,/ (2 ' 2)
Traditional neutral pronunciation
3.3.5.1. As already mentioned (in § 3.0.1), çtraditional neutral pronunciationÇ

mainly follows Tuscan use, in particular ∫orentine, and dates back to the unifica-
tion of Italy; therefore to about a century and a half ago, as quoted in dictionaries
which, at that time were defined as of çTuscan languageÇ, more often than of çItal-
ianÇ.
˛e peculiarities of traditional pronunciation, therefore, are more rigid than
those of modern pronunciation (having less variations {and here, we relate above
all the çstrangestÇ} and –at the same time– most çcapriciousÇ). The forms followed
by * are found only in some dictionaries or specific lists.
As regards the vowel phonemes /e, E÷ o, O/, some examples of words and endings
follow. ˛e more bizarre forms are marked with simple (çorthoepicalÇ) written ac-
cents: A√èse˚ annèsso˚ auróra*˚ Bertóldo*˚ cè‡o˚ cócca çcorner, notchÇ, collètta˚ con-
nètto˚ crèsima˚ enórme˚ esòso˚ fólla˚ Giórgio˚ gótta˚ gróppo˚ lèttera˚ mòccolo˚ nèsso˚
nórma*˚ órgano*˚ rócca çdista‡Ç, Rómolo˚ sgómino˚ siète˚ stòrpio˚ strènna˚ tè&hio÷
as well as the endings: amaró√olo˚ stètti˚ stèttero…
As far as the distribution of /q, Q/ is concerned, the major traditional character-
istic regards initial /q/ for many words like: zampa˚ zio˚ zoppo˚ zuc>ero˚ zucca÷
and internal /Q/, in cases such as: aguzzino˚ amazzone˚ brezza˚ ªribizzo˚ intiriz-
zito˚ lazzi˚ lezzo˚ olezzo˚ pettegolezzo˚ ribrezzo˚ rubizzo˚ &orza˚ Ωarzo*˚ sozzo*˘
3.3.5.2. ˛e greatest di‡erence, however, concerns the use of single /s/, within
a word, between V (even if with /j, w/ before the second). ˛e most significant cas-
es (including derivatives) are: asino˚ casa˚ ºesi˚ ºuso˚ cosa˚ così˚ desidero˚ deside-
rio˚ (il) fuso˚ mese˚ naso˚ peso˚ Pisa˚ posa˚ raso˚ riposo˚ riso, and adjective endings
-ese˚ -oso˚ and verb endings -esi˚ -osi\ /in'glese/ in∫ese (but /fran'ceze/ francese!) /ci-
nese'ria/ cineseria (but /borge'zia/ bor!esia!), /go'loso/ goloso˚ /cellu'losa/ cellulosa˚
/kurjosi'ta*/ curiosità÷ /'presi, -sero, -so/ presi˚ presero˚ preso (but /'lezi, -zero, -zo/ lesi˚
lesero˚ leso!), /impre'sarjo/ impresario˚ /'rosi, -sero, -so/ rosi˚ rosero˚ roso˚ /ris'posi, -se-
ro/ risposi˚ risposero˚ /ro'sikkjo/ rosicºo (but /ero'zjone/ erosione!).
However, in traditional pronunciation, we find /z/ in cases such as: biso√o˚ ca-
so˚ ºesa˚ muso˚ paese˚ quasi˚ sposa˚ viso˚ misi˚ misero˚ (io) fusi˚ fusero˚ (ho) fuso˚ in-
cisi˚ incisero˚ inciso…
3.3.5.3. Traditional co-gemination is more systematic and more widespread
than modern co-gemination; indeed, it has a higher number of activating forms
(as da\ da Milano /dammi'lano/; for the modern: /dami'lano/), and does not pro-
vide for de-gemination è la mia /Ella'mia/; modern: /Ela'mia/); what is more, the
following are always co-geminant, too, come˚ dove˚ qual>e˚ sopra (unless they are
used as nouns): come si fa? dove vai? qual>e volta˚ sopra quel tavolo /komessi'fa, do-
vev'vai, kwalkev'vOlta, soprakkwel'tavolo/ (but: il sopra del tavolo /il'sopra del'tavo-
lo/); modern: /komesi'fa*, dove'vai, kwalke'vOlta, soprakwel'tavolo/).
As far as accentuation is concerned, there are no particular peculiarities; any
di‡erences are due to the fact that generations have passed, and, as one knows, the
accentuation of learned terms and classical nouns are subject to trends of prefer-
ence, which can be agreed upon to a greater or lesser extent, but are not under dis-
cussion: they are merely documentable (Ô the end of § 3.3.3.4).
Intonation does not change, except for the possible adoption (by some) of Tus-
can-type preintonemes (Ô the relative phonosyntheses in é 16).
3. italian 145
3.3.5.4. All characteristics of traditional pronunciation may be found, howev-

er, in MaPI and DiPI÷ this pronouncing dictionary shows the variants of the cen-
ter (the linguistic center; but Abruzzo belongs to the upper south) regarding the
distribution of /e, E÷ o, O÷ s, z÷ q, Q/ (including some peculiar stress patterns), in-
dicating Tuscany, Umbria, the Marches, Latium and Rome respectively with: t, u,
m, l, r (in square brackets).
Traditional variants are identified, in DiPI, by a full-stop which appears before
them, and which separates them from modern variants, given first (if di‡erent,
otherwise they coincide), as, for example: çlettera /'lettera. -Et-/ {† E, ¨µ¬® e}Ç, ¤
/'lEttera/ in Tuscany and /'lettera/ in the rest of the center.
˛ere are at times more intricate variants, ™: çstorpio /s'torpjo. -O-/ {† O/o, ¨ o/O,
µ¬® o}Ç. However, there is full agreement throughout the center for çbene /'bEne/Ç.
Text
3.4.0. ˛e story †e North Wind and the Sun follows, given in eight di‡erent
çnormalizedÇ versions. We start with the (neutral) Italian pronunciations of (neu-
tral British) English – this is the first step of the phonetic method (the written text
is given in § 2.5.2.0). ˛e Italian translation follows, in its neutral modern and tra-
ditional versions. ˛ree further accents are given: two are mediatic (respectively
northern and central – of Milan and Rome), which, for segmental and intonation-
al aspects, are not as broad as those presented –with vocograms and tonograms–
in é 10 “ é 12 of MaPI (in which there are 23 regional versions, in é10-14).
˛e respective (dialectal) phonosyntheses in é 16 of NPT/HPh (looking at Mi-
lanese, § 16.15, and Roman, § 16.42) can also provide useful preliminary infor-
mation. In northern mediatic pronunciation, stopstrictives often occur as se-
quences: (ts, dz÷ TS, DZ) (special symbols would be better: ((tS, dZ))).
Lastly, the a‡ected accent (snobbish, § 3.4.9) is examined, as well, with a çFrench
rÇ (generally, an approximant: labiodental, (V), or uvular, (˜), or uvularized labio-
dental, (◊), which has been chosen as a representative type, having both compo-
nents) and other characteristics linked to that kind of pronunciation, as çtenserÇ
but also çlaxerÇ V, at the same time (Ô û 3.4).
˛ey are realized –basically– by higher and more advanced vocoids than nor-
mal, which, in stressed syllables (and in preintonemes as well), are diphthongized,
but with second elements rather central in their vocogram boxes, therefore, end-
ing in di‡erent –opposite– positions from the initial ones.
Furthermore, /c, G÷ S, {Z}/ are postalveo-palatal over-rounded, (&, 1, «, {»});
there is also çdrawlingÇ and splitting of the tonic –in the real tonetic sense– and
posttonic syllables (sometimes even of the previous ones), in particular before a
pause, and above all for intonemes when they are di‡erent from the conclusive
ones.
Lastly, we note a bigger pitch extension (which we will indicate paraphonical-
ly, with §(ˇ)@, at the beginning of each paragraph) and creaky voice in intonemes
(¤ tonic and posttonic syllables), which is represented by the specific diacritic: (ü).
û 3.4. A‡ected realizations of the Italian vowels.
/i/ (i[i]) /u/ (u[u])

/e/ (e[e]), /o/ (o[o]),
({'ii/'uu…)™ò) ({'ii/'uu…)øò)
/E/ (EE), (™{…'}) /O/ (OO), (ø{…'})
/a/ (a[a])
3.4.1. At the end, as always, there is the version which gives the English pronun-
ciation of Italian, by neutral British speakers, fluent in Italian (after prolonged con-
tact with native speakers, but with no help from the phonetic method), who have
adequately learned the relative prominences, but who substantially use segmental
and intonation elements which are typical of neutral British English (for reference
purposes, although, of course, a neutral accent is not so common). Obviously, the
same principle is valid for the foreign pronunciation of English, given first.
Speakers of American English could prepare their own version of the Italian pro-
nunciation of American English, with /a/ even for English /Ø/ (¤ ('Sat:$) instead of
('SOt:$), for shot) and so on, as an excellent exercise, by listening to native speakers,
best of all after recording them. Of course, speakers of other languages could pre-
pare both their own pronunciation of Italian and the foreign Italian accent of their
language, as well. ˛e author would be happy to receive their transcriptions and
recordings, both in case of help –should they need it– and to make their contribu-
tion known to others (possibly in our website on canIPA Natural Phonetics – Ô §
0.12).
Italian pronunciation (of English)
3.4.2. (&denøR'twin dende'san:$2 &weRdis'pju:ti˙g$2 wic'wOz des'trO˙:geR23| 'wE na'trE:-

velleR2 &k™ima5lO˙:g$12| 'rEp$ti na'wOr:m 'klOk:$23| &deja'grid:$2 d™tdi'wa nu'fErs[t] sak'si:-
d™d$2 im'mEikin de'trE:velleR2 'tEi kisklOk5kOf:$12| Sud'bi kon'si:deR™d$2 s'trO˙geR 'dEndi
'a:deR23||
'dEn:2 denøR'twin:d$ 'blu2 ™'zar dezi'kud:$23| 'bat$ de'mO:Ri 5blu12| de'mO:r2 'klOz:li2 'did
de'trE:velleR2 'fOl dis'klOk:2 ka'raundim$23| &™nd™t5las:t$12| &denøR'twin:d$2| ge'vap$ djat-
'tEmp$t$23| 'dEn de'san:2 So'na;ut$2 'wOr:m$li23| &™ndim'mi:djat$li2 de'trE:velleR2 tu'kOf fis-
'klOk:$23| end$'sO2 denøR'twin:d$2 &wøzo'blaiG$d$ &tukoM'fEs:2 'dEtde 'san$ wozdes'trO˙ge
&Røvde'tu23|
¿'di;dju 'laik$21 ¿des'tO:Ri2| ¿&duju'wOn tu'i;Ri ta'gEn:$21|||)
3. italian 147
Italian text
3.4.3. Si bisticciavano un giorno il vento di tramontana e il sole, l'uno pretenden-

do d'esser più forte dell'altro, quando videro un viaggiatore, >e veniva innanzi, av-
volto nel mantello. I due litiganti decisero allora >e sarebbe stato più forte º fosse
riußto a levare il mantello al viaggiatore.
Il vento di tramontana cominciò a so‚are con violenza; ma, più so‚ava, più il
viaggiatore si stringeva nel mantello; tanto >e alla fine il povero vento dovette desi-
stere dal suo proposito. Il sole allora si mostrò nel cielo, e poco dopo il viaggiatore, >e
sentiva caldo, si tolse il mantello. E la tramontana fu costretta così a ricono&ere >e
il sole era più forte di lei.
T'è piaciuta la storiella? La vo˙amo ripetere?
Modern neutral pronunciation
3.4.4. (si&bistic'ca:va&no2 ìu~'Gor:no2œ| il'vEnto di&tRamon'ta:na2| eil'so:le23 ì'lu:nø2

&pReten'dEndo &d™sseRpjuf'fOr:te2 del'lal:tRo23œ &kwando'vi;de&Ro uMvi&aGGa'to:Re23 &kevve-
'ni;va in'nan:qi2 av'vOlto &nelman'tEl:lo23|| i&dueliti5gan:ti12 de'ci:zeRø2 ìal'lo:Ra2œ &kessa-
&R™bbes'ta;to pjuf5fOr:te12| kif&fosseRiuS'Si:tø2 alle'va;Re ilman'tEl:lo2 alvi&aGGa'to:Re23||
il'vEnto di&tRamon'ta:na2 &komi~'cO assof'fja:Re23 ì&koMvio'lEn:qa23œ| map'pjus sof5fja:-
va12| &pjuilvi&aGGa'to:Re2 &sistRi~'Ge;va &nelman'tEl:lo23\ 'tan:to2 ìke&alla5fi:n™12œ il'pO;veRo
'vEn:to2 do'vette de'zis:teR™23 ìdal&suopRo'pO:zito23œ|| il'so:le2 ìal'lo:Ra2œ &simos'trOn ne¬'cE:-
lo23| ep&pøko'do:po2 ilvi&aGGa5to:Re12 ì&kessen'ti;va 'kal:do2œ ˚si'tOl:se23 ˚ilman'tEl:lo23| &ela-
&tRamon5ta:na12 &fukkos'tret:ta2 ìko'zi2œ| aR&Riko5noS:SeRe12| keil'so:le2\ &™Rapjuf'fOr:te23 ìdi-
'lE;i23œ||
¿&t™ppja'cu:ta21 ¿&lasto'rjEl:la2| ¿&lavoL'La;mo Ri'pE:teRe21|||)
Traditional neutral pronunciation
3.4.5. (si&bistic'ca:va&no2 ìu~'Gor:no2œ| il'vEnto di&tRamon'ta:na2| eil'so:le23 ì'lu:nø2

&pReten'dEndo &d™sseRpjuf'fOr:te2 del'lal:tRo23œ &kwando'vi;de&Ro uMvi&aGGa'to:Re23 &kevve-
'ni;va in'nan:qi2 av'vOlto &nelman'tEl:lo23|| i&dueliti5gan:ti12 de'ci:zeRø2 ìal'lo:Ra2œ &kessa-
&R™bbes'ta;to pjuf5fOr:te12| kif&fosseRiuS'Si:tø2 alle'va;Re ilman'tEl:lo2 alvi&aGGa'to:Re23||
il'vEnto di&tRamon'ta:na2 &komi~'cO assof'fja:Re23 ì&koMvio'lEn:qa23œ| map'pjus sof5fja:-
va12| &pjuilvi&aGGa'to:Re2 &sistRi~'Ge;va &nelman'tEl:lo23\ 'tan:to2 ìke&alla5fi:n™12œ il'pO;veRo
'vEn:to2 do'vEtte de'sis:teR™23 ìdal&suopRo'pO:zito23œ|| il'so:le2 ìal'lo:Ra2œ &simos'trOn ne¬'cE:-
lo23| ep&pøko'do:po2 ilvi&aGGa5to:Re12 ì&kessen'ti;va 'kal:do2œ ˚si'tOl:se23 ˚ilman'tEl:lo23| &ella-
&tRamon5ta:na12 &fukkos'tret:ta2 ìko'si2œ| aR&Riko5noS:SeRe12| keil'so:le2\ &™Rapjuf'fOr:te23 ìdi-
'lE;i23œ||
¿&t™ppja'cu:ta21 ¿&lasto'rjEl:la2| ¿&lavoL'La;mo Ri'pE:teRe21|||)
Northern mediatic pronunciation (Milanese)
3.4.6. (ßi&bißtit'tSa:vano2 ìu«d'Zo;Rno2œ| ilève«to di&tRamo«'ta:na2| eilèßo:le3 3 ì'lu:no2

&pRete«ède«do &dj™ßßeRpju'fO;Rte2 delèla;ltRo3 3œ &kwa«doèvi;deRo u«&vjaddZaèto:Re3 3 &keve-
èni;va in'na;«tsi2 avèvO;lto &n™lma«ètE;llo3 3|| i&duelitièga;«ti32 det'Si:fieRo2 ìal'lo:Ra2œ &keßa-
&R™bbeß'ta;to pjuèfO;Rte32| ki&foßßeRiu'Si:to2 ale'va;Re ilma«'tE;llo2 al&vjadZaèto:Re3 3||
ilève«to di&tRamo«'ta:na2 &komi«'tSO aßofèfja:Re3 3 ì&ko«vjoèle;«tsa3 3œ| ma'pju ßofèfja:va32|
&pjuilvjaddZa'to:Re2 &ßißtRi«èdZe;va &n™lma«ètE;llo3 3\ 'ta;«to2 ìke&allaèfi:ne32œ ilèpO;veRo
've;«to2 doèvEtte deèfii;ßteRe3 3 ìdal&ßuopRoèpO:fiito3 3œ|| il'ßo:le2 ìal'lo:Ra2œ &ßimoß'tRO n™¬ètSe:-
lo3 3| e&pøko'dO:po2 il&vjaddZaèto:Re32 ì&keße«èti;va 'ka;ldo2œ ˚ßiètO;lße3 3 ˚ilma«ètE;llo3 3| &ela&tRa-
mo«èta:na32 &fukoß'tRE;tta2 ìko'fii;2œ| a&Rikoèno:SeRe32| keil'ßo:le2\ &eRapjuèfO;Rte3 3 ìdièlE;i3 3œ||
¿&tj™pjaètSu:ta21 ¿&laßto'RjE;lla2| ¿&lavo¬èja;mo Rièpe:teRe21|||)
Central mediatic pronunciation (Roman)
3.4.7. (sib&bistic'ca:vano2 ìu~'Go;rno2œ| il'vEnto di&∂Ramon'ta:na2| eil'qo:le23 ì'lu:no2

&ÊRe∂en'dEndo &d™sseRpãuf'fO;rte2 de'la;ltRo2œ &âwando'vi;de&Ro uMvi&aGGa'∂o:Re23 &âevve-
'ni;va in'na;nqi2 av'vOlto &nelman'tE;llo23|| i&dueli∂i5ga;nti2 2 de'Si:seRo2 ìal'lo:Ra2œ &âessa&Reb-
bes'ta;∂op pãuf5fO;rte2 2| kif&fosseRiuS'Si:∂o2 alle'va;Re ilman'tE;llo2 alvi&aGGa'∂o:Re23||
il'vEnto di&∂Ramon'ta:na2 &âomi~'cO assof'fãa:Re23 ì&âoMvio'lE;nqa23œ| map'pãus sof-
5fãa:va2 2| &pãuilvi&aGGa'∂o:Re2 &sistRi~'Ge;va &nelman'tE;llo23\ 'ta;nto2 ìâe&ala5fi:ne2 2œ il'pO;-
veRo 'vE;nto2 do'vette de'si;steRe23 ìdal&quoÊRo'ÊO:si∂o23œ|| il'qo:le2 ìal'lo:Ra2œ &simos'trO ne¬-
'cE:lo23| ep&pøâo'dO:Êo2 ilvi&aGGa5∂o:Re2 2 ì&âessen'ti;va 'âa;ldo2œ ˚si'tO;lqe23 ˚ilman'tE;llo23|
&ela&∂Ramon5ta:na2 2 &fukkos'tre;tta2 ìâo'si;2œ| a&Riâo5noS:SeRe2 2| âeil'qo:le2\ &™Rappãuf'fO;rte23
ìdi'lE;i23œ||
¿&t™ppãa'Su:∂a21 ¿&lasto'rãE;lla2| ¿&lavoj'ja;mo Ri'ÊE:∂eRe21|||)
A‡ected pronunciation (Ô § 3.4.0)
3.4.8. §(ˇ)@ (si&bisti&'&a;aÑa&co2 ìu~'1oo¸coo2œ| il'vEnto di&t◊amon'ta;acaa2| eil'so;o-

Ve23 ì'lu;ucø2 &p◊eten'dEEndo &d™sse◊pjuf'fOO¸te2 del'laaVt¸o23œ &kwando'vi;ide&◊o uMvi-
&a11a'to;o¸e23 &kevve'ni;iva in'naacqi2 av'vOOlto &nelman'tEEVVo23|| i&dueliti5gaacti12 de-
'&i;iëe¸ø2 ìal'lo;o¸a2œ &kessa&◊™bbes'taato pjuf5fOO¸tee12| kif&fosse◊iu«'«i;itø2 alle'va;a◊e
ilman'tEEVVo2 alvi&a11a'to;o¸e23||
§(ˇ)@ il'vEEnto di&t◊amon'ta;aca2 &komi~'&OO assof'fja;a¸e23 ì&koMvio'lEEcqa23œ| map-
'pjus sof5fja;aÑaa12| &pjuilvi&a11a'to;o¸e2 &sist◊i~'1e;eva &nelman'tEEVVo23\ 'taacto2 ìke-
&alla5fi;ic™12œ il'pOOve◊o 'vEEcto2 do'veette de'ziiste¸™23 ìdal&suop◊o'pO;Oëito23œ|| il'so;oVe2
3. italian 149
ìal'lo;o¸a2œ &simos't◊OOn ne¬'&E;EVo23| ep&pøko'do;opo2 ilvi&a11a5to;o¸e12 ì&kessen'ti;iva

'kaaVÃo2œ ˚si'tOOVse23 ˚ilman'tEEVVo23| &ela&t◊amon5ta;aca12 &fukkos't◊eetta2 ìko'zii2œ| a◊&◊i-
ko5noo««e¸ee12| keil'so;oVe2\ &™◊apjuf'fOO¸te23 ìdi'lEEi23œ||
§(ˇ)@ ¿&t™ppja'&u;uta21 ¿&lasto'◊jEEVVaa2| ¿&lavoL'La;amo ◊i'pE;Ete¸ee21|||)
British pronunciation (of Italian)
3.4.9. (s¤&bIisT¤5chA;vÈ&n‘¨2 ì¯u~'Gø;[>]n‘¨2œ| ¤ı5v™nT‘¨ D¤&˛>åmØn'ThA;nå2| ™¤ı's‘¨-

l™I3 3 ì5l¯un‘¨2 &p>™IT™n'D™nD‘¨ &D™sÈ'phj¯;u 'fø;[>]T™I2 D™'lA;ı˛>‘¨23œ &kwA;nD‘¨5vIiDÈ&>‘¨
¯uMvi&åGÈ'Thø;>™I23 &k™IvÈ5nIivÈ ¤'nA;ntsi2 È5vØıT‘¨ &n™ımån'Th™l‘¨23| Ii&D¯u™Il¤T¤'gA;n-
Ti32 DÈ'chIizÈ>‘¨2 ìÈ'lø;>å2œ &k™IsÈ&>™b™I5sTA;T‘¨ &pj¯u'fø;[>]T™I32| khIi&fØs™I>i¯u'SIiT‘¨2 &ål¤-
5vA;>™I &¤ımån'Th™l‘¨2 &√ıvi&åGÈ'Thø;>™I3 3||
¤ı5v™nT‘¨ D¤&˛>åmØn'ThA;nå2 &kØm¤~5ch‘;¨ åsÈ'fjA;>™I3 3 ì&kØMvi‘¨'l™ntså3 3œ| mÈ-
5phj¯u sÈ'fjA;vå32| 'phj¯;u ¤ıvi&åGÈ'Thø;>™I2 &sIis˛>¤~5G™IvÈ &n™ımån'Th™l‘¨23\ 'ThA;nT‘¨2
ìk™I&ålÈ'fIin™I32œ ¤ı5phØvÈ>‘¨ 'v™nT‘¨2 DÈ5v™T™I D¤'z¤sTÈ&>™I23 ìD√ı&s¯u‘¨p>È'phØz¤&T‘¨3 3œ||
¤ı's‘¨l™I2 ìÈ'lø;>å2œ &sIimØ5s˛>‘;¨ n™ı'ch™l‘¨3 3| ™I&p‘¨k‘¨'D‘¨p‘¨2 &¤ıvi&åGÈ'Thø;>™I32
ì&kh™IsÈn5ThIivÈ 'khA;ıD‘¨2œ ˚s¤'ThØıs™I3 3 ˚&¤ımån'Th™l‘¨3 3| &™IlÈ&˛>åmØn'ThA;nå32 &f¯ukØ-
's˛>™Tå2 ìk‘¨'zI;i2œ| å&>Iikû'n‘¨SÈ&>™I32 kh™¤ı's‘¨l™I2\ &™>È'phj¯;u 'fø;[>]T™I3 3 ìD¤'l™;I3 3œ||
¿&Th™pjÈ'ch¯uTå21 ¿&låsTÈ>i'™lå2| ¿&låvÈli5A;m‘¨ >¤'ph™TÈ&>™I21|||)
American pronunciation (of Italian)
3.4.10. (s¤&bIisTÈ'chA;vÈ&nø¨2 ìUu~'Gø;<nø¨2œ| ¤ı'v™n[T]ø¨ D¤&T<√mO;n'ThA;n√2| ™¤ı-

'sø¨l™I23 ì'lUunø¨2 &p<™IT™n'D™nDø¨ &D™s≥'phj¯;u 'fø;<T™I2 D™'lA;ıT<ø¨23œ &kwA;nDø¨'vIiDÈ-
&<ø¨ UuMvi&√GÈ'Thø;<™I23 &k™IvÈ'nIivÈ ¤'nA;ntsi2 È'vO;ıTø¨ &nEım√n'Th™lø¨23| Ii&DUu™Il¤[È-
6gA;n[T]i2 2 DÈ'chIizÈ<ø¨2 ìÈ'lø;<√2œ &k™IsÈ&<™b™I'sTA;[ø¨ &pj¯u6fø;<T™I2 2| khIi&fO;s™I<iUu'SIi-
[ø¨2 &√lÈ'vA;<™I &¤ım√n'Th™lø¨2 &,ıvi&√GÈ'Thø;<™I23||
¤ı'v™n[T]ø¨ D¤&T<√mO;n'ThA;n√2 &kO;m¤~'chø;¨ √sÈ'fjA;<™I23 ì&kO;Mviø¨'l™nts√23œ| mÈ-
'phj¯u sÈ6fjA;v√2 2| 'phj¯;u ¤ıvi&√GÈ'Thø;<™I2 &sIisT<¤~'G™IvÈ &nEım√n'Th™lø¨23\ 'ThA;n-
[T]ø¨2 ìk™I&√lÈ6fIin™I2 2œ ¤ı'phO;vÈ<ø¨ 'v™nTø¨2 DÈ'v™[™I D¤'z¤sTÈ&<™I23 ìD,ı&sUuø¨p<È'phO;-
zÈ[&ø¨23œ|| ¤ı'sø¨l™I2 ìÈ'lø;<√2œ &sIimO;'sT<ø;¨ nEı'ch™lø¨23| ™I&pø¨kø¨'Dø¨pø¨2 &¤ıvi&√GÈ-
6Thø;<™I2 2 ì&kh™IsÈn'ThIivÈ 'khA;ıDø¨2œ ˚sÈ'ThO;ıs™I23 ˚&¤ım√n'Th™lø¨23| &™IlÈ&T<√mO;n6ThA;-
n√2 2 &fUukO;'sT<™[√2 ìkø¨'zI;i2œ| √&<Iikû6nø¨SÈ&<™I2 2 kh™¤ı'sø¨l™I2\ &™<È'phj¯;u 'fø;<T™I23 ìDÈ-
'l™;I23œ||
¿&Th™pjÈ•chUu[√21 ¿&l√sTÈ<i'™l√2| ¿&l√vÈli'A;mø¨ <È•ph™[È&<™I21|||)
Italian dictionaries “ grammars and their (non) care for pronunciation
3.5.0. It is important to see how Italian dictionaries indicate pronunciation and

whether they are accurate and provide variants or not. In addition, a sure clue to
ascertain whether they care for pronunciation or assign it to hasty incompetents
(who follow di‡erent criteria — do not take the trouble to verify what they are do-
ing) consists in looking up the entry gliommero /'LOmmero/ (a kind of poem in en-
decasyllabics originally written in the Neapolitan dialect). ˛ere are three kinds of
dictionaries: those which do not include the word or do not take care to distin-
guish between /L/ and /gli/, for the trigraph gli, as in glioma /gli'Oma/; then come
those which, because of false philological and etymological deductions, çinventÇ
*/gli'Ommero/, or copy it from some mistaken previous sources; lastly, there are
the dictionaries whose pronunciation characteristics are assigned to true experts,
who –obviously– give /'LOmmero/. In the dialect of Naples, a çball (of wool)/skein
(of cotton)Ç is a gliòmmero /'LOmmÈrÈ/, although it comes from Latin glomerum,
with /gl/, as –on the other hand– çglandÇ is gliànnola /'LannÈla/, from Latin glan-
dulam (in Italian they are gomitolo and ghiandola, respectively, /go'mitolo, 'gjan-
da/, with /òg/).
Even most grammars are not to be trusted excessively: it is su‚cient to thumb
through them with critical eyes. Besides, our judgment should not in any way be
influenced by the fact that these texts are very widely used and well-known, even
abroad. However, when they deal with phonology and phonetics only because
they feel duty bound to do so, unfortunately we cannot be too optimistic. In fact,
some of them tend to çinventÇ nonexistent possibilities, which are frankly absurd,
as happens with some supposed di‡erences for such first-person plural forms as al-
leviamo or spariamo. In actual fact, their pronunciation is identical, although they
belong to di‡erent verbs: allevare çto breedÇ or alleviare çto alleviateÇ, and sparare
çto shootÇ or sparire çto disappearÇ, ¤ always /alle'vjamo, spa'rjamo/ (whereas cer-
tain authors try to argue that the second words in each pair are pronounced as */al-
levi'amo, spari'amo/).
It would be equally absurd to follow those who hypothesize the existence of
di‡erent pronunciations for the numbers sei, sette, otto çsix, seven, eightÇ, if com-
pared to (tu) sei çyou areÇ, (le) sette (religiose) çthe religious sectsÇ, and Otto (a male
name)…
4. French
4.0. As well as the çmodern neutralÇ accent, we will be presenting the çinter-
nationalÇ accent, as an alternative teaching proposal.
Lastly, we will also consider the çmediaticÇ accent (¤ from television), based on
current Parisian, and two types of accents which are very di‡erent from these, in
so far as they are structurally very di‡erent: southern pronunciation, represented
by Marseilles, and Canadian, from Québec.
Vowels
4.1.1.1. French vowels, even those represented in spelling by çdiphthongsÇ, are

phonically, all short (or long, in certain contexts) monophthongs. Right from the
start one should avoid, the mistake many make (even authors of grammar books),
of confusing the written word with the phonic structure of a language: two very
di‡erent aspects. Contrary to opinion, which is as widespread as it is wrong,
sounds are the real essence of a language, not the trivial graphic signs used to fix it
in writing.
Before looking at their qualities, we will immediately demonstrate the mecha-
nisms for their duration: in an intoneme, vowels followed by final /v, z, Z÷ K, vK/
are lengthened, as are nasalized V followed by at least one phonic C (¤ pro-
nounced, not only written); lastly, even /°, o/ are lengthened when followed by
one or more phonic C. In a preintoneme, in all of these cases, there is a simple half-
-lengthening. Specific examples will not be given now, but will certainly be dealt
with later: therefore one should analyze each case, in the light of this knowledge.
In çtraditionalÇ pronunciation, and in Parisian (and çmediaticÇ) /A/ also comes
under this category, but with many exceptions and fluctuations, as well as analogic
forms, which makes it impossible to try to establish complete and reliable lists;
however, dictionaries still show (obviously without agreeing) words with /A/, as
does Fouché (1959); whereas, Lerond (1980) adds them but with the label çvielli
ParisÇ.
If it is absurd to want to find such words for traditional neutral pronunciation,
which is decidedly out-dated today, it could be interesting to do so for Parisian/me-
diatic (with some di‡erences for the suburbs). In the professionally used çmediat-
icÇ accent, there may rightly be the tendency to reduce the use of /A/, but, not yet
total substitution.
4.1.1.2. û 4.1 shows the French vowel articulations, which have to be compared
to those of the other languages to show the similarities and, above all, the di‡eren-
ces. In our transcriptions, we use twenty-three elements (plus another less impor-
tant one). ˛e front series presents five vocoids: (i, I, e, ™, E), for three phonemes:
/i, e, E/.
Although these three, and even (™), have the same symbols as in other languages,
they di‡er slightly: (mi'_i) /mi'di/ midi˚ (e'te) /e'te/ été˚ ('fEt) /'fEt/ fête˚ ('E) /'E/ e®÷
note: (s™'m°Å) /sE'mwa/ c'e® moi˚ (v™Æ'+Û) /vEK'ty/ vertu˚ (_I˜'lP) /diK'lo/ dirlo (with
unstressed /E/, and with unstressed /i/ in a checked syllable in /K/). ˛e French /a/
is definitely fronter than in Spanish, Italian, German, Â: (bÅ'áÅ:\) /ba'gaZ/ bagage˚
('Åm) /'am/ âme (traditional ('A:m), mediatic/Parisian ('å:m)); furthermore: (påÆ-
'+i:˜) /paK'tiK/ partir˚ (&påÆ+i'ºÚ) /paKti'KÚ/ partirons˚ (på˜'lÅ) /paK'la/ par là˘
˛e phoneme /A/ of neutral traditional pronunciation was mentioned, which
is no longer up-to-date; for this reason it is not in û 4.1 (however, its tongue posi-
tion is slightly fronter than that of /Õ/ (ú), in the vocogram of the çinternationalÇ
accent, Ô § 4.4.1).
˛e çbackÇ (and rounded; actually, back-central as can easily be seen in û 4.1)
series is evidently di‡erent from that in most languages, although the phonemic
symbols are the same ((¯, ¨, P, Ö, ∏) for three phonemes /u, o, O/): (t¯'\¯:˜) /tu'ZuK/
toujours˚ (dP'dP) /do'do/ dodo˚ ('k∏m) /'kOm/ comme÷ note: (kÖ'm∏d) /kO'mOd/
commode˚ (\Ö'li) /ZO'li/ joli˚ (k¨Æ's¿e) /kuK'sje/ coursier˚ (p¨˜'v¯) /puK'vu/ pour vo¨
(with unstressed /O/, and with unstressed /u/ in checked syllable in /K/).
û 4.1. Vowel elements of modern neutral French.

/i/ (i[:], ’I˜˘) /u/ (¯[:], ’¨˜˘)
/y/ (y[:], ’Y˜˘)
/e/ (e), /°/ (°[:]) /o/ (P[:]), /Ú/ (Ú[:])
/ù/ (#°)
/E/ (E[:], E[:]/˜˘, ’™), /í/ (ì[:], ’3) /O/ (∏[:], ∏[:]/˜˘, ’Ö)
/§/ (§í[:], §[:]/˜˘, ’#°), /^/ (^/[:], ’}/)
/a/ (Å[:], ’å˜˘) /Õ/ (Œ[:])
Front rounded vowels
4.1.1.3. ˛e çfrontÇ rounded series (actually, front-central, û 4.1) (y, Y, °, #,

§), for three phonemes /y, °, §/, besides çschwaÇ or, rather, çunstable eÇ (badly re-
presented as /È/, and wrongly defined as çmute eÇ), which is realized as (#), like (an
unstressed) /’§/ and which we represent with /ù/ (#): (fy'+y:˜) /fy'tyK/ futur˚ (°'º°)
/°'K°/ hSrSx˚ ('§:˜) /'§K/ hSre˚ ('s§l) /'s§l/ sSl÷ note: (#Æ'te) /*§K'te/ hSrté˚ (s#l-
'mŒ) /s§l'mÕ/ sSlement˚ (&pYÆpy'ºì) /pyKpy'Kí/ purpurin˚ (sYÆ'púÅs) /syK'plas/ sur
place˚ (l#'püi) /lù'pKi/ le prix˚ (m#'s¿°) /mù'sj°/ monsiSr˘
Indeed, as far as the çunstable eÇ is concerned, one could adopt di‡erent
phonemic strategies and transcriptions. For example, instead of the still prevalent
phonemic /È/, one could simply resort to /§/, however, in theory, the possibility
of distinguishing between déjSner (&de\#'ne) and déjeter (&de\#'te, d™/'te), or jSdi
(\°'_i) and je d¤ (\#'_i, \'_i), would nearly be lost, as one would have /deZ§'ne/,
and /deZ§'te/ or /deZ'te/ for déjeter˚ but /Z°'di/, and /Z§'di/ or /Z'di/ for je d¤.
4. french 153
˛e real di‡erence lies in the fact that normally, forms with çunstable eÇ are ex-
pressed with the çzeroÇ phone and possible voicing assimilations, as seen in the sec-
ond transcriptions. ˛e solution of the çzeroÇ phone might even leave natives in
doubt (for rarer words), who are frequently undecided, about the proper spelling
too, between /§, °/ e˚ S˚ even if /°/ S cannot be dropped and should not give
rise to confusion. For the moment, having avoided the unrealistic çsolutionsÇ, ™
/È/, and /ê, +/ too, which are less improbable diaphonemically, to play safe we will
adopt /ù/ (#), before transforming it definitively into /§/, with the possibility of
indicating its presence or absence with /[§]/ – or /ù/, in opposition to an un-
stressed çstable eÇ, represented by /’§/.
‹en /ù/ is stressed, as in d¤-le˚ le çeÇ, it actually becomes the phoneme /°/ (re-
inforcing further what has just been said): (_i'l°) /di'l°/, (l#'°) /lù'°/ (it is the writ-
ing that is capricious, not the phonic structure). In stressed checked syllables in
/K/, the articulation of /E, §, O/ can be more or less back and lowered (((E/, §/, ∏/)),
but they are transcribed in the same way): ('mE:˜) /'mEK/ mère˚ ('s§:˜) /'s§K/ sœur˚
('f∏:˜) /'fOK/ fort˘
4.1.1.4. Modern neutral pronunciation keeps the opposition /'eò/ >-é˚ -ée˚ -er˚ -ez≥
V /'Eò/ >-ès˚ -et˚ -Pe˚ -a¤˚ -P(en)t≥, which, however, is rather tiring, structurally, giv-
en that the others are neutralized: actually, there is no (longer) di‡erence between
p› and pot˚ they are both ('pP) /'po/, nor between pS and pSx\ ('p°) /'p°/, and
now, not even between bat and bø\ ('bÅ) /'ba/. We have, for example, ('kúe) /'kle/
clé V ('kúE) /'klE/ clPe˚ ('püe) /'pKe/ pré V ('püE) /'pKE/ près˚ ('fe) /'fe/ fée V ('fE) /'fE/
fPt˚ (vÅ'le) /va'le/ vallée V (vÅ'lE) /va'lE/ vallet˚ (på˜'le) /paK'le/ parler V (på˜'lE)
/paK'lE/ parla¤˚ (sÅ've) /sa've/ savez V (sÅ'vE) /sa'vE/ savPt˘
It is prevalently through school and writing that such oppositions persist, as it
is above all useful to distinguish certain verb forms: (&\#på˜'le, /p-) /ZùpaK'le, Sp-/
je parlP (past: çI spokeÇ) V (&\#på˜'lE, /p-) /ZùpaK'lE, Sp-/ je parla¤ (imperfect: çI
spokeÇ) and (\#&på˜l#'ºe, /&p-) /ZùpaKlù'Ke, Sp-/ je parlerP (future: çI will speakÇ)
V (\#&på˜l#'ºE, /&p-) /ZùpaKlù'KE, Sp-/ je parlera¤ (conditional: çI would speakÇ).
As far as -ai is concerned, we have: ('\e) /'Ze/ j'P (but ('\E) /'ZE/ j'Pe]÷ ('áe, 'áE) /'ge,
'gE/ gP˚ ('©e, '©E) /'ke, 'kE/ quP÷ ('bE÷ -e) /'bE÷ -e/ bP˚ ('mE÷ -e) /'mE÷ -e/ mP˚ ('vºE÷ -e)
/'vKE÷ -e/ vrP÷ furthermore, we find ('mE) /'mE/ ma¤ (with (m™, me) /mE, me/ in a
preintoneme), as also for ('E) /'E/ tu π [il e®]˚ ('fE) /'fE/ je fa¤ [il fPt]˚ ('sE) /'sE/ je/tu
sa¤ [il sPt]˚ ('vE) /'vE/ je va¤˚ with (™, e÷ f™, fe÷ s™, se÷ v™, ve) /-E, -e/ in a preinto-
neme: (&il™'lÅ, -e-) /ilE'la, -e/ il e® là˚ (m™'sÅ2 ‘Å'l∏:˜2’) {(me-)} /mE'sa, ‘a'lOK,’/ {/me-/}
ma¤ ça, alors!
Nasalized vowels
4.1.1.5. Obviously, the four çnasalÇ vowels remain (which are more precisely de-
fined as nasalized]˚ with their six taxophones, ('ì, ’3) /í/, ('^, ’}) /^/, (Œ) /Õ/, (Ú)
/Ú/: (&3s™Æ'tì) /ísEK'tí/ incertPn˚ (}'bº^) /^'bK^/ un brun˚ (pŒ'dŒ) /pÕ'dÕ/ pen-
dant˚ (mÚ'nÚ) /mÚ'nÚ/ mon nom÷ in stressed and checked syllables, we have:
('pì:dX) /'pídK/ pRndre˚ ('^:ba) /'^bl/ humble˚ ('lŒ:p) /'lÕp/ lampe˚ ('nÚ:bX) /'nÚbK/
nombre˘ A çfunnyÇ example: (}'bÚ 'vì 'blŒ) /^'bÚ 'ví 'blÕ/ un bon vin blanc˘ ˛ese
phonemes can even be followed by N\ (Œ'~¥i) /Õ'n¥i/ ennui˚ (nÚ'nEtX) /nÚ'nEtK/
non-être˚ (Œm'ne) /Õm'ne/ emmener.
It must be pointed out that, in current dictionaries and manuals, only four sym-
bols are used (the same, for both phonemic or phonetic use): ç/í, ^, ˙, Ó/Ç; of
these, for modern neutral pronunciation, only /^/ can be used; the others reflect
a pronunciation which is over a century old (exactly when the International Pho-
netic Association was founded), and lasted until the 1950's, as the neutral pronun-
ciation.
As the neutral pronunciation is di‡erent today, it can still be found in various
regional pronunciations, even if, as we will see, ç/í, ^, ˙, Ú/Ç can be useful as
representatives of an çinternationalÇ pronunciation, which is less tied to Paris and
to the neutral pronunciation of Parisian origin (Ô 4.2). Certain texts (and some
dictionaries), for the first three, even use ç/e, J, Å/Ç. In the transcriptions in the
French Dictionary (by R. Boch: Zanichelli, 1995’), the present writer put /í, ^,
Õ, Ú/, as here. In books which only use one kind of transcription (often a hybrid
of phonetic and phonemic), it is probably more suitable to give ç/π, ^, Õ, Ú/Ç.
Modern neutral pronunciation firmly keeps these four nasalized vowel pho-
nemes, as do most regional pronunciations (even if with di‡erent, more traditional
timbres). Instead, for Paris (for the center and the west) /^/ merges with /í/, so,
there, /'bKí/ corresponds to brin and even to brun (neutral ('bºì, 'bº^), respective-
ly). Consequently, even the çmediaticÇ accent loses a phoneme, merging both these
forms and other similar ones. ˛is will all be dealt with later (§ 4.4.2.1-2 “ §
4.5.2.3).
Other peculiarities of French vowels
4.1.2.1. As far as unstressed V are concerned, it would be best to give some indi-
cations to follow, in order to obtain the most fitting results. Transcriptions in dic-
tionaries and in manuals do not actually tally completely, as there are various fac-
tors to be considered. In order to simplify the description, let us say that –indepen-
dently of writing and dictionary transcriptions– there are the following çvowel ad-
justmentsÇ: for /’E/ (¤ the archiphoneme of /e, E/), we have (e) /e/, in an un-
checked pretonic syllable, if it is followed by a çclose(r)Ç V (¤ /i, y, u÷ e, °, o÷ Ú/}:
(e'te) /e'te/ été˚ (me'zÚ) /me'zÚ/ ma¤on˚ (le'z,°) /le'zj°/ lπ ySx˚ (&ºepe'te) /Kepe'te/ ré-
péter˘
On the other hand, we have (™) /E/, in an unchecked pretonic syllable, when it
is followed by an çopen(er)Ç V (¤ /E, §, O÷ a÷ í, ^, Õ/) and in checked syllables (in-
dependently of the context) too: (™'tE) /E'tE/ éta¤˚ (™'tŒ) /E'tÕ/ étant˚ (l™'z∏m) /lE-
'zOm/ lπ hommπ˚ (&ºep™'tE) /KepE'tE/ répéta¤÷ and (&ev™n'mŒ) /evEn'mÕ/ événement˚
(m™t'sì) /mEt'sí/ médecin˚ (p™ú'te) /pEl'te/ pelleter˚ (p™˜'_y) /pEK'dy/ perdu˚ (™d'mi)
/Ed'mi/ et demi˚ (t™Æ'p∏:˜) /tEK'pOK/ tπ reports˚ (s™ú'sÚ) /sEú'sÚ/ sπ leçons˚ (&l™sp™©'tÅka)
/lEspEk'takl/ lπ spectaclπ˚ (d™p'n°) /dEp'n°/ dπ pne¨˘ For (initial) ex-˚ esC- there is
4. french 155
a strong tendency to have /e/: (™á'zŒ:pa, e-) /Eg'zÕpl, e-/ exemple˚ (&™s©Å'¬,e, &e-) /Eska-
'lje, e-/ πcaliers˘
˛e examples of checked syllables, (intentionally) show, in these two cases, that
the timbre of the V that follows is of no importance (as it is, here, quite the oppo-
site). One must always recall that spelling (which is not in any way a true transcrip-
tion of phonic structure) can play dirty tricks… For -err-˚ we have /’EK/, but we can
also find the adjustment: (t™'ºiba, te-) /tE'Kibl, te-/ terrible˚ (s™'ºe, se-) /sE'Ke, se-/ ser-
rer˚ but (&p™˜Ö'©E) /pEKO'kE/ perroquet÷ furthermore, (&Ppü#&m,™ ˜™'tÅ:\) /opKù'mjE
KE'taZ/ au premier étage˚ (&}l™'\™ ˜Œ'~¥i) /^lE'ZE KÕ'n¥i/ un léger ennui (despite (pü#-
'm,e, le'\e) /pKù'mje, le'Ze/ premier˚ léger]˘ ˛ere are possible fluctuations for -er +
V- and for the spelling é (towards /e/): (&}le'\e ˜Œ'~¥i, &Ppü#&m,e ˜e'tÅ:\)÷ and for P˚
Z (towards /E/): (púe'zi:˜, pú™-) /ple'ziK/ pla¤ir˘
4.1.2.2. On the other hand, the isolated forms often influence the contextual-
ized ones, even in checked syllables, as in (&\evizi't™l nÅ'vi:˜, -tel) /Zevizi'tEl na'viK,
-tel/ j'P v¤ité le navire˚ also for -ez: (&v¯lÅ'v™Æ kÖ'ny) /vula'vEK kO'ny, -eK/ vo¨ l'avez
reconnu, and even for the proclitic -es monosyllables: (t™Æ'p∏:˜, teÆ-) /tEK'pOK, teK-/
tπ reports˚ (s™ú'sÚ, seú-) /sEl'sÚ, sel-/ sπ leçons˚ (&l™sp™©'tÅka, les-) /lEspEk'takl, les-/ lπ
spectaclπ˚ (d™p'n°, dep-) /dEp'n°, dep-/ dπ pne¨÷ also (™d'mi, ed-) /Ed'mi, ed-/ et de-
mi˘
Lastly, it is evident that the e‡ects of vowel adjustment, in unchecked syllables,
can go back further than the pretonic syllable, as long as syllables with di‡erent V
timbres do not intervene: (&ºepe'te) /Kepe'te/ répété˚ (&º™p™'tÅ) /KEpE'ta/ répéta÷ (&be-
áe',e) /bege'je/ bégZer˚ (&b™á™'mŒ) /bEgE'mÕ/ bégPement˘
For /’◊/ too, (not to be confused with (`), çzeroÇ), in unchecked syllables (phon-
ically of course, and always independently of transcriptions easily found), we have
(°) /°/ + a çclose(er)Ç V and (#) /§/ + an çopen(er)Ç V\ (pú#'v°Å:˜) /pl§'vwaK/ plS-
voir˚ (pú°'ºe) /pl°'Ke/ plSrer; whereas for /’O/ in unchecked syllables, we general-
ly have (Ö) /O/, unless it is immediately followed by /z/, or by a syllable with /o/,
or it does not derive from /o/ and in -otion: (&mÖnÖ't∏n) /mOnO'tOn/ monotone˚ (&sÅ-
lÖ'pEt) /salO'pEt/ salopette˚ (bÖ'se) /bO'se/ bosser˚ but (\P'zEf) /Zo'zEf/ Josè#e˚ (bP'bP)
/bo'bo/ bobo˚ (ºP'ze) /Ko'ze/ rosée˚ (&gºPs¿™Æ'te) /gKosjEK'te/ grossièreté˚ (&emP's¿Ú) /e-
mo'sjÚ/ émotion˘.
Even for the (unstressed) V spelt ô, au, the more frequent pronunciation is /O/:
(&Öpi'tÅl) /Opi'tal/ hôpital˚ (Ö'º∏:˜) /O'KOK/ aurore˚ (mÖ'ºis) /mO'Kis/ Maurice˚ (Ö˜-
'v°Å:˜) /OK'vwaK/ au revoir˘ In aujourd'hui˚ the preposition combined with the
definite article [au˚ èà+le¶] holds; instead, it is the second syllable that gives more,
due to /’uK˘/, as well: (&P\¨˜'_¥i, -\Ö˜-) /oZuK'd¥i, -OK-/; but we can hear (&Ö\Ö˜-, &¯-
\¨˜-) ç/OZOK-, uZuK-/Ç too.
For b›coup [b› + coup]˚ obviously, we have (bP'k¯) /bo'ku/, but the tenden-
cy to have /’O/, is so strong that, as it would be quite absurd to have */bO'ku/, we
very often end up with having, (b¯'k¯) ç/bu'ku/Ç. Even surtout and au fur et à
mesure present us with the frequent colloquial pronunciation (s¨˜'tU, P&f#˜Åm-
'zy:˜), for (sY˜'tU, P&fy˜eÅm'zy:˜) /syK'tu, ofyKeam[ù]'zyK/.
Likewise, for /°, §/, the base form is quite important: (d°'z,Em) /d°'zjEm/ dS-
xième˚ (b#'ºe) /b§'Ke/ bSrrer˘ In both cases, in checked syllables, we find (#) /§/,
(Ö) /O/: (s#l'mŒ) /s§l'mÕ/ sSlement˚ (pÖs'te) /pOs'te/ po®er˘
Above, we have already dealt with /’^, ’Õ/ and /’iK˘, ’yK˘, ’uK˘/ (§ 4.1.1: see giv-
en examples). In all other cases, in modern neutral pronunciation, in unstressed
syllables, we have, (i, y, ¯÷ Å÷ Œ, Ú) /i, y, u÷ a÷ Õ, Ú/.
4.1.2.3. Another interesting peculiarity of modern neutral French pronuncia-

tion is the tendency to devoice /i, y, u/, in certain contexts; this tendency is even
more consistent for the C, as will presently be shown.
˛erefore, between voiceless C, or between them and a subsequent pause, we
quite frequently find (i, Û, U): (&püÖfi'te) /pKOfi'te/ profiter˚ (påÆ&+i©y'¬,e) /paKtiky'lje/
particuliers˚ (m™Æ'si) /mEK'si/ merci˚ (tŒ'pi) /tÕ'pi/ tant p¤˚ (pÛ't#Å) /py'twa/ puto¤˚
(&ÅkUs'+i©) /akus'tik/ acou®ique˚ (påÆ'tU) /paK'tu/ partout˚ as well as the colorful ('°i,
'°î, '°îâ) /'wi/ (ç/'wih/Ç) oui!˚ ('°îâ2 '\Em 5b,ì1 1 füŒ's#Å; %zÅ˜'_îâ2) /'wi, 'ZEm 'bjí÷ fKÕ-
'swa zaK'di,/ oui, j'Pme bien Franço¤e Hardy˘
Before a pause, devoicing can occur even after a voiced C, but only partially, (î,
ÿ, û): (må˜'_î) /maK'di/ mardi˚ (&ŒtŒ'_ÿ) /ÕtÕ'dy/ entendu˚ (d#'bû) /dù'bu/ debout˘
Even between a voiceless and a voiced C, /i, y, u/ frequently become devoiced: (&l#-
påÆ'+î d[#]) /lùpaK'ti d[ù]/ le Parti de…˚ (Å©&+îvi'te) /aktivi'te/ activité˚ (&kÚfÿ'z,Ú)
/kÚfy'zjÚ/ confïon˚ (&dekû'pÅ:\) /deku'paZ/ découpage˘ Albeit more rarely, even be-
tween a voiceless C and a pause, /e, °, o/ can become devoiced: (&ºÅkÚ'tE) /KakÚ'te/
raconté˚ (le'd‚) /le'd°/ lπ dSx˚ (pÅú't≥) /pal'to/ paletot˘
Consonants
4.2.0. ˛e table of û 4.2 shows the French consonant articulations, which are
necessary for the right pronunciation of that language.
û 1.9-15, instead, give the orograms, grouped for manners of articulation, of all
the contoids given in the chapters of this volume (even as secondary, occasional,
or regional variants) for the 12 languages treated. ˛is exposition makes the neces-
sary comparisons between di‡erent languages more immediate.
postpalatal rounded
û 4.2. Table of French consonants.

postalveo-prevelar
provelar rounded
protuded
labiodental
alveo-velar
prepalatal
alveolar
bilabial
palatal
uvular
dental
velar
ö m (n) n (n) (~) N {˙}

F pb t d (T D) (+ _) (© á) kg
ƒ f v (,) (X º)
_ s z / \
ß (â) /j/ ¥ ° (˜)
ó /K/
‹ (l) l (¬)
4. french 157
Nasals
4.2.1. In French there are three traditional phonemes: /m, n, N/. It is worth
keeping the last phoneme, even though it has lost most of its phonemicity, merg-
ing with /nj/ (as did /L/, which does not exist in French anymore, having merged
with /j/): (mÅ'mŒ) /ma'mÕ/ maman˚ (nÅ'nŒ) /na'nÕ/ nanan˚ (pÅ'~,e) /pa'nje/ pa-
nier˚ (Å'NP, Å'~,P) /a'No/ agn›˚ (&Œs™N'mŒ÷ -~,#-) /ÕsEN'mÕ/ ensRgnement˚ (mÚ'tÅN÷
-Å~,) /mÚ'taN/ montagne˘ ˛e transformation into /nj/ is more frequent (and for
many, by now, quite normal) in front of a V˘
If /N/ is losing ground, there is a xenophoneme (for English -ing]˚ which is tak-
ing root (and, in theory –possibly, given its limited use– the balance of the phono-
logical system could be restored, with the substitution between these two N]˚ how-
ever, at the moment, the pronunciation of the English -ing, as in camping, varies
substantially; the most recommendable pronunciations are velar, (-i˙) (in an En-
glish-like way), or prevelar, (-i”) (by partial assimilation): (kŒ'pi˙, -”); or even pal-
atal, (-iN) (above all for the elderly); we also find (-i˙g, -i”Ò, -iNá) (a more autoch-
tonous version).
For (tautosyllabic) /nj, n¥/, we have (~,, ~¥): (pÅ'~,e) /pa'nje/ panier˚ (y'~,∏l) /y-
'njOl/ une yole˚ (Œ'~¥i) /Õ'n¥i/ ennui. (Popularly, we find that /nj/ and /N/ tend to
merge into (N): (mÅ'~,E:˜) /ma'njEK/ manière becomes (må'NE:‰, mÅ-), but should
not be copied.)
Normally, /n/ does not assimilate a heterosyllabic C following it (as happens, in-
stead, in most other languages), so we have (including ((yn$-)), nearly (&yn#-), with
quite an evident break): (yn'p∏m) /yn'pOm/ une pomme˚ (yn'bŒ:©) /yn'bÕk/ une ban-
que˚ (yn'mE:˜) /yn'mEK/ une mère˚ (&ynp™Æ's∏n pÅ's¿Œ:t) /ynpEK'sOn pa'sjÕt/ une per-
sonne patiente˚ (yn'fi,) /yn'fij/ une fille˚ (&ynvÅ'li:z) /ynva'liz/ une val¤e˚ (yn'/E:z) /yn-
'SEz/ une >a¤e˚ (yn'No:l) /yn'Nol/ une gnôle˚ (mÅn'©ì) /man'kí/ mannequin˚ (&yn©Å-
'ºEs) /ynka'KEs/ une carπse˚ (yn'g¯t) /yn'gut/ une goutte÷ and (&yn+y'lip) /ynty'lip/ u-
ne tulipe˚ (yn&_,ÅgÖ'nÅl) /yndjagO'nal/ une diagonale˚ (&ynºe'pÚ:s) /ynKe'pÚs/ une ré-
ponse.
Only in (what is often considered to be) non-neutral pronunciation, or nearly,
is it possible to have coarticulations for /n/ before a dorsal C: (~) (with raised tip
of the tongue) + (N, ©, á) and (n) + (k, g÷ º, ˜): (y~'No:l, mÅ8'©ì, &y8©Å'ºEs, yn'g¯t,
&ynºe'pÚ:s).
Near a voiceless C, as already seen in some examples, the N undergo devoicing,
and they reach total voicelessness before a pause: (}p'n°) /^p'n°/ un pnS˚ ('püis))
/'pKism/ pr¤me˘
Stops
4.2.2. ˛ere are three (diphonic) pairs of phonemes: /p, b÷ t, d÷ k, g/, with im-
portant pairs of taxophones: prepalatal, /t, d/ (+, _), before /i, y÷ j, ¥/ (and, less sys-
tematically, before /e, °/ too); a further (less important) one, is alveolar, for /t, d/
(T, D), before /S, Z/ (whereas, before /s, z/ they remain dental); and one palatal, or
rather, postpalatal, for /k, g/ (©, á) (more appropriate symbols are ((£, 8)), but it is
not absolutely necessary to use them), before front V (including /a, ù/), before /j,
¥/ and even at the end of syllables or rhythm groups, before a pause. In the other
cases, the çvelarÇ articulation, (k, g) can also be prevelar, ((´, Ò)), but, again, it is
not necessary to use special symbols.
Let us take a look at some examples: (p¯'pe) /pu'pe/ poupée˚ (be'be) /be'be/ bébé˚
('t¯t) /'tut/ toute˚ (d¯'d¯n) /du'dun/ doudoune˚ (+y'_i) /ty'di/ tu d¤˚ ('+¿ì) /'tjí/ tiens˚
(kÚ'_¥i:˜) /kÚ'd¥iK/ conduire˚ (e'te÷ e'+e) /e'te/ été˚ ('d°÷ '_°) /'d°/ dSx˚ (©Å¯T'/U)
/kaut'Su/ caout>ouc˚ (&ÅD\™©'+if) /adZEk'tif/ adjectif˚ (&s3mÖ'ºits) /símO'Kits/ SPnt-
-Moritz˚ (pid'zÅ) /pid'za/ pizza˚ (pi©'ni©) /pik'nik/ pique-nique˚ ('k∏©) /'kOk/ coq˚ (áÅ-
'áÅ) /ga'ga/ gaga˚ ('lŒ:á) /'lÕg/ langue˚ ('gºP) /'gKo/ gros˚ ('gºi) /'gKi/ gr¤˚ ('kúÅ©) /'klak/
clac! Before tautosyllabic C˚ (k, g) remain unchanged ({pro}velar), as can be seen
in some of these examples.
We find complete voicing assimilation to the second element (if diphonic), in
cases such as: (&Ån™á'd∏t) /anEk'dOt/ anecdote˚ (&º™T/P'se) /KEdSo'se/ rez-de->a¨sée˚
(m™t'sì) /mEd'sí/ médecin˚ (&ÅpsÖ'ly) /absO'ly/ absolu˚ (&s™d'dÅm) /sEt'dam/ cette da-
me˚ ('k¯b d#/Œ'pÅN) /'kup dùSÕ'paN/ coupe de >ampagne˚ (/Åg'\¯:˜) /Sak'ZuK/ >a-
que jour˚ (&Åv™á'v¯) /avEk'vu/ avec vo¨.
In these cases, a slowing down of the rate of speech can lead to only partial assi-
milation: (&Ån™ˆ'd∏t, &º™fl/P'se, m™∂'sì, &ÅÊsÖ'ly, &s™∂'dÅm, 'k¯Ê d#/Œ'pÅN, &Åv™ˆ'v¯).
˛is is the reason why, in phonemic transcriptions, we keep etymologic pho-
nemes, whereas for V we indicate the actual timbres, as we use more precise sym-
bols (despite dictionary –even pronunciation-dictionary– transcriptions which do
not, however, consider intermediate articulations!).
On the other hand, if the second segment is not diphonic (including /j/), the
aforementioned voicing assimilation does not occur: (&Åv™©'n¯) /avEk'vu/ avec no¨˚
(&Åv™©'1¥i) /avEk'l¥i/ avec lui˘
Constrictives
4.2.3.1. ˛ere are three (diphonic) pairs, /f, v÷ s, z÷ S, Z/, as well as two isolated
voiced phonemes, /j, K/ (instead of ç/J, º/Ç, the more çlegitimateÇ symbols), which
we will see presently. We can observe that, usually, /s, z/ are articulated with the
tip of the tongue raised, therefore, if we wanted to highlight this aspect, for discus-
sion and teaching, we could resort to supplementary symbols, ((s, z)); but, the most
important characteristic concerns /S, Z/, which, are generally, prevelarized postalve-
olar protruded, (/, \) (with a deeper timbre, caused by the lowering of the back of
the tongue between the two articulatory strictures, postalveolar and prevelar). Ex-
amples: ('fE:˜) /'fEK/ fPre˚ ('vif) /'vif/ vif˚ ('sŒ) /'sÕ/ cent˚ ('vÅ:z) /'vaz/ vøe˚ ('/Å) /'Sa/
>at˚ ('pÅ:\) /'paZ/ page˘
Voicing assimilation (to the second element) also concerns diphonic pairs of
constrictives: (n¯v'zÚ) /nuf'zÚ/ no¨ fa¤ons˚ ('ºP;s påÆfy'me) /'Koz paKfy'me/ rose
parfumée˚ ('vÅ\ 'v,E,) /'vaS 'vjEj/ va>e viRlle˚ (/'sE) /Z'sE/ je sa¤÷ but we have (/f) /Sv/:
(/'fÅl) /S'val/ >eval˚ (Å/'fe) /aS've/ a>evé˘ Slowing down, we can even have (n¯Ñ'zÚ,
4. french 159
'ºP;Ω påÆfy'me, 'vÅ? 'v,E,, ?'sE÷ /'ÑÅl, Å/'Ñe). On the other hand, speaking quickly, we
can find cases such as: (/™'pÅ) /Z{ùn}sE'pa/ je (ne) sa¤ pø.
About /j/, it must be said immediately that, more than a real constrictive, it is
a çsemi-constrictiveÇ, (,), indeed, it is placed half-way between the approximant,
(j), and the truly (voiced) constrictive, (J) (definitely rarer in world languages):
(',E:˜, i',E:˜) /'jEK, i'[j]EK/ hier˚ (©Å',e) /ka'je/ cahier˚ ('p¿e) /'pje/ pied˚ (,P',P) /jo'jo/ yo-
-yo˚ (&Åt#'¬,e) /at§'lje/ atelier˚ (fÅ'mi,) /fa'mij/ famille˚ (sÖ'lE,) /sO'lEj/ solRl˚ (f#¿'tÚ)
/f§j'tÚ/ fSilleton˘ Before a pause, we often have (¿): (fÅ'mi¿, sÖ'lE¿). French phono-
tactics, contrary to that of other languages, also has /Sj, Zj/: ('/¿ì) >ien˚ (ºe'\,Ú) ré-
gion˘
Sequences such as //0Ki'é, 0li'é// are given with (i',é), and therefore even the
most appropriate and most modern phonemic transcription gives /i'jé/: (püi',e)
prier˚ (püi',§:˜) priSr˚ (púi',Å) plia˚ (&sÅbli',e) sablier˘ Hence, (bºi',Œ) stands for
both brillant and Briand÷ but we could –possibly– have (bºi'Œ) /bKi'Õ/ for Briand˚
in controlled pronunciation. Furthermore, we have: (pe'i, pe',i) /pe'[j]i/ pZs˚ (&Åbe'i,
-e',i) /abe'[j]i/ abbZe˘
4.2.3.2. As far as /K/ is concerned, neutral pronunciation has two taxophones

(with devoicing, and other possibilities, which we will point out): the voiced uvu-
lar constrictive (º), before a stressed V˚ after a (tauto- or hetero-syllabic) consonant
and after a pause; and the (voiced) uvular approximant, (˜), before an unstressed
V˚ before a (heterosyllabic) consonant and before a pause.
Some examples of the constrictive: (ºÅ'_,P) /Ka'djo/ radio˚ ('ºy) /'Ky/ rue˚ (pÅ'ºi)
/pa'Ki/ Par¤˚ ('tüE) /'tKE/ très˚ (&püevi'z,Ú) /pKevi'zjÚ/ prév¤ions˚ (&p™lºi'nÅ:\) /pElKi-
'naZ/ pèlerinage˚ ('©ÅtX) /'katK/ quatre˚ ('s¯fX) /'sufK/ soufre˚ (º#'püŒ:dX) /Kù'pKÕdK/
reprendre˘ ˛ese examples demonstrate typical devoicing and complete voiceless-
ness, too, in (X), between (even voiced) C and a pause. Slowing down, or enunciat-
ing, we can even have (ºï): ('li:vX, -vºï) /'livK/ livre˘ Some examples of the approxi-
mant: (&Å˜i've) /aKi've/ arriver˚ (&lÅ˜Å'_,P) /laKa'djo/ la radio˚ (påÆ'+i:˜) /paK'tiK/ par-
tir˚ (Ö˜'v°Å:˜) /OK'vwaK/ au revoir˘
It must be immediately added that a frequent variant of (º) is the voiced uvular
trill, (K) (and this may explain why we use /K/, which generally indicates the uvu-
lar place of articulation, to help to avoid foreign pronunciation): ('Ky, pÅ'Ki, 't»E,
&p»evi'z,Ú, &p™lKi'nÅ:\, '©Åt', K#'p»Œ:d', 'li:v', -Kï); this is frequent after tautosyllab-
ic C, above all /p, t, k/, ('k»°Å:˜) /'kKwaK/ croire˚ whereas after /b, d, g/ we also
have the (voiced) uvular tap: ('bº^÷ 'br-÷ 'bK-) /'bK^/ brun˚ (dºÅ'pP÷ dr-÷ dK-) /dKa-
'po/ drap›˚ ('gºŒ÷ 'gr-÷ 'gK-) /'gKÕ/ grand˘ For emphasis (º, K) can substitute (˜)
too: ('fE:˜÷ -º÷ -K) /'fEK/ fPre˘ Sometimes we can have the uvular constrictive trill,
or tap, (˜, Í) (and the voiceless (º)), especially after /p, t, k/: ('g˜Œ, 'gÍŒ, 'tÜE, '©Åtº).
On the other hand, we can also find a voiced velar semi-constrictive (with a voice-
less velar constrictive, in a devoicing context): ('gyŒ, 't@E, '©Åtx).
Approximants
4.2.4. Apart from the taxophone (˜) of /K/ (just treated with the constrictives),
we have two central approximant phonemes, (¥) /¥/ (postpalatal rounded) and
(°) /w/ (provelar rounded, for which the symbol (w) of velar rounded phone
could quite easily be used, as in other kinds of pronunciation, treated at the end
of this chapter; but the opportunity to demonstrate not negligible gradation
would be lost): ('s¥i) /'s¥i/ su¤˚ ('~¥i) /'n¥i/ nuit˚ ('¬¥i) /'l¥i/ lui˚ ('l°i) /'lwi/ Lou¤˚
('m°Å) /'mwa/ mo¤˚ ('p#Å) /'pwa/ po¤˚ ('s#Å:˜) /'swaK/ soir˘ ˛ese examples also
show assimilation of voicing and place of articulation, as well as the important fact
that /¥/ and /w/ are two di‡erent phonemes, di‡erent from /j/ too. Regarding /lw/,
we can have by assimilation, (]°), with /l/ realized as semi-velar. ˛e /0K, 0l/ + /y,
u/ sequences remain the same, with no insertion of approximants (contrary to
what happens for //é'i, i'é//, which normally become /é'ji, i'jé/, § 4.2.3): (&Öpstüy'e)
ob®ruer˚ (gly'Œ) gluant˚ (kú¯'e) clouée˚ (tü¯'Œ) trouant˘
Laterals
4.2.5. ˛ere is only one lateral phoneme (today, Ô § 4.2.1), (l) /l/, which assimi-
lates for voicing (and, before /j, ¥/, for place of articulation): ('lyn) /'lyn/ lune˚
('p#Ål) /'pwal/ poil˚ (Å'le) /a'le/ aller˚ ('bl°) /'bl°/ blS˚ ('kúe) /'kle/ clef˚ ('fúy) /'fly/ flux˚
(Åú'pì) /al'pí/ alpin˚ (™á'zŒ:pa) /Eg'zÕpl/ exemple˚ ('Ú:ka) /'Úkl/ oncle˚ ('Ú:ga) /'Úgl/ on-
gle˚ ('s¯fa) /'sufl/ sou·e˘ Slowing down, or enunciating, we can also have (lï): ('Ú:ga÷
-lï), between a voiced C and a pause. Sometimes, we can hear something in be-
tween, with (Í): ('ÚkÍ, 'Ú:gÍ). In /lj, l¥/ the articulation is prepalatal: (s¯'¬,e) /su'lje/
soulier˚ ('¬,°) /'lj°/ liS˚ ('¬¥i) /'l¥i/ lui. Often, in non-neutral pronunciation, /lj/ and
/j/ tend to merge into /j/: (mi'¬,Ú÷ mi',Ú) million˚ (mi'¬,°÷ mi',°) miliS˚ therefore (s¯-
'¬,e) soulier and (&fyzi'¬,e) fïlier can correspond to (s¯',e) souiller˚ (&fyzi',e) fïller˘
Structures
4.3.0. ˛e greatest problems for segments are caused by the unstressed vowel
phoneme graphically expressed by e (apart from some exceptional cases, as mon-
siSr˚ fa¤ons); whereas, with regard to phone groups –or connected speech– the
phenomenon of lia¤on is typical (§ 4.3.3.1-3).
˛e (unstable) /ù/ phoneme
4.3.1.1. In neutral modern pronunciation, /ù/ is realized as an unstressed /§/

(û 4.1). ˛ere are various terms to indicate it, some less suitable than others, like:
çschwa, e caduc, e muetÇ. Its use and distribution constitutes one of the main char-
acteristics of the French phonological system, even if its phonemic status could be
4. french 161
debatable. More often than not, it seems that /ù/ (#) is introduced, in pronuncia-
tion, to avoid long sequences of C which turn out to be di‚cult to pronounce.
˛erefore from a phonemic transcription such as //msj°, ddÕ, at'lje//, Â, we could
actually have: (m#'s¿°, d#'dŒ, &Åt#'¬,e) monsiSr˚ dedans˚ atelier˚ as isolated forms;
in connected speech, the most common forms are, for instance: (}≈'s¿°) /^m'sj°/
un monsiSr˚ (lÅd'dŒ) /lad'dÕ/ là dedans˚ whereas atelier remains the same.
We could, on the other hand, start from a çfullÇ or çisolatedÇ form, that retains
all these unstable e (which is the most common in the traditional reading of verse,
and is even stronger in the way of speaking in the south of France, the Midi]˚ drop-
ping all the possible /ù/, without complicating the pronunciation with di‚cult
or impossible groups: //bOnù'tKi// bonnetrie˚ //ZùtùlùKù'di// je te le red¤˚ for the
normal (bÖn'tüi, &/t#lº#'_i÷ &\#tú#˜'_i). Generally, in phonemic transcriptions in
dictionaries, the /ù/ that do not drop in isolated forms are retained, omitting the
others; hence, we can now see when, even those which are normally indicated, can
drop.
4.3.1.2. In practice, the dropping of one or more /ù/ can occur if the conso-
nant groups, which come in contact, can occur within the word, ™ /lst, ksj, kskl,
kspK, ksplw, Kkw, Ks¥, KstK, Kmn/, Â, as in: (sÖús'tis) /sOls'tis/ sol®ice˚ (&™ázÅ©'s¿Ú)
/Egzak'sjÚ/ exaction˚ (&™kskúÅ'me) /Ekskla'me/ exclamer˚ (&™kspüi'me) /EkspKi'me/ ex-
primer˚ (™ks'pú°Å) /Eks'plwa/ exploit˚ (p¨Æ'k#Å) /puK'kwa/ pourquoi˚ (p¨Æ'sÎit)
/puK's¥it/ poursuite˚ (&syp™Æs'tüÅ) /sypEKs'tKa/ super®rat˚ (&ip™˜mne'zi) /ipEKmne'zi/
hypermnésie.
It is generally possible to increase the number of C in contact, if when dropping
/ù/, constrictives, approximants, laterals and nasals (but also stops) are added –
before or after: (©is'sE;Æt 'sÅ÷ &©is#'s-) qui se sert de ça?˚ (\#n&l#˜_i'pÅ, \&n#lº#-) je ne le
red¤ pø˚ (&ynp+it'fi,) une petite fille˚ (&+ynsüÅ'pÅ) tu ne serø pø˚ ([&i¬],Å&bPk¯d'mÚ:d)
il y a b›coup de monde˚ (&Únpå˜'lE ©#t'sÅ) on ne parlPt que de ça˚ (&™s©#&\#úsÅ'vE,
™zá&\#ú-) e®-ce que je le sava¤?˚ (\mŒ'fi/) je m'en fi>e!
Furthermore: (/&kü°Å'b,ì) je cro¤ bien˚ (s&n™pÅ'sy:˜) ce n'e® pø sûr˚ (s&©i[ú]t#'fP,
s©it'fP) ce qu'il te faut˚ (s&tü3'lÅ) ce trPn là˚ (/&sÎikÚ'tŒd lÅ'v°Å:˜) je su¤ content de la
voir [de l'avoir]˚ (/t#ld'mŒ:d, /&t#ld#'m-) je te le demande˚ (&s™á\#n&t#ldv™'pÅ, -d#v™-,
s™©/&t#l) c'e® que je ne te le deva¤ pø˚ (lve'v¯, &l#-) levez-vo¨!˚ (m&nem°Å'lÅ, m#&ne-)
menez-moi là!˚ (\'_i kúemÖ'+iv dlŒ'fŒn sÚpÅ'bÚ, -+if) je d¤ que lπ motifs de l'enfant
ne sont pø bons˚ (&sY˜l#'bŒ, syl-) sur le banc˚ (si&\#nt#l_i'pÅ, &si/t#l-) si je ne te le d¤
pø˚ (il&m#ldmŒt'pÅ, in&m-, &inm#l&d#-) il ne me le demande pø.
©thin a word, we can find: (bÖn'tüi) bonneterie˚ (©Ås'ü∏l) cøserole˚ (Åm'ne)
amener˚ (Å'púe) appeler˚ (\¯'ºe) jouerP˚ (pú™n'mŒ) plRnement÷ but: (&Œgl#'tE:˜) An-
gleterre˚ (&m™Ækü#'_i) mercredi˚ (&på˜l#'mŒ) parlement˚ (&fÖÆt#'mŒ) fortement˚ (&Œ-
pú#'mŒ) amplement˘ For parle-m'en, we often have (på˜l'mŒ), which we can also
hear for parlement˚ in fast or slow speech.
4.3.1.3. It is important to bear in mind the di‡erence that exists in French, for
the /0/ + /m, n, K, l/ + /j/ sequences, that would be too heavy, hence, a stable /ù/
is inserted: (&sÖm#'¬,e) sommelier˚ (&n¯s#'m,Ú) no¨ semions˚ (&sŒt#'~,e) centenier˚
(&v¯t#'~,e) vo¨ teniez˚ (&n¯s#'º,Ú) no¨ serions˚ (&v¯/Œt#'º,e) vo¨ >anteriez˚ (&ºi/#-
'¬,°) Ri>eliS˚ (&n¯zÅp#'¬,Ú) no¨ appelions˚ but (©Ås'p¿e) cøse-pieds˚ (s™t'p¿Es) cette
pièce˚ (bÖn'+¿e) bonnetier˚ (/åÆ'+¿e) >arretier˚ (p™ú'+¿e) pelletier˘ ˛e same happens
for /¥, w/: (/e&s#¬¥i'si) >ez celui-ci˚ (}&b¯d#'l°Å) un bout de loi÷ even if it is not unu-
sual to hear: (&/es¥i'si) >ez celui-ci˚ (&}b¯'dl°Å), (&l#\°'dl°Å) le jS de l'oie˚ and simi-
lar phrases.
˛e /ù/ does not generally drop in the first syllable of names: ('l°i ˜#'nP) /'lwi
Kù'no/ Lou¤ Renault˚ (&Å˜#'nÅ:˜) /aKù'naK/ à Renard˚ not even for de\ (&d#lÅ'ºi:v)
/dùla'Kiv/ De la Rive˚ (m#&s¿°d#'gP:l) /mùsj°dù'gol/ M. De Gaulle÷ but if it is pos-
sible to simplify, it is done, on the radio and television too, even if it is a little stig-
matized, as in: de De Gaulle which is nearly always (d#d'gP:l). Surnames usually
resist better than first names, indeed, Renaud and Den¤, in appropriate contexts
are often: (˜'nP, d'ni).
However, we regularly find: (}˜'nÅ:˜) /^K'naK/ un renard˚ (snÚ'lÅ2 &v,ìd'gP:l)
{(s#n-)} /sùnÚ'la, vjíd'gol/ ce nom-là vient de "Gaule&˚ (\&nepÅd'gP:l) /Znepad'gol/
je n'P pø de gaulπ (in a real or figurative sense), (P&bÖ˜dlÅ'ºi:v) /obOKdla'Kiv/ au
bord de la rive÷ but: (ºi/'lE) /KiS'lE/ Ri>elet (obviously in the case of (&ºi/#'¬,°) /Ki-
Sù'lj°/ Ri>eliS, it is di‡erent). ˛e same happens before /*é/ (¤ çdisjunctiveÇ ini-
tial V˚ usually represented by the so called çaspirateÇ h and by the names of num-
bers): (l#e'ºP) /lùe'Ko/ le héro˚ (l#'Ú:z) /lù'Úz/ le onze˘
Taxophonics
4.3.2.1. In a sentence, the way in which /ù/ behaves, ¤ retained or inserted or

dropped, makes its position within a word peculiar. Doubtlessly, in these cases,
pronunciation is influenced by spelling, as well, with its internal e; whereas word-
-ending e, which are not usually pronounced in isolated forms, can make one
(think one should) prefer to drop it even in syntagms, compounds and common
phrases.
In certain words, /ù/ does not drop, even if the result of the drop would give a
rather simple consonant group: (&n¯p#'zÚ) no¨ pπons˚ but (n¯v'zÚ) no¨ fa¤ons÷
(&lÅ©#'ºEl) la querelle˚ but (&}púÖ'tÚ) un peloton÷ (&def#'mEl) dπ femellπ˚ but (l™f'nEtX)
lπ fenêtrπ˘ Furthermore, because of the disjunctive h, (&yns©yú'+y:˜) une sculpture˚
but (&yn#'Ú:t) une honte÷ (&s™tspúŒ'd§:˜) cette splendSr˚ but (&s™t#å˜'_,Es) cette har-
diπse (we can have (&s™t-å˜'_,Es), too).
˛ere are also cases such as (d™'bEús 'üi:z) dπ bellπ cer¤π˚ (&d#nº#v'ni;Æ ©#ú's#Å:˜)
de ne revenir que le soir÷ on the other hand, spelling without -e makes the pronun-
ciation of the following seem superior: ('pÅ˜á d™'püì:s, 'pÅÆ©) Parc dπ Princπ˚ ('Å˜á
d#tüi',Ú:f, 'ÅÆ©) arc de triom#e˚ (&¯˜z'blŒ) ours blanc˚ ('fil≈ pÖlÖ'nE) film polona¤˚
(+i'/§˜D '\P:n) T-shirt jaune˚ instead of the more natural ('pÅÆ©# d™'püì:s, 'ÅÆ©# &d#-
tüi',Ú:f, '¯Æs# 'blŒ, 'film# &pÖlÖ'nE, +i'/§ÆT# '\P:n), which are thus often considered
less good, because of the spelling, while, above all ('¯Æs# 'blŒ), for rhythmic rea-
sons too, is more than legitimate; ('ÅÆ©#t tüi',Ú:f) (with -C Ce (0#0)) is at times stig-
matized as uneducated. Normally, the following cases can be seen in slow, careful
4. french 163
pronunciation; otherwise, in fast pronunciation, dropping prevails: ('p∏st ü™s'tŒ:t,

-t# ˜-) /'pOst KEs'tÕt/ po®e re®ante˚ ('Åúp ≈Å˜i'+im, -p# mÅ-) /'alp maKi'tim/ Alpπ Ma-
ritimπ˚ ('/Å˜l d#'gP:l, -l# d#-) /'SaKl dù'gol/ ≥arlπ de Gaulle˘
Let us further consider examples (due to rhythmic reasons) such as: (&pÖÆt≈ŒtP,
-Æt#m-) /pOKt[ù]mÕ'to/ porte-mant›˚ (&pÖÆtküe',Ú, -Æt#k-) /pOKt[ù]kKe'jÚ/ porte-
-crZon˚ with /[ù]/, but (&pÖÆt#'púym) /pOKtù'plym/ porte-plume÷ and, hence, even
(&©ÅÆt#'d∏:˜) /kaKtù'dOK/ carte d'or˚ and certainly not *(kaR'dO:r) (also) in the Italian
advertisements for Carte d'Or (which in French, would be car d'or (&©Å˜'d∏:˜));
however, (&©Å˜d'd∏:˜) is possible, too.
˛e cases are increasing where, before a pause, one pronounces a non-etymolog-
ic /ù/, which is not present in spelling, above all after voiced C, in particular the
sonants: (P'tEl, -l#, Ö-) /o'tEl, O-/ hôtel˚ (s™˜'vi:˜, -˜#) /sEK'viK/ servir˚ (bÚ'\¯:˜, -˜#)
/bÚ'ZuK/ bonjour!
4.3.2.2. ‹en, in connected speech, a word ends in /0Kò, 0lò/ and is then fol-
lowed by another which begins with /ò0/, in slow and wary pronunciation, /ù/ is
inserted; but normally, even /K, l/ are dropped: ('©Åt 'fÅm÷ '©Åtü#) /'katK 'fam/ qua-
tre femmπ˚ (&ynPt'f#Å÷ y&nPtü#-) /ynotK'fwa/ une autre fo¤˚ (&m™ddP'tEl÷ 'mEtü# d-)
/mEtKdo'tEl/ maître d'hôtel˚ (l#'pP;v bÖ'n∏m, ú'p-÷ l#'pP;vº#) /lù'povK bO'nOm/ le
pauvre bonhomme˚ (i≈'sŒ;p ©#'nÚ÷ &ilm#'sŒ;bl#) /ilmù'sÕbl kù'nÚ/ il me semble que
non˚ (&3pÖ'sib d#ú'fE:˜÷ -ibl#) /ípO'sibl dùl'fEK/ impossible de le fPre˚ (ú'p§b _itÅ'li÷
l#'p§pú#) /lù'p§pl dita'li/ le pSple d'Italie˘
In cases such as /vOtKùp'n°/ votre pnS˚ apart from a slow and wary (&vÖtü#p-
'n°), we also have (vÖp'n°, -t'n°, vÖtp'n°), and (&vÖtp#'n°), considered rather un-
educated because of the di‡erence with its spelling. Decidedly uneducated (and
intentionally joky) is (&™©s#'püE, -e) for (™ks'püE) exprès˚ whereas (™s'püE, -e) is rather
fast colloquial.
As seen (in the previous section), we have to have /0ùùj/ in a word (/ù/ refers
to sonants: /m, n, K, l/), but it is not valid in sentences: (s™l'm,ì) c'e® le mien˚ (&i[ú]-
fPl'~,e, fP-) il faut le nier˚ (&i[l]zŒ'+¿En '¬,°) ils en tiennent liS˚ (in'vÅl 'º,ì, &iln#-) ils
ne valent rien˘
However, one can definitely also have: (&d#n#'º,ì 'fE:˜) de ne rien fPre˚ (&\#nd#-
'mŒ;d# 'º,ì) je ne demande rien˚ and even: (&s™l#'m,ì), (&i[ú]fPl#'~,e, fP-), (&i[l]zŒ'+¿En#
'¬,°), (in'vÅl# 'º,ì, &iln#-). Let us also consider: (&bÖnÅpåÆt#'mŒ '/P) bon appartement
>aud˚ (&bÖnÅ'pÅÆt ≈Œ'/P, -t#) Bonaparte man>ot˘ If the context does not create
any ambiguity, we can easily have bon appartement >aud (&bÖnÅpåÆt'mŒ '/P).
4.3.2.3. For sequences of monosyllabic words with /ùò/ [le˚ je˚ me˚ te˚ se˚ ce˚ de˚
ne]˚ there are often clear, general preferences, but not absolute, such as: (\#n÷ \n#)
je ne˚ (\#m, \m#) je me˚ (\#l, \l#) je le˚ (d#l) de le˚ (d#n) de ne˚ (d#m) de me˚ (d#t)
de te˚ (d#s) de se˚ (d#s, ts#) de ce˚ (©#l) que le˚ (©#n) que ne˚ (©#m) que me˚ (©#s) que
se/ce˚ (©#t) que te˚ (s©#) ce que\ (&d#nº#v'ni;Æ ©#ú's#Å:˜) de ne revenir que le soir˚
(&m°Å\#n&s™©#d'_i:˜) moi je ne sa¤ que te dire˚ (&\#ns™'º,ìt s#tüy'kúÅ) je ne sa¤ rien
de ce truc là˘
For /Z/ in je me le demande˚ we find (&\#ml#d'mŒ:d) and (\&m#ld#'mŒ:d)÷ the lat-
ter is at times considered less advisable; similarly, for the second forms in: (\l#'v°,
\#l'v°) je le vSx˚ (\#≈'+¿ì, \m#-) je me tiens˚ (/&tÅv™'_id v#'ni;˜, -'_i d#v'ni:˜) je t'a-
va¤ dit de venir (spelling influences the çchoiceÇ of preferably retaining word-in-
ternal /ù/).
˛e second forms here are, thus, also çuneducatedÇ: (/'kü°Å÷ #/'kü°Å) je cro¤˚
(\mŒ'fU÷ &#\-) je m'en fo¨˚ (l™'mEá d#lÅ'ºy, l™'mE ©#dlÅ'ºy) lπ mecs de la rue˚ (&dek¯-
'vºi;˜ l#'mÚ:d, &dek¯'vºi; ˜#l'mÚ:d) découvrir le monde˚ ('püŒd l#me'tüP, 'püŒ d[º]#l-)
prendre le métro˚ (i'mEt ú#'püi, i'mEt [ü]#ú'püi) y mettre le prix (if it could be confused
with ils mettent le prix (i'mEt ú#'püi), the /K/ does not drop), (i[ú]'/EÆ/ s#©i[l]'v°, i[ú]-
'/EÆ/#s ©i[l]'v°) il >er>e ce qu'il vSt÷ actually, the second forms are often more
çnaturalÇ, but –alas– di‡erent from the spelling!
In the case of forms such as (&Åb°Å'mŒ) aboiement˚ (\n™'t#Å) je nettoie˚ (i[l]'v°Å)
ils voient˚ (/pe'ºe) je pZerP [pPerP]˚ (©i[ú]'s#Å) qu'ils soient˚ (&©#+y'E, ©#'+ÎE, ©#'tE)
que tu Pπ÷ forms such as (&Åb°Å,'mŒ, \n™'t#Å,, i[l]'v°Å,, /p™,'ºe, ©i[ú]'s#Å,) and (&©#-
+y'E,, ©#'+ÎE,, ©#'tE,) are certainly çuneducatedÇ.
4.3.2.4. In some cases, in French, we have geminated C in derived words:

(&tü°Åz¿™m'mŒ) tro¤ièmement˚ (n™t'te) netteté˚ (&ekú™˜'ºÅ, &™-) éclPrera (Ô (&ekú™'ºÅ,
&™-) éclPra]÷ in the future and conditional of courir˚ mourir˚ quérir (and prefixed
forms, but not other verbs with -rr-): (/k¯˜'ºE) je courra¤ (Ô imperfect (/k¯'ºE) je
coura¤˚ and also, (/p¯'ºE) je pourra¤]÷ furthermore, in cases such as: (lÅd'dŒ) là-de-
dans (Ô (lÅ'dŒ) la dent], (+ym'mŒ) tu me mens (Ô (+y'mŒ) tu mens˚ (&+ynmŒ'pÅ) tu
ne mens pø], (&™llÅ'_i) elle l'a dit (Ô (&™lÅ'_i) elle a dit]÷ obviously, even: (&p#+it'tÅba)
petite table˚ (&p#+itÅ'blP) petit tabl›˘ Lastly we have gemination (or lengthening)
to give emphasis: (˚1s™pÌpÅÆ£fE3 3, ˚1s™Ìp:Å-) c'e® parfPt!
Gemination is possible, to maintain distinction, in the case of the imperfect in-
dicative and the present subjunctive, compared to the present indicative: (&n¯-
kü°Å,',Ú) no¨ croyions˚ (&v¯kü°Å,',e) vo¨ croyiez (Ô (&n¯kü°Å',Ú) no¨ croyons˚ (&v¯-
kü°Å',e) vo¨ croyez]÷ to avoid ambiguity in cases such as: (&lÅssi'ºi) l'Assyrie˚ (&lÅsi'ºi)
la Syrie÷ to insist on a prefix (especially negative): (&illi'ziba) ill¤ible˘ Gemination
can even be found where it is not needed, for graphic geminates, in bookish words
(but spontaneous and not a‡ected pronunciation carefully avoids such gemina-
tions): (vi'lÅ, -l'lÅ) villa˚ (gºÅ'mE:˜, -m'm-) grammPre˚ (&Å_i's¿Ú, &Åd_i-) addition˚ (i-
'lystX, il'l-) illu®re÷ it is equally improper, though common, to geminate the pro-
noun l' (which neutral pronunciation –obviously– avoids) in cases such as: (&\#l-
le'vy, &+yllÅ'_i, n¯l&lÅvÚ'sÛ), for: (\le'vy) je l'P vu˚ (&+ylÅ'_i) tu l'ø dit˚ (n¯&lÅvÚ'sÛ)
no¨ l'avons su˘
4.3.2.5. French presents consonant sequences with di‡erent places of articula-

tion, which present considerable problems for many foreign people; it is useful to
look at the example we have just seen of (&Å_i's¿Ú, &Åd_i-) addition˚ as well as (&Ån™á-
'd∏t) anecdote˚ (Å©&+ivi'te) activité˚ (/'kü°Å) je cro¤˚ and many other previous exam-
ples and future ones.
˛e assimilation of voiced stops, between (either oral or nasalized) V and C,
which become N (except in very controlled pronunciation, dominated by spell-
4. french 165
ing) is considerable and typical: (}n&mi©i'lP) /^dmiki'lo/ un demi kilo˚ (Ån'mì) /ad-
'mí/ à demPn˚ (t¯n'mEm) /tud'mEm/ tout de même˚ (Œ&tü3nmŒ'\e) /ÕtKídmÕ'ZE/ en
trPn de manger˚ (yn'gºŒ;n me'zÚ) /yn'gKÕd me'zÚ/ une grande ma¤on˚ (lŒn'mì)
/lÕd'mí/ lendemPn˚ (d™'gºŒ;n 'dÅm) /dE'gKÕd 'dam/ dπ grandπ damπ˚ (lÅ'/Œ;m dÅ-
'mi) /la'SÕb[K] da'mi/ la >ambre d'am¤˚ (kÚ'm,ì) /kÚ'bjí/ combien˚ (&intÚ;≈'pÅ, &iút-,
il&n#-) /ilnùtÚb'pa/ il ne tombe pø˚ (l™'lŒ;˙ mÖ'dEñ) /lE'lÕg mO'dEKn/ lπ languπ
modernπ˚ (yn'lÚ;˙ 'áE:˜) /yn'lÚg 'gEK/ une longue guerre˘
For voiceless stops, we have assimilation of places of articulation in the same
way, while we can have voicing, devoicing, or voicelessness, for the type of phona-
tion (again, as well as a slower or more controlled possibility, which corresponds
to the phonemic transcription ): (&}≈+i'k¯, &})-) /^pti'ku/ un petit coup˚ (m3n'nŒ,
-n'nŒ, -£'nŒ, m3'nŒ) /mít'nÕ/ mPntenant˚ (v3n'd°, -n'd°, -£'d°) /vít'd°/ vingt-dSx˚
('bŒ;~ pe&˜ife'ºi©, -) p-) /'bÕk peKife'Kik/ banque péri#érique˚ (\#n&m#tüÚm'pÅ, -≈-
'pÅ, -)'pÅ) /ZùnmùtKÚp'pa/ je ne me trompe pø˘
Lastly, this assimilation can occur even before a V\ (pŒ'nŒ) /pÕ'dÕ/ pendant˚ (t¯l-
&mÚn™'lÅ) /tulmÚdE'la/ tout le monde e® là˚ as even before a pause: (t¯l'mÚn) /tul-
'mÚd/ tout le monde˚ (mÅ'lŒ:˙) /ma'lÕg/ ma langue˘ It can also be found between a
non-nasalized V and N\ (&mÅnm°Å'zEl) /madmwa'zEl/ mademo¤elle˚ (&m™nm°Å'zEl)
/mEdmwa'zEl/ mπdemo¤ellπ˚ (&º#nmŒ'de) /KùdmÕ'de/ redemander˚ (&Ånmi'ºe) /ad-
mi'Ke/ admirer˚ (&_,ÅNnÖs'+i©, -˙n-) /djagnOs'tik/ diagno®ic˚ (&Œ\Œm'mŒ) /ÕZÕb'mÕ/
enjambement˚ and adverbial -ment: (fü°Ån'mŒ) /fKwad'mÕ/ froidement˚ (vÅ˙'mŒ)
/vag'mÕ/ vaguement˚ (&kÚpú™n'mŒ, -n'mŒ, -£'mŒ) /kÚplEt'mÕ/ complètement˘
Let us also note cases such as (l°i'©Em püÖ'/ì, -mp p-) /lùwi'kEnd pKO'Sí/ le week-
-end pro>Pn˘
4.3.2.6. In fluent, familiar speech, there are certain reductions (even for stress),
which simplify speech, without compromising communication; instead, by slow-
ing down speech, pronunciation can correspond to the phonemic transcription:
(s't∏m) /sE'tOm/ cet homme˚ (st#'fÅm) /sEt'fam/ cette femme˚ (Ås't§:˜) /asE't§K/ à cet-
te hSre˚ (stÅ'_i:˜) /sEta'diK/ c'e®-à-dire˚ ({m™}p&t™t, -tX) /{mE}p°'tEtK/ [ma¤] pSt-être˚
(Å&°Å:˜) /a'vwaK/ avoir˚ (°Å'lÅ, v'lÅ) /vwa'la/ voilà˚ (vlÅPT'/P:z, &°ÅlÅ-) /vwalaotK'Soz/
voilà autre >ose˚ (≈&s¿°, )'s-, p's-) /mù'sj°/ monsiSr˚ (&k¯te'm°Å) /ekute'mwa/ écou-
tez-moi˚ (s©yz™'m°Å) /Ekskyze'mwa/ excëz-moi˚ (s¿¯&púE) /silvu'plE/ s'il vo¨ plaît˘
In a preintoneme, /swa'sÕt/ soixante is currently reduced to ('s#Œ;t), especially
in compounds: (s#Œt'sis, &s#Œd_iz'n§f, -n_-) 66˚ 79˘
Furthermore: (pÅs'©#, &pÅs©#, &pÅs©, &Ås©, s©#, s©, sk) /paKs[ù]kù/ parce que˚ (&™s-
©#, s©#) /Eskù, skù/ e®-ce que {(p¨Æ'k#Ås ©#&+y_i'sÅ) pourquoi e®-ce que tu d¤ ça?]˚
(sÎi'si) /sùl¥i'si/ celui-ci˚ (&pi) /'p¥i/ pu¤˚ (&pis©#, -s©, -sk) /'p¥isk/ pu¤que˚ ([™]'bì)
ç/[E]'bí/Ç [eh] bien (bin˚ bi'n would be better), ('pÛ) /'ply/ pl¨ (possibly: p'¨]˚ (mŒ-
&fì) /mEÕ'fí/ ma¤ enfin [m'enfin]˚ (mÅ&l∏;˜) /mEa'lOK/ ma¤ alors [m'alors]˚ (&bŒ) ç/'bÕ/Ç
bon! (ban! would be better), (&nŒ) ç/'nÕ/Ç non! (nan! would be better), ('°™, -E, -e, -É)
/*'wE, -e/ oua¤!˚ (&k∏;˜) /Õ'kOK/ encore˚ (st#&mŒ, /t#-) /Zystù'mÕ/ ju®ement˘
Other examples: (dmÅ&~,E;˜, t≈-) /dùtutma'njEK/ de toute manière˚ (tfÅ&sÚ) /dù-
tutfa'sÚ/ de toute façon˚ (Æ&k#Å) /puK'kwa/ pourquoi˚ (+y˜™l&mŒ) /natyKEl'mÕ/ natu-
rellement˚ (s&≈Œ) /s§l'mÕ/ sSlement˚ (D&\¯:˜) /tu'ZuK/ toujours˚ (s&pÅ, &pÅ) /nEs'pa/
n'e®-ce pø?˚ (D&\Å) /de'Za/ déjà˚ (D\°'ne) /deZ°'ne/ déjSner˚ (™s&púi©Å's¿Ú, s&p-) /Ekspli-
ka'sjÚ/ explication˚ (\™'s¿Ú) /ZEs'tjÚ/ ge®ion˚ (&©Åt) /'katK/ quatre˚ (©™©'f#Å) /kElkù'fwa/
quelquefo¤˚ (©™©'/P:z) /kElkù'Soz/ quelque >ose˚ (†tÅ'kU) /tuta'ku/ tout à coup˚ (†tÅ-
'l§:˜) /tuta'l§K/ tout à l'hSre˚ (†tP'púy[s]) /tuto'ply[s]/ tout au pl¨˚ (Å™á'v¯) /avEk'vu/
avec vo¨˘
More still: (/Îi'lÅ, /sÎi-, //i-) /Zùs¥i'la/ je su¤ là˚ (\¥ie'_i÷ \,e-) /Zùl¥ie'di/ je lui P
dit˚ (&tÅ˜e'zÚ) /tyaKe'zÚ, t¥a-/ tu ø ra¤on˚ (t™'f¯, te-) /tyE'fu, t¥E-/ tu π fou˚ (t&s™) /ty-
'sE/ tu sa¤˚ (&+yÅv™'_i, &+¥Å-, &tÅ-) /tyavE'di, t¥a-, ta-/ tu ava¤ dit˚ (l™'b,ì) /ilE'bjí/ il e®
bien˚ (v&zÅve'vy) /vuzave'vy/ vo¨ avez vu˚ (v*&zÅ˜e'te) /vuvuzaKe'te/ vo¨ vo¨ arrê-
tez?˚ (nó&zŒnÅ'lÚ) /nunuzÕna'lÚ/ no¨ no¨ en allons˚ (&isÚ'bÚ) /ilsÚ'bÚ/ ils sont bons˚
(&izÚ'püi) /ilzÚ'pKi/ ils ont pr¤˚ (,Å) /ilja, ja/ il y a˚ (&,ŒnÅ'vE) /iliÕna'vE, ilj-, j-/ il y en
avPt (uneducated even (&,ÅnÅ'vE)). In fast speech, y˚ si˚ ni˚ tu˚ ou, oú˚ before a V˚
often and usually, have consonant variants (often condemned by schools, all be-
cause of disguising spelling): (si™l'v°, s¿™-) /siEl'v°, sjE-/ si elle vSt˚ (niÅ'n¯, ~,Å-) /ni-
a'nu, nja-/ ni à no¨˚ (¯Å'¬,Ú, °Å-) /ua'ljÚ, wa-/ ou à Lyon˚ (¯™'tEl, °™-) /uE'tEl, wE-/
oú-e®-elle?˚ (i[ú]&fPiÅ'le, -P,Å-, -P+-) /ilfoia'le, -oja-, -ot-/ il faut y aller˘
In rapid speech, between nasalized V, continuous C can be nasalized a little, but
it is not worth transcribing as it is barely perceptible: (&mÚ\Œ'bÚ) /mÚZÕ'bÚ/ mon
jambon˚ (Œ'vì) /Õ'ví/ en vPn; the same occurs for oral V preceded and followed by
N\ (nÖ'nEt) /nO'nEt/ nonnette˚ (y&nÅnimi'te) /ynanimi'te/ unanimité˘ On the other
hand, in other languages, such as English, Spanish, Italian, the nasalization –of V
between N– is more obvious, but this too, is hardly worth mentioning as it occurs
quite automatically.
An alveolar semi-lateral, /l/ (¬), is possible for the grammemes (articles or pronouns)
le˚ la˚ les˚ lui (non-final) preceded by the grammemes par˚ pour˚ sur˚ vers: (&på˜l™f-
'nEtX, -˜¬™-÷ &p¨˜¬¥i'_i:˜, -˜¬¥i-÷ &sY˜lÅ'tÅba, -˜¬Å-÷ &v™˜l#'s°Å:˜, -˜¬#-) /paKlef'nEtK, puK-
l¥i'diK, syKla'tabl, vEKlù'swaK/ par les fenêtres˚ pour lui dire˚ sur la table˚ vers le soir˘
çLiaisonÇ
4.3.3.1. For the all-important lia¤on, it must be said that it concerns, to di‡er-
ent degrees, all types of pronunciation: from a minimum of linking in familiar
speech, to a maximum which can be found in classic poetry (a certainly more elab-
orate language). More or less in between, we can find current conversation (real
language). Lia¤on only occurs within rhythm groups, between words which are
linked from a morphosyntactic and semantic point of view. Some are obligatory,
others impossible, some optional, depending on the style of diction and the choic-
es of the speaker.
˛e most normal and frequent linking occurs with: /z/ [s˚ x˚ z]˚ /t/ [t˚ d]˚ /n/ [n]\
(&lezÅ'mi) lπ am¤ (“ mπ˚ tπ˚ sπ˚ dπ˚ cπ]˚ (&d°'z§:˜) dSx hSrπ˚ (™&+ilÅ'le) e®-il al-
lé?˚ (&}gºŒ't∏m) un grand homme˚ (&p¿etÅ'tE:˜) pied-à-terre˚ (&Œne'te) en été˚ (&mÚnÅ-
'mi) mon ami (“ ton˚ son÷ once (&mÖnÅ-) was neutral, but today it is no longer so,
although this pronunciation is still widely used), (&ÚnÅ'tŒ) on attend˚ (&}nP'tEl) un
hôtel (“ aucun hôtel]˚ (&º,3nÅ'fE:˜) rien à fPre˚ (&b,3nÅ'se) bien øsez˘
4. french 167
Other forms with nasalized V do not link, except bon and adjectives such as
plRn˚ vPn˚ ancien˚ certPn˚ pro>Pn˚ soudPn˚ vilPn (but they lose their nasality):
(&bÖnÅ'mi) bon ami˚ (&Œpú™'nE:˜) en plRn Pr˚ (l#&m°Å,™'nÅ:\) le Moyen-Âge˘
We never find lia¤on after et, or before the names of numbers or a çdisjunctiveÇ
h, (or çaspiratedÇ h, because it was pronounced like that… centuries ago!) and gen-
erally, before w˚ y\ (eÅ'l∏:˜) et alors˚ (¬¥ie'El) lui et elle˚ (&iúsÚ'Ú:z) ils sont onze˚ (l#'^)
le un˚ (l#'¥it) le huit˚ (dee'ºP) dπ héros˚ (Œ'P) en haut˚ (&}°is'©i) un wh¤ky˚ (}',P:t,
}',∏t, }',Å©) un ya>t÷ and (}'°i) un oui, as well.
Even in current conversation, it is obligatory to link a noun with the çdetermi-
nantsÇ that precede it: (le'z∏m) lπ hommπ˚ (&sez°Å'zP) cπ o¤›x˚ (te'z,°) tπ ySx˚
(le&zPtü#'z∏m, &lezPd'z∏m) lπ autrπ hommπ˚ (&l#˜zÅ'mi) lSrs amiπ˚ (&d°zÅ'mi) dSx
am¤˚ (&degºŒ'z∏m) dπ grands hommπ˚ (}&gºŒtÅ'mi) un grand ami˘
Subject pronouns and verbs are linked: (&n¯zÅ'vÚ) no¨ avons˚ (&v¯zÅ'le) vo¨ al-
lez˚ (il'zEm, i'zEm) ils Pment (Ô (i'lEm) il Pme]˚ (&ÚnÅ'vE) on avPt˚ (\Œ&nepå˜'le) j'en
P parlé˚ (™&+ilv#'ny, &™+iv'ny) e®-il venu?˚ (&Ú+il'vy, &Ú+i'vy) ont-ils vu?˚ (p°'tÚ) pSt-on?
4.3.3.2. ˛ere is a case in which pronunciation does influence spelling, and this
should be remembered. It occurs in nearly all imperatives, without -s when isolat-
ed, but with /z/ for the pronouns y and en: vø-y (vÅ'zi), pensπ-y (&pŒs#'zi), mangπ-en
(&mŒ\#'zŒ)…
As well as forms such as va-t'en! (with elision of the pronoun te) we find analog-
ical çeuphonicÇ t's in questions whith subject-auxiliary inversion: e®-il?˚ but P-
me-t-on?˚ viendra-t-elle?˚ convPnc-t-il?…
Similarly, the adverbs très˚ tout˚ bien are linked to adjectives (or adverbs) modi-
fied by them: (&tü™zy'+il) très utile˚ (&t¯tŒ'+¿e) tout entier˚ (b,3&nÅtŒ'+if) bien attentif˘
Instead, pø˚ pl¨˚ moins˚ trop˚ fort˚ øsez˚ jama¤ can link or not; but in normal
conversation they do not usually do so: (&pÅ[z]Œ'k∏:˜) pø encore˚ (&tüPetü°Åt'≈Œ,
tüÖ&pe-) trop étroitement˘ In fixed expressions they obviously link; for instance,
pl¨˚ as in (&púyz¯'m°ì) pl¨ ou moins˚ which is always so.
(Monosyllabic) prepositions and conjunctions link to the forms that follow
them: (&Œni'vE:˜) en hiver˚ (&dŒz}'m°Å) dans un mo¤˚ (sŒ'zEl) sans elle˚ (/e'z°) >ez
Sx˚ (/e&z}nÅ'mi) >ez un ami÷ (kŒ&+il™v'ny) quand il e® venu (but linking is only
possible with the interrogative adverb, as in (kŒ&[t]™s©il™v'ny) quand e®-ce qu'il e®
venu?÷ but not in ('kŒ ™+ilv#'ny, ™+iv'ny) quand e®-il venu?˚ so as to avoid /tété/).
If the prepositions and conjunctions are polysyllabic, a lia¤on is equally only possi-
ble: (&Åpü™Å&v°ÅÆ/Œ'te, Å&pü™zÅ&v°ÅÆ/Œ'te) après avoir >anté˚ (d#&vŒynme'zÚ, -Œ+y-)
devant une ma¤on˘ ˛ere is linking with dont˚ en, too: (l#/'fÅl dÚ+i&lÅpå˜'le) le >e-
val dont il a parlé÷ and en˚ y have a çpre-liaisonÇ: (&pü#nÚ'zŒ) prenons-en˚ (&n¯zi's∏m)
no¨ y sommπ˘
©th auxiliaries and semiauxiliaries, lia¤on, though possible, is becoming more
and more unusual in current conversation. It nearly always occurs between e® (and
often sont˚ ont] and a following adjective or past participle, especially with allé\
(s™&t3pÖ'siba) c'e® impossible˚ (i[ú]&sÚtÅ'le) ils sont allés˚ (&i[l]lÚ'+Û) ils l'ont S (e ils l'ont
tu). ˛ere are even some fixed expressions which require linking: (le&/Œzeli'ze) lπ
≥amps-Élyséπ˚ (&leze&tÅzy'ni) lπ États-Un¤˚ (&vizÅ'vi) v¤-à-v¤˚ (d#&tŒzŒ'tŒ) de temps
en temps˘
4.3.3.3. On an uneducated level, lia¤on behaves in a particular fashion, in as

much as it is less frequent, but with analogical non-neutral extensions; further-
more, it generally marks the plural. ˛erefore, monosyllables link with /z/: (le'z,°)
lπ ySx (and so ySx is çnormallyÇ ('z,°), even when isolated), (&izÅ'ºi:v) ils arrivent˘
Among the monosyllabic verbs, ont˚ sont do not link, whereas su¤ and e® optional-
ly do: (&izÚ'y) ils ont S˚ (™[ú]&sÚÅ'le) ellπ sont alléπ˚ (i&l™Å˜i've, -™tÅ-) il e® arrivé˚ (/Îie-
'te, -ize-) je su¤ été (which is uneducated, for j'P été÷ but (/Îi&Åbºy'+i) je su¤ abru-
ti]÷ an adjective links with the noun: (&bÚzÅ'mi) bons am¤˚ but sans may link or
not: (sŒÅ'v°Å:˜, &sŒzÅ-) sans avoir÷ tout and on˚ mon˚ ton˚ son link: (&t¯t™'b,ì) tout
e® bien˚ (Ú'nÅ) on a˚ (&mÚnÅ'mi) mon ami˘
˛ere are even analogical improper cases such as: *(&p°za'p°) /p°a'p°/ pS à pS˚
*(i&vÅte'v,ì) /ilvae'vjí/ il va et vient˚ *(&ifP&dºÅtÅ'le) /ilfodKaa'le/ il faudra aller˚ *(le-
&zÅ˜i'kP) /leaKi'ko/ lπ haricots˚ *(&s™tÚ't°) /sEÚ't°/ c'e® hontSx˚ *(/Îi&te˜3'te) /Zùs¥ie-
Kí'te/ je su¤ érRnté˚ *(t™l'mŒ zÅmy'zŒ) /tEl'mÕ amy'zÕ/ tellement amänt˚ *('vì
'z∏m) /'ví 'tOm/ vingt hommπ˚ *('©Åd zÖfi's¿e) /'katK Ofi'sje/ quatre o‚ciers˚ *('sŒ
'z§f) /'sÕ 't°/ cent œufs˘
Considerations on stress
4.3.4.1. It is merely in theory that French only has a primary stress at the end
of each rhythm group. ˛e previous examples have quite thoroughly shown the
use of secondary stress in French rhythm groups; they generally alternate, mov-
ing back from the primary stress.
Let us now consider some other examples and some structural di‡erences. We
normally find: (&mŒ\eŒ'k∏:˜) mangez encore˚ (yn&p#+it'fi,) une petite fille˚ (&lÅmit-
'p¿E:˜) l'ami de Pierre˚ unless there are two rhythm groups (to emphasize the first
part, for a particular reason): (mŒ'\e Œ'k∏:˜, &ynp#'+it 'fi,, lÅ'mi d#'p¿E:˜). Let us al-
so note such as cases: (&lÅmÖÆ'sy:˜) la morsure˚ (lÅ&mÖÆ'sy:˜, lÅ'm∏;Æ 'sy:˜) la mort
sûre÷ (Ú&sŒde'g¯t) on s'en dégoûte˚ (Ú'sŒ de'g¯t) on sent dπ gouttπ÷ (&lÅk¯'l§:˜) la
coulSr˚ (&_yv3'º¯:\) du vin rouge˚ (&lÅk¯'l§;˜ _yv3'º¯:\) la coulSr du vin rouge˚
(\v¯'dºE _y'vì 'º¯:\) je voudra¤ du vin rouge˘
Traditional teaching describes the French stress in rhythm groups as follows:
with no emphasis, there is a primary stress on the last syllable, and, for the rest of
the rhythm group, the lexemes reduce their stress to secondary, whereas gram-
memes lose it completely.
To native speakers, this distribution sounds a bit too çpreciseÇ, çtext-bookÇ; it is
actually, a kind of mid-way between two kinds of transcriptions for the examples,
seen above, respectively with one or more intonemes: (mŒ&\eŒ'k∏:˜, ynp#&+it'fi,, lÅ-
&mit'p¿E:˜). In reality, as we have seen, there are certain rhythmic needs, for which
the use of secondary stresses is quite di‡erent.
4.3.4.2. Besides, an emphatic stress is shown by the addition (rather than by

the çshiftÇ) of a strong stress on the first syllable of the word (which is di‡erent
from the stressed syllable) and the gemination (or lengthening, especially between
V] of the initial C; even if the word is spelled with an initial V, the C is there any-
4. french 169
way, inasmuch as we have V (öé).

Traditionally, we speak of çaccent d'insistance a‡ectiveÇ (¤ with an imperative
preintoneme and a half-high first stressed syllable in the preintoneme): (¡1s™fÌfÖ˜-
%mi£dÅba3 3, ¡1s™Ìf:Ö-) c'e® formidable!˚ (¡Ìm:Å%Ni£fi©3 3, ¡1mÌmÅ-) magnifique!˚ (¡1s™tÌtÖ-
£_,°3 3, ¡1s™öÌöÖ£_,°3 3, -™Ìt:-, -™Ìö:-) c'e® odiSx!˚ (¡1©™úÌk:üe£tì3 3÷ -úkÌkü-) quel crétin!˚ and
of çaccent d'insistance intellectuelleÇ (¤ with an emphatic preintoneme): (˚yn-
'ºEga2\ 'ö:Åp%sÖ£ly3 3) une règle absolue!˚ (˚s#&si™p'pÅÆf™%t#"mŒ %k∏£ºEkt3 3, -™'p:Å-) ceci e®
parfPtement correct!
In cases such as c'e® odiSx! we can also hear (¡1s™tÌöÖ-), above all as a ridiculous
çhabitÇ which is typical of people in the media.
Intonation
4.3.5. û 4.3 gives the preintonemes and the four intonemes of neutral French.
It can be noted that, compared to other languages (and variants of French itself),
instead of four preintonemes, there are five. Indeed, for partial questions, as well
as the normal (echo-like) anticipation of the interrogative rise, we find a general
falling movement, from half-high (similar to that of an imperative preintoneme,
except for the obvious and correct di‡erence of echo anticipation).
A more çstructuredÇ solution, rather than adding a fifth preintoneme, would be
a split in two (something like ç/»¿/Ç and ç/”¿/Ç, or even ç/¿/Ç and ç/¿¿/Ç, or ç/¿¡/Ç, or
ç/¡¿/Ç), leaving the task of clarifying the çoddityÇ to observation — explanations.
We prefer a more concrete approach (Ô § 11.9). A careful examination of all the
preintonemes (and intonemes), as well as of the symbols is revealing.
It is worth carefully observing the position of the pretonic syllable of the contin-
uative and conclusive intonemes: although it does not manage to be really high,
it is significantly raised, and the auditory e‡ect is noteworthy, as well (even if not
immediate), so much so that it contributes to giving the utterance a sort of promi-
nence, (too) often mistaken for stress.
As we will see, for the çmediaticÇ accent, such prominence is increased by the
half-lengthening of the V in the pretonic syllable (again, without any particular
û 4.3 Modern neutral French preintonemes and intonemes.
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (% ç 3 3)
/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /?/ (2 • 1 1)
/& / (& 1 1 Ì 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /÷/ (2 5 1 1)
/¡ / (¡ 1 1 Ì 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /,/ (% ' 2)
/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

stress).
We only give examples of the three marked intonemes (referring the imperative
and emphatic preintonemes to § 4.3.4). As can be seen in the transcriptions of the
text (§ 4.5), there is the çmidÇ parenthesis, as well (Ô § 13.24 of NPT/HPh):
/./: (\v°Å'le Psi%neçmÅ3 3) /Zv°a'le osine'ma./ Je vSx aller au cinéma.
/?/: (¿[&™s©#]v¯&på˜%le'b,ì füŒ•sE1 1) /¿[Eskù]vupaKle'bjí fKÕ'sE?/ [E®-ce que] vo¨ par-
lez bien frança¤? – (¿på˜&le%v¯'b,ì füŒ•sE1 1) /¿paKlevu'bjí fKÕ'sE?/ Parlez-vo¨ bien
frança¤? – (&1kÖÌmŒ tÅleçv¯3 3) /&kO'mÕ tale'vu./ Comment allez-vo¨?
/÷/: (Ú&p°i%Å'le Œv°Å5+y:˜1 1 %¯Å'p¿e3 3) {(-°%,Å-, %°Å-)} /Úp°ia'le Õvwa'tyK÷ ua'pje./ On
pSt y aller en voiture, ou à pied.
Other accents
4.4.0. It will be interesting to compare what has just been said –about neutral
pronunciation– to other pronunciations which present more or less di‡erent char-
acteristics.
çInternationalÇ accent
4.4.1.1. For teaching purposes, the çinternationalÇ accent could be even more
appropriate than the neutral accent seen so far, inasmuch as it is considerably less
influenced by Paris and, therefore, undoubtedly nearer to many other varieties of
pronunciation, once any marked peculiarities have been eliminated.
˛erefore, an çinternationalÇ pronunciation might even be more advisable (and,
generally, easier to pick up and command), giving unquestionably valuable results,
as long as there is coherence within all elements and no improvisation or variation
among di‡erent types (including the usual interference, not only phonological,
but due to spelling).
˛e vocogram in this section gives the çinternationalÇ vowel articulations
which, as can be observed immediately from the comparison with û 4.1, are less
marked; in particular, this refers to (u, o, O) which are back and not back-central;
even (a) is less peculiar, as it is central, even if fronted. ˛e nasalized vowels are
still four, (í, ^, ú, Ú). In the figure there are two grey markers, for /’E, ’í, ’O/ (¤ un-
stressed – a third would be for /’§, ’^/, which, however, coincides with /ù/); but
could be removed to simplify the structure.
As a matter of fact, there are two satisfactory practical solutions, as, given the
lack of stress, either quite spontaneously we already have the lower-mid timbre ((™,
™, #, }, ø), which we prefer to use); or the higher-low timbre ((E, í, §, ^, O)), if
weakened, could be acceptable. ˛erefore, it is better not to introduce less impor-
tant taxophones, keeping (i, y, u, a) in the context /’éK˘/: (&oZu˜'d¥i) aujourd'hui÷
avoiding devoicing too.
Let us look at some examples, only for the cases in which there is a phonetic
di‡erence with the neutral (given in round brackets): ('lu) {('l¯)n} loup˚ ('o) {('P)n}
4. french 171
›˚ ('nOt) {('n∏t)n} note˚ ('la) {('lÅ)n} là˚ (d#'dú) {(d#'dŒ)n} dedans˚ ('bjí) {('b,ì)n}
bien˚ (bj™'to) {(b,3'tP)n} bientôt˚ (pa˜'ti) {(påÆ'+i)n} parti˘
4.4.1.2. ˛e çinternationalÇ accent presents more general and natural simplifi-

cations for consonants as well; indeed, the preconsonantal nasals can be homor-
ganic, and we can do without all the peculiar taxophones, such as the stop taxo-
phones; furthermore, /j, K/ could always be approximants, (j, ˜) (or perhaps, even
(K); while substantial use of (º) is not as good; /w/ is velar rounded, (w). Even for
/S, Z/, of course, (S, Z) su‚ce (instead of (/, \)). ˛e frequent devoicing of sonants
is not necessary either, whereas for the devoicing of diphonic pairs something in
between would do: (yM'fam) {(yn'fÅm)n} une femme˚ (&y˙kã'vat) {(&ynküÅ'vÅt)n}
une cravate˚ (ty'di) {(+y'_i)n} tu d¤˚ (kaut'Su) {(©Å¯T'/U)n} caout>ouc˚ ('kOk) {('k∏©)n}
coq˚ ('gid) {('áid)n} guide˚ ('pje) {('p¿e)n} pied˚ ('kij) {('©i,)n} quille˚ ('ã:˜÷ 'Ka:K)
{('ºÅ:˜)n} rare˚ ('t˜u, 'tKu) {('tü¯)n} trou˚ ('mwa) {('m°Å)n} mo¤÷ (m™∂'sí, &an™â'dOt)
{(m™t'sì, &Ån™á'd∏t)n} médecin˚ anecdote˘
˛e length of vowels and consonants corresponds to the neutral accent, but can
be more attenuated, aiming at, above all, avoiding the di‡erences in length due to
interference from the mother tongue. Liaisons may be less frequent and intona-
tion, less peculiar, is shown in the given tonogram.
/i/ (i[:]), /y/ (y[:]) /u/ (u[:])
/e/ (e), /°/ (°[:]) /o, Ú/ (o[:], Ú[:])

/ù/ (#)
/E, í/ (E[:], í[:]) {(’™, ’™)} /O/ (O[:]) {/’O/ (ø)}
/§, ^/ (§[:], ^[:]) {(’#, ’})}
/a/ (a[:]) /Õ/ (ú[:])
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ç 3 3)
/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /?/ (2 ' 2 1)
/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /÷/ (2 5 1 1)
/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /,/ (2 ' 2)
çMediaticÇ accent
4.4.2.1. ˛is accent is spread by television and radio. It is based on the Parisian
accent, and shares quite a few characteristics with modern neutral, although it
shows further evolution which moves it further away from the çinternationalÇ ac-
cent (§ 4.4.1).
It also manifests some fluctuation both towards and away from neutral; how-
ever, we show it here in its most typical form, indicating some internal di‡erences
too, for instance of an uneducated or suburban level (a peculiarity of the Parisian
banliSe).
In this section the vocogram is given of the vowels for which there are definite-
ly gradations (comparing it to fig 4.1, of neutral); here, we bring your attention
to the major di‡erences. ˛e fronting of /u, O/ (%, @) (and /’O/ (ê), ¤ unstressed)
is evident; the (anti-clockwise) rotation of /í, Õ, Ú/ (a, _, œ), (and /’Õ/ (Ô)), is just
as evident, as is the absence of /^/ which merges with /í/ (a), or varies between
the two, even with an intermediate realization (not shown explicitly in the voco-
gram) (8), with slight rounding. (In the fluctuations towards the neutral accent,
we have (£), as well; or (Õ), ¤ with a slight derounding).
˛e /EK, §K, OK/ sequences often shift back one box: (Ä[:]‰, ’É‰÷ @[:]‰, ’ê‰÷ ∏[:]‰
’Ö‰÷). Furthermore, note in the vocogram the values for a\ (even if with individ-
ual fluctuations) the distinction is generally maintained between /a/ and /A/,
which traditional neutral had adopted. However, the timbres (of Parisian and) of
the çmediaticÇ accent are: /a/ (å), but (Ä) for /aK[0]é, wa/, and /'A[0]ò/ (å), but /’A/
(A) (in the banliSe˚ we have /wa/ (’°A, '°å), often /aKò/ (å:‰) ar(C)˚ even more
often /ajò/ (å:,), but (ås¿œò) for /AsjÚ/ -ation˚ of traditional neutral).
Some examples follow (where t indicates traditional neutral): ('t°) {('tU)n} tout˚
('n@t) {('n∏t)n} note˚ (bê'n@:‰) {(bÖ'n§:˜)n} bonhSr˚ (&P\T‰'_¥i, -ê‰-) {(&P\¨˜'_¥i)n}
aujourd'hui˚ ('b,a) {('b,ì)n} bien˚ (\Ô't_) {(\Œ'tŒ)n} j'entend˚ ('bœ) {('bÚ)n} bon˚ (P'©a,
-8) {(P'©^)n} aucun˘
Others: ('pÄ:‰) {('pE:˜)n} père˚ ('p@:‰) {('p§:˜)n} pSr˚ ('p∏:‰) {('p∏:˜)n} port˚ ('p@ú
's∏:‰) {('p∏ú 's∏:˜)n} Paul sort˚ (pÄ'‰i) {(pÅ'ºi)n} Par¤˚ (pÄ”'+i:‰) {(påÆ'+i:˜)n} partir˚
(v°Ä'lå) {(v°Å'lÅ)n} voilà˚ ('s#Ä:‰) {('s#Å:˜)n} soir˚ ('©å:‰) {('©Å:˜)n} car˘ Also: (på'på)
{(pÅ'pÅ)n} papa˚ (pA'så:\) {(pÅ'sÅ:\)n} pøsage˚ ('g‰å) {('gºÅ)n, ('gºA)t} grø˚ ('g‰å:s)
{('gºÅs)n, ('gºA:s)t} grøse˚ ('_,å:ba) {('_,Åba)n, ('_,A:ba)t} diable˘
For the banliSe accent; (v°A'lå) {(v°Å'lÅ)n} voilà˚ ('s#A:‰) {('s#Å:˜)n} soir˚ ('kå:‰)
{('©Å:˜)n} car˚ ('på:,) {('pÅ,)n} pPlle˚ (t”å'vå:,) {(tüÅ'vÅ,)n, (-A:,)t} travPl˚ (p”ê&nœs¿å-
's¿œ) {(püÖ&nÚs¿Å's¿Ú)n, (-s¿A-)t} prononciation˘
˛ere is a strong tendency to merge /eò, Eò/ into /e/ (but with many oscillations
due to hypercorrection and undecidedness; some even use the intermediate tim-
bre, (™), always or above all for -P): (p%'le) /pu'lE/ poulet˘
4.4.2.2. For the C, as well as for /K/ (as seen in some examples), which is typical-
ly (‰), but can be –as well as in neutral– even (˜), especially to give emphasis: ('‰y)
{('ºy)n} rue˚ ('t”%) {('tü¯)n} trou˚ ('©åtx) {('©ÅtX)n} quatre÷ we must add that on an
uneducated level, the çpalatalizationÇ of /t, d÷ k, g/ is much more evident, with ar-
ticulations going from stops to stopstrictives, (⁄, Á÷ ›, k): (⁄y'Ái) {(+y'_i)n} tu
d¤˚ ('mEk) {('mE©)n} mec˚ ('›id) {('áid)n} guide; /w/ is provelar rounded, (°):
('m°Ä) /'mwa/ mo¤.
˛e length in the mediatic accent, apart from what has already been said for the
neutral one, presents a typical half-lengthening of the vocoid of the unchecked pre-
tonic syllable, ¤ the syllable that precedes the stressed syllable of an intoneme (of-
4. french 173
ten this prosodic phenomenon is incorrectly described as a shift of stress from the
last syllable to the penultimate in a rhythm group): (%pÄ;'‰i) {(%pÅ'ºi)n} Par¤˚ (&pÄ-
%‰i;'z,a) {(&pÅ%˜i'z,ì)n} par¤ien (in these examples, even for neutral French, we ex-
plicitly highlight the marked height of the pretonic syllable, which is almost half-
-high in the two accents, but in the çmediaticÇ one there is also the half-lengthen-
ing, seen above). ˛e tonogram gives the intonation of the çmediaticÇ accent:
make all the necessary considerations, paying a (fair) bit of attention.
/i/ (i[:], ’I‰˘) /u/ (%[:], ’T‰˘) (+/’OK˘/)

/y/ (y[:], ’Y‰˘)
/e/ (e), /°/ (°[:]) /o/ (P@[:]), /Ú/ (œ#[:])
/’§, ù/ (#)
/E/ (E[:], ’™) {/EK/+(Ä[:]‰, ’É‰)} /O/ (@[:], ’ê) {/OK/+(∏[:]‰, ’Ö‰)}
/§/ (§[:], ’#) {/§K/+(@[:]‰, ’ê‰)} /Õ/ (_@[:], ’Ô@)
/aK{0}é, wa/ (Ä[:]), /a/ (å[:]), /í, ^/ (a[:]) /A/ (å[:0]ò, ’A)
/Eò/ (E, ≠e), -aiò (vb.) (e, ±≠™, ≠E)
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (% ç 3 3)
/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /?/ (2 ' 2 1)
/& / (& 1 1 Ì 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /÷/ (2 5 2 2)
/¡ / (¡ 1 1 Ì 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /,/ (% ' 2)
/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)
Southern accent (Marseilles)
4.4.3.1. We will now look at one of the accents which is furthest from the neu-
tral accent (but also from the çinternationalÇ and çmediaticÇ ones): Marseilles
French as a good representative of the pronunciation of the Midi˘ As can be seen
from the vocogram, the V are few: seven plus /ù/. ˛ere is no phonemic opposi-
tion between /e, E÷ °, §÷ o, O/; least of all between /a, A/. For /E, ◊, O/ we always
have (e, °, o) (even in unstressed syllables), except in stressed syllables followed by
C (with or without /ù/), where we find (™, #, ø).
For /a/ there is a central timbre, (a). ˛e articulation of /ù/ is unrounded cen-
tral, (È), except in contact with /K/, where there is rounding, (+); it corresponds to
every e in the spelling (except for Ve\ amie = ami˚ (a'mi)}, and it often appears be-
tween C.
Furthermore, the nasalized V, /í, ^, Ú, Õ/, are nothing but a sequence of oral
vowels and a nasal contoid homorganic to the following C÷ but, before a pause,
we find the semi-provelar, («). ˛e timbre of the çnasalizedÇ vowels is: (e, °, o, å)
in unstressed syllables, (™, #, ø, a) in stressed syllables, but (™e, #°, øo, aå) in ab-
solute final (stressed) syllables.
˛e only kind of normal lengthening, apart from emphasis, is the half-lengthen-
ing, in an intoneme, of the V (followed by a C, with or without /ù/), and the diph-
thongization of the çnasalizedÇ V in absolute final position before a pause. In less
broad pronunciation, the lengths can be more similar to those of neutral pronun-
ciation (as the timbres and the distribution of /'E, '§, 'O÷ ’E0, ’§0, ’O0/, as well).
Some interesting examples follow: ('tu) {('tU)n} tout˚ ('tre) {('tüE)n} très˚ (te'r™e«)
{(t™'ºì)n} terrPn˚ (s°l'maå«) {(s#l'mŒ)n} sSlement˚ (&promÈ'nadÈ) {(püÖm'nÅd)n}
promenade˚ ('v™e«) {('vì)n} vin˚ (&bjene'me) {(&b,3ne'me)n} bien-Pmé˚ ('m™ns) {('mì:s)n}
mince˚ (o'k#°«) {(P'©^)n} aucun˚ (l°n'di) {(l}'_i)n} lundi˚ ('#mblÈ) {('^:ba)n} humble˚
(mo«'nøo«) {(mÚ'nÚ)n} mon nom˚ ('nømbr+) {('nÚ:bX)n} nombre˚ (òån'taå«) {(\Œ-
'tŒ)n} j'entend˚ ('lampÈ) {('lŒ:p)n} lampe˚ ('di;r) {('_i:˜)n} dire˚ ('vwa;r) {('v°Å:˜)n}
voir˚ (pÈ'n°) {(p'n°)n} pnS˚ (&òÈtÈ&lÈdÈ'mandÈ) {(/&t#ld#'mŒ:d)n} je te le demande˚
(&òÈnÈ&tÈl+&r+dÈ'mandÈ 'pa) {(\#n&t#lº#d&mŒn'pÅ)n} je ne te le redemande pø˘
A less broad accent can have some partially nasalized V in stressed syllables:
('m™ens) {('mì:s)n} mince˚ (ëi'™e«) {('/¿ì)n} >ien˚ ('#JmblÈ) {('^:ba)n} humble˚
('br#J«) {('bº^)n} brun˚ ('laAmpÈ) {('lŒ:p)n} lampe˚ ('baA«) {('bŒ)n} banc˚ ('nøÚmbr+)
{('nÚ:bX)n} nombre˚ ('bøÚ«) {('bÚ)n} bon.
4.4.3.2. For the consonants, we can observe that all the taxophones of neutral
pronunciation are not present; furthermore: /n/+/0/ (m, M, n, ~, N, ˙), /nm, nK/
(«m, «r), /S, Z/ (ë, ò), /j/ (j), /w/ (°), /N, nj/ (~j), /Ni/ (ni), /lj, l¥/ (¬j, ¬¥), /'[0]/+/jé,
¥é, wé/ ([0])+(i'é, y'é, u'é), /K/ (r) (even (‰), especially before a consonant; and,
in less broad accent, also (K, ˜)}: (åM'v™;r) {(Œ'vE:˜)n} envers˚ ('ba˙kÈ) {('bŒ:©)n} ban-
que˚ (å«'ri) {(Œ'ºi)n} Henri˚ (òÈ'ë™rëÈ) {(\#'/EÆ/)n} je >er>e˚ (&trava'je) {(&tüÅvÅ',e)n}
travPller˘ ˛e banlieu accent has /t, d/ (+, _) + /i, j, y, ¥/, and /K/ tendentially voice-
less (3) (and (x, ', ˜)).
Furthermore: (mon'ta~jÈ) {(mÚ'tÅN)n} montagne˚ (&ma~je'rizmÈ) {(&mÅ~,e-
'ºis))n} maniér¤me˚ (¬je'zøo«) {(¬,e'zÚ)n} lia¤on˚ (k¥i'zi;nÈ) {(©Îi'zin)n} cu¤ine˚
(&òÈsy'i) {(\#'sÎi, /'sÎi)n} je su¤˚ (ly'i) {('¬¥i)n} lui˚ (lu'i) {('l°i)n} Lou¤˚ (bi'™e«)
{('b,ì)n} bien˚ ('ra;r+, '‰a;‰+) {('ºÅ:˜)n} rare˘ Hence, (j) is maintained well only be-
fore a non-final V; indeed, we generally have: ('p™i) {('pE,)n} pZe˚ (pe'i) {(pe',i)n}
pZs˘
Consonant clusters are simplified, as in: (di'r™;k) {(_i'ºEkt)n} direct˚ (di'r™;t) {(_i-
'ºEkt)n} directe˚ (os'ky;r) {(Öp's©y:˜)n} obscur˚ (&aòek'ti;f) {(&ÅD\™©'+if)n} adjectif˚ (se-
'tambr+) {(s™p'tŒ:bX)n} septembre÷ (a've) {(Å'vE©)n} avec÷ but: (sò) in words such as:
dix˚ six˚ alors˚ lors˚ gens˚ Sx˚ cSx˚ cours˚ vers˚ jad¤˚ av¤˚ moins˚ Roux˚ Poux˚ †iers˚
Arno¨˘
˛ere is no devoicing, as can be seen in the examples given, neither for V, nor
for C. Lia¤on is rare, as a matter of fact, it only occurs with /z/ in articles, pro-
nouns and plural masculine adjectives; however, there is no concept of a çdisjunc-
tive hÇ, hence, the use of linking and elision, ™: (le'zø;mÈ) {(l™'z∏m)n} lπ hommπ˚
(&meza'mi) {(&mezÅ'mi)n} mπ am¤˚ (&noza'mi) {(&nPzÅ'mi)n} nos am¤˚ (&l°rza'f™;r+)
4. french 175
{(&l#˜zÅ'fE:˜)n} lSrs a‡Prπ˚ (&vuzi're) {(&v¯zi'ºe)n} vo¨ irez˚ (&i[l]za've) {(&i[l]zÅ'vE)n}

ils avPent˚ (&diza'mi) {(&_izÅ'mi)n} dix amiπ˘
Furthermore: ('gro zani'mo) {('gºP zÅni'mP)n} gros animaux˚ ('gran zåM'faå«)
{('gºŒ zŒ'fŒ)n} grands enfants˚ (i[l]&nuzåm'parlÈ) {(i[l]&n¯zŒ'pÅ˜l)n} il no¨ en par-
lent÷ besides: (le&zari'ko) {(&leÅ˜i'kP)n} lπ haricots˚ (&°ne'ro) {(}e'ºP)n} un héro˘
˛e identity of lexemes in sentences remains distinct, with no resyllabification,
contrary to what happens with grammemes: (°m'b™l wa'zo) {(}'bE l°Å'zP)n} un bel
ois›˚ ('bø« ape'ti) {('bÖ nÅpe'+i)n} bon appétit˚ (&°«-wa'zo) {(&}-n°Å'zP)n} un oi-
s›˚ (™&laòy're) {(™&lÅ\y'ºe)n} elle a juré˘ ˛e tonogram gives the intonation of Mar-
seilles accent.
/i/ (i), /y/ (y) /u/ (u)
/e, E/ (eò, ™0, ™0È, ’e) /o, O/ (oò, ø0, ø0È, ’o)
/°, §/ (°ò, #0, #0È, ’°) /ù/ (È, r+, +r)
/í/ (™ö0, ™e«ò, ’eö) /Ú/ (øö0, øo«ò, ’oö)
/^/ (#ö0, #°«ò, ’°ö)
/a/ (a) /Õ/ (aö0, aå«ò, ’åö)
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 3 3)
/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /?/ (2 ' 2 1)
/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /÷/ (2 Ì 2 2)
/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /,/ (2 ' 2)
Canadian accent (Québec)
4.4.4.1. ˛e accent we describe here is the normal, or rather çneutral CanadianÇ

pronunciation. ˛ere are quite a few other variants (which fill two other voco-
grams, given in § 4.6.3), which are both broader (and decidedly broader, or un-
educated), and even less broad, that aim for neutral European or international
French; there could be many (and quite di‡erent) things to add, but it seemed bet-
ter to simplify and present this accent homogeneously, as done with the others.
However, the variants will be included in a specific book on French pronuncia-
tions.
Before examining the timbres of the vowels, it must be said that in Canada both
/A/ and /E:/ still exist, and /e:/ can even be found. For /A/, apart from traditional
cases (still transcribed thus in dictionaries), as: ('på∏t) {('pÅt)n, ('pA:t)t} pâte˚
('tå∏/)n {('tÅ/), ('tA:/)t} tâ>e˚ ('må∏l) {('mÅl)n, ('mA:l)t} mâle, compared to ('pÅt)
{('pÅt)n} patte˚ ('tÅ/) {('tÅ/)n} ta>e˚ ('mÅl) {('mÅl)n} malle÷ (&påqi'sªe) {(&pÅ+i's¿e)n,
(&pA-)t} pât¤sier÷ we also have an expansion of its frequency, to practically all cas-
es of /a|, wa|, av|, az|, as|, aZ|, aj|, aö|, aK|, ’aK/ (with possible fluctuation, especially
for /av|, az|/ and -ation˚ which have both /A/ and /a/). ˛ere is actual neutraliza-
tion too, as for: ('kå) which goes for both ('©Å) {('kA)t} cø and ('©Å) {('©Å)t} k÷ how-
ever, the contextual distribution –with ç/A/Ç in an intoneme– leads to situations
such as: ('sÅ '\E≈ 'så) ça… j'Pme ça˘
˛ere is fluctuation between (wå|) and (wÅ|) (the latter is generally considered
to be more uneducated), up to (w™), decidedly dialectal: ('mwå÷ 'mwÅ÷ 'mw™) moi˘
˛e çoldÇ opposition between /E/ and /E:/ is stable, we have for example: ('mEt5)
/'mEtK/ mettre˚ ('mE™t5) /'mEtK/ {/'mE:tK/t} maître÷ ('fEt) /'fEt/ fPte˚ ('fE™t) /'fEt/
{/'fE:t/t} fête˚ ('sEn) /'sEn/ sPne˚ ('sE™n) /'sEn/ {/'sE:n/t} scène (which now, in neutral
European French, is only: ('mEtX, 'fEt, 'sEn)n); whereas for the çnewÇ opposition
constituted by ç/e:/Ç, we have examples such as: ('neI\) ç/'ne:Z/Ç nRge˚ ('bReI©)
ç/'bKe:k/Ç bréque (or brake] (/'nEZ, 'bKEk/n ('nE:\, 'bºE©)n).
4.4.4.2. In checked stressed syllables in /v, z, Z, K, vK/, all recurring V are real-
ized as diphthongs (here are only some examples): ('lIiv5) /'livK/ livre˚ ('pYyR) /'pyK/
pur˚ ('RUu\) /'KuZ/ rouge˚ ('Rå∏\, 'RÅå\) /'KaZ/ rage (('li:vX, 'py:˜, 'º¯:\, 'ºÅ:\)n). ˛e
same occurs for /E:, e, °, o, A/ in an intoneme for any checked syllables (without
repeating examples): ('f°Yt5) /'f°tK/ fStre˚ ('\oUn) /'Zon/ jaune (('f°:tX, '\P:n)n), and
even in a preintoneme for unchecked syllables (again, without repetition): (&ÅR™e-
'te) /aKe'te/ arrêter˚ (neI'\e) /ne'Ze/ nRger˚ (f°Y'tÍe) /f°'tKe/ fStré˚ (\oU'nå∏t5) /Zo-
'natK/ jaunâtre˚ (få∏'/e) /fa'Se/ fâ>é ((&Å˜e'te, ne'\e, f°'tüe, \P'nÅtX, fÅ'/e)n).
In the broader or more uneducated accent, there is even the fusion of these two
characteristics, whereby for an unchecked syllable in a preintoneme, the V often
diphthongize if followed by /v, z, Z, K, vK/ (the first vocogram of § 4.6.3 shows (™e',
#°', øo')): (&ÅqIi'Re) /ati'Ke/ attirer˚ (\Yy\'mÅA) /ZyZ'mÕ/ jugement˚ (&epUu'ze) /epu'ze/
épo¨ée˚ (t™e'R™e) /tE'Kí/ terrPn˚ (b#°'Re) ç/b§'Ke/Ç bSrrée˚ (°Y'R°) /°'K°/ hSrSx˚
(&øRløo'\E™R) /OKlO'ZEK/ horlogère˚ (&ekÍÅå'ze, -å∏-) /ekKa'ze/ écrøé÷ or if they are /e, °,
o/ (even when non-derived or in syntagms): (leI'pªe) /le'pje/ lπ pieds˚ (d°Y'm™e)
/d°'mí/ dSx mPns˚ (soU'få) /so'fa/ sofa˘
Nasalized V diphthongize in an intoneme (¤ both in tonic and pretonic sylla-
bles), but they are short in a preintoneme: ('f™e) /'fí/ fin˚ (s™e'qYyR) /sí'tyK/ cRnture˚
(o'©}J) /o'k^/ aucun˚ (}J'\UuR) /^'ZuK/ un jour˚ (mÓ9'nÓ9) /mÚ'nÚ/ mon nom˚ (\ÅA-
'tÅA) /ZÕ'tÕ/ j'entends÷ (&™fi'ni) /ífi'ni/ infini˚ (&}nÅ'mi) /^na'mi/ un ami˚ (&mÓnÅ'mi)
/mÚna'mi/ mon amie˚ (Å&nÅtÅA'dÅA) /ÕnÕtÕ'dÕ/ en entendant (('fì, s3'+y:˜, P'©^, }-
'\¯:˜, mÚ'nÚ, \Œ'tŒ÷ &3fi'ni, &}nÅ'mi, &mÚnÅ'mi, Œ&nŒtŒ'dŒ)n).
4.4.4.3. Another notable peculiarity is that /i, y, u/ in a checked syllable

(stressed or not), are lower-high: ('vIf) /'vif/ vif˚ ('lYn) /'lyn/ lune˚ ('tUt) /'tut/ toute
{('vif, 'lyn, 't¯t)n), as even in the first unchecked syllable of a word or a rhythm
group: (fI'lIp) /fi'lip/ Philippe˚ (Y'nI©) /y'nik/ unique˚ (kU'zIn) /ku'zin/ coïne˚ and
also in other subsequent unchecked syllables, in words or rhythm groups that end
in checked syllables: (&pÍImI'qIiv, pÍI≈'q-) /pKimi'tiv/ primitive˚ (&\YRI'QI©, \YR'Q-)
/ZyKi'dik/ juridique÷ other examples: (&mInIs'tE™R, mIns-) /minis'tEK/ mini®ère˚ (&Å-
4. french 177
k.s'qI©) /akus'tik/ acou®ique {(fi'lip, y'ni©, k¯'zin÷ &püimi'+i:v, &\y˜i'_i©÷ &minis'tE:˜, &Å-
k¯s'+i©)n). ˛e less broad accent can limit the occurrence of (I, Y, U) only in
checked syllables, or only in stressed checked syllables, as well; the decidedly less
broad accent, and more controlled, could have no (I, Y, U) at all.
Again, /i, y, u/ present two other peculiarities (except in slow or controlled
speech); indeed, when unstressed, they are devoiced between voiceless C, in
checked or unchecked syllables: (&kÓfN'qYyR) /kÚfi'tyK/ confiture˚ (&åÍqNs'qI©) /aKtis-
'tik/ arti®ique˚ (&QIspÛ'te) /dispy'te/ d¤puté˚ (&deku'på∏\) /deku'paZ/ découpage
{(&kÚfi'+y:˜, &ÅÆ+is'+i©, &_ispy'te, &dek¯'pÅ:\)n).
˛ey can be dropped between a constrictive or sonant and another C, or be-
tween a stop and a non-stop (even other V˚ above all, /e/): (&pÍøfe's§#R, pÍøf's-) /pKO-
fE's§K/ profπsSr˚ (&Yniv™Ísi'te, &Ynv™Ís'te) /ynivEKsi'te/ université˚ (&Åbili'te, &ÅbIú'te)
/abili'te/ habilité˚ (&mÅNI'fI©, mÅ˚'-, mÅJ'-, mÅ9'-) /maNi'fik/ magnifique˚ (bI'zå∏R, b'z-)
/bi'zaK/ bizarre˚ (pø&pylå∏'sªÓ9, &pøpúå∏-) /pOpyla'sjÚ/ population˚ (e&pyRå∏'sªÓ9, &e-
pÍå∏-) /epyKa'sjÚ/ épuration˚ (&bujø'ne, bjø-) /bujO'ne/ bouillonner˚ (&pinÅ'je, pnÅ-)
/pina'je/ pinPller˚ (&øRe'je, øR'je) /OKe'je/ orRller˚ (&lÅkø'mOd, lÅ©'≈Od) la commode
{(&püÖf™'s§:˜, &yni&v™Æsi'te, Å&bili'te, &mÅNi'fi©, bi'zÅ:˜, pÖ&pylÅ's¿Ú, e&py˜Å's¿Ú, &b¯,Ö'ne,
&pinÅ',e, &Ö˜e',e, &lÅkÖ'm∏d)n). Even /ù/ drops more often than in European French:
('lY© s+pÍø'mEn, 'lYks p-) Luc se promène {('ly© s#püÖ'mEn)n}, and presents even dis-
tributions which are often considered uneducated, like: ('fE™R+ú 'f¨) fPre le fou
{('fE;˜ l#'fU)n}. Furthermore, there is generally no vowel adjustment: (™'me, ™'mE)
–in a broader accent (™e-)– {(e'me, ™'mE)n} Pmé˚ Pma¤˘
/i/ (i, I, Ii), /y/ (y, Y, Yy) /u/ (u, U, Uu)

/e/ (e, eI), /°/ (°, °Y) /o/ (o, oU)
/í/ ('™e, ™e', ’™), /ù/ (+)
/E/ (E, E™, ’™) /O/ (O,
@ @Oø, ’ø)
@
/§/ (§, §#, ’#), /^/ ('}J, }J', ’}) /Ú/ ('/Ó9, Ó9'
/ , ’Ó)
/
/a/ (Å, Åå), /Õ/ ('ÅA, ÅA', ’Å) /A/ (å, å∏)
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 3 3)
/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /?/ (2 ' 2 1)
/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /÷/ (2 Ì 2 2)
/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /,/ (2 ' 2)
4.4.4.4. For the C, besides the examples already given, we can observe that /nj,
n¥/ are (~j, ~¥) (on a broad, uneducated level /nj/ becomes /N/): (pÅ'~je) /pa'nje/
panier˚ (ÅA'~¥i) /Õ'n¥i/ ennui {(pÅ'~,e, Œ'~¥i)n); /N/ varies between (N) and (J):
(mÓ9'tå∏N, -'tå∏J) /mÚ'taN/ montagne˚ (&Ås™N'mÅA, &Ås™J'-) /ÕsEN'mÕ/ ensRgnement
{(mÚ'tÅN, &Œs™N'mŒ)n). Furthermore, /w/ is (w): ('mwå) /'mwa/ mo¤˘

Of all the stops, /t, d/ present a typical stopstrictive realization, (q, Q), before
/i, y÷ j, ¥/: ('qIp) /'tip/ type˚ ('QYyR) /'dyK/ dur˚ ('qª™e) /'tjí/ tiens˚ (kÓ9'Q¥IiR) /kÚ-
'd¥iK/ conduire {('+ip, '_y:˜, '+¿ì, kÚ'_¥i:˜)n)˘ It is possible for this articulation not
to extend beyond the rhythm group or word: (s™'tIl, s™'qIl) /sE'til/ Sept-Îlπ (® ('sE
'tIl) /'sE 'til/ sept îlπ]˚ (dI'må∏\, QI-, -Åå\) /di'maZ/ d'imagπ (® ('Qi 'må∏\, -Åå\) /'di
'maZ/ dix magπ]˘ On an uneducated level we can find (+, _) also before /e, E, a, í,
Õ/: (dÅ'te, _Å'+e) dater {(dÅ'te)n), and even (⁄, Á) before /j, ¥/: ('⁄ª™e, kÓ9'Á¥IiR).
In Canadian French too, we find /k, g/ (©, á) (with (k, ›) on an uneducated
level) before front V (up to /Õ, ù/) and before a pause: ('á§l) /'g§l/ guSle˚ ('kO©)
/'kOk/ coq˘ Before a pause, stops can be unreleased: ('©Åp, -pæ) /'kap/ cap˚ ('dÅt, -tæ)
/'dat/ date˚ ('RO©, -©æ) /'KOk/ roque˚ ('lÅAá, -áæ) /'lÕg/ langue˚ ('RYd, -dæ) /'Kyd/ rude˘
At times, /p, t, k/ can be çaspiratedÇ, after a pause or if initial in stressed sylla-
bles (which we mark here with (0·)): (p·÷'p·It5) /py'pitK/ pupitre˚ (t·ø&tÅli't·e,
&t·øtÅú't·e) /tOtali'te/ totalité˚ (&k·åRÅ'k·Ol) /kaKa'kOl/ caracole {(py'pitX, tÖ&tÅli'te,
&©Å˜Å'k∏l)n). Even in the many English words, currently used in Canadian French,
/tS, dZ/ remain as sequences (T/, D\): (T'/Iip, T'/Ip) /t'Sip/ >eap˚ (D'\Iin, D'\In) /d'Zin/
jeans÷ the second variants are more assimilated, as also occurs with: ('qIim, 'qIm)
/'tim/ team˘
In Canadian French, /j/ is an approximant; /K/ is typically an alveolar tap, (R):
('Rå∏R) /'KaK/ rare, which constitutes traditional and neutral Canadian pronuncia-
tion; however, it is often uvular (approximant, trill or constrictive, (˜, K, º), espe-
cially in less broad pronunciation, or in the mediatic one, or even verging on mod-
ern, spreading from the city of Québec).
In English words, we often find the uvularized velar (or the prevelar one – both
with a slight postalveolarization and labialization, as in the Canadian English pro-
nunciation), (<, <): (<i'd§#<, ±'<Iid+<) /Ki'd§K/ reader˚ (qi'/§<t, qI-) /ti'S§Kt/ T-shirt˘
On an uneducated level, for French -Vr /éKò/, we find the same (<), or vocalization
with complex diphthong or triphthong of various timbres (which are given in §
4.6.3, çgrouped upÇ for the moment). For the çdisjunctive/aspiratedÇ h, we can
have (h) /h/, above all in a broader accent: (ÅA'ho) en haut {(Œ'P)n).
4.4.4.5. ˛e groups with final C are often simplified, above all in less controlled
language, even in the case of /0K, 0l/ (before a pause too): ('wEs) /'wEst/ oue®˚ (&åÍ-
/i'tE©) /aKSi'tEkt/ ar>itecte˚ (&søsªÅ'lis) /sOsja'lism, -ist/ social¤me˚ -i®e˚ ('mYs©)
/'myskl/ m¨cle˚ ('Ó9á, 'Ó9˙) /'Ú:gl/ ongle˚ (øÍ'©Es) /OK'kEstK/ or>e®re˚ ('Ó9b, 'Ó9m)
/'ÚbK/ ombre÷ on the other hand, especially on an uneducated level, we can have
/`/ = /t/: (\¥i'jEt, \¥I-) /Z¥i'jE/ juillet˚ (qi'©Et, qI-) /ti'kE/ ticket˚ (d+'bUt) /dù'bu/ de-
bout˚ ('pÍEt) /'pKE/ prêt˚ ('~¥It) /'n¥i/ nuit˚ ('lIt) /'li/ lit˚ (kÓ9'púEt) /kÚ'plE/ complet˚
(bRy'nEt) /bKy'nE/ Brunet˚ (&møRi'sEt) /mOKi'sE/ Mor¤set˚ (tÅl'bOt) /tal'bo/ Talbot˘
Cases such as (p'qi tÅ'mi) /pù'ti ta'mi/ petit ami and (p'qI tÅ'mi, p'qIt Å'mi) /pù'ti
ta'mi/ petite amie maintain the distinction of the V in a checked syllable (of petite].
˛e tonogram gives the intonation of Canadian French.
4. french 179
Text
4.5.0. ˛e story †e North Wind and the Sun follows, given in seven di‡erent
çnormalizedÇ versions. We start with the (neutral) French pronunciation of (neu-
is given in § 2.5.2.0). ˛e French translation follows, in its neutral version; then
the çinternationalÇ accent, followed by the çmediatic/ParisianÇ one and, lastly, the
Marseilles and Canadian versions.
At the end, as always, there is the version which gives the English pronuncia-
tion of French, by neutral British speakers, fluent in French (after prolonged con-
same principle is valid for the foreign pronunciations of English, given first.
Speakers of American English could prepare their own version of the French
pronunciation of English and of their pronunciation of French, as an excellent ex-
ercise, by listening to native speakers, best of all after recording them. Of course,
speakers of other languages could do the same thing. ˛e author would be happy
to receive their transcriptions and recordings, both in case of help –should they
need it– and to make their contribution known to others (possibly in our website
on canIPA Natural Phonetics – Ô § 0.12).
French pronunciation (of English)
4.5.1. (z#'n∏Æ 's°in2 dÅnz#'s^n2 °#˜_is'p¿¯+i˙ '°i\ °Öz#sçtüÚ˙g#˜3 3| '°E n#'tüÅv-

l#Æ2 'kE m#'lÚ˙2 ì'ºEp +in#'°∏˜≈ çkú∏k3 3œ| ze#'gºid2\ zÅdz#'°Å n¯'f§Æ s#k'si_i2 _i'mE-
©i˙ z#'tüÅvl#Æ2 'tE ©is'kúÖ 5k∏f1 1| &/¯bikÚn'sid#Æts "tüÚ˙g#˜ &zÅnziç§z#˜3 3||
'zìn2 z#'n∏Æ 's°ind#2 'bl¯2 Å'zÅ˜2 dÅziçk¯d3 3| &b#dz#'m∏ ˜i5bl¯1 1| z#'m∏Æ 'kú∏zli2 &_id-
z#'tüÅvl#Æ2\ 'f∏l _is'kú∏ k#çºÅ¯n_im3 3| ì&ÅndÅt'úÅst2œ\ z#'n∏Æ 's°in2 á™'v§b zi#çtìmt#3 3||
ì'zìn2œ z#'s^n /Ö'nÅ¯t3 3 ìç°∏˜mli3 3œ| &Ån_i'mi_,#túi2\ ˚z#'tüÅvl#ü T¯çk∏f3 3 ˚isçkú∏k3 3|| ìÅn-
'sP2œ z#'n∏Æ 's°ind#2 &°Öz#'blÅi\d# t¯kÚn'fEs2| &zÅdz#çs^n3 3 °Öz#sçtüÚ˙g#3 3 ì&˜Övz#-
çt¯3 3œ||
¿&_i_,¯•lÅiá1 1 ¿z#s't∏˜i2| ¿_,¯'°Ún t°i˜it#•áEn1 1|||)
French Text
4.5.2. La b¤e et le solRl se d¤putPent˚ un jour, prétendant l'un comme l'Qtre être
le pl¨ fort, lorsqu'ils virent s'avancer un voyagSr, enveloppé dans son mant›. Lπ
dSx adversPrπ décidèrent, alors, que serPt déclaré vPnquSr celui qui, le premier,
parviendrPt à le lui fPre ôter.
La b¤e se mit, alors, à sou·er de toutπ sπ forcπ; ma¤, pl¨ elle sou·Pt, pl¨ le
voyagSr se serrPt dans son manteQ, tant et si bien, qu'à la fin, la pQvre b¤e dut
renoncer à sπ intentions. Le solRl se montra, alors, dans le ciel, et le voyagSr, qui Q
bout d'un moment commençPt à avoir >Qd, retira son manteQ. C'e® Pnsi que la
b¤e dut reconnaître que le solRl étPt le pl¨ fort dπ dSx.
Tu ø Pmé cette hi®oire? Tu vSx la réentendre?
Neutral French pronunciation
4.5.3. (lÅ'bi; z™ú%sÖ'lE,2\ s#&_ispy'tE2 ‘}'\¯:˜2’| &püe%tŒ'dŒ2 ‘'l^ kÖm'lP:tX2’| &™tú#%púy-

çf∏:˜3 3| &lÖÆs©i[l]'vi;Æ &sÅ%vŒ'se2 }&v°Å%,Åç\§:˜3 3| &Œv%lÖ'pe dŒ&sÚ%mŒçtP3 3|| le&d°zÅd%v™Æ-
'sE:˜2 &de%si'dE:Æ3 3 ‘tÅ'l∏:˜2’| ©#s&ü™de%kúÅ'ºe v35©§:˜1 1| s#'¬¥i2 ‘©iú%pü#'m,e2’ på˜%v,3'dºE Å-
l[#]&¬¥if™%˜Pçte3 3||
lÅ'bi:z2 s#çmi3 3 ‘Å'l∏:˜2’\ Å%s¯'fú™t2 t¯t%seçf∏üs3 3| m™&púy™ús¯5fúE1 1| 'púyl v°Å%,Å'\§:˜2 s#-
s™'ºE dŒ&sÚ%mŒçtP3 3|| &tŒtesi5b,ì1 1| ‘&©Å%lÅ'fì2’ &lÅ%pP;v'bi:z2\ &_Y˜%nÚ'se Åse&z3%tŒçs¿Ú3 3|| &l#-
%sÖ'lE,2 s#mÚ'tüÅ2 ‘Å'l∏:˜2’\ %dŒúçs¿El3 3| ™l&v°Å%,Å'\§:˜2 ‘©iP&b¯d}%mÖ'mŒ2’ &kÖmŒ'sE Å[Å]-
v°ÅÆ5/P1 1| ˚&º#%+içºÅ3 3 ˚sÚ%mŒçtP3 3|| &s™t3'si kúÅ'bi:z2\ &_YÆkÖ'nEt ©#ú%sÖ'lE,2 ™&t™úpúyçf∏:˜3 3
ìdeçd°3 3œ||
¿+ÎÅe•me1 1 ‘¿s™%+is't#Å:˜2’| ¿+y&v°lÅ˜eŒ•tŒ:dX1 1|||)
çInternationalÇ French pronunciation
4.5.4. (la'bi; z™lsø'lEj2\ s#&dispy'tE2 ‘}'Zu:˜2’| &p˜etú'dú2 ‘'l^ køm'lo:t˜2’| &™tl#plyçfO:˜3 3|

&lø˜ski[l]'vi;˜ &savú'se2 }&vwajaçZ§:˜3 3| &úvlø'pe dú&sÚmúçto3 3|| le&d°zadv™˜'sE:˜2 &desi-
'dE:˜3 3 ‘[t]a'lO:˜2’| k#s&˜™dekla'˜e v™5k§:˜1 1| s#'l¥i2 ‘kilp˜#'mje2’ pa˜vj™'d˜E al[#]&l¥if™õ-
çte3 3||
la'bi:z2 s#çmi3 3 ‘a'lO:˜2’\ asu'fl™∂2 tutseçfO˜s3 3| m™&ply™lsu5flE1 1| 'plyl vwaja'Z§:˜2 s#s™'˜E
dú&sÚmúçto3 3|| &tú[t]esi5bjí1 1| ‘&kala'fí2’ &lapov[˜#]'bi:z2\ &dyñÚ'se ase&z™túçsjÚ3 3|| &l#sø'lEj2
s#mÚ'tã2 ‘a'lO:˜2’\ dúlçsjEl3 3| ™l&vwaja'Z§:˜2 ‘kio&bud™mø'mú2’ &kømú'sE a[a]vwa˜5So1 1|
˚&˜#tiçã3 3 ˚sÚmúçto3 3|| &s™t™'si kla'bi:z2\ &dY˜kø'nEt[˜#] k#lsø'lEj2 ™&t™lplyçfO:˜3 3 ìdeçd°3 3œ||
¿t¥ae'me21 ‘¿s™tis'twa:˜2’| ¿ty&v°la˜eú'tú:d˜21|||)
çMediaticÇ, Parisian French pronunciation
4.5.5. (lå'bi; z™ú%sê;'lE,2\ s#&_is%py;'te2 ‘%a;'\%:‰2’| &p”e%tÔ;'d_2 ‘'la %kêm'lP:tx2’| &™tú#%púy;-

çf∏:‰3 3| &lê”s©i[l]'vi;” &så%vÔ;'se2 a&v°Ä%,å;ç\@:‰3 3| &Ôvlê'pe dÔ&sœ%mÔ;çtP3 3|| le&d°zåd%vÉ”-
'sÄ:‰2 &de%si;'dE:”3 3 ‘%tå;'l∏:‰2’| ©#s&”™dekúå'‰e %va;5©@:‰2 2| %s#;'¬¥i2 ‘©iú%p”#;'m,e2’ pÄ‰v,a'd‰e
ål&¬¥if™%‰P;çte3 3||
4. french 181
%lå;'bi:z2 %s#;çmi3 3 ‘%å;'l∏:‰2’\ å%s%;'fú™t2 t%t%se;çf∏”s3 3| m™&púy™ús%;5fúe2 2| 'púyl v°Ä%,å;'\@:‰2

s#s™'‰e dÔ&sœ%mÔ;çtP3 3|| &tÔtesi;5b,a2 2| ‘&©å%lå;'fa2’ &lå%pP;v'bi:z2\ &_Y‰%nœ'se åse&za%tÔ;çs¿œ3 3||
&l#%sê;'lE,2 s#%mœ;'t”å2 ‘%å;'l∏:‰2’\ %dÔúçs¿El3 3| ™l&v°Ä%,å;'\@:‰2 ‘©iP&b%da%mê;'m_2’ &kêmÔ'se
å[å]v°Ä”5/P2 2| ˚&‰#%+i;ç‰å3 3 ˚sœ%mÔ;çtP3 3|| &s™ta'si %kúå;'bi:z2\ &_Y”kê'nEt ©#ú%sê;'lE,2 ™&t™ú%púy;-
çf∏:‰3 3 ì%de;çd°3 3œ||
¿+Îåe;'me21 ‘¿s™%+is't#Ä:‰2’| ¿+y&v°lÄ‰eÔ;'t_:dx21|||)
Southern pronunciation: Marseilles
4.5.6. (la'bi; zelÈso'l™;j2\ sÈ&dispy'te2 ‘°~'òu;r2’| &pretån'daå«2 ‘'l#°˙ komÈ'lø;tr+2’|

&™t[r+]lÈply'fø;r3 3| &lorski[l]'vi;r+ &savån'se2 °M&vwaja'ò#;r3 3| &aMvÈlo'pe dån&so«mån'to3 3||
le&d°[z]adver's™;r+2 &desi'd™;r3 3 ‘ta'lø;r[s]2’| kÈs+&redekla're ve˙Ìk#;r2 2| sÈ'l¥i2 ‘ki&lÈpr+-
'mje2’ parvjen'dre alÈ&l¥if™ro'te3 3||
la'bi;zÈ2 sÈ'mi3 3 ‘a'lø;r[s]2’\ 2asu'fle2 dÈ&tutÈse'førsÈ3 3| &meply&™lÈsuÌfle2 2| 'ply lÈvwaja-
'ò#;r2 sÈse're dån&so«mån'to3 3|| &tåntesiÌbj™e«2 2| ‘&kala'f™en2’ la&pøvr+'bi;zÈ2\ dy&r+non'se
ase&zentån'sjøo«3 3|| &lÈso'l™;j2 sÈmon'tra3 3 ‘a'lø;r[s]2’\ &dånlÈ'sj™l3 3| elÈ&vwaja'ò#;r2 ‘kio&bu-
de«mo'maå˙2’ &komån'se a[a]vwarÌëo2 2| ˚&r+ti'ra3 3 ˚so«mån'to3 3|| &seten'si kÈla'bi;zÈ2\ &dy-
r+ko'nEt[r+] kÈ&lÈso'l™;j2 e&telÈply'fø;r3 3 ìdeçd°3 3œ||
¿t¥ae'me21 ‘¿s™tis'twa;r+2’| ¿ty&v°lareån'tandr+21|||)
Canadian pronunciation
4.5.7. (lÅ'bIi z™úsø'lEj2\ s+&QIspÛ'tE2 ‘}J'\UuR2’| &pÍetÅA'dÅA2 ‘'l}J køm'loUt52’| &™tú+púÛ-

'fOøR3 3| &løÍs©i'vIiÍ &sÅvÅA'se2 }&vwÅjÅ'\§#R3 3| &Åvlø'pe dÅ&sÓmÅA'to3 3|| le&d°zÅdv™Í'sE™R2 &de-
si'dE™R2 ‘tÅ'lOøR2’| ©+s&Í™dekúÅ'Re v™eÌ©§#R2 2| s+'¬¥i2 ‘©IúpÍ+'mje2’ pÅRvj™e'dRE Ål[+]&¬¥if™-
RoU'te3 3||
lÅ'bIiz2 s+'mi3 3 ‘Å'lOøR2’\ Ås¨'fú™t2 t.tse'fOÍs3 3| m™&púy™ús¨ÌfúE2 2| 'púYl vwÅjÅ'\§#R2 s+s™'RE
dÅ&sÓmÅA'to3 3|| &tÅ[t]esiÌbj™e2 2| ‘&©ÅlÅ'f™e2’ &lÅpoUv'bIiz2\ &QYRnÓ9'se Åse&z™tÅA'sªÓ93 3|| &l+sø-
'lEj2 s+mÓ9'tÍÅ3 3 ‘Å'lOøR2’\ dÅú'sªEl3 3| ™l&vwÅjÅ'\§#R2 ‘©io&budJmø'mÅA2’ &kømÅA'sE Å[Å]-
vwåÍÌ/o2 2| ˚&R+qi'RÅ3 3 ˚sÓmÅA'to3 3|| &s™t™e'si kúÅ'bIiz2\ &QYÍkø'nEt ©+úsø'lEj2 ™&t™úpúÛ'fOøR3 3
ìdeçd°Y3 3œ||
¿qÎÅe'me21 ‘¿s™qNs't‹å∏R2’| ¿qy&v°lÅReÅA'tÅAd521|||)
English pronunciation of French
4.5.8. (lÈ5bI;iz2 &™¤ısÈ'l™;I2\ sÈ&D¤spj¯'Th™;I2 ‘‘;~'Z¨;å2’| &ph>™ITØ˙'DØ;˙2 ‘5l‘:˙ &khØm'l‘¨-

˛>å2’| &™˛>ÈlÈ5phl¯;u 'fø:3 3| 5lø;sk ¤ı'v¤;å sπvØ˙'s™;I2 ‘;˙&vwA;jÈ'Z‘:3 3| &Ø˙vÈlØ5ph™;I DØ˙-
&sø;˙mØ˙'Th‘;¨3 3|| l™I'D‘: πDvÈ's™;‘3 3 &D™Is¤'D™;‘3 3 ‘È'lø:2’| &kh™IsÈ5>™;I D™IklÈ'>™;I vπ˙'kh‘:32|

sÈl¯'I;i2 ‘5khI;i lÈp>È'mj™;I2’ &phA;vjπn'Ã>™;I A;lÈl¯'I;i &f™‘>‘¨'Th™;I3 3||
lÈ5bI;iz2 sÈ'mIiT3 3 ‘È'lø:2’\ &πsÈ'fl™;I2 DÈ5Th¯uT s™I'fø;s3 3|| &m™I5phl¯;u ™ısÈ'fl™;I32| 5phl¯;u
lÈ&vwA;jÈ'Z‘:2 sÈsÈ5>™;I DØ˙&sø;˙mØ˙'Th‘;¨3 3|| 5ThØ;˙ ™I&sIibi'π;˙32| ‘&khπlÈ'fπ;˙2’ lÈ5ph‘¨-
v>È 'bI;iz2\ 5Dj¯u >Ènø;˙'s™;I È&s™Izπ˙TØ˙si'Ø;˙3 3|| lÈsÈ'l™;I2 sÈmø;˙'˛h>A:2 ‘È'lø:2’\ &DØ˙lÈsi-
'™ı:3 3| ™IlÈ&vwA;jÈ'Z‘:2 ‘&khIiÈ5b¯;u D‘;˙m‘¨'mØ;˙2’ &khØmØ˙5s™;I A;v¯'A: 'S‘;¨32| ˚>ÈT¤'>A:3 3
˚&sø;˙mØ˙'Th‘;¨3 3|| &s™ITπ˙5sI;i kh™Ilå'bI;iz2\ 'Dj¯;u >ûkû5n™˛>û &kh™IlÈsÈ'l™;I2 ™5T™;I lÈ-
'phl¯;u 'fø:3 3 ìD™I'D‘:3 3œ||
¿&Thj¯A;™I'm™;I21 ‘¿&s™T¤sT¯'A:2’| ¿Thj¯u'v‘: lÈ&>™IØ˙'ThØ˙Ã>å21|||)
Appendix: further accents
4.6.0. We would like to add some further information: about the a‡ected Pa-
risian accent, in the form of phonosynthesis; and about the Parisian variants of the
banliSπ˚ compared to mediatic Parisian (Ô § 4.4.2.1-2 “ § 4.5.2.3); lastly about
Canadian variants (Ô § 4.4.4.1-5 “ § 4.5.2.5). In NPT/HPh, you can find the pho-
nosyntheses of Acadian French (acadien˚ east Canada, § 21.10) and cadien, Cajun
(from Louisiana, § 21.16).
A‡ected Parisian
4.6.1. ˛is accent can be heard from representatives of the aristocracy and up-
per classes, but is not usually highly valued. We give the realizations of the vowels
/i/ (i{:}, ’I˜˘) /u/ (u{:}, ’U˜˘)

/y/ (y{:}, ’Y˜˘)
/e/ (e), /°/ (°{:}) /Ú/ (Ú{:}), /o/ (oï{:})
/E/ (E{:}, ’™), /í, ^/ (π{:}) /O/ (O{:}, ’ø)

/§/ (§{:}, ’#), /ù/ (#) /Õ/ (Õ{:})
/a/ ('Aò, 'A0ò, a', ’Å) (“ ('aò, ’a˜, ’ã, ’˜wa))
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 Ì 2) /./ (% ç 2 3)
/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 Ì 2) /?/ (2 • 2 1)
/& / (& 1 1 5 2 2 Ì 2 2 ' 2) /÷/ (2 5 1 1)
/¡ / (¡ 1 1 5 1 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /,/ (% ' 2)
/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 1 ' 2 1 Ì 2)
4. french 183
and intonation, which should be carefully compared to the neutral realizations

(and, possibly, to the others).
Generally, the articulation has less tension than normal, above all in a preinto-
neme, which also has a higher speed than average, contrary to what happens in an
intoneme, which gives a lengthening of the initial contoid of the tonic syllable (¤
stressed in an intoneme), ('0:), and also for V˚ there is often a doubling, in an into-
neme, which adds to the normal length: (é, é;, é:) = (éé, é;é, é:é). ˛e tonograms
show the characteristics of intonation; the utterance is quite emphatic, with par-
aphonic expansions.
On the whole, the V are a little further back than the neutral (especially the
front and back ones, as the approximant /w/ (w), as well, instead of the neutral
(°)), and the traditional pronunciation /E:/ can be maintained; furthermore, for
/a/, we have ('Aò, 'A0, a', ’Å) (but often we have (a) even in ('aò, ’a˜, ’ã, ’˜wa)); /í,
^/ are (π); /K/ (˜) (and (˜), for (Æ, ü, X)), often /t, d/ = (4, 7) and /lò/ = (ı). In un-
stressed syllables, for /p, t, k÷ f, s, S/ we have (p, Ï, k÷ É, s, S); /N, j/ (N, ,) are main-
tained; we do not find (+, _÷ ©, á), but (4, 7÷ ´, Ò).
Parisian variants of the çbanlieuesÇ
4.6.2. Compared to mediatic Parisian, the major vowel di‡erences concern: /í

˙ ^, Õ, Ú/ (Å÷ Ô, ’œ÷ Ú); /O/ (,, ’∑); /EK, §K, OK/ with an intermediate timbre, even
in stressed syllables, (™, #, ∑); /a/ (å), in all contexts, and /A/ (å, ’∏), including the
changes /wa/ (°å, ’°∏), often also /aKò/ (å:‰) >ar[C]≥, very often /ajò/ (å:,), but
(å's¿Úò) -ation˘ ˛e lengthening of a V in a pretonic syllable is less marked or less
systematic: (2éò') (or even (2é')), instead of (2é;').
/i/ (i[:], ’I‰˘) /u/ (%[:], ’T‰˘)

/y/ (y[:], ’Y‰˘)
/e/ (e), /°/ (°) /o/ (P), /Ú/ (Ú[:])
/E/ (E, ’™, ™[:]‰) /Õ/ (Ô[:], ’œ[:])
/ù/ (ê), /§/ (@, ’ê, ê[:]‰) /O/ (,[:], ’∑, ∑[:]‰)
/a/ (å[:]) /A/ (å[:], ’∏)
/í, ^/ (Å[:])
Canadian variants
4.6.3. As well as what has already been given in § 4.4.4.1-5 “ § 4.5.2.5, we add
both some broader variants (≠, ≠≠, ≠≠≠) and less broad variants (±): /e, °, o, A/ (±ee',
±°°', ±PP', ±AA'); /wA/ (wå, ≠wù, ±wÅ) (çdialectalÇ (≠≠≠w™)); as also /EK0/ = /≠≠≠aK0/
is çdialectalÇ; /u/ (±¯, ±¨¯, ±¨, ±P, ±P¨), /O/ (±’Ö, ±∏, ±∏Ö). We can observe the use
of (≠≠¤, ≠≠T, ≠≠¨) (considerably centralized), which is independent from the moder-
ate systematic advancement of back phonemes (of ç±Ç type). We also indicate the
uvulo-postalveolarized velar rounded realization of /Kò/ (= (<)) and its çvocaliza-
tionÇ through (Ù, +, P÷ Ä, §, ∏÷ √) (as the last element at the end of the diphthongs
e triphthongs), in /iK, yK, uK÷ EK, §K, OK÷ aK/, given in the first vocogram (which
will be dealt with and illustrated with examples in the book in progress indicated
in the bibliography). Naturally, the vocograms will be less grouped up, and more
numerous, to properly demonstrate the various peculiarities (it was not possible
to place the variant (O÷P°) of /O(:)0ò/). In rural accents, and above all for speakers
who are not so young, /S, Z/ (/, \) have di‡erent, peculiar and broad realizations,
as well as (S, Z): (», «÷ S, q÷ ¢, Ú÷ '·, ’h, 'â, ’H). On an uneducated level, before a
rounded V˚ /f/ = (å). ˛e French may have di‚culties in understanding Canadian
French, especially if the accent is very broad and uneducated.
/i(:)Kò/ (≠≠Ii<, ≠≠IiÙ), /i/ (≠¤)

/u(:)Kò/ (≠≠Uu<, ≠≠UuP), /u/ (≠¨)
/y(:)Kò/ (≠≠Yy<, ≠≠Yy+), /y/ (≠T)
/E:0ò/ (≠π™), /E˘'/+/v, z, Z, [v]K/ (™e) /O(:)0ò/ (≠Øø0ò),
/E(:)K/ (≠πÄR, ≠≠π™<, ≠≠π™Ä) /O˘'/+/v, z, Z, [v]K/ (øo)
/§(:)0ò/ (π#), /§˘'/+/v, z, Z, [v]K/ (#°) /O(:)Kò/ (≠ù∏R, ≠≠ùø<, ≠≠ùø∏)
/§(:)K/ (≠π§R, ≠≠π#<, ≠≠π#§) /A/ (±A, ±A√0ò, ≠ù)
/a/ (±a), /a(:)Kò/ (≠≠Åå<, ≠≠Åå√) /A(:)Kò/ (≠≠ùø<, ≠≠ùø∏)
/u/ (±¯, ±¨¯, ±¨, ±P, ±P¨)
/Ú/ (±9Ú)
/í/ (±í™, ≠ì/ò ≠a3), /^/ (±^}) /O/ (±’Ö, ≠’ê, ≠’+, ±∏, ±∏Ö)
/Eò/ (≠Ä÷), /E:0ò/ (≠≠ÅÉ, ≠≠≠aÙ)
/O(:)0/ (≠≠åø)
/a(:)0/ (≠≠å¨)
/Õ/ (≠ÅÚ, ≠ìíò, ≠≠As0ò, ±Œ_, ±úÕ) /A(:)0/ (≠åø, ≠≠ùø, ≠≠å¨)
5. German
5.0. ˛e neutral pronunciation of (Germany) German is provided in this chap-

ter. Afterwards (§ 5.4.1), we will concisely present the accent of north-east Germany
(¤ former East Germany, ex-∂∂®), as used in professional †√ and radio broadcast-
ings, which di‡ers only in a few nuances. We will also add the accents of Austria (§
5.4.2), Switzerland (§ 5.4.3) and South Tyrol or Alto Adige (in north-eastern Italy,
§ 5.4.4), including some clearly non-neutral indications, which have been chosen
(because of their frequency and di‡usion) among those that will be given in a
specific monograph –German Pronunciation*– which will deal with the various re-
gional accents of the whole German-speaking territory in greater detail.
Vowels
5.1.1. û 5.1 shows the neutral articulations of modern neutral German, which
presents seven pairs of opposing short and long vowels in stressed syllables, with
the important addition of a timbric di‡erence too (except for /a, a:/, whose tim-
bric di‡erence is now regional). As can be seen from û 5.1, too, long vowels are
realized by closer vocoids, and a modern phonemic transcription must obviously
reflect this characteristic: /i:, I÷ e:, E÷ a:, a/, /y:, Y÷ °:, §/, /u:, U÷ o:, O/.
But we have to add another çinconvenientÇ long phoneme, /E:/, which opposes
both /e:/ (because of timbre) and /E/ (because of length). Frequently, it merges with
/e:/, mainly in the North, but this pronunciation is not recommendable as neutral,
all the more so as current spelling clearly shows it. Indeed, for a modern neutral
pronunciation, the most appropriate realization is an intermediate one, (™:), in fact
in û 5.1 the other variants are shown as separate ones.
û 5.1. German monophthongs.
/i:, ’i/ (i:, i), /y:, ’y/ (y:, y) /u:, ’u/ (u:, u)
/I/ (I), /Y/ (Y) /U/ (U)
/e:, ’e/ (e:, e), /°:, ’°/ (°:, °) /o:, ’o/ (o:, o)
/È/ (¢, È˘º, ºÈ, º¢ò)
/E:/ (™:, ’™;) {(E:÷ e:÷ ’e;)}
/O/ (O, ’ø)
/E/ (E, ’™), /§/ (§, ’#)
/Ú/ (…) {“ (√)}
/a/ (a), /a:/ (a:)
In addition, we find the typical unstressed phoneme, /È/ (¢), which is realized
di‡erently when close to /K/: (È) (/È˘K, KÈ/ (Èº, ºÈ), except for word-final /KÈò/ (º¢)),
and in checked syllables with /K/ (as we will see shortly after, in the examples),
where we actually have /Ú/ (…); although it derives from //ÈK//).
Let us now see some examples: ('mi:t¢) /'mi:tÈ/ M¤te˚ ('mIt¢) /'mItÈ/ Mitte÷ ('ve:k)
/'ve:k/ Weg˚ ('vEk) /'vEk/ weg÷ ('Sta:t) /'Sta:t/ Staat˚ ('Stat) /'Stat/ Stadt÷ ('hy:t¢) /'hy:tÈ/
Hüte˚ ('hYt¢) /'hYtÈ/ Hütte÷ ('h°:l¢) /'h°:lÈ/ Höhle˚ ('h§l¢) /'h§lÈ/ Hölle˘ In addition,
('ö™:º¢÷ 'öE:-) /'E:KÈ/ ∏hre˚ ('öe:º¢) /'e:KÈ/ Ehre and ('th™:l…÷ 'thE:-) /'tE:lÚ/ Täler˚ ('thEl…)
/'tElÚ/ Teller÷ finally, ('zOn¢) /'zOnÈ/ Sonne˚ (â¢'thüU˙kô) /gÈ'tKU˙kô/ getrunken˚ (âÈ-
'ºa:d¢) /gÈ'Ka:dÈ/ gerade˚ ('öUnzÈº¢) /'UnzÈKÈ/ unsere˚ ('öUnzÈº…) /'UnzÈKÚ/ unserer˘
˛e last example (as well as a previous one – Täler] shows (…) /Ú/ -er˚ which is
more traditionally rendered phonemically as //ÈK// (and even as //Èr//); but /Ú/ is
more convenient, since its most normal and frequent realization is as an intense
faryngealized uvular approximant (…). It is a fact that a çvocalizationÇ is also pos-
sible, as (√) (and this symbol is certainly more appropriate than ç(å)Ç, which how-
ever is found in many publications), that is represented by a broken-line white
marker (û 5.1); but it does not occur in a systematic way. As a matter of fact, more
often we find (…), or even (1, &); occasionally, even something like ((√‰, √˜, √º)) (¤
a back-central vocoid with traces of the contoids shown) is surely apter than a sim-
ple and pure vocoid.
5.1.2. We must add that, in unstressed syllables, /E, §, O/ are realized as closer
vocoids, (™, #, ø) (Ô û 5.1): (ö™nt'SUldIgU,) /Ent'SUldIgU˙/ En˛uldigu«˚ (öøk-
'tho:b…) /Ok'to:bÚ/ Oktober˚ ('ph§‰k#lt) /'p§Kk§lt/ Pörkölt˘ Again, in unstressed
syllables, also /i, e÷ y, °÷ u, o/ are to be added, even in phonemic transcriptions:
(&miküo'fo:n) /mikKo'fo:n/ Mikro#on˚ (&ºeali'th™:t÷ -E:t) /Keali'tE:t/ Realität˚ (&∂yna-
'mi:t) /dyna'mi:t/ Dynamit˚ (&ö°kolo'gi:) /°kolo'gi:/ Ökolog¤˚ (&öuni&v™‰zi'th™:t÷ -E:t)
/univEKzi'tE:t/ Universität˚ (&fonolo'gi:) /fonolo'gi:/ Phonolog¤˘ We must say at once
that, in current or familiar pronunciation, unstressed /i, e÷ y, °÷ u, o/ easily become
/I, E÷ Y, §÷ U, O/ (I, ™÷ Y, #÷ U, ø) (except when word-final): (&mIküø'fo:n, &º™alI'th™:t
{-E:t}, &∂Yna'mi:t, &ö#kølø'gi:, &öUnI&v™‰zI'th™:t {-E:t}, &fønølø'gi:), and (ö™nt'SUldI&gU,,
¢n-), but: ('âUmi) /'gUmi/ Gummi˚ ('zi:mi&le, -I-) /'zi:mile/ Simile˚ ('phúa:ty) /'pla:ty/
Platy˚ ('qhe:bu) /'qe:bu/ Zebu˚ ('mEksi&ko, -I-) /'mEksiko/ Mexiko˘
Unstressed /a, a:/ pose no problems to modern neutral pronunciation, since
they always become (a): (öa'ga:v¢) /a'ga:vÈ/ Agave˚ (öa'me:ºi&ka, -I-) /a'me:Kika/ Ame-
rika˚ ('öa:füi&ka, -I-) /'a:fKika/ Afrika˚ (&öafüi'kha:t¢, -I-) /afKi'ka:tÈ/ A‡rikate˘ Instead,
in certain transcriptions of traditional neutral pronunciation, we may find ç/A/Ç,
which somehow corresponds to ç/A:/Ç; but there is not much coherence at all a-
mong di‡erent dictionaries and textbooks: (öa'ga:v¢, öA'gA:-÷ öa'me:ºi&ka, öA'me:ºi-
&kA, -I-÷ 'öa:füi&ka, 'öA:füi&kA, -I-÷ &öafüi'kha:t¢, -A:t¢). Except for some loanwords, the
Ÿ∑∂å systematically gives ç/A/Ç (¤ /’A/) for unchecked grapho-syllables (a çstrangeÇ
criterion indeed, to be frank), whereas Langenscheidt's dictionaries still using /A:/
mark /’a/.
5.1.3. û 5.2 shows the diphthongs of neutral German: three basic and two sec-
ondary ones (the latter are marked in grey and are used in English loanwords).
˛eir neutral duration, both in stressed and unstressed syllables, is always interme-
diate between the short (('öal¢) /'alÈ/ alle) and the long (('öa:l¢) /'a:lÈ/ Ahle) ones. ˛e
three genuine diphthongs are (ae, ao, OY) /ae, ao, OY/ (often badly represented as
5. german 187
ç/ai, au, oy˙oi/Ç): ('Êaen) /'baen/ BRn˚ ('öael¢) /'aelÈ/ Eile˚ ('mae) /'mae/ MP÷
('Êaom) /'baom/ BQm˚ ('öaog¢) /'aogÈ/ Auge˚ ('thao) /'tao/ TQ÷ ('lOYtó) /'lOYtó/ lT-
ten˚ ('öOYl¢) /'OYlÈ/ Eule˚ ('nOY) /'nOY/ nS˘ ˛e two additional ones, in grey, in the
most spontaneous pronunciation type, merge into /e:, o:/ (but this depends on
words and speakers, too): ('le:di, 'l™Idi) /'leIdi/ Lady˚ ('âe:, 'â™I) /'geI/ gay˚ (&no:'hao,
&nøU'hao) /noU'hao/ Know-how˚ ('So:, 'SøU) /'SoU/ Show˘
˛e broken-line white markers show two possible realizations of /ae, ao/, in re-
duced forms (Ô § 5.3.1), (åe, åo), as in: (åen) /aen/ Rn˚ (åos) /aos/ Qs (also (ÖY)
/OY/: (ÖYÂ) /OYÂ/ S>). ˛e marker corresponding to (å) is also valid for reduced
forms with /a/, as a possible variant: (∂ås) /das/ das. We have intentionally not
placed it in the monophthong vocogram (û 5.1), also to avoid confusion with the
–quite frequent, but not recommendable– use of ç(å)Ç to indicate our (‰, …) (or,
at best, (√), see û 5.1 and the first part of § 5.1, and the second part of § 5.2).
û 5.2. German diphthongs.
/eI/ (e:, ±™I) /oU/ (o:, ±øU)

/OY/ (OY) {(’ÖY)}
{/’a/ (å)}
/ae/ (ae) {(’åe)} /ao/ (ao) {(’åo)}
5.1.4. In French loanwords with original nasalized vowels, we more normally

find regular German timbres of /E, §, a, O/ (according to stress force) followed by
/˙/: ('thE˙) /'tE˙/ TRnt˚ (pha‰'f§˙) /paK'f§˙/ Parfum˚ (öa˙'sa˙bÍ) /a˙'sa˙bÍ/ Ensem-
ble˚ (Êø˙'bO˙) /bO˙'bO˙/ Bonbon˘ Assimilation is possible, too, as in (öan'sambÍ,
Êøm'bO˙)); although in more careful pronunciation real nasalized vocoids are pos-
sible, but generally followed by /˙/: ('thí˙, pha‰'f^˙, öÅ˙'sÅ˙bÍ, Ê9˙'bÓ˙).
In a more careful –but less frequent– kind of pronunciation, actual nasalized vo-
coids may occur, without any N. ˛ey are long or half-long if stressed, and short
if unstressed: ('thí:, pha‰'f^:, öÅ'sÅ:bÍ, Ê9'bÓ:); in words ending in -on and -an˚ even
a completely Germanized pronunciation is frequent with /o:n, a:n/: (Êal'khO˙, -o:n÷
-Ó˙÷ -Ó:) /bal'kO˙, -o:n/ Balkon˚ (e'khüa˙, -a:n÷ -Å˙÷ -Å:) /e'kKa˙, -a:n/ Ekran. In addi-
tion, when nasalization is present, words with /a˙/ can show timbres that are clos-
er to the French ones: (ö˙'s˙:bÍ, öŒ'sŒ:bÍ, ö˙˙'s˙˙bÍ, öŒ˙'sŒ˙bÍ), ('Sans[¢], -a˙-, -˙˙-,
-Œ˙-, -˙:-, -Œ:-) /'Sa˙s[È]/ ≥ance (in words such as this, /Èò/ can drop).
Consonants
5.2. û 5.3 shows the necessary consonant articulations which are needed for a
good German pronunciation, including taxophonic variants. ˛e examples will
even show the devoicing of voiced stops, after pauses or voiceless consonants and
of voiced constrictives only after voiceless consonants.
û 1.9-15, instead, give the orograms, grouped by manners of articulation, of all

the contoids given in the chapters of this volume (even as secondary, occasional,
or regional variants) for the 12 languages treated. ˛is exposition makes the neces-
sary comparisons between di‡erent languages more immediate.
û 5.3. Table of German consonants.
postalveo-palatal
pharyngealized
denti-alveolar
protruded
labiodental
prepalatal
laryngeal
uvular
alveolar
bilabial
palatal
uvular
dental
velar
ö m (M) (n) n (~) ˙ (,)
F pb 47 kg (ö)
Ô ∫ q c
ƒ (6) f v
_ s z S Z (À) Â (,) /x/ (X º)
ß /j/ (‰) h
ó ([) /K/
‹ (R) l (¬)
+(º, ¸, n) “ /õ, ó/ (õ, è, ó, «, ô, ?÷ :, !, õ, ò, ô, /, ¡, |, ˘) (Ô û 1.9.1)
Nasals
5.2.1.1. ˛ere are three phonemes for this manner of articulation, /m, n, ˙/,
with a certain number of taxophones by assimilation ((m), (m, M, n, n, ~, ˙, ,),
and (˙, ,)): ('man) /'man/ Mann˚ ('hEmt) /'hEmt/ Hemd˚ ('ve:m) /'ve:m/ wem˚
('naen) /'naen/ nRn˚ (k'ni:) /k'ni:/ Kn¤˚ ('qhe:n) /'qe:n/ zehn˚ ('thüI˙kô) /'tKI˙kó/
trinken˚ ('öam&bi;tó) /'anbi:dó/ anb¤ten˚ ('fYMf) /'fYnf/ fünf˚ ('öUns) /'Uns/ uns (strict-
ly (('öU˙s)), but (n) is su‚cient), (∂i'thant¢) /di'tantÈ/ d¤ Tante (strictly ((fli'4han4¢))),
('vYnSó) /'vYnSó/ wün(en, (khøn'ºa:d¢) /kOn'Ka:dÈ/ Konrade, ('mY~Â«) /'mYnÂó/
Mün>en˚ ('öa˙Ín) /'a˙Ín/ a«eln˚ ('lE˙st) /'lE˙st/ lä«®˚ ('lE˙…) /'lE˙Ú/ lä«er˚ ('zI˙ô)
/'zI˙ó/ si«en˚ ('qhU˙¢) /'qU˙È/ Zu«e˚ (Ê¢'dI˙U,) /bÈ'dI˙U˙/ Bedi«u«˚ ('qhaetU,)
/'qaetU˙/ ZRtu«˚ ('qhaetU,?) /'qaetU˙ó/ ZRtu«en˘ (For /U˙ò, U˙óò/ we have
(U,ò, U,?).)
Please, note that the sequence /nj/ –and /lj/ as well– has two di‡erent realiza-
tions in stressed syllables, for tautosyllabic (after /é:/) or heterosyllabic (after /é/)
elements: ('li:n,¢) /'li:njÈ/ Lin¤˚ (Sam'pha~,…) {((-a~-,…))} /Sam'panjÚ/ ≥ampagner.
In lexical compounding, even for the negative prefix un-, in slow — accurate
pronunciation, people try to maintain (n), whereas –currently– it is assimilated
to the place of articulation of the following C˘
As an actual compromise, here we will show that it is possible to have articula-
tions which maintain an apical contact but add secondary coarticulations (without
full contacts). ˛ese coarticulations are: bilabial (º), labiodental (¸), velar (n):
('öUm&b™ndIÂ, 'öUº-) /'UnbEndIÂ/ unbändig˚ ('öUM&vI‰kúIÂ, 'öU¸-) /'UnvIKklIÂ/ unwirk-
5. german 189
li>˚ ('öU˙g¢&ºe;gÍt, 'öUn-) /'UngÈKe:gÍt/ u«eregelt˘ Below, we will find that a couple
of these phones occur as intense too, (/, ¡).
In other cases, with less di‡erent coarticulations, assimilation (which is often
considered to be less recommendable, on pure graphical and morphological bases)
appears to be less noticeable, thus it is applied in a spontaneous though uncon-
scious way.
5.2.1.2. Including two intense nasal phonemes too, /õ, ó/ (instead of //Èm,
Èn//), we have five of them, with all their various taxophones ((õ) for /õ/, and (õ,
è, ó, «, ô, ?) for /ó/) ('öa:tõ) /'a:tõ/ Atem˚ ('zi:bõ) /'zi:bó/ s¤ben˚ ('ne:mõ) /'ne:-
mó/ nehmen˚ ('Sa‰fè) /'SaKfó/ (arfen˚ ('hO∫ès) /'hO∫ós/ Hoπens˚ ('khaqó) /'ka-
qó/ Ka˛en˚ ('∂u:dó) /'du:dó/ Duden (rigorously (('flu:7~))), ('phancó) /'pancó/ pan-
˛en˚ ('öap&ÊºEnó) /'apbKEnó/ abbrennen˚ ('m™:+Â«÷ 'mE:+-) /'mE:tÂó/ Mäd>en˚ ('fúi:-
gô) /'fli:gó/ fl¤gen˚ ('za:gô) /'za:gó/ sagen˚ ('qhaetU,?) /'qaetU˙ó/ ZRtu«en˚ ('ÊºI-
˙ô) /'bKI˙ó/ bri«en˚ ('vIº?, -º¡, -I‰,, -I‰n) /'vIKó/ wirren˚ ('qha:ló) /'qa:ló/ zahlen˚
('âe:ó) /'ge:ó/ gehen˘
Let us observe, however, that there are cases where intense nasals are less favored,
as results from such forms as ('ÊIndód¢n) /'bIndódÈn/ bindenden (with theoretical
sequences of (M), ('ÊIndódó), which are possible in faster speech, but mostly not
in intonemes).
As can be seen, it is more convenient to distinguish between /M/ and /Èö/. It is
su‚cient to know that, if pronunciation becomes slower or more controlled, it is
easy to go back to (ó), or (¢n): from ('zi:bõ, 'za:gô) to ('zi:bó, 'za:gó) and ('zi:b¢n,
'za:g¢n), or from ('qha:ló, 'âe:ó) to ('qha:l¢n, 'âe:¢n). However, generally, except in
intonemes, forms such as gehen can even become ('âe:n).
5.2.1.3. In the previous section, we have shown up to six taxophones for the
two intense nasals, /õ, ó/. At first sight, they might seem to be excessive; neverthe-
less, by concretely considering actual phonetic reality, it is clear that only in quite
approximate transcriptions could it be possible to renounce them. Besides, in or-
der not to complicate things çwithout reasonÇ, even nine could be useful, indeed:
(:, !, õ, ò, ô, /, ¡, |, ˘). (All this without considering a denti-alveolar ((~)), for
which a simple (ó) is su‚cient, as in (&öaen¡'gu:tó 'tha˙k) ((&öaen¡'gu:4~ '4ha˙k))
/aenó'gu:tó 'ta˙k/ Rnen guten Tank.)
However, we will show them only here, since these examples belong to actual
sentences taken from passages of connected speech, and we will put them in dou-
ble square brackets that indicate an objective precision, but perhaps a less pressing
one. We are dealing with sequences where /ó, õ/ and the tautosyllabic C before
them, /˘0M˘/, determine their exact place of articulation, (õ, è, ó, «, ô, ?), just
as in the examples seen above. Even the initial C of following syllables a‡ect the
result, by coarticulation, in a more or less evident way, according to the places of
articulation directly involved. ˛is happens every time two phones come into con-
tact with one another; and, of course, this is done to render pronunciation more
fluent and natural (certainly not to further complicate life!).
Among the taxophonically relevant actual cases in German, after experiencing
all possibilities, the following instances are worthwhile mentioning and exemplify-
ing. As a matter of fact, should they not be applied, the result would be articulato-
ry straining, indeed.
5.2.1.4. For practical reasons, we will start from /0ó/ (0õ). We can see that
when they are followed by labiodentals (/∫, f, v/), the coarticulation of (õ) and
(∫, f, v) produces an intense labiodentalized bilabial ((:)): (('zi:b: '∫he:‰7¢)) /'zi:bó
'∫e:KdÈ/ s¤ben Pferde˚ (('zi:b: 'fE4…)) /'zi:bó 'fEtÚ/ s¤ben Vetter˚ (('zi:b: 'va:gô)) /'zi:bó
'va:gó/ s¤ben Wagen˘
‹en /0ó/ (0õ) is followed by laminal C, /t, d, q, z, n, l/, we have a denti-al-
veo–bilabial ((!)): (('zi:b! '4ha:g¢)) /'zi:bó 'ta:gÈ/ s¤ben Tage˚ (('zi:b! '7e:&ma‰k)) /'zi:bó
'de:maKk/ s¤ben DM˚ (('zi:b! 'qhIm…)) /'zi:bó 'qImÚ/ s¤ben Zimmer˚ (('zi:b! 'nEÂ4¢))
/'zi:bó 'nEÂtÈ/ s¤ben Nä>te˚ (('zi:b! 'lEn7…)) /'zi:bó 'lEndÚ/ s¤ben Länder˘
≈nally, for /0ó/ (0õ) + /k, g, K/, we find an intense velarized bilabial nasal ((ò)):
(('zi:bò 'khaqó)) /'zi:bó 'kaqó/ s¤ben Ka˛en˚ (('zi:bò 'gE˙¢)) /'zi:bó 'gE˙È/ s¤ben
Gä«e˚ (('zi:bò 'º™:7…÷ 'ºE:-)) /'zi:bó 'KE:dÚ/ s¤ben Räder˘
5.2.1.5. As far as /0õ/ (0õ) -em is concerned (which is not derived by assimila-
tion, but is original, for //0Èm//), three groups deserve careful attention. In fact,
for /0õ/ (0õ) + /∫, f, v/, we find a labiodental (è): (mIt&∂i;zè'∫he:‰t) /mItdi:zõ-
'∫e:Kt/ mit d¤sem Pferd˚ (öIn&di;zè'valt) /Indi:zõ'valt/ in d¤sem Wald˘
For /0õ/ (0õ) + /t, d, q, z, n, l/, once again, we have a denti-alveo–bilabial
((!)): ((qhu&7aen!'qhIm…)) /qudaenõ'qImÚ/ zu dRnem Zimmer˚ ((bae&7i;z!'lIÂt))
/baedi:zõ'lIÂt/ bR d¤sem Li>t˘ For /0õ/ (0õ) + /k, g, K/, a velar–bilabial ((õ)):
((fo‰&maenõ'khO∫)) /fo:Kmaenõ'kO∫/ vor mRnem Koπ˚ ((mI4&flaenõ'ºI˙)) /mItdae-
nõ'KI˙/ mit dRnem Ri«˘
5.2.1.6. For /0ó/ (0ó) + /p, b, m/, for the third time we find a denti-al-
veo–bilabial ((!)): (('âu:4! 'phüaes)) /'gu:tó 'pKaes/ guten PrRs˚ (('âu:4! 'bal)) /'gu:tó
'bal/ guten Ball˚ (('âu:4! 'mO‰gô)) /'gu:tó 'mOKgó/ guten Morgen˘
For /0ó/ + /∫, f, v/, we have a labiodentalized alveolar ((/)): (('âu:4/ '∫hle:g…))
/'gu:tó '∫le:gÚ/ guten Pfleger˚ (('âu:4/ 'fa˙)) /'gu:tó 'fa˙/ guten Fa«˚ (('âu:4/ 'vaen))
/'gu:tó 'vaen/ guten WRn˘ For /0ó/ + /k, g, K/, we find a velarized alveolar ((¡)):
(('âu:4¡ 'khEl…)) /'gu:tó 'kElÚ/ guten Keller˚ (('âu:4¡ 'gas4)) /'gu:tó 'gast/ guten Ga®˚
(('âu:4¡ 'ºo:4&Ñaen)) /'gu:tó 'Ko:tvaen/ guten RotwRn˘
Besides, for /0ó/ (0ô) + /p, b, m/, we again find a velar–bilabial ((õ)): ((&âe;gõ-
'pho:ló)) /ge:gô'po:ló/ gegen Polen˚ ((&âe;gõ'bElg,«, -jó)) /ge:gô'bElgjó/ gegen Belg¤n˚
((&âe;gõ'mEksi&ko)) /ge:gô'mEksiko/ gegen Mexiko˘
For /0ó/ (0ô) + /∫, f, v/, we find a labiodentalized velar ((|)): ((&âe;g|'∫han4))
/ge:gô'∫ant/ gegen Pfand˚ ((&âe;g|'füa˙k&üaeÂ)) /ge:gô'fKa˙kKaeÂ/ gegen FrankrR>˚
(('âe:g|&va‰4)) /'ge:gôvaKt/ Gegenwart˘
For /0ó/ (0ô) + /t, d, q, z, n, l/, we have a denti-alveolarized velar ((˘)): (('âe:g˘-
&4hael)) /'ge:gôtael/ GegentRl˚ ((&âe;g˘'7ºae)) /ge:gô'dKae/ gegen drR˚ ((&âe;g˘'qhñae))
/ge:gô'qvae/ gegen zwR˚ ((&âe;g˘'zEks)) /ge:gô'zEks/ gegen se7˚ ((&âe;g˘'nOYn)) /ge:gô-
'nOYn/ gegen nSn˚ (('âe:g˘&laes4U,)) /'ge:gôlaestU˙/ GegenlR®u«˘
5. german 191
5.2.1.7. In the case of /0ó/ (0è) + /∫, f, v/, obviously, things do not change:
(m¢t'Sa‰fè 'fo:tos) /mIt'SaKfó 'fo:tos/ mit (arfen Fotos÷ equally, for /0ó/ (0è) + /t,
d, q, z, n, l/: (m¢t'Sa‰fè 'qh™:nó÷ 'qhE:-) /mIt'SaKfó 'qE:nó/ mit (arfen Zähnen˘
Instead, for /0ó/ (0è) + /k, g, K/, we have a velarized labiodental ((ô)): ((m¢t'Sa‰-
fô 'khúI˙ô)) /mIt'SaKfó 'klI˙ó/ mit (arfen Kli«en˘
For /0ó/ (0«) + /p, b, m/, for the fourth time we find a denti-alveo–bilabial
((!)): (('m™:+Â!&p™nz,o&na;4, -a˙-, -Å˙-, -Å-, -s,-÷ 'mE:+-)) /'mE:tÂópenzjona:t, -a˙-, -sj-/
Mäd>enpensionat÷ besides, + /∫, f, v/, we have a labiodentalized alveolar ((/)):
(('m™:+Â/&füOYntúIÂ÷ 'mE:+-)) /'mE:tÂófKOYntlIÂ/ mäd>enfrSndli>÷ then, + /k, g/, we
have a velarized alveolar ((¡)): (('m™:+Â¡&khúas¢÷ 'mE:+-)) /'mE:tÂóklasÈ/ Mäd>enklasse˘
For /0ó/ (0?) + /p, b, m/, we find for the third time a velar–bilabial ((õ)):
(('qhae4U˙õ &publi'qhi:º?, -º¡, -‰,, -‰n)) /'qaetU˙ó publi'qi:Kó/ ZRtu«en publiz¤-
ren˘
For /0ó/ (0?) + /∫, f, v/, we again have a labiodentalized velar ((|)): (('qhae4U˙|
f…'khaofè)) /'qaetU˙ó fÚ'kaofó/ ZRtu«en verkQfen˘
Lastly, for /0ó/ (0?) + /t, d, q, z, n, l/, once again we find a denti-alveolarized
velar ((˘)): (('qhae4U˙˘ 'le:zó)) /'qaetU˙ó 'le:zó/ ZRtu«en lesen˘
In grammemes (and frequent lexemes), as in˚ Rn˚ von˚ ins˚ uns˚ dann˚ (on˚
Montag, in current speech, it is not at all rare that /én/ + /[0]˘, [0]˘/ becomes (◊n,
–n, –) (with progressively stronger nasalization, up to a complete dropping of /n/):
(öIns'khi:no, öIs-) /Ins'ki:no/ ins Kino…
Stops
5.2.2.1. ˛ere are three diphonic pairs, /p, b÷ t, d÷ k, g/, which are peculiar be-
cause in word-final position (and in postnuclear position, but with some çodditiesÇ
that we will see) only the voiceless elements occur. In addition, /p, t, k/, after paus-
es and in stressed syllables (not preceded by /s, S/ that belong to the same lexeme),
are çaspiratedÇ. Besides, /t, d/ are denti-alveolar (and rigorously the most appropri-
ate symbols would be ((4, 7)), but it is su‚cient to use (t, d), unless it is thought to
be important to insist on this nuance).
Here are some examples: (pha'phi:‰) /pa'pi:K/ Pap¤r˚ ('phúaq) /'plaq/ Pla˛˚
('SpüEÂ«) /'SpKEÂó/ spre>en˚ ('halp) /'halp/ halb˚ ('öapt) /'apt/ Abt˚ (öIÂ'pha‰k¢) /IÂ-
'paKkÈ/ i> parke˚ ('öUnt) /'Unt/ und˚ ('lu:p¢) /'lu:pÈ/ Lupe˚ ('öEb¢) /'EbÈ/ Ebbe˚ ('ÊIt¢)
/'bItÈ/ bitte÷ ('tho:t) /'to:t/ Tod˚ ('thüe:tó) /'tKe:tó/ treten˚ ('Stüa:s¢) /'StKa:sÈ/ Stra•e˚
('laet) /'laet/ LRd˚ (¢s'thüI˙kt) /Ès'tKI˙kt/ es trinkt˚ ('laed…) /'laedÚ/ lRder˚ ('∂a˙kô)
/'da˙kó/ danken˚ ('khInt) /'kInt/ Kind˚ ('khüaes) /'kKaes/ KrRs˚ (∂ås'khi:no) /das'ki:-
no/ das Kino˚ ({öae˙}k'nal) /{aen}k'nal/ (Rn) Knall˚ (â¢'bI‰g¢) /gÈ'bIKgÈ/ Gebirge˚
('âI˙) /'gI˙/ gi«˘
5.2.2.2. ‹at is too often described as çaspirationÇ of stops before pauses, is ac-
tually nothing but the çexplosionÇ of the phones (that we will show only here with
($)), not çaspirationÇ, which is a di‡erent thing: ('skalp$) /'skalp/ Skalp˚ ('tha:t$)
/'ta:t/ Tat˚ ('khEk$) /'kEk/ ke$˘ Some authors go as far as to indicate something like
ç('thaphth¢, 'ºYthl¢)Ç, for ('thapt¢) /'taptÈ/ tappte˚ ('ºYtú¢) /'KYtlÈ/ rüttle˚ when they
simply want to hint at the fact that the transition from one stop to another, or to
any other phone, can be audible, that is çexplodedÇ (('4hap$4$¢, 'ºY4$ú¢)); but there
is certainly no need to mark such things.
By assimilation, in /pf, pv/, we have (]) + /f, v/: ('öa]&fal) /'apfal/ Abfall (di‡er-
ent from (∫) /∫/)˚ ('öa]&Ñe;‰tó) /'apve:Któ/ abwerten˘ In addition, as we have seen
for /n/ (§ 5.2.1), even /t, d/ assimilate to a following C: ('mIk&âIft) /'mItgIft/ Mit-
gi⁄˚ ('mIk&kømõ) /'mItkOmó/ mitkommen˚ ('mIp&ÊºI˙ô) /'mItbKI˙ó/ mitbri«en˚
('mIp&≈™nS) /'mItmEnS/ Mitmen(˚ ('Êºo:k&khaofè) /'bKo:tkaofó/ Brot kQfen˚
('Êºo:p&ÊºI˙ô) /'bKo:tbKI˙ó/ Brot bri«en˘ Note that we have (+) in: ('m™:+Â«÷ 'mE:+-)
/'mE:tÂó/ Mäd>en˘
5.2.2.3. Let us also consider: ('öap&úaot) /'aplaot/ AblQt˚ ('öapúa&ti;f) /'aplati:f/ Ab-
lativ˚ ('öap&üu;f) /'apKu:f/ Abruf˚ (öat'ÑE‰p) /at'vEKp/ Adverb˚ (&öat≈i'ºa:l) /atmi'Ka:l/
Admiral˚ ('Sto:f&úaen) /'Sto:flaen/ StovlRn˚ ('li:p&úo;s) /'li:plo:s/ l¤blos˚ ('ºe:k&úo;s) /'Ke:k-
lo:s/ reglos˚ ('m°:kúIÂ) /'m°:klIÂ/ mögli>˚ ('ni:túIÂ) /'ni:tlIÂ/ n¤dli>˚ ('hantúU,) /'han-
tlU˙/ Handlu«˚ ('öy:púIÂ) /'y:plIÂ/ übli>˚ ('va:knIs) /'va:knIs/ Wagnis˚ but: ('laebnIq)
/'laebnIq/ LRbniz˚ ('ºe:dn…) /'Ke:dnÚ/ Redner˚ ('âe:gn…) /'ge:gnÚ/ Gegner˚ ('va:gn…)
/'va:gnÚ/ Wagner˚ ('öa:dl…) /'a:dlÚ/ Adler˚ ('öa:dlIÂ) /'a:dlIÂ/ adlig˚ ('öa:dlIg¢) /'a:dlIgÈ/
Adlige˚ ('O‰dnU,) /'OKdnU˙/ Ordnu«˚ ('ºe:gl…) /'Ke:glÚ/ Regler˚ (zIg'na:l) /zIg'na:l/
Signal˚ (&zIgna'thu:‰) /zIgna'tu:K/ Signatur˚ ('öe:bn¢) /'e:bnÈ/ ebne˚ ('öy:bºIÂ) /'y:bKIÂ/
übrig˘
Actually, in this second group of forms, the consonantal sequences are voiced
because they belong to the same lexeme (with a possible diachronic drop of /È/ -e-]\
reden˚ gegen˚ Wagen˚ Adel˚ Regel˚ Orden˚ eben˚ über˘ On the contrary, in the first
group we have combinations (which may be clear or opaque) with grammemes
(¤ prefixes or su‚xes), so we will consider only three cases: Ab-[lQt]˚ [üb]-li>˚
from üben˚ and [Wag]-nis˘
Words of lofty or foreign origin generally maintain a voiced stop before sonants:
/bl/ Double˚ mobl¤ren˚ Problem˚ publik˚ Republik˚ sublim˚ Tablett˚ Variable÷ /bK/
Algebra˚ Fabrik˚ Kabrio˚ Kobra˚ Libretti®˚ Soubrette˚ Vibration˚ Zebra÷ however
/bK, pK/ Abrasion˚ Abrasit and /pK, bK/ abrupt÷ /dK/ Adresse˚ Hydrant˚ Madrider˚
Madrigal˚ Melodrama˚ Quadrant˘
Other cases: /gm/ Dagmar˚ Dogma˚ Egmont˚ Fragment˚ Magma˚ Paradigma˚
Phlegma˚ Pigment˚ Pragmatik˚ Pygmäe˚ Segment˚ Sigma˚ Stigma÷ /gn/ Agno®iker˚
Diagnose˚ ignor¤ren˚ indign¤rt˚ kognitiv˚ Magnat˚ Magnol¤˚ Magnus˚ Physiogno-
m¤˚ prägnant˚ Stagnation˚ and /gn, ˙n/ inkognito˚ Magnesit˚ Magnesium˚ magne-
ti(˚ Signal˚ signikant÷ /gl/ eglomis¤ren˚ H¤rogly#e˚ Iglu˚ Negligé˚ and /˙l/ e«-
li(˚ Jü«li«˚ lä«li(˚ and /˙Í/ Si«le÷ /gK/ agrari(˚ Agronom¤˚ Allegro˚ Dia-
gramm˚ Emigrant˚ Migräne˚ Regress˚ Sa«ria˚ Telegraf˘
But we have: /tm/ Admiral˚ Kadmium˘ In addition: /p, b/ Abort [= Abtritt]˚ ab-
oral˚ abort¤ren˚ and /kn, gn/ ErRgnis˚ in spite of /kn/ Befugnis˚ Wagnis˚ ZSgnis˘
5.2.2.4. From the examples provided, we see that German has a çglottalÇ stop
too (or çglottal catchÇ, but laryngeal stop is better) (ö): (&öyb…'öal, &öY-) /y[:]bÚ'al/ ü-
5. german 193
berall˚ (â¢'öO‰k) /gÈ'OKk/ Georg (more frequently, ('âe:ø‰k) /'ge:OKk/), (Ê¢'öaeló) /bÈ-
'aeló/ beRlen˚ (the'öa:t…) /te'atÚ/ †eater˚ (f…'öaen) /fÚ'aen/ VerRn˚ ('vael [ö]IÂ'öaos-
&öa‰baet¢) /'vael IÂ'aosaKbaetÈ/ wRl i> QsarbRte˚ ('öIs 'öaoX &öaen[ó]'öa∫Í) /'Is 'aox
aenó'a∫Í/ iss Q> Rnen Aπel˘
˛is phone precedes every V which is syllable-initial (thus with no C before that,
always in the same syllable), either in stressed or unstressed position, either in lex-
emes or grammemes, even in sentences. It is mostly noticeable after pauses and in
stressed syllables; if pronunciation becomes more relaxed, (ö) may be missing but
only in completely unstressed syllables (and we indicate it here as ([ö])), provided
composition is not evident.
As can be seen, it also occurs within lexemes, in the context /é'é/ (é'öé), but not
if the stress is weak: ('öaf¢) /'afÈ/ A‡e˚ ('öap&öa;‰t) /'apa:Kt/ Abart˚ (f…'öaXtó) /fÚ'axtó/
vera>ten˚ (Ê¢'öaXtó) /bÈ'axtó/ bea>ten˚ (d™s&öavu'öi:º?, -º¡, -‰n, -‰,) /dEsavu'i:Kó/
desavou¤ren˚ (∂e'öEMfazIs) /de'EmfazIs/ Deem#asis˚ (öant'öa:qidUm) /ant'a:qidUm/
Antacidum˚ (&öant[ö]a'qhi:t) /anta'qi:t/ Antacid˚ ('öaosö…≤zó) /'aosÚle:zó/ Qserlesen˚
('mUnt&öa;‰tó) /'mUnta:Któ/ Mundarten˘ ˛us we have: (thea'thüa:lIS) /tea'tKa:lIS/
theatrali(˚ but (&theöa-) only in a kind of… theatrical pronunciation.
In addition, we find (ö) even if the V is çdeepÇ or assimilated, as in (…) /Ú/, for
//ÈK//, provided it is an initial syllabic nucleus: ({qhu}ö…'fa:º?, -º¡, -‰n, -‰,) /{qu}Ú-
'fa:Kó/ [zu] erfahren˘
But we have: (öae'nand…) /ae'nandÚ/ Rnander˚ with non-morphemic syllabifica-
tion, which is acknowledged by the new orthography as well.
Further useful examples: (&ö…'öa‰&baetó) /ŒK'aKbaetó/ erarbRten˚ ('öaofö…&Ste;U,)
/'aofŒKSte:U˙/ Aufer®ehu«˚ ('vi:d…ö…&öo;b…,, -…n) /'vi:dÚŒKo:bÚn/ w¤dererobern˚
('âlat&öaes) /'glataes/ GlattRs˚ (la˙'ne:z¢&öaes) /la˙'ne:zÈaes/ La«neseRs˚ ('âa˙&öa;‰t)
/'ga˙a:Kt/ Ga«art˚ ('qhOlö…&h°;U,) /'qOlÚh°:U˙/ Zollerhöhu«˚ (khlo'öa:k¢) /klo'a:kÈ/
Kloake˚ (&öide'öa:l) /ide'a:l/ ideal˘
5.2.2.5. ˛e existence of pairs such as (f…'öaezó) /fÚ'aezó/ verRsen and (f…'ºaezó)

/fÚ'Kaezó/ verrRsen could lead one to think that (ö) is a phoneme, /ö/; but it is not
so, even because it can be omitted, as generally happens in Switzerland, South Ty-
rol/Alto Adige, Austria, and Bavaria.
Even in neutral familiar speech, it is maintained better in fully stressed syllables:
(∂i[ö]…'gEnqU,) /diÚ'gEnqU˙/ d¤ Ergänzu«˚ ('StU‰m [ö]Un'dºa˙, [ö]¢n-, -'∂-) /'StUKm
Unt'dKa˙/ Sturm und Dra«˚ (&öIÂ[ö]…'öa‰&baet¢) /IÂÚ'aKbaetÈ/ i> erarbRte˘ However,
normally (ö) never occurs before postverbal pronouns: ([öI]Â'vaes¢s) /IÂ'vaesÈs/ i>
wR• es˚ ('le:zIÂ, -Ω-) /'le:z[È]IÂ/ les' i>˘ On the other hand, in final half-stressed sylla-
bles, after V˚ it is certainly possible to have: ('mIÂa&ö™l, -&öe;l).
˛e banal mistake of not considering (ö) a çsoundÇ, simply because it does not
correspond to any grapheme, is to be avoided completely! For good phonetics,
clear ideas are needed, and above all it is necessary to use one's ears, not one's
eyes… ˛erefore, it is wrong to talk about a çvocalic onsetÇ for (öé), in opposition
to an çaspirated onsetÇ for (hé), as for instance, in: (f…'öaltó) /fÚ'altó/ veralten˚ (f…-
'haltó) /fÚ'haltó/ verhalten˘
Phonetically, they are not di‡erent from (f…'faló) /fÚ'faló/ verfallen\ they are all
(0é), although the phonemic transcriptions do not use ç/ö/Ç, but just for the sake
of simplicity. Actually, for teaching purposes, it could be more useful to write it,
especially if no real phonetic transcription is added to the phonemic one. How-
ever, if only one type of transcription is used, it is decidedly more recommendable
to also write (ö) or /ö/, especially for important cases.
A possible variant of (öé{:/0}, ö…) is (ü, ü:, üó, 0): (&öIÂö…'öa‰&baet¢, &öIÂö™‰'ö-),
(&IÂ0'aé&baet¢, &IÂ™é'aé-) /IÂŒK'aKbaetÈ/ i> erarbRte˚ (öIÂ'öant&Ñø‰t¢), (IÂ'act-) /IÂ'ant-
vOKtÈ/ i> antworte˚ (&ide'a:l) /ide'a:l/ ideal˘ ˛erefore, we have (ö) which fuses with
the voiced segments of a syllable, and realizes them as creaky. For native speakers,
this phonation type sounds similar to the sequences we have seen.
(In Danish, something similar occurs, although in the opposite direction: ®@d
{Ô § 17.36 of NPT/HPh} entails a distinctive use of creaky voice for voiced pho-
nemes, (ü, ó); however, certain speakers change these phones into (éö, 0ö) sequen-
ces, with (ö) in second place.)
5.2.2.6. It is interesting to note that (ö) can also occur mainly as a substitute of
/t/ (but of /d, p, k/ as well), when preceded — followed by /ö, M/. Even variants
with creaky intense nasal segments occur ((≠, =, ±)), which represent a frequent
compromise, as we will see. ˛e cue and most examples are taken from Kohler
(1994), with integrations and changes, both for the transcriptions and contexts of
occurrence: ('öaeMf…&Standó, -nn=, -nöó) /'aenfŒKStandó/ Rnver®anden˚ ('fo:‰&han-
dó, -nn=, -nöó) /'fo:Rhandó/ vorhanden˚ ('StUndó, -nn=, -nöó) /'StUndó/ Stunden˚
('öEndó, -nn=, -nöó) /'Endó/ Enden˚ ('öEntó, -nöó, -nn=) /'Entó/ Enten˚ ('kh§ntó,
-nöó, -nn=) /'k§ntó/ könnten˚ ('∂a˙kô, -˙öô, -˙~±) /'da˙kó/ danken˘
Further examples: ('lOYÂp&pU˙któ, -˙tó, -˙öô, -˙~±) /'lOYÂtpU˙któ/ LS>tpunk-
ten˚ ('qhEntn…, -nön…) /'qEntnÚ/ Zentner˚ ('khlEmpn…, -mön…) /'klEmpnÚ/ Klemp-
ner˚ ('thaozõp '≈e;t…, -õö '≈-, -≠ 'm-) /'taozótme:tÚ/ tQsend Meter˚ (Ê¢'öamtó, -mp-
tó, -möõ, -m≈≠) /bÈ'amtó/ Beamten (not for (Ê¢'öamt¢, -mpt¢) /bÈ'amtÈ/ Beamte]˘
More: (&öInöaen'nOYÈs 'öamt 'öaeM&fy;º?, -ampt, -amp, -º¡, -‰,, -‰n) /Inaen'nOYÈs
'amt 'öaenfy:Kó/ in Rn mSes Amt Rnführen˚ ('phU˙któ, -˙tó, -˙öô, -˙~±) /'pU˙któ/
Punkten˚ ('lOYtnant, -ön-) /'lOYtnant/ LStnant˚ (mIp'≈Ind¢stós, mIö-) /mIt'mIndÈs-
tós/ mit minde®ens˚ ('hIntó, -nöó, -nn=) /'hIntó/ hinten˚ (&mItnõ, -önõ) /&mItnõ/
mit 'nem˚ ('öaX&qhe;ntó, -öó, -n=, -&qen-, -q™n-, -q¢n-, -qó-) /'axqe:ntó/ a>˛ehnten˘
5.2.2.7. In addition: ('khOmt ∂aeM'füOYnt&≈It, -mp&≈It, -mö&≈-) /'kOmt daen-

'fKOYntmIt/ kommt dRn FrSnd mit?˚ (öe‰'khOmt 'nIÂt, -mö, ö™‰'-, ö…'-) /e:K'kOmt
'nIÂt/ er kommt ni>t˚ (&zInt≈aen¢'Su:¢ 'hi:‰, -mp≈-, -mö≈-) /zIntmaenÈ'Su:È 'hi:K/
sind mRne S>uhe h¤r?˚ (&vI‰zót'nu:‰ 'qhñae, -óö'n-) /vIKzInt'nu:K 'qvae/ wir sind
nur zwR˘
˛erefore, we add the /tó/ context, not preceded by /n/, but by another voiced
(or even voiceless) phoneme: ('ható, -öó) /'ható/ hatten˚ ('ÊItó, -öó) /'bItó/ bitten˚
('Êi:tó, -öó) /'bi:tó/ b¤ten˚ ('va‰tó, -‰öó) /'vaKtó/ warten˚ ('vOltó, -löó) /'vOltó/ woll-
ten˚ ('vUstó, -öó) /'vUstó/ wus®en˚ ('lYftó) /'lYftó, -öó/ lü⁄en˘
‹en (=òö) combine, they can become (öòö): (öUnt&öIlUstüa'qh¿o:nó, öUnö&öI-)
/UntIlUstKa'qjo:nó/ und Illu®rationen˚ ('füae&tha;k 'öa:bõt, -a;ö 'öa:-) /'fKaeta:k 'a:bót/
5. german 195
FrRtag abend˚ (mIt&öInt…'sIti, mIö&öIn-) /mItIntÚ'sIti/ mit Intercity˚ (mIt&öi‰,'öElt…,,

mIö&ö-) /mIt'i:Kó 'EltÚn/ mit ihren Eltern˘
Stopstrictives
5.2.3.1. German has three voiceless stopstrictives, (∫, q, c) /∫, q, c/. From a
descriptive and teaching point of view, it is not a good thing to exclude them from
the phonemic inventory and consider them as phonemic sequences such as ç/pf,
ts, tS/Ç; also because these sequences do exist in the language (as we will see)! More
often, /q/ is articulated with lowered tip of the tongue, whereas /c/ is with raised
tip (but it is not necessary to use a special symbol (c)). ˛e three of them are all
çaspiratedÇ after pauses or in stressed syllables, except after a tautomorphemic /s/:
('∫hEf…) /'∫EfÚ/ Pfe‡er˚ ('∫húanq¢) /'∫lanqÈ/ Pflanze˚ ('SIM∫è) /'SIm∫ó/ (im-
πen˚ ('khO∫) /'kO∫/ Koπ÷ ('qhaet) /'qaet/ ZRt˚ (na'qh¿o:n) /na'qjo:n/ Nation˚
('nIÂq) /'nIÂq/ ni>_˚ ('sqe:n¢) /'sqe:nÈ/ Szene÷ ('chEÂ¢) /'cEÂÈ/ T(e>e˚ ('chElo÷ 'SE-)
/'cElo÷ 'SE-/ Cello˚ ('∂OYc) /'dOYc/ dS˛˚ ('phac¢) /'pacÈ/ Pa˛e˘
Let us now see some cases of /pf, tS/ (]f, tS): ('öa]f…&la˙ô) /'apfÚla˙ó/ abverla«en˚
(ö™nt'SpInó, ö¢n-) /Ent'SpInó/ en_pinnen˚ (ö™nt'SúUs, ö¢n-) /Ent'SlUs/ En˛luss˘
However, in fast speech they can become (∫, c): ('öa∫…&la˙ô, ö™nc'pInó, ö¢n-,
ö™nc'úUs, ö¢n-) (generally without çaspiratingÇ the following stopstrictives or stops,
as also in: (ö™nt'SUldIgU,, -n'cU-, ö¢n-) /Ent'SUldIgU˙/ En˛uldigu«˚ Ô § 5.3.2.5 as
well).
Instead, German has no ç/G/Ç, but /tZ/, which occurs in loanwords: (t'Ëi:ns)
/t'Zi:ns/ Jeans˚ (&khilimant'Ëa:ºo) /kilimant'Za:Ko/ KilimanÃaro˚ ([öIm]t'ËU˙Í)
/[Im]t'ZU˙Í/ [im] D(u«el÷ especially in current pronunciation, (tË) /tZ/ can alter-
nate with /tS, c/.
Constrictives
5.2.4.1. ˛ere are five diphonic pairs: (f, v÷ s, z÷ S, Z÷ Â, ,÷ º, X). Generally, /s, z/
are articulated with lowered tip of the tongue, whereas /S, Z/ are with raised tip (but
it is not necessary to use special symbols as (x, ç)). Strictly speaking, (Â) could be
considered not to be a phoneme (by çsimplyÇ introducing a çjuncture phonemeÇ,
as we will see shortly). In addition, (,) is actually a çsemi-constrictiveÇ phone (even
if it were indicated with (J)). On the other hand, functionally, (º) belongs to the
particular category of sonants, and to the çvibrantÇ group; as a matter of fact, one
possible realization is exactly (K) /K/.
˛us it is important to clearly know the relations among the various constric-
tive elements. ˛erefore, it is not di‚cult –in this case, thanks to spelling as well–
to see that (Â, X) are in (almost) complementary distribution. On the other hand,
even (,) has close relationships (mostly in northern speech) with (Â) and also (X,
k) (even with (g, Ÿ) as well, which in the North realize /g/ together with (,), that
belongs to the phoneme /j/ too).
But let us see some examples: ('fYMf) /'fYnf/ fünf˚ ('vas) /'vas/ was˚ ('ºaesó) /'Kae-
só/ rR•en˚ ('ºaezó) /'Kaezó/ rRsen˚ ('zo:n) /'zo:n/ Sohn˚ ('S°:n) /'S°:n/ (ön˚ ('Staen)
/'Staen/ StRn˚ ('thIS) /'tIS/ ‰(˚ (Ze'ni:) /Ze'ni:/ Gen¤˚ (e'tha:Z¢) /e'ta:ZÈ/ Etage˚ ('Êu:X)
/'bu:x/ Bu>˚ ('Êy:Â…) /'by:ÂÚ/ Bü>er˚ ('ÊaX) /'bax/ Ba>˚ ('ÊEÂ¢) /'bEÂÈ/ Bä>e˚ ('ºu:IÂ)
/'Ku:IÂ/ ruhig˚ ('ºaoºIs) /'KaoKIs/ RQris˘
5.2.4.2. ˛ere are three more approximant taxophones for slit constrictives,
which occur before /s, S/, and we will notate them with their çcommittedÇ variants
as well (which are more demanding), because they are not really necessary, al-
though very frequent and çtypifyingÇ. It would not be useless to acquire them to
obtain a smoother pronunciation: (&, â, ˜) /f, Â, x/: ('öao&&Sibõ, 'öaof&Sibõ)
/'aofSi:bó/ Qf(¤ben˚ ('h°:âst, 'h°:Âst, -ÂÀt) /'h°:Âst/ hö>®˚ ('ºaoX&Sp™k, 'ºao˜&Sp™k)
/'KaoxSpEk/ RQ7pe$˘
In preintonemes (¤ not in intonemes), forms such as Qf˚ i>˚ mi>˚ di>˚ si>˚
-ig˚ -i>˚ -li>˚ -zig˚ S>˚ Q>˚ do>˚ no>˚ in current speech, often have (&, â, ˜) /f,
Â, x/, irrespective of the context just seen.
Quite rightly, German pronouncing dictionaries clearly indicate both (Â) /Â/
and (X) /x/ – it is necessary to provide precise indications, not mysterious algebraic
formulae. In fact, unless through an appropriate morphonological knowledge,
there would be no way to tell the di‡erence between ('thaoÂ«) /'taoÂó/ TQ>en
[->en] çsmall ropeÇ and ('thaoX?) /'taoxó/ tQ>en çto plungeÇ, or ('khu:Â«) /'ku:Âó/
Kuh>en [->en] çcalfÇ and ('khu:X?) /'ku:xó/ Ku>en çcakeÇ.
5.2.4.3. ˛e su‚x -ig is (IÂ) /IÂ/, even when followed by C (except for those be-
longing to su‚xes which contain (Â)): ('kh°:nIÂ) /'k°:nIÂ/ König˚ ('öaenIâst, -Âst,
-ÂÀt) /'aenIÂst/ Rnig®˚ (f…'öaenIÂt) /fÚ'aenIÂt/ verRnigt˚ ('qhñanqIâst¢, -Âst¢, -ÂÀt¢)
/'qvanqIÂstÈ/ zwanzig®e÷ but: ('kh°:nIkúIÂ) /'k°:nIklIÂ/ königli>˚ ('kh°:nIk&üaeÂ)
/'k°:nIkKaeÂ/ KönigrR>˚ ('kh°:nIgIn) /'k°:nIgIn/ Königin˘
However, it is possible to find ('kh°:nIÂ&üaeÂ), and even –fairly systematically–
(Ik) /Ik/: ('kh°:nIk, 'öaenIkst, f…'öaenIkt, 'qhñanqIkst¢), which is the only pronun-
ciation really accepted in southern Germany, Austria, and Switzerland, in initial
position too: ('Âe:mIS, 'k[h]-) >emi(˚ ('Âi:na, 'k[h]-) ≥ina˘
˛e graphic sequence 7 has two di‡erent phonic structures: within lexemes
we find (ks) /ks/: ('vEksÍn) /'vEksÍn/ we7eln˚ ('vaeksÍ) /'vaeksÍ/ WR7el˚ ('öOks¢)
/'OksÈ/ O7e˚ ('zEks) /'zEks/ se7˚ ('fUks) /'fUks/ Fu7˚ (∂…'daks) /dÚ'daks/ der Da7
çbadgerÇ, while we have: (Xs) and (âs, Âs, ÂÀ) /xs, Âs/, when s is a grammeme: (∂¢s-
'∂aXs) /dÈs'daxs/ des Da7 çof the roofÇ, (∂¢s'phEâs, -Âs, -ÂÀ) /dÈs'pEÂs/ des Pe7
ç(black) pitchÇ.
/s, z/ are mostly articulated with lowered tip of the tongue; but, for /sÂ/, we have
(ÀÂ): ('ÊIÀÂ«) /'bIsÂó/ bis(en÷ and, except in slow speech, for /sS, sZ/, we have (SS,
SË): ('öaeS&Süa˙k) /'aesSKa˙k/ Eis(rank˚ ([öI]Â≈US'SnEl 'vEk) /IÂmUs'SnEl 'vEk/ i> muss
(nell weg˚ (&∂aSËe'ni:) /dasZe'ni:/ das Gen¤. /S, Z/ are with raised tip (((x, ç))).
In addition, in the /kv, qv, Sv/ sequences, /v/ is more often realized as bilabial,
(6): ('khñac) /'kvac/ Qua˛˚ ('qhñae) /'qvae/ zwR˚ ('SñEst…) /'SvEstÚ/ S>we®er˘ In
neutral German, /j/ is semi-constrictive, in all contexts: (',a:‰) /'ja:K/ Jahr˚ (&ma,o-
5. german 197
'n™:z¢÷ -E:-) /majo'nE:zÈ/ Majonäse/MayonnPse˚ (öIn&tona'qh¿o:n) /Intona'qjo:n/ Into-

nation˘
5.2.4.4. For /K/, it is necessary to add a few observations, both on our notation
and phonemic interpretation. ˛e çgenericÇ phonemic symbol seems to be useful
in indicating its normal place of articulation, which is uvular – and the most rec-
ommendable, for teaching purposes. As far as its manner (of articulation) is con-
cerned, the voiced constrictive one, (º), is normal (and the most recommendable
as well).
For emphasis, or for individual peculiarities, it is certainly possible to have a
(voiced) uvular trill: (K). On the other hand, among native speakers it is not rare
to find (voiced) alveolar articulations: a tap, (R), or a trill, (r) (mostly in the South,
and Austria and Switzerland). However, before stressed or unstressed V˚ we will
transcribe only (º) /K/: ('ºaoºIs) /'KaoKIs/ RQris˚ ('ÊºI˙ô) /'bKI˙ó/ bri«en.
After tautosyllabic V˚ instead, we will always transcribe (‰) (voiced pharyngeal-
ized uvular approximant) for /K/, which is intense after C or diphthongs, (…) /Ú/:
('vi:‰) /'vi:K/ wir˚ ('vI‰) /'vIK/ wirr˚ ('mae…) /'maeÚ/ MRr (like MRer˚ Meyer]˚ ('ÊEs…)
/'bEsÚ/ besser˚ (h…'fo:‰) /hÚ'fo:K/ hervor.
Many phonemic traditions have considered //ÈK//, mostly in parallel with //Èn,
Èm, Èl//, which we prefer to transcribe and interpret as (ó, õ, Í) /ó, õ, Í/, although
we are perfectly aware that, in slower or emphatic speech, (¢n, ¢m, ¢l) are possible,
and (Èº÷ ÈK÷ È˜) as well – even ç(¢R)Ç, or rather (ÙR, ÙR) (in Switzerland) and (Ù‰, Ùº,
Ù˜) (in Austria).
Contrary to what we do –and Kohler (1977, 1995”) and others as well– several
authors distinguish between (éº) and (é:‰) (¤ ç/ér/Ç and ç/é:å/Ç, above all in teach-
ing textbooks), but we do not think it is the best proposal, also because it is more
complex and far from being the most widespread pronunciation (Ô § 5.1.1 too).
For the prefixes er-˚ her-˚ ver-˚ zer-˚ we will transcribe ({0}…) /{0}Ú/, since it is the
normal and most recommendable pronunciation, although in pronouncing dic-
tionaries (except the Ÿ∂∑å) we still find ç/{0}Er, {0}Eå/Ç. A slow, careful, or em-
phatic, pronunciation –with ({0}™‰) /{0}EK/– can be safely inferred from our nota-
tion as well. Diaphonemically, though, we might use /{0}Œ‰/.
Approximants
5.2.5. For this manner of articulation, the most important German phoneme
is certainly (h) /h/, which often has the voiced variant, among voiced phones (espe-
cially in non-primary-stressed syllables): ('haos) /'haos/ HQs˚ (â¢'haem) /gÈ'haem/
gehRm˚ ('da:&ha;b/vI‰, -H-) /'da:ha:bóvi:K/ da haben wir…˚ ('öUn&hael, -H-) /'Unhael/
UnhRl˚ ('vIlh™lm, -H-) /'vIlhElm/ Wilhelm˘ Notice, however, cases like: ('âe:ó) /'ge:ó/
gehen˚ ('ºu:IÂ) /'Ku:IÂ/ ruhig˚ ('za:) /'za:/ sah˘
Graphically, h is a device often used to indicate that the preceding V is long,
mostly before m˚ n˚ l˚ r (the so-called çDehnungs-hÇ): ('ne:mõ) /'ne:mó/ nehmen˘
In addition to the variant of /v/, (6), occurring in the sequences /kv, qv, Sv/ (§
5.2.4.3), we will briefly say something about other possible variants for /0j, yé,
u'öé, o'a/: ('fe:º,«, -ºjó) /'fe:Kjó/ Fer¤n˚ (na'qh¿o:n, -'qhªo:n, -qi'o:n) /na'qjo:n/ Na-
tion˚ (qhya'no:z¢, qh¥a-) /qya'no:zÈ/ Zyanose˚ (&manu'öEl, -u'El, -'njEl, -'nwEl) /ma-
nu'El/ manuell˚ (thoa'lEt¢, thja-, thwa-) /toa'lEtÈ/ Toilette˘
Laterals
5.2.6. In German neutral pronunciation we find only (l) /l/ (with the corre-
sponding intense one, (Í) /Í/) and the variant (¬), before (Â, ,) (the last one is het-
erosyllabic only): ('lant) /'lant/ Land˚ ('fOl) /'fOl/ voll˚ (fa'mi:l,¢) /fa'mi:ljÈ/ Famil¤˚
(va'nI¬,¢) {((-nI¬-,¢)) and (-Il¢)} /va'nIl[j]È/ Vanille˚ ('mI¬Â) /'mIlÂ/ Mil>˚ ('hElt) /'hElt/
Held˚ ('öe:zÍ) /'e:zÍ/ Esel˚ ('∂u:dÍn) /'du:dÍn/ dudeln˘
Structures
5.3.0. In this part, we will make the necessary observations for pronouncing
words in actual sentences. ˛us, we will deal with assimilation, reduction, stress,
and intonation.
Reduced forms
5.3.1.1. In spontaneous speech, grammemes, in addition to gradually reducing

their stress, may even attenuate vowel timbres and lose some consonants or sylla-
bles. Grammemes include: articles, personal pronouns, possessive adjectives, parti-
cles, a‚xes, prepositions, short conjunctions and adverbs – and some other simi-
lar forms, such as geworden˚ spaz¤ren˚ and greetings.
We will give some examples, mostly taking them from Kohler (1977, 1995”, §
6.3.2), by modifying and completing both their inventory and variants, including
the transcriptions. In the original publications, these are limited to the segments
in question, whereas we will adapt them to our own style. ˛e examples come in
useful to show mechanisms and possibilities, rather than absolute necessities.
(&mI[t]∂õ'hUnt) mit dem Hund

(∂ó'gu:tó 'gast) den guten Ga®
(&Inõ'ga‰tó) in dem Garten
(&öIst#'vI‰kúIÂ) i® es wirkli>?
(&has∂¢sâ¢'ze:ó) ha® du's gesehen?
(…&hatódI'qhaetU˙ g¢'Saot) er hat in d¤ ZRtu« ge(Qt
(…&zøldó'fa:t…&ºu;fè) er soll den Vater rufen
(∂…'man [ö]¢ndI'füao) der Mann und d¤ FrQ
([I]Â'úasó 'ºe:dó) i> lass ihn reden
([I]Â&[h]abõ g¢'ze:ó, Âamg-) i> hab' ihn gesehen
5. german 199
([I]Â'phakôm…&ma;l) i> pa$ ihn mir mal

('las« ',U,? &døX'üe:dó) lass den Ju«en do> reden
('âi:põ 'khInd…n&døX våsqU'öEsó) gib den Kindern do> was zu essen
('phakô 'khInd…n&døX våsqU'öEsó&öaen) pa$ den Kindern do> was zu essen Rn
([I]Â&kanó nIÂ[t]'se:ó, -'Ω-) i> kann ihn ni>t sehen
(…Is'öalb…n, -…,) er i® albern˚ (…"öIs 'öalb…n, -…,) er ì® albern
(…Is&nIÂIn…'la:g¢) er i® ni>t in der Lage˚ (…Is"nIÂ[t ö]In…'la:g¢) er i® nì>t in der
Lage
(vås&[h]as[t]∂¢g¢'za:kt) was ha® du gesagt?
(&hå[t]∂…'le:º… g¢'SpüOX?) hat der Lehrer gespro>en?
(zI'vo:nt &öIn[d]…'Stat) s¤ wohnt in der Stadt
(&vI‰zó&öIn[d]I'Statâ¢&fa;º?, -º¡, -‰n, -‰,) wir sind in d¤ Stadt gefahren
(&vI‰zó&öaof[∂]…'Stüa:s¢) wir sind Qf der Stra•e
('mo:ni&kas â¢'khOmõ) Monika i® gekommen
('phe:t…s â¢'khOmõ) Peter i® gekommen
(&™…sâ¢'khOmõ) er i® gekommen
('khU‰tIs â¢'khOmõ, -t#) Kurt i® gekommen
('haenºIÂIs â¢'khOmõ, -Â#) HRnri> i® gekommen
(zo;&hat…g¢'SpüOX?) so hat er gespro>en˚ (zo;&hat¢™‰g¢'SpüOX?) so hatte er gespro-
>en
(zo;&ha;pt…g¢'za:kt) so habt ihr gesagt˚ (zo;&hat…I‰g¢'za:kt) so hat er ihr gesagt
(&hapt…M&vasâ¢'h°:‰t) habt ihr denn was gehört?
(&has∂¢&I‰dè&vasâ¢'ge:bõ) ha® du ihr denn was gegeben?
(&has∂ó&d™˙g¢'ze:ó) ha® du ihn denn gesehen?
(&has∂õd™M&vasâ¢'ge:bõ) ha® du ihm denn was gegeben?
('ve:‰ håtó&d™˙g¢'ze:ó) wer hat ihn denn gesehen?
(&vas'ÑOlóz¢&d™n, &vas'ÑOlózó) was wóllen S¤ denn?˚ (&vas'ÑOló 'zi:&d™n) was wollen
Sìe denn?
(&vas'ÑOlóz¢d™n&da;, &vas'ÑOlózó&da;) was wóllen S¤ denn da?˚ (vås&Ñøló'zi:dó&da;,
vås&Ñøló'zi:n&da;) was wollen Sìe denn da?
(vås'≈aX∂ó 'phe:t…) was ma>t denn Peter?˚ (vås'≈aX[p] 'phe:t…&d™n) was ma>t
Peter denn?
(vås'ÑOlt…m d™˙'ge:bõ) was wollt ihr ihm denn geben?
(vås'sOlIÂI‰ d™˙'ge:bõ, vås'ΩOlIÂ‰˙ 'ge:bõ, -s'Ω-, -'s-) was soll i> ihr denn geben?
(™‰&ha∂åsâ¢'maXt) er hat das gema>t
(zI&ha∂åsâ¢'maXt) s¤ hat das gema>t
(&hat…&∂asâ¢'maXt) hat er das gema>t?
(&hats¢&∂asâ¢'maXt) hat s¤ das gema>t?
(∂…'le:º… &hatós'hOYt¢ 'nIÂq 'öaofâ¢≥bõ) der Lehrer hat uns hSte ni>_
Qfgegeben
(∂ó'thIS 'StElèvI‰ öIndI'öEk¢2| ∂ó'Süa˙kô dI'öandÈº¢3 3) den ‰( ®ellen wir in d¤
E$e, den S>rank in d¤ andere
(∂…'thIS ‘∂™‰öódI'öEk¢&Ste;t’) der ‰(, der in d¤ E$e ®eht…
(∂ó'thIS ‘∂¢MvI‰ódI'öEk¢ g¢'StElt&haõ’) den ‰(, den wir in d¤ E$e ge®ellt ha-
ben…
(vås'≈aX?&did™n&da;) was ma>en d¤ denn da?

(∂ås'≈Us∂e;‰&zaen, &∂as≈Us'∂e:‰&zaen) das muss der sRn
(öI‰&hapt'So:˙ g¢'tha:n) ihr habt (on getan
('ha;pt… &dasâ¢'maXt) habt ihr das gema>t?
([I]&ÂapI‰dåsâ¢'ge:bõ, [I]&Âap…-) i> hab' ihr das gegeben
([I]&ÂabõI‰'fo:‰g¢&St™lt) i> hab' ihn ihr vorge®ellt
(zI&hatI‰'khúaetâ¢&vaSó) s¤ hat ihr KlRd gewa(en
('h°:º?vI‰ns '≈O‰gô 'füy:, 'h°:ºèv-, -ós) hören wir uns morgen früh
('vOlózi [z]IÂ'thüEfè) wollen S¤ si> tre‡en?
(vi'ge:ts, -q) w¤ geht's? [-t es?]
(ö™‰&[ö]IstIndô'khEl…&öae~g¢&dºU,?, &ö™‰s[ö]I˙ô-) er i® in den Keller R«edru«en
(ö™‰&[ö]IstIn¢ô'khEl…&öae~g¢&dºU,?, &ö™‰s[ö]Iôô-, -˙ô-) er i® in Rnen Keller R«e-
dru«en
(ö™‰&ha∂…&,a;g¢'za:kt2 ∂ås…'khOmt) er hat dir ja gesagt, dass er kommt
(∂ås&hat…g¢'thüOYmt) das hat er getrTmt
(&∂a;hå∂…&öapa'ºa:tâ¢&Stüaekt) da hat der Apparat ge®rRkt
(∂a&hapt…&vasÑ…'zOYmt) da habt ihr was versTmt
('thy:‰n 'tho:‰) Tür und Tor
('le:bõõ 'tho:t, -õó) Leben und Tod
('vaen¢˙ g¢'za˙) WRn und Gesa«
(∂ås'ha:põ 'gu:t) das Hab und Gut
('öE∫Íõ 'bI‰nó) ∏πel und Birnen
(öaen'thIS¢n [ö]aem'bEt, -Un) Rn ‰( und Rn Bett
('fYMf¢n 'qhñanqIÂ, -Mvè, -mõ) fünfundzwanzig
('nOYn¢n 'qhñanqIÂ, -nó) nSnundzwanzig
('zi:bõm 'qhñanqIÂ, -mõ) s¤benundzwanzig
('qhñae HUn…'qhñanqIÂ, n¢-) zwRhunder˛wanzig
(&v™n¢s5üe:gn¢t1 1 ∂¢M'fa:ºèvI‰2 &mI∂…'ba:n3 3) (v¢ns-) wenn es regnet, dann fahren
wir mit der Bahn˘
5.3.1.2. Here is a list of reduced forms; it is fairly complete, which could even
seem to be too analytical. However, it is of paramount importance to carefully ex-
amine all the modifications given, in order to grasp the mechanism.
It is obvious that the most çnormalÇ forms, in this list, are not the first given,
but some of the succeeding ones, in suitable conditions.
aber ('öa:b…, &öa;b…, &öab…, &ab…, &a6…) 'öanó, &öanó, &anó, aó, an:, ån:)
also ('öalzo, &öalzo, &alzo, &azo) an'r˚ an der ('öand…, &öand…, &and…, 'öa-
an ('öan, &öan, an, ån), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, n…, &öan…, &an…)
-,) an die ('öandi, &öa-, &a-, -ani, -I, -¢)
am˚ an dem ('öandõ, &öandõ, &adõ, auf ('öaof, &öaof, &aof, aof, åof)
'öaõ, 'öam, &öam, am, åm) aufs˚ -f's˚ -f das ('öaof∂as, 'öaof∂ås, &öao-
ans˚ an's˚ an das ('öandås, &öandås, &an- f¢s, &öaof#, &öaofs, &aofs, öaofs, aofs,
dås, 'öans, &öans, ans, åns) åofs)
an'n˚ an den ('öandó, &öandó, &andó, aufm˚ auf'm˚ -f dem ('öaof∂õ, 'öaofõ,
5. german 201
&öaofõ, &aofõ) mõ, ∂aem:, ∂åem), (d-)

aufn˚ auf'n˚ -f den ('öaof∂ó, 'öaofè, dRnen˚ dR'n ('∂aenó, &∂aenó, ∂aen:,
&öaofè, &aofè) ∂aen, ∂åen), (d-÷ -m, -M, -~, -˙, -,)
auf der˚ -f'r ('öaof∂…, 'öaof…, &öaof…, dRner ('∂aen…, &∂aen…, &∂åen…, &∂ån…,
&aof…) &∂¢n…, &∂ó…), (d-)
auf die˚ -f'ie ('öaof∂i, -fi, &öao-, &ao-, -I, dRnes ('∂aen¢s, &∂aen¢s, &∂åen¢s, &∂ån¢s,
-¢) &∂¢n¢s, &∂ó¢s), (d-)
auf Wiedersehen! (öaof'Ñi:d…&ze;ó, dem˚ 'm ('∂e:m, &∂e;m, &∂em, ∂em,
-&ze;n, -zen, öåof-, ≥'Ñid…-, 'Ñid…-, 'Ñi‰-) ∂™m, ∂¢m, ∂õ, öõ, õ), (d-), ([-)
aus ('öaos, &öaos, &aos, aos, åos) (only after V]
ausm˚ -s'm˚ -s dem ('öaos∂õ, 'öaosõ, dem (rel.) ('∂e:m, &∂e;m, &∂em, ∂em,
&öaosõ, &aosõ) ∂™m, ∂¢m, ∂õ), (d-)
ausn˚ -s'n˚ -s den ('öaos∂ó, 'öaosó, &öao- dem (dim.) ('∂e:m, &∂e;m, &∂em, ∂em),
só, &aosó) (d-)
aus der˚ -s'r ('öaos∂…, 'öaos…, &öaos…, &ao- den˚ 'n ('∂e:n, &∂e;n, &∂en, ∂en, ∂™n,
s…) ∂¢n, ∂ó, öó, ó), (d-, -m, -M, -~, -˙,
bR ('Êae, &Êae, Êae, Êåe), (b-) -,), ([-) (only after V]
bRm˚ -i dem ('Êaedõ, &Êaedõ, 'Êaeõ, den (rel.) ('∂e:n, &∂e;n, &∂en, ∂en, ∂™n,
'Êaem, &Êaeõ, &Êaem, Êaem, Êåem), ∂¢n, ∂ó), (d-, -m, -M, -~, -˙, -,)
(b-) den (dim.) ('∂e:n, &∂e;n, &∂en, ∂en),
bR'n˚ -i den ('Êaedó, &Êaedó, &Êaeó, (d-, -m, -M, -~, -˙, -,)
&Êaen, Êaeó, &Êaen, Êaen, Êåen), (b-, denen ('∂e:nó, &∂e;nó, &∂enó, ∂en:,
-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) ∂en, ∂™n, ∂¢n), (d-÷ -m, -M, -~, -˙, -,)
bR'r˚ -i der ('Êaed‰, &Êaed‰, 'Êae‰, denn ('∂En, &∂™n, ∂™n, ∂¢n, ∂ó, ó, n),
&Êae‰, Êae‰, Êåe‰, Êå‰), (b-) (d-÷ m, M, ~, ˙, ,) (the most reduced
bin ('ÊIn, &ÊIn, ÊIn, Ê¢n, Êõ), (b-) forms are not used when preceded by
bist ('ÊIst, &ÊIst, ÊIs, Ê¢s, Ê#, 6Is, 6¢s, words in N÷ whereas, in final
6#), (b-) position, they are used when they
da ('∂a:, &∂a;, &∂a, ∂a, ∂å), (d-) occur after unstressed pronouns;
da- (∂a-, ∂å-, ∂¢-), ('∂a:&-, 'da:&-), (d-) instead, in non-final position˚ they
[-bR˚ -na>˚ -von˚ -vor˚ -zu˚ …) occur after stressed pronouns too)
(∂a'º-, ∂å'º-, ∂È'º-), ('∂a:&º-, 'da:&º-), (d-) der˚ 'r ('∂e:‰, &∂e;‰, &∂e‰, ∂e‰, ∂™‰, ∂…),
[-ran˚ -rauf˚ -raus˚ -rin˚ -rum˚ …) (d-), ([-) (only after V]
dann ('∂an, &∂an, ∂an, ∂ån, ∂¢n), (d-, der (rel.) ('∂e:‰, &∂e;‰, &∂e‰, ∂e‰, ∂™‰),
-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) (d-)
das˚ 's ('∂as, &∂as, ∂as, ∂ås, ∂¢s, ¢s, #, s), der (dim.) ('∂e:‰, &∂e;‰, &∂e‰, ∂e‰), (d-)
(d-), ([-) (only after V] deren ('∂e:º?, &∂e;º?, &∂eº?, -º¡, ∂e‰,,
das (rel.) ('∂as, &∂as, ∂as, ∂ås, ∂¢s), (d-) ∂™‰,, -‰n, ∂…,, ∂…n), (d-, -m, -M, -n,
das (dim.) ('∂as, &∂as, ∂as), (d-) -~, -˙)
dass ('∂as, &∂as, ∂as, ∂ås), (d-) des˚ 's ('∂Es, &∂™s, ∂™s, ∂¢s, ∂#, ∂s, #, s),
dRn ('∂aen, &∂aen, ∂aen, ∂åen), (d-, (d-), ([-) (only after V]
-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) des (rel.) ('∂Es, &∂™s, ∂™s, ∂¢s), (d-)
dRne ('∂aen¢, &∂aen¢, &∂åen¢, &∂ån¢), des (dim.) ('∂Es, &∂™s, ∂™s), (d-)
(d-) dessen ('∂Esó, &∂™só, &∂¢só), (d-)
dRnem˚ dR'm ('∂aenõ, &∂aenõ, &∂ae- desto ('∂Esto, &∂™sto, &∂™so), (d-)
mõ, &∂åenõ, &∂åemõ, &∂ånõ, &∂å- di> ('∂IÂ, &∂IÂ, ∂IÂ, ∂Iâ), (d-), ([-) (on-
ly after V] -gegen˚ …)
die ('∂i:, &∂i;, &∂i, ∂i, ∂I, ∂¢), (d-), ([-) er ('öe:‰, &öe;‰, &öe‰, e‰, ™‰, …) ((…) only
(only after V] when not preceded by (¢, ‰, …) /È, K,
die (rel.) ('∂i:, &∂i;, &∂i, ∂i, ∂I), (d-) Ú/÷ the most reduced forms do not
die (dim.) ('∂i:, &∂i;, &∂i, ∂i), (d-) occur in final position)
diese ('∂i:z¢, &∂i;z¢, &∂iz¢, &∂Iz¢), (d-) er- (ö™‰'ö-, ™‰'ö-, …'ö-) [-arbRten˚ -übri-
diesem ('∂i:zõ, &∂i;zõ, &∂izõ, &∂Izõ), gen˚ …)
(d-) (ö™‰'-, ™‰'-, …'-) [-klären˚ -saufen˚ …)
diesen ('∂i:zó, &∂i;zó, &∂izó, &∂Izó), (d) es˚ 's ('öEs, &ö™s, ™s, ö¢s, ¢s, #, s) (the
dieser ('∂i:z…, &∂i;z…, &∂iz…, &∂Iz…), (d-) most reduced forms occur in final
dieses ('∂i:z¢s, &∂i;z¢s, &∂iz¢s, &∂Iz¢s), (d-) position too, in many cases)
dir ('∂i:‰, &∂i;‰, &∂i‰, ∂I‰, ∂…), (d-), ([-) eu> ('öOYÂ, &öøYÂ, öøYÂ, øYÂ, øYâ,
(only after V÷ the most reduced ÖYÂ, ÖYâ)
forms do not occur in final posi- euer ('öOY‰, &öøY‰, öøY‰, øY‰, ÖY‰)
tion) eure ('öOY‰, &öøY‰, öøY‰, øY‰, ÖY‰)
do> ('∂OX, &∂øX, ∂øX, ∂¢X), (d-) eurem ('öOYºõ, &öøY-, &öøY‰m, öøY-,
du ('∂u:, &∂u;, &∂u, ∂u, ∂U, ∂¢), (d-), ([-) öøYõ, øY-, ÖY-)
(only after V÷ the most reduced euren ('öOYº?, -º¡, &öøY-, &öøY‰,, -‰n,
forms do not occur in final posi- öøY-, øY-, ÖY-)
tion) eurer ('öOYº…, &öøY-, öøY…, øY…, ÖY…)
dur> ('∂U‰Â, &∂U‰Â, ∂U‰Â), (d-) eures ('öOYº¢s, &öøY-, &öøY‰s, öøY‰s, øY-,
dur>s˚ -h das ('∂U‰Â∂ås, '∂U‰Â∂¢s, ÖY-)
'∂U‰Â#, '∂U‰Âs, &∂U‰Âs, ∂U‰Âs, -ÂÀ, für ('fy:‰, &fy;‰, &fy‰, fY‰, fY, f…)
-âs), (d-) fürs˚ -r's˚ -r das ('fy:‰dås, 'fy:‰d¢s, 'fy:‰-
dur>'n˚ -h den ('∂U‰Â∂ó, &∂U‰Â∂ó, d#, 'fy:‰s, &fy;‰s, &fy‰s, fY‰s, fYs, f…s)
'∂U‰Â«, &∂U‰Â«), (d-) für den˚ -r'n ('fy:‰dó, 'fy:‰?, 'fy:‰,,
dur> die ('∂U‰Â∂i, &∂-, -I, -¢), (d-) &fy;‰,, &fy‰,, fY‰,, f…,, fYn), (-m, -M,
eben ('öe:bõ, &öe;bõ, &öebõ, öeõ, -n, -~, -˙)
öem, em) für die ('fy:‰di, &fy;-, &fy-, &fY-, -I, -¢)
Rn˚ 'n ('öaen, &öaen, aen, ¢n, ó), (-m, gar ('âa:‰, &âa;‰, &âa‰, âa‰, âa, â…), (g-)
-M, -~, -˙, -,) gegen ('âe:gó, -gô, ≥-, &ge-, âeô), (g-)
Rne˚ 'ne ('öaen¢, &öaen¢, &aen¢, &ån¢, &¢n¢, gegens˚ -n's˚ -n das ('âe:gódås, 'âe:gód¢s,
ó¢, n¢) 'âe:gós, -gôs, ≥-, &ge-, âeôs), (g-)
Rnem˚ R'm˚ 'nem ('öaenõ, &öaenõ, gegen die ('âe:gódi, -ón-, -ó-, ≥-, &ge-,
&aenõ, &aemõ, &ånõ, &åmõ, öaem:, -I, -¢), (g-)
aem:, aem, åem, åm, n¢m, ¢m, õ) geworden (â¢'vO‰dó, â¢&vø‰dó, â¢-
Rnen˚ R'n˚ 'nen ('öaenó, &öaenó, &aenó, &vø‰,), (g-÷ -m, -M, -n, -~, -˙)
öaen:, öaen, aen, åen, ån, n¢n, nó, guten Abend! ('âu:tó 'öa:bõt, &âu;tó'ö-,
ó), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) &âut-, &âUt-, &âUd-, âUn'ö-, âô'ö-, ô'ö-,
Rner˚ 'ner ('öaen…, &öaen…, &aen…, &åe- ó'ö-, [-]'öa:mt, [-]'öamt), (g-)
n…, &ån…, &¢n…, ó…, n…) guten Morgen! ('âu:tó 'mO‰gô, &âu;tó-
Rnes˚ 'nes ('öaen¢s, &öaen¢s, &aen¢s, &åe- 'm-, &âut-, &âUt-, &âUd-, -õ'm-, âUn'm-,
n¢s, &ån¢s, &¢n¢s, ó¢s, n¢s) -m'm-, âô'm-, ô'm-, ó'm-, õ'm-, 'm-,
Rnmal ('öaen&ma;l, &öaenmal, -ål, -å, [-]'mO‰,, [-]'mO,), (g-)
-mm-, &óm-, &õm-) guten Tag! ('âu:tó 'tha:k, &âu;tó'tha:k,
ent- (ö™nt-, ™nt-, ¢nt-, ót-) [-wi$eln˚ &âut-, &âUt-, &âUd-, âUn'th-, âô'th-, ô'th-,
5. german 203
ó'th-, 'th-, -ak, -aö), (g-) 'hInt…d#, 'hInt…s, &hInt…s)

habe˚ -b' ('ha:b¢, &ha;b¢, &hab¢, &ha6¢, hinter die ('hInt…di, -I, -¢)
hab, håb, &a6¢, ab, åb) (forms with -hundert (-&hUnd…t, -hUn…t, -HUn…t,
/h/ = (`) do not occur in rhythm- -HUn…t, -Un…t)
-group initial position) -hundert- (-&hUnd…t-, -hUn…t-, -HUn…t-,
haben ('ha:bõ, &ha;bõ, &habõ, haõ, -HUn…-, -Un…-, -¢n…-, -n…-, -n¢-)
ham, am, åm, õ, m) (forms with i> ('öIÂ, &öIÂ, IÂ, Â) ((Â) + verb: i>
/h/ = (`) do not occur in rhythm- wR•; verb + (IÂ): wR• i>)
-group initial position; the last, ihm ('öi:m, &öi;m, &öim, im, Im, ¢m, õ)
more reduced, forms occur after (the most reduced forms do not
wir] occur in final position)
habt ('ha:pt, &ha;pt, &hapt, hapt, håpt, ihn ('öi:n, &öi;n, &öin, in, In, ¢n, ó), (-m,
apt, åpt) (forms with /h/ = (`) do -M, -~, -˙, -,) (the most reduced
not occur in rhythm-group initial forms do not occur in final position)
position) ihnen˚ I- ('öi:nó, &öi;nó, &öinó, öin:, öin,
hast ('hast, &hast, hast, has, ast, as, åst, in, In), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,)
ås) (forms with /h/ = (`) do not oc- ihr ('öi:‰, &öi;‰, &öi‰, I‰, …) ((…) only
cur in rhythm-group initial position) when not preceded by (¢, ‰, …) /È, K,
hat ('hat, &hat, hat, håt, at, åt, t) Ú/; in addition, (…) only when encli-
(forms with /h/ = (`) do not occur tic, immediately after verbs; the
in rhythm-group initial position; most reduced forms do not occur in
the last, more reduced, form occurs rhythm groups which are in into-
after er] nemes, in neutral pronunciation)
her- (h™'º-, hÈ'º-) [-an˚ -auf˚ -aus˚ -Rn˚ ihr (poss.) ('öi:‰, &öi;‰, &öi‰, I‰)
-über˚ -unter˚ …) ihre ('öi:º¢, &öi;º¢, &öiº¢, &Iº¢)
(h™‰'-, h…'-) [-bR˚ -na>˚ -vor˚ -zu˚ …) ihrem ('öi:ºõ, &öi;ºõ, &öiºõ, &Iºõ,
Herren˚ mRne Damen und (&maen¢- öi‰m, I‰m)
'da:mó öUnt'hEº?, -º¡, måen¢-, m¢- ihren ('öi:º?, &öi;º?, &öiº?, &Iº?, -º¡,
n¢-, ¢n'hE‰,, -‰n) öi‰,, i‰,, I‰,, -‰n), (-m, -M, -~, -˙)
hin- (hI'n-, h¢'n-) [-an˚ -auf˚ -aus˚ -Rn˚ ihrer˚ I- ('öi:º…, &öi;º…, &öiº…, &Iº…)
-über˚ -unter˚ …) ihres ('öi:º¢s, &öi;º¢s, &öiº¢s, &Iº¢s)
('hIn&ö-) [-arbRten˚ …) in ('öIn, &öIn, In, ¢n, ó), (-m, -M, -~, -˙)
(hIn'-, h¢n-') [-zu˚ …)˚ (-M'-) [-weg˚ …) im˚ in dem ('öIndõ, &öIndõ, &öInõ,
('hIn&-) [-rR>en˚ …)˚ (-m&-) [-passen˚ &öImõ, 'öIõ, 'öIm, &öIm, Im, ¢m, õ)
…)˚ (-˙&-) [-kommen˚ …) ins˚ in das ('öIndås, 'öInd¢s, 'öInås,
hier- (hi'º-), ('hi:&º-) [-an˚ -auf˚ -aus˚ 'öIn¢s, 'öIn#, 'öIns, &öIns, Ins, ¢ns, ós)
-in˚ -über˚ -unter˚ …) in den˚ in'n ('öIndó, &öIndó, &Indó,
(hi‰'-), ('hi:‰&-) [-bR˚ -dur>˚ -her˚ -mit˚ 'öInó, &öInó, &Inó, Ió, In:, ¢n, ó), (-m,
-vor˚ -zu˚ …) -M, -~, -˙, -,)
hier ('hi:‰, &hi;‰, &hi‰, &hI‰, hi‰, hI‰) in der˚ in'r ('öInd…, &öInd…, &Ind…, 'öI-
hinter ('hInt…, &hInt…) n…, &öIn…, &In…, I…, ¢…)
hinterm˚ -r dem ('hInt…dõ, 'hInt…õ, in die ('öIndi, &öI-, &I-, &Inni, &Ini, -I, -¢,
'hInt…m, &hInt…m) óI)
hintern˚ -r den ('hInt…dó, 'hInt…?, ist ('öIst, &öIst, öIst, Ist, Is, ¢s, #, s) (only
'hInt…,, &hInt…,), (-m, -M, -~, -˙) V or intense C + (s))
hinters˚ -r das ('hInt…dås, 'hInt…d¢s, ja (',a:, &,a;, ,a, ja, jå)
jedo> (,e'dOX, ,™-, ,¢-, j-) bõs, &neõs, nems)

je˛t (',Eqt, &,™qt, ,™q, ,¢q, j-) neben dem˚ -n'm ('ne:bõdõ, 'ne:bõ-
mal ('ma:l, &ma;l, &mal, mal, mål, ma, bõ, 'ne:bõõ, 'ne:bõm, ≠bõm,
må) &nebõm, &neõm, neõ, nem)
-mal (-ma;l, -mal, -mål, -ma, -må) neben den˚ -n'n ('ne:bõdó, 'ne:bõõ,
mehr ('me:‰, &me;‰, &me‰, m™‰) 'ne:bõn, ≠bõn, &nebõn, &neõn,
mRn ('maen, &maen, maen, måen), neõm, neõ, nem), (-m, -M, -~, -˙,
(-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) -,)
mRne ('maen¢, &maen¢, &måen¢, &mån¢) neben der˚ -n'r ('ne:bõd…, 'ne:bõ…,
mRnem˚ mR'm ('maenõ, &maenõ, ≠bõ…, &nebõ…, &neõ…, &nem…)
&maemõ, &måenõ, &måemõ, &månõ, neben die ('ne:bõdi, ≠bõdI, &ne-
&måmõ, maem:, måem) bõI, &neõI, &nemI, -¢)
mRnen˚ mR'n ('maenó, &maenó, maen:, nRn ('naen, &naen, naen, nåen), (-m,
maen, måen), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) -M, -~, -˙, -,)
mRner ('maen…, &maen…, &måen…, ni>t ('nIÂt, &nIÂt, nIÂ)
&mån…, &m¢n…, &mó…) ni>_ ('nIÂq, &nIÂq, &nIÂs) (nix ('nIks)
mRnes ('maen¢s, &maen¢s, &måen¢s, /'nIks/ is a familiar lexical variant,
&mån¢s, &m¢n¢s, &mó¢s) not a reduced form of ni>_)
mi> ('mIÂ, &mIÂ, mIÂ, mIâ) nie ('ni:, &ni;, &ni, ni, nI)
mir ('mi:‰, &mi;‰, &mi‰, mI‰, m…) (the nun ('nu:n, νn, &nun, nun, nUn,
most reduced forms do not occur in n¢n, nU), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,)
rhythm groups which are in into- nur ('nu:‰, ν‰, &nu‰, nu‰, nU‰)
nemes, in neutral pronunciation, oder ('öo:d…, &öo;d…, &öod…, &od…, &ød…,
not even when they are enclitic af- &¢d…, -[…)
ter verbs) ohne ('öo:n¢, &öo;n¢, &öon¢, &on¢)
mit ('mIt, &mIt, mIt, m¢t) (on ('So:n, &So;n, &Son, Son, Søn, S¢n,
mit dem˚ -t'm ('mIt∂õ, 'mItõ, &mItõ, Só), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,)
&mI∂õ, &mIdõ, &mI[õ, &mIpõ, sRd ('zaet, &zaet, zaet, zået)
&mIÊõ, &mIbõ, mIõ, mIm) sRn ('zaen, &zaen, zaen, zåen), (-m, -M,
mit den˚ -t'n ('mIt∂ó, 'mItó, &mItó, -~, -˙, -,)
&mI∂ó, &mIdó, &mI[ó, mIó, mIn), (-m, sRne ('zaen¢, &zaen¢, &zåen¢, &zån¢)
-M, -~, -˙, -,) sRnem˚ sR'm ('zaenõ, &zaenõ, &zae-
mit der˚ -t'r ('mIt∂…, 'mIt…, &mIt…, mõ, &zåenõ, &zåemõ, &zånõ, &zåmõ,
&mI∂…, &mId…, &mI[…, mI…, mI‰) zaem:, zaem, zåem)
musste ('mUst¢, &mUst¢, &mUs¢) sRnen˚ sR'n ('zaenó, &zaenó, zaen:,
na> ('na:X, &na;X, &naX, naX, nåX) zaen, zåen), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,)
na> dem˚ -h'm ('na:X∂õ, 'na:Xõ, &na;- sRner ('zaen…, &zaen…, &zåen…, &zån…, &z¢-
Xõ, &naXõ) n…, &zó…)
na> den˚ -h'n ('na:X∂ó, 'na:X?, &na;X?, sRnes ('zaen¢s, &zaen¢s, &zåen¢s, &zån¢s,
&naX?) &z¢n¢s, &zó¢s)
na> der˚ -h'r ('na:X∂…, 'na:X…, &na;X…, sRt ('zaet, &zaet, zaet, zået)
&naX…) si> ('zIÂ, &zIÂ, zIÂ, zIâ, IÂ, Iâ) (the last
neben ('ne:bõ, ≠bõ, &nebõ, &neõ, two forms are used after sie/Sie]
nem) sie˚ S- ('zi:, &zi;, &zi, zI, z¢)
nebens˚ -n's˚ -n das ('ne:bõdås, 'ne:bõ- sind ('zInt, &zInt, zIn, z¢n, zó), (-m, -M,
d¢s, 'ne:bõd#, 'ne:bõs, ≠bõs, &ne- -~, -˙, -,)
5. german 205
so ('zo:, &zo;, &zo, zo, zø, z¢) ver- (f™‰'ö-, f…'ö-) [-Rsen˚ -arbRten˚ …)
soll ('zOl, &zøl, zøl, zø) (f™‰'-, f…'-) [-rRsen˚ -lassen˚ …)
sonst ('zOnst, &zønst, zøns, z¢ns) von ('fOn, &føn, føn, f¢n, fó), (-m, -M,
-tägigen (-&th™;gIgô, -t™g-, -g¢g-, -ggô, -~, -˙, -,)
-gô) [zwR-˚ drR-˚ …) vom˚ -n dem ('fOndõ, 'fOnõ, 'fOmõ,
über (unstressed) (&öyb…-, &öY-, -6-) 'fOm, &føm, føm, f¢m, fõ)
überm˚ -r'm˚ -r dem ('öy:b…dõ, &öy;b…- von'n˚ -n den ('fOndó, 'fOnó, &fønó,
dõ, 'öy:b…õ, 'öy:b…m, &öy;b…m, &öy- føó, føn:,), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,)
b…m, &Yb…m, -6…m) von'r˚ -n der ('fOnd…, 'fOn…, &føn…)
übern˚ -r'n˚ -r den ('öy:b…dó, &öy;b…dó, vor ('fo:‰, &fo;‰, &fo‰, fo‰, fø‰, f…)
'öy:b…?, 'öy:b…,, &öy;b…,, &öyb…,, &Y- vorn˚ -r den ('fo:‰dó, 'fo:‰,, &fo;‰,,
b…,, -6…,), (-m, -M, -n, -~, -˙) &fo‰,, fo‰,, fø‰,, f…,), (-m, -M, -n,
übers˚ -r's˚ -r das ('öy:b…dås, 'öy:b…d¢s, -~, -˙) (Ô adv. ('fO‰n, &fø‰n)}
'öy:b…d#, 'öy:b…s, &öy;b…s, &öyb…s, &Y- vors˚ -r das ('fo:‰dås, 'fo:‰d¢s, 'fo:‰d#,
b…s, -6…s) 'fo:‰s, &fo;‰s, &fo‰s, fo‰s, fø‰s, f…s)
über die ('öy:b…di, -I, -¢, &öy;-, &öy-, &Y-, vor'm˚ -rm˚ -r dem ('fo:‰dõ, 'fo:‰nõ,
-6…-) 'fo:‰mõ, 'fo:‰m, &fo;‰m, &fo‰m,
um ('öUm, &öUm, Um) fo‰m, fø‰m, f…m)
ums˚ um's˚ um das ('öUmdås, 'öUmd¢s, vor'r˚ -r der ('fo:‰d…, 'fo:…, &fo;…, &fo…,
'öUmd#, 'öUms, &öUms, Ums) fo…, fø…)
um'n˚ um den ('öUmdó, 'öUmõ, &öU- vor die ('fo:‰di, &fo;-, &fo-, -I, -¢)
mõ, Uõ, Um:, Um) vor- (fo'º-) [-an˚ -auf˚ -aus˚ -in˚ -über˚
um die ('öUmdi, &öU-, U-, -I, -¢) …)
und ('öUnt, &öUnt, &öUn, Un, ¢n, ó), (-m, (fo‰'ö-) [-ab˚ -Rnst÷ -arbRten˚ -Rlig˚
-M, -~, -˙, -,) …)
-und- (-&öUnt-, -&öUn-, -Unt-, -Un-, -¢n-, (fo‰'-) [-bR˚ -weg˚ …)
-ó-), (-m-, -M-, -~-, -˙-, -,-) (fo‰'-), ('fo:‰&-) [-her˚ -hin˚ -zu˚ …)
uns ('öUns, &öUns, &Uns, ¢ns, ós, ns) (the während ('v™:º?t, &v™;-, -º¡t, 'v™:‰,t,
most reduced forms do not occur in -‰nt, &v™;-, v™-÷ 'vE:-)
rhythm groups which are in into- was (non-interrogative) ('vas, &vas,
nemes, in neutral pronunciation) vas, vås)
unser ('öUnz…, &öU-, &U-) wegen ('ve:gô, &ve;gô, &vegô, veô)
unsere ('öUnzÈº¢, &öU-, &U-, -zº¢) wRl ('vael, &vael, vael, våel, vål)
unserem ('öUnzÈºõ, &öU-, &U-, -zº-, -…m, wem ('ve:m, &ve;m, &vem, vem, v™m)
-zõ) wen ('ve:n, &ve;n, &ven, ven, v™n), (-m,
unseren ('öUnzÈº?, -º¡, &öU-, &U-, -zº-, -M, -~, -˙, -,)
-…,, -zó) wenn ('vEn, &v™n, v™n, v¢n), (-m, -M,
unserer ('öUnzÈº…, &öU-, &U-, -zº…, -…‰) -~, -˙, -,)
unseres ('öUnzÈº¢s, &öU-, &U-, -zº¢s, -z¢s) wer ('ve:‰, &ve;‰, &ve‰, ve‰, v™‰)
unter ('öUnt…, &öUnt…, &Unt…) werden ('ve:‰dó, &ve;‰dó, &ve‰dó,
untern˚ -r den ('öUnt…dó, 'öUnt…,, &ve:‰n, ve‰n, v™‰n, -‰,), (-m, -M, -n,
&öUnt…,, &Unt…,), (-m, -M, -n, -~, -˙) -~, -˙)
unterm˚ -r'm˚ -r dem ('öUnt…dõ, 'öUn- werde ('ve:‰d¢, &ve;‰-, &ve‰-, ve‰t)
t…m, &öUnt…m, &Unt…m) werdet ('ve:‰d¢t, &ve;‰-, &ve‰-)
unters˚ -r's˚ -r das ('öUnt…dås, 'öUnt…- wider ('vi:d…, &vi;d…, &vid…, &vId…)
d¢s, 'öUnt…d#, 'öUnt…s, &öUnt…s, &Unt…s) wider- (unstressed) (&vid…-, &vId…-)
wie ('vi:, &vi;, &vi, vi, vI) würde ('vY‰d¢, &vY-, vY‰t, vT‰t)
wie viel ('vi:fil, vi'fi:l, &vifIl, vI&fil, &vifÍ) würdest ('vY‰d¢st, &vY-, -s)
wieder ('vi:d…, &vi;d…, &vid…, &vId…) würdet ('vY‰d¢t, &vY-)
wieder- (unstressed) (&vid…-, &vId…-) -zehn (-qe:n, -qe;n, -qen, -q™n, -q¢n,
will ('vIl, &vIl, vIl, vI) -qó), (-m, -M, -~, -˙)
wir ('vi:‰, &vi;‰, &vi‰, vI‰, v¤‰, v¢‰, v…) -zehnte (-qe:nt¢, -qe;n-, -qen-, -q™n-,
(the most reduced forms do not oc- -q¢n-, -qó-)
cur in rhythm groups which are in zer- (q™‰-, q…-) [-fahren˚ -rinnen˚ …)
intonemes, in neutral pronuncia- zu ('qhu:, &qu;, qu;, qu, qU, q¢)
tion, not even when they are encli- zum˚ zu dem ('qhu:dõ, &qu;dõ, &qu-
tic after verbs) dõ, &qUõ, 'qhUm, &qUm, qUm, q¢m,
wird ('vI‰t, &vI‰t, vI‰t, v¤‰t, v¢‰t, v…t) qõ)
wirst ('vI‰st, &vI‰st, vI‰st, v¤‰st, v¢‰st, zur˚ zu der ('qhu:d…, &qu;d…, &qud…,
v…st, -s) 'qhu:‰, &qu;‰, qu;‰, qu‰, qU‰, qw…,
wo ('vo:, &vo;, &vo, vo, vø) q…)
wo- (vo'-, vø'-, v¢'-) [-bR˚ -her˚ -hin˚ zu'n˚ zu den ('qhu:dó, 'qu;dó, 'qudó,
-vor˚ -zu˚ …) 'qhu:ó, 'qhu:n, &qu;n, qu;n, qun,
(vo'º-, vø'-, vÈ'-), ('vo:&º-) [-ran˚ -rauf˚ qUn, q¢n, qó), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,)
-raus˚ -rüber˚ -runter˚ …) -zu- (-qu-, -qU-, -q¢-) [ab…holen˚ …)
worden ('vO‰dó, &vø‰dó, vø‰n, -‰,), zusammen (qhu'zamõ, qu-, qU-, q¢-)
(-m, -M, -~, -˙) zwar ('qhña:‰, &qña;‰, &qña‰, qña‰,
wurden ('vU‰dó, &vU‰n, vU‰n, -‰,), qña, qñ…)
(-m, -M, -~, -˙) -ren˚ -r'n (after –short or long–
wurde ('vU‰d¢, &vU‰-, &v…-) stressed V˚ where /Kó/ (º?, º¡) be-
wurdest ('vU‰d¢st, &vU‰-, &v…-, -s) comes /Kn/ (‰,), through ç/Ún/Ç)
wurdet ('vU‰d¢t, &vU‰-, &v…-) (-'é[:]º?, -'é[:]º¡, -'é[:]‰,, -'é[:]‰n),
würden ('vY‰dó, &vY‰n, vY‰n, vT‰n, (-m, -M, -~, -˙).
-‰,), (-m, -M, -~, -˙)
Taxophonics
5.3.2.1. ˛ere are various other ways of simplifying words –and above all sen-
tences– which make speech easier and more fluent, but less çclearÇ to foreigners.
It is important, thus, to know the mechanisms implied, both to understand bet-
ter and move closer to the native speakers' genuine pronunciation, and to be un-
derstood better. Following Kohler (1977, 1995”, § 6.3.1), we will give several cas-
es, by appropriately integrating and completing them.
We have already seen that sequences of (MM) /MM/, in fast speech, are possible
only in preintonemes: (∂I'öapâ¢S&nItóó 'ºo:zó) d¤ abge(nittenen Rosen˚ but: ('nIm
dI'öapâ¢S&nItó¢n) nimm d¤ abge(nittenen˘
5.3.2.2. Often -e (¢) /È/ of the present-tense first person singular is dropped, pro-
vided this does not produce any (M) (¤ intense nasal): ([öI]Â'≈aX) /IÂ'max[È]/ i>
ma>'˚ ('maXIÂ) /'max[È]IÂ/ ma>' i>˚ ([öI]Â'hab¢s â¢'ze:ó, -Ê-) /IÂ'hab[È] ÈsgÈ'ze:ó/ i>
5. german 207
hab' es gesehen˚ ('ha:bIÂ, -ÊIÂ) /'ha:b[È]IÂ/ hab' i>˚ ('le:zIÂ, -ΩIÂ) /'le:z[È]IÂ/ les' i>˚ and
('ö§fnIÂ) /'§fn[È]IÂ/ ö‡n' i>, ('öa:t≈IÂ) /'a:tm[È]IÂ/ atm' i>˚ but: ([öI]Â'ö§fn¢) /IÂ'§f-
nÈ/ i> ö‡ne, ([öI]Â'öa:t≈¢) /IÂ'a:tmÈ/ i> atme; in the past tense, -e (¢) /È/ may be
dropped, before an enclitic i>, provided the verb does not end in -ete (¢t¢) /ÈtÈ/:
('maXtIÂ) /'maxt[È]IÂ/ ma>t' i>˚ ('∂U‰ftIÂ) /'dUKft[È]IÂ/ dur⁄' i>˚ but: ('ö§fn¢t¢&öIÂ)
/'§fnÈtÈIÂ/ ö‡nete i>˚ ('öa‰&baet¢t¢&öIÂ) /'aKbaetÈtÈIÂ/ arbRtete i>˘ Even -e (¢) /È/ be-
longing to nouns may often be dropped while maintaining the C voiced or half-
-voiced: ('li:bUn 'laet, -Ê-) /'li:b[È] Unt'laet/ L¤b' und LRd˘
We have already dealt with the assimilation of place of articulation to a follow-
ing C for /t, d, n, ó, s/ (§ 5.2.1-2 “ 5.2.4). We have also mentioned some alterna-
tions, especially for approximants and /K/ (§ 5.2.4-5).
5.3.2.3. As already seen, /ó/ assimilates to a preceding C÷ but /n/ remains un-
changed when -e- /È/ (¢) is dropped (and a voiced syllable-final –but lexeme-inter-
nal– C does not become voiceless): ('khOmõ) /'kOmó/ kommen˚ ('le:bõt) /'le:bót/
lebend˚ ('öe:bõ) /'e:bó/ eben (but: ('öe:bn¢) /'e:bnÈ/ ebne˚ unchanged); ('fa˙ô) /'fa˙ó/
fa«en˚ (',u:gôt) /'ju:gót/ Jugend˚ (f…'lo:gô) /fÚ'lo:gó/ verlogen (but: (f…'lo:gn¢) /fÚ-
'lo:gnÈ/ verlogne˚ unchanged). Even double assimilation occurs (but not in into-
nemes): (öaof'öe:bõõ 'Stüa:só) /aof'e:bóÈn 'StKa:só/ Qf ebenen Stra•en˚ (∂I'öae˙g¢-
&Súa:gôô 've:g¢) /di'ae˙geSla:góÈn/ d¤ R«e(lagenen Wege˘
Even after nasals (which may be intense or not), /t, d/ can assimilate, if they are
unexploded: ('hEmt, -mpæ) /'hEmt/ Hemd˚ ('hEmdó, -mbõ) /'hEmdó/ Hemden˚ (∂I-
',u:gót 'öaM&fOY…n, ∂I',u:gôkæ) /di'ju:gót 'anfOYÚn/ d¤ Jugend anfSern˚ (∂I'ge:gót
'öan&ze:ó, ∂I'ge:gôkæ) /di'ge:gót 'anze:ó/ d¤ Gegend ansehen˚ (∂I'ge:gódó 'öan&ze:ó, ∂I-
'ge:gôgô) /di'ge:gódÈn 'anze:ó/ d¤ Gegenden ansehen˚ (Ê¢'öamtó, -mpõ) /be'amtó/
Beamten˚ (Ê¢'haoptó, -ppõ, -põ) /bÈ'haoptó/ behQpten˚ (∂I'le:bódó 'laedó, -bõ-
bõ) /di'le:bódÈn 'laedó/ d¤ Lebenden lRden˘
5.3.2.4. Frequently, the sequence /gn/ assimilates as well (and also /bn, dn/,
even if preceded by N˚ with a subsequent reduction): (#'üe:gn¢t, #'üe:˙n¢t) /Ès'Ke:g-
nÈt/ es regnet˚ ('öagn™s, 'öa˙n™s) /'agnEs/ Agnes˚ (mag&nifi'qhEnq, ma˙&n-, -IfI-) /mag-
nifi'qEnq/ Magnifizenz˚ (zIg'na:l, zI˙'na:l) /zIg'na:l/ Signal, ('va:gn…, 'va:˙n…) /'va:g-
nÚ/ Wagner÷ ('öe:bn¢, 'öe:mn¢) /'e:bnÈ/ ebne˚ ('le:bót, -mõt) /'le:bót/ lebend˚ ('ºe:dn…,
'ºe:nn…) /'Ke:dnÚ/ Redner˚ ('ve:‰dó, -nó) /'ve:Kdó/ werden˚ ('fIndó, 'fInó) /'fIndó/ fin-
den˚ ('hEmdó, -mbõ, -mõ) /'hEmdó/ Hemden (Ô above).
Even sequences of N + a voiced stop can undergo nasal assimilation: (no'vEmb…,
-mm…) /no'vEmbÚ/ November˚ ('öUmb¢&haltó, 'öUmm¢-) /'UmbÈhaltó/ umbehalten˚
(qhUm'bae&Spi;l, -m'm-) /qUm'baeSpi:l/ zum BRsp¤l˚ ('ÊUnd¢s&Êa˙k, 'ÊUnn¢s-) /'bUn-
dÈsba˙k/ Bundesbank˚ ('vandÈº…, 'vannÈ-) /'vandÈKÚ/ Wanderer˚ ('vUnd…&ba;‰ 'vUn-
n…-) /'vUndÚba:K/ wunderbar˚ (qhU'mInd¢st, -Inn¢st) /qu'mIndÈst/ zuminde®˚ ('öU˙-
g¢&vIs, 'öU˙˙¢-) /'UngÈvIs/ u«ewiss˚ ('öa˙g¢≥bõ, 'öa˙˙¢-) /'a˙gÈge:bó/ a«egeben˚
('öa˙≥bõ, 'öa˙&˙e;-) /'a˙ge:bó/ a«eben˚ ('öU˙ga‰, 'öU˙˙a‰) /'öU˙gaK/ U«ar˘
5.3.2.5. A /t/ occurring between C˚ in non-slow speech, is generally dropped:

('ºEsúIÂ) /'KEstlIÂ/ re®li>˚ ('SüIfúIÂ) /'SKIftlIÂ/ (ri⁄li>˚ ('ºEÂúIÂ) /'KEÂtlIÂ/ re>tli>˚
(Ê¢'öaXúIÂ) /bÈ'axtlIÂ/ bea>tli>˚ ('öEnlIÂ) /'EntlIÂ/ endli>˚ ('vEl&khu;gÍ) /'vEltku:gÍ/

Weltkugel (but: ('halp&khu;gÍ) /'halpku:gÍ/ Halbkugel˚ ('halp&qhaet) /'halpqaet/
HalbzRt]˚ ('vI‰tSaf ö¢Mfi'nanqó) /'vIKtSaft Untfi'nanqó/ Wir˛a⁄ und „nanzen˚
('öEM&vU‰f) /'EntvUKf/ Entwurf˚ ('öaens 'StüItó, -nS 'S-, -n 'S-) /'aenst 'StKItó/ Rn® ®rit-
ten˚ (qhU'mInd¢s 'qhñae) /qu'mIndÈst 'qvae/ zuminde® zwR˚ (',Eq qU'haoz¢) /'jEqt
qu'haozÈ/ je˛t zu HQse˚ (ÊÈ'ºEÂtIÂt¢, -ÂIÂ¢) /bÈ'KEÂtIÂtÈ/ bere>tigte˘ In unstressed
positions, we frequently find reduced forms (Ô § 5.3.1.2) without /tò/ for i®˚ ni>t˚
und˘
Even /q/, after C˚ can become (s): ('glanq, -ns) /'glanq/ Glanz˚ (…'hElqt, -lst) /Ú-
'hElqt/ erhält®˚ ('sqe:n¢, 'sse:-, s'se:-) /'sqe:nÈ/ Szene˚ (qhU'mInd¢s 'sñae) /qu'mIndÈst
'qvae/ zuminde® zwR˚ (',Eq sU'haoz¢) /'jEqt qu'haozÈ/ je˛t zu HQse˚ (&∂asqU'StEndI-
g¢, &∂assU-) /dasqU'StEndIgÈ/ das zu®ändige˚ ('h°:Âst qU'füi:dó, -Âs sU-) /'h°:Âst qu'fKi:-
dó/ hö>® zufr¤den˘
˛e most frequent case occurs after /ö/, for stops and stopstrictives: (…'hEltst,
-lqt, -lst) /Ú'hEltst/ erhält®÷ in addition: ('khaM∫, -M]f, -Mf) /'kam∫/ Kamπ˚
('glanq, -nts, -ns) /'glanq/ Glanz˚ ('ganq, -nts, -ns) /'ganq/ ganz˚ (ö™M'∫ha˙ô, ö™M]-
'fa-, ö™M'fa-) /Em'∫a˙ó/ emπa«en˚ ('thüEnc, -nS) /'tKEnc/ Tren>÷ more: ('mUmps,
-ms) /'mUmps/ Mumps˚ ('phüOmpt, -mt) /'pKOmpt/ prompt˚ (ö™nt'SUldIgô, ö™n'S-)
/Ent'SUldIgó/ en˛uldigen (Ô § 5.2.3.1, too), ('sfI˙ks, -˙s) /'sfI˙ks/ S#inx˚ ('phU˙kt,
-˙t) /'pU˙kt/ Punkt˘
5.3.2.6. In fast speech, between vowels and in unstressed syllables, /b, g/ can be
realized as (6, Ÿ): ('ha:b¢, -6¢) /'ha:bÈ/ habe˚ ('le:g¢, -Ÿ¢) /'le:gÈ/ lege÷ /t/ can become
([): ('ÊIt¢, 'ÊI[¢) /'bItÈ/ bitte˘ Under the same conditions, voiceless stops and con-
strictives may become half-voiced or totally voiced: (∂ås&hat…'dOX â¢'maXt, -∂-, -d-)
/dashatÚ'dOx gÈ'maxt/ das hat er do> gema>t˚ (∂åS'Sa:fIÂ '∂OX&nIÂt, -Ñ-, -v-, ∂å'S-) /das-
'SafIÂ 'dOxnIÂt/ das (a‡' i> do> ni>t˚ (∂ås&≈UsIÂ'≈aX?, -Ω-, -z-) /dasmUsIÂ'maxó/
das muss i> ma>en˚ (∂ås'≈aXIÂ '∂OX&nIÂt, -ü-, -º-) /das'maxIÂ 'dOxnIÂt/ das ma>' i>
do> ni>t (obviously, because of ambiguity for native speakers –which, however,
does not coincide with foreigners' ambiguity!– this typical fast-speech neutraliza-
tion is avoided).
After pauses, voiced constrictive phonemes remain unchanged; whereas, after
voiceless C they become half-voiced (but more often /z/ becomes voiceless): ('vi:n)
/'vi:n/ W¤n˚ (∂ås'Ñas…) /das'vasÚ/ das Wasser˚ ('qhñanqIÂ) /'qvanqIÂ/ zwanzig˚ ('zi:-
bõ) /'zi:bó/ s¤ben˚ ('ºa:t&sa;m, -t'Ω-) /'Ka:tza:m/ ra_am˚ (&ZU‰na'lIst) /ZUKna'lIst/ Jour-
nali®˚ (t'ËU˙Í) /t'ZU˙Í/ D(u«el˚ (',a:) /'ja:/ ja˚ (∂ås'¿a:‰) /das'ja:K/ das Jahr˚ ('ºo:t)
/'Ko:t/ rot˚ ('Süa˙k) /'SKa˙k/ 6rank˘ After voiceless stops, /K/ may become (X)
(while phonotactically remaining /FK/): ('phüaes, 'phXaes) /'pKaes/ PrRs˚ ('thüe:tó,
'thXe:tó) /'tKe:tó/ treten˚ ('khüaes, 'khXaes) /'kKaes/ KrRs˘
Voiced stops are realized as half-voiced, both after pauses and after voiceless C:
('ÊU‰k) /'bUKk/ Burg˚ ('mEs&Êa;‰) /'mEsba:K/ messbar˚ ('∂e:nU,) /'de:nU˙/ Dehnu«˚
(&∂as∂u'öEt) /dasdu'Et/ das Duett˚ ('âu:t) /'gu:t/ gut˚ ('öaos&âe:ó) /'aosge:ó/ Qsgehen˘
5.3.2.7. Geminates, whether normal or with an intense element, can be simpli-

fied. ˛us, N in final position: ('khOmõ, -m:, -m) /'kOmó/ kommen˚ ('öe:bõ, -mõ,
5. german 209
-m:, -m) /'e:bó/ eben˚ ('nEnó, -n:, -n) /'nEnó/ nennen˚ ('hE˙ô, -˙:, -˙) /'hE˙ó/ hä«en˚
('le:gô, -˙ô, -˙:, -˙) /'le:gó/ legen˘ Please, note that kommen and nennen can become
identical with komm! and nenn! – however, in case of ambiguity, obviously, dis-
tinct forms are used.
Geminates derived by assimilation can be reduced when they occur between
stressed and unstressed syllables: ('li:bõs&Ñe;‰t, -mõ-, -õ-, -m-) /'li:bósve:Kt/ l¤bens-
wert˚ ('ÊUnd¢s≈inIs&te;º,Um, -nn-, -n-, -mI-) /'bUndÈsminIste:KjUm/ Bundesmini®e-
rium˚ ('öand…s, -nn-, -n-) /'and…s/ anders˚ ('öa˙g¢≥bõ, -˙˙-, -˙-) /'angÈge:bó/ a«e-
geben˘ In addition to ('Stüo:&m™˙¢) /'StKo:mE˙È/ Strohme«e˚ we can also have
('Stüo:m&m™˙¢, -&m-) /'StKo:mmE˙È/ Stromme«e˚ with possible reduction; however,
in case of ambiguity, no reduction occurs.
Geminate stops can be reduced to their second element, when they are very sim-
ilar: ('öap&ÊIlt, 'öa&ÊIlt) /'apbIlt/ Abbild˚ ('ºa:t&∂aM∫…, 'ºa:&∂-) /'Ka:tdam∫Ú/ Raddam-
πer˚ ('mIt&thaeló, 'mI&th-) /'mIttaeló/ mittRlen˚ ('mIt&qh™;ló, 'mI&qh-) /'mItqE:ló/
mi˛ählen˚ ('vEk&khømõ, 'vE&kh-) /'vEkkOmó/ wegkommen˚ ('vEk&âe:ó, 'vE&â-) /'vEk-
ge:ó/ weggehen˘ ˛e same holds for grooved constrictives: (∂ås'sElb¢, ∂ås'Ω-, ∂å's-)
/das'zElbÈ/ dasselbe˚ (∂ås'SIf, ∂åS'S-, ∂å'S-) /das'SIf/ das 6i‡˚ ('öaes&Süa˙k, -S&S-, -&S-) /'aes-
SKa˙k/ Eis(rank˘ Instead, the /Âs/ sequence, as we have already seen, has a couple
of possible variants: ('h°:Âst, -âst, -ÂÀt) /'h°:Âst/ hö>®˚ whereas /sÂ/ is only slightly
modified: ('ÊIÀÂ«) /'bIsÂó/ bis(en˘
5.3.2.8. From the above, a phonation-type di‡erence can become almost func-
tional in three ways: ('öap&ÊIlt, 'öa&ÊIlt) /'apbIlt/ Abbild˚ in comparison with ('öa:pÍ)
/'a:pÍ/ Apel and ('öa:bÍ) /'a:bÍ/ Abel˘ Let us also consider: ('mEndÍ&zo;n) /'mEndÍzo:n/
Mendelsohn˚ ('mEndÍs&so;n, -Ís&Ω-, -Í&s-) /'mEndÍszo:n/ Mendelssohn˘
If the geminates are produced by assimilation of place (of articulation), they can
be reduced (provided the syllable of the first element is unstressed): (&öImmu'ze:ó,
&öImu-) /Immu'ze:ó/ in Museen˚ (mIk'kha‰l, mI'kh-) /mIt'kaKl/ mit Karl˚ (&magnifi-
'qhEnq, &ma˙n-, &ma˙˙-, &ma˙-, -IfI-) /magnifi'qEnq/ Magnifizenz˚ (qhUm'bae&Spi;l,
-m'm-, -'m-) /qUm'baeSpi:l/ zum BRsp¤l˚ (qhu&mInd¢s'∂as&∂a;, -Inn-, -In-) /qu'mIndÈst
'dasda:/ zuminde® das da˘
We have, though: ('öam&m™ldó) /'anmEldó/ anmelden˚ ('mIk&khømõ) /'mItkO-
mó/ mitkommen˚ ('Êºo:k&khaofè) /'bKo:tkaofó/ Brot kQfen˚ ('ºa:kâ¢&fa:º?, -º¡,
-&fa;‰,, -‰n) /'Ka:tgÈfa:Kó/ Rad gefahren˚ ('öam&bIndó, 'öam&m-) /'anbIndó/ anbinden˚
('öagn™s, -˙n-, -˙˙-) /'agnEs/ Agnes˚ ('öa˙≥bõ, 'öa˙&˙-, -e;mõ, -e;õ, -e;m) /'ange:bó/
a«eben˚ ('ÊUnd¢s, -nn-) /'bUndÈs/ Bundes˚ ('vandÈº…, -nn-) /'vandÈKÚ/ Wanderer˘
5.3.2.9. In sequences of /n, l/ + voiceless constrictives, homorganic (and homo-

-phonic) stops can be inserted (although this characteristic denotes a less careful
pronunciation which it is better not to follow): ('öamt, -mpt) /'amt/ Amt˚ ('âams,
-mps) /'gams/ Gams˚ ('ºamS, -mpS) /'KamS/ Ram(˚ ('zEMf, -M]f) /'zEnf/ Senf˚ ('âans,
-nts, -nq) /'gans/ Gans, ('∂i:nst, -ntst, -nqt) /'di:nst/ D¤n®˚ ('mEnS, -ntS, -nc) /'mEnS/
Men(˚ ('ma~Â, -~+Â, -~k) /'manÂ/ man>˚ ('hE˙t, -˙kt) /'hE˙t/ hä«t˚ ('hE˙st, -˙kst)
/'hE˙st/ He«®˚ (…'hElst, -ltst, -lqt) /Ú'hElst/ erhell®˘ ˛is frequently occurs for /nz,
lz/ as well: ('öUnz…, -ndz…, -nQ…) /'UnzÚ/ unser˚ ('öalzo, -dzo, -Qo) /'alzo/ also˘
5.3.2.10. Certainly, the transcriptions seen thus far are useful to conveniently
separate German spelling from its phonic structure, which might seem rather
strange to foreigners. But this is reality. Here are some examples for reflection:
('öap&üaez¢) AbrRse˚ ('th™:kúIÂ÷ 'thE:k-) tägli>˚ ('mUnt&öa‰tó) Mundarten˚ ('öUn&öaof-
üIÂtIÂ, -f&üIÂ-) unQfri>tig˚ (f…'öap&üe;dU,) Verabredu«˚ (Ê¢'öa:p≈õ, -t≈õ) beat-
men…
It is obvious then that German has very complex consonant sequences; here we
will give just one example: ('hE‰ps[t]&Êl™t…) Herb®blätter˘ Please, note carefully even
the spelling sh /s˘h/: ('land¢s&haos÷halt) /'landÈshaoshalt/ LandeshQshalt.
Stress
5.3.3.1. In long words and in sentences, there are unstressed syllables that alter-
nate with stressed or half-stressed ones. Even rhythm groups follow the same prin-
ciple; and all this is already clear from the transcriptions we have given.
German compounds have particular patterns. ˛e most normal and widespread
one shows a primary stress on the prominent syllable of the first lexeme and re-
duced stresses on the ex-prominent syllables of succeeding lexemes.
Here are some examples of two-lexeme compounds: ('SIf&fa;‰t) 6i‡fahrt˚ ('∂aM∫-
&SIf) Damπ(i‡˚ ('Êa:n&ho;f) Bahnhof˚ ('öaezó&ba;n) Eisenbahn˚ ('ho:X&∂OYc) Ho>-
dS˛˚ ('füy:&StYk) Früh®ü$˚ ('öaoto&ba;n) Autobahn˚ (fa'mi:l,ó&na;m¢) Famil¤nna-
me˚ ('mUnt-ha‰&mo;ni&ka) Mundharmonika˚ ('Su:&maX…) 6uma>er˘
It is useful to note that phonemic transcriptions, which do not mark secondary
stresses, naturally imply such a reality. ˛erefore, pronunciations as the following
for four of the compounds just seen are typically foreign-like (in this case Italian):
ç('Sif:faRt, 'dam:Sif, 'ba:nof, 'Ok:døic)Ç. We cannot help ending with an observation
on the compound 6uhma>er and its derived family name 6uma>er˚ which
is generally pronounced by Spanish-, Portuguese-, and Italian-speaking people with
peculiar stress patterns that we will illustrate here using the Italian ones: current-
ly ç(Su'ma:keR), up to an ugly hybrid, which is neither German nor Romance: ç('Su:-
maxeR)Ç.
5.3.3.2. Let us also consider: (Âe'mi:&fa;z…) ≥em¤faser˚ (Âe'mi:&v™‰k) ≥em¤-

werk˚ ('â°:t¢&öInsti&thu;t) GoethRn®itut˚ ('fa:‰&phúa;n) Fahrplan˚ ('öan&Stalt) An®alt˚
('mIt&tha;k) Mittag˚ ('fa:t…&lant) Vaterland˚ ('fElt&≈a‰Sal) Feldmar(all (and often
('fElt≈a‰&Sal, &fElt'≈a‰Sal) for rhythmic reasons).
With three lexemes (paying attention that the kind of stress we mark here as (÷)
is weaker than (&) and is not normally written, even because it can be completely
reduced, although its syllable maintains the original characteristics of length, vow-
el timbre, and consonant consistency, including possible çaspirationÇ): (Âe'mi:÷fa;-
z…&v™‰k) ≥em¤faserwerk˚ ('mIt÷tha;ks&qhaet) MittagszRt˚ ('fa:t…÷lants&li;b¢, -nq-) Va-
terlandsl¤be˘
More: ('vIlt÷Sñae˙s&khø∫) Wild(wRnskoπ˚ ('SñIm&öan÷Stalt) 6wimman®alt˚
('na:X&≈It÷tha;k) Na>mittag˚ ('öalt&ho;X÷∂OYc) Altho>dS˛˚ ('haopt&öaof÷âa;b¢)
5. german 211
HQptQfgabe˚ ('StOY…&öaen÷ne;m…) StSerRnnehmer˚ ('vElt&öan÷SaoU,) Weltan(Q-

u«˚ ('âElt&öan÷la;g¢) Geldanlage˚ ('na:X&öa‰÷baetó) na>arbRten˘
5.3.3.3. However, rhythm often produces changes, especially in intonemes.

˛us, stress patterns as the following are actually more frequent, although they are
not always fully perceived (or accepted): ('SñIm÷öan&Stalt, 'na:X÷≈It&tha;k, 'öalt÷ho:X-
&∂OYc, 'haopt÷öaof&âa;b¢, 'StOY…÷öaen≠m…, 'vElt÷öan&SaoU,, 'âElt÷öan&la;g¢, 'na:X÷öa‰&bae-
tó), and (&vIlt'Sñae˙&khø∫), too.
With four lexemes we can have: ('öaezó÷ba;M&fa;‰÷phúa;n) Eisenbahnfahrplan˚
('na:X÷≈It÷tha;ks&qhaet) Na>mittagszRt÷ but rhythm often makes ('na;X÷≈It&tha;ks-
÷qhaet), or even (na;X'≈It÷tha;ks&qhaet) preferable.
With five or six (lexemes): ('khüaft&fa;‰&qhOYk 'haft&∫húIÂtf…&zIÂÈºU,) Kra⁄fahr-
zSgha⁄pfli>tversi>eru«˚ ('Spi:l&va;º? 'öaosó&handÍsâ¢&z™l÷Saft) Sp¤lwarenQ•en-
handelsgesell(a⁄˚ ('ho:X&ÑakuUm 'lIÂt&Êo;gô&S≈™lq÷öo;fè) Ho>vakuum-Li>tbo-
gen-6melzofen˘ ˛ey generally attenuate the beginning, becoming: (&khüaft÷fa;‰'-,
&Spi;l÷va;º?'-, &ho;X÷ÑakuUm'-).
5.3.3.4. ˛ere are even cases where secondary stresses actually determine the
meaning of certain compounds: ('∂aM∫÷SIf&fa;‰t) Damπ(i‡fahrt çsteamboat voy-
ageÇ, ('∂aM∫&SIf÷fa;‰t) Damπ(i‡fahrt çsteam navigationÇ. In cases such as these,
of course, rhythmic fluctuations are less frequent, although context must (and can)
help very much.
We also find some compounds which do not bear primary stress on their first
lexeme, as: (&,a;‰'qhe:nt) Jahrzehnt˚ (&öo;st…'mo:n&ta;k) O®ermontag˚ (&Sña‰q'Ñaes)
(warzwR•˚ (&ºo;t'khüOYq&Sñ™st…) RotkrSz(we®er˚ (&za;‰'bºYkô) Saarbrü$en˘
Others have more than one primary stress: ('Êlao 'gºy:n) blQ-grün, ('∂Um 'StOlq)
dumm-®olz˚ ('Súe:sñIÂ 'hOlStaen) 6leswig-Hol®Rn÷ however, they can become
(&Êlao'gºy:n, &∂Um'StOlq, &Súe;sñIÂ'hOlStaen), mostly in preintonemes.
Let us observe: ('Êlao 'gºy:n) blQ-grün çblue and green (¤ two colors put along-
side, as in a flag or sports †-shirt)Ç and ('Êlao&gºy:n) blQgrün çbluish green, water
green (¤ two colors blended together, as painters do)Ç.
5.3.3.5. ˛e faster speech becomes, the more non-primary stresses can be re-
duced — dropped, mostly in preintonemes. On the contrary, if speech becomes
slower, the stresses can be restored. In particular in intonemes, the last non-strong
stress can often be strengthened (we will mark it only here with (“)): ('öaoto“ba;n÷
'öan“Stalt÷ 'öalt&ho;X“∂OYc÷ 'haopt&öaof“âa;b¢)÷ besides, ('öaezó÷ba;M&fa;‰“phúa;n, -“fa;‰-
÷phúa;n÷ &Spi;l&va;º?'öaosó&handÍsâ¢&z™l“Saft, -â¢“z™l÷Saft÷ &ho;X&ÑakuUm'lIÂt&Êo;gô&S≈™lq-
“öo;fè, -“S≈™lq÷öo;fè).
˛ere are frequent cases of (homographic) compounds with (stressed or un-
stressed) prefix grammemes, which (in their unitary –non-inflected– forms) is the
most important element of semantic di‡erentiation: überse˛en »('öy:b…&z™qó) çto
pass overÇ, ”(&öyb…'zEqó, &öY-) çto translateÇ, umfahren »('öUM&fa;º?, -º¡, -a;‰,, -a;‰n)
çto run downÇ, ”(öUM'fa:º?, -º¡, -a:‰,, -a:‰n) çto drive/sail roundÇ.
Generally, compounds with unstressed monosyllabic su‚xes have /I, È, ó, õ, Í,
Ú/, even without secondary stresses (except for rhythmic reasons, when several un-
stressed syllables are arranged in sequence, as happens for (-laen) -lRn˚ (-U,) -u«
as well): ('v§Â«túIÂ) wö>entli> (('v§Â«t&úIÂ«, -÷úIÂ«) wö>entli>en].
5.3.3.6. Other unstressed monosyllabic su‚xes always bear a secondary stress:

[(-&ba;‰) -bar˚ (-&haft) -ha⁄˚ (-&haet) -hRt˚ (-&kaet) -kRt˚ (-&la˙) -la«˚ (-&lI˙) -li«˚ (-&lo;s)
-los˚ (-&ma;l) -mal˚ (-&za;l) -sal˚ (-&za;m) -sam˚ (-&Saft) -(a⁄˚ (-&tu;m) -tum˚ (-&føl) -voll˚
(-&v™‰q) -wär_]÷ for example: ('ºaen&haet) RRnhRt˚ ('öEnt&úo;s) endlos˘
Let us further consider (and notice that not fully stressed grammemes have no
çaspirationÇ): (-IÂ&kaet) -igkRt˚ (-&haftIÂ÷kaet) -ha⁄igkRt˚ (-&lo;zIÂ÷kaet) -losigkRt˘
˛ere are further rhythmic oscillations: ('öam&m™‰kU,?, 'öamm™‰&kU,?) Anmer-
ku«en˚ ('öa‰&baetÈ&ºInó, 'öa‰baetÈ&-) ArbRterinnen÷ mostly with un-\ ('öUn&öan÷St™n-
dIÂ, 'öUn÷öan&St™ndIÂ) unan®ändig˚ ('öUM&fo‰÷zIÂtIÂ, 'öUM÷fo‰&zIÂtIÂ) unvorsi>tig˚ as
for unQfri>tig (at the end of § 3.2), for which emphasis or emotion often pro-
duce: (&öUnöan'St™ndIÂ, &öUnöaof'üIÂtIÂ, &öUMfo‰'zIÂtIÂ).
Let us finally recall that German words are not all stressed on their first syllable
(as too hastily certain textbooks çdescribeÇ or çprescribeÇ), mostly for prefixed
forms or (even old) loanwords: (zo'fO‰t) sofort˚ (â¢'nao) genQ˚ (â¢'fUndó) gefunden˚
(mo'mEnt) Moment˚ (ma'Si:n¢) Ma(ine÷ (phüo'fEso‰) Professor (with its çtrouble-
someÇ (&phüof™'so:º?, -º¡, -‰,, -‰n) Professoren]˘ In addition, we find forms such as:
(∂a'bae) dabR˚ (hI'naos) hinQs˚ (vo'he:‰) woher˚ which for emphasis become: ('∂a-
&bae, 'hI&naos, 'vo&he;‰).
5.3.3.7. Another characteristic of German stressing is final çdestressingÇ of ver-

bal forms, mainly auxiliaries and modals (and suchlike), infinitives and past parti-
ciples. As a matter of fact, instead of an çexpectableÇ stress pattern, which can
normally be found –in various languages– at the end of intonemes, we find this
kind of çdestressingÇ which corresponds to the following typology.
With compound verbal forms (thus including: future, conditional, passive, mod-
als with dependent infinitives): das 'dür⁄e 'ri>tig &sRn÷ s¤ 'mag 'Re>t &haben÷ s¤
'soll &sehr 'tü>tig &sRn÷ i> &habe 'Cola be&®ellt÷ er i® '(lafen ge&ga«en÷ i> &habe es
'ni>t ge&wollt÷ i> &bin na> 'Rom ge&fahren÷ er wird 'wohl zu 'HQse &sRn÷ er &i® ver-
'ha⁄et &worden˘
Also: er &hat ihn 'fahren &lassen÷ s¤ &hatten mir den 'Br¤f '(rRben &helfen÷ das 'Auto
&wird bis 'morgen repa&r¤rt÷ i> muss 'je˛t na> 'HQse &gehen÷ i> &würde 'gern 'Rot-
&wRn &trinken÷ i> &habe ihn 'fahren ge&lehrt÷ &will® du ins 'Kino &gehen?
Naturally, the çstrangeÇ e‡ect of destressing increases when there is more than
one infinitive form: 'Karin hat den 'Br¤f &(rRben &müssen÷ s¤ &hätten 'ni>t &kom-
men &sollen÷ i> &habe um '3 &Uhr '(lafen &gehen &müssen˘
5.3.3.8. Cases such as the following are interesting too: 'ma>en S¤ d¤ 'Re>-
nu« &fertig˚ 'halten s¤ d¤ 'Pässe be&rRt˚ where the non-conjugated form of the verb
is an indeclinated adjective; the old orthography used to give: fertigma>en˚ berRt-
halten˚ instead of: fertig ma>en˚ berRt halten˘
For subordinate clauses, we have conjugated forms in the last position, infinitive
5. german 213
ones with um … zu: s¤ 'kann 'ni>t &kommen, &wRl s¤ 'morgen &sehr 'früh 'Qf&®ehen
&muss (except when dependent infinitives are more than two: s¤ i® &sehr 'müde, &wRl
s¤, 'hSte 'Morgen, 'sehr &früh hat 'Qf&®ehen &müssen÷ i> 'ho‡e, &dass er d¤ 'Re>nu«
&hat be'zahlen &können÷ i> 'ho‡e, &dass s¤ &Rne 'nSe 'Wohnu« hat 'finden &können]÷
i> 'für>te, &dass er 'Re>t &hat÷ der 'Arzt &wollte 'wissen, &ob er '‡ber ge&habt &habe÷ s¤
'sagt, dass &ihre 'Kinder im 'Garten &sp¤lten÷ i> 'glQbe, &dass s¤ 'ni>t 'h¤r &i®÷ i>
'wR•, dass er vor &zwR 'Jahren &ope'r¤rt &worden &i®÷ i> 'brQ>e 'ni>t zu &antworten÷
es i® 'immer 'besser, 'pünktli> &anzu&kommen÷ um 'pünktli> &anzu&kommen, &müssen
wir d¤ 'U-&Bahn &nehmen˘ ˛e constructions with modals and infinitives in the last
position are to be noticed too: du 'sollte® zum 'Arzt &gehen˘
With inflected separable verbs, postponed particles generally bear primary
stresses ((')); however, it is often weaker (up to a secondary degree), thus we will
indicate it here with (“): s¤ 'kommt 'morgen {an˚ i> 'lege es {bR˚ du 'ruf® {an˚ er 'gab
den 'Kamπ {Qf˚ das 'Da> 'spri«t {über˘
Let us add some typical examples, since the concepts expressed by some words
can (or must) come out: 'Anna darf 'ni>t &mitkommen÷ der 'Br¤f &wurde von 'mir
ge&(r¤ben. More: &kann man 'h¤r 's>wimmen? (two concepts), however: 'können
S¤ Kla'v¤r &sp¤len? something like… çto pianoÇ; 'morgen˚ &muss i> 'fl¤gen÷ i> muss
'morgen &fl¤gen [¤ fl¤gen is already known).
‹en no complement or predicate is present, destressing certainly does not oc-
cur, as in the following sentences, where verbs are preceded only by words (and
concepts) with very low information power: 'kann i> 'mal telefo'n¤ren?÷ er 'fuhr
in d¤ 'Fer¤n, um &si> zu er'holen÷ er 'l¤• das Re®Q'rant, 'ohne zu be'zahlen÷ 'bitte,
'blRben S¤ &do> 'si˛en˘ Let us further consider the following examples: das i® be-
'®immt 'unab&si>tli> ge&(ehen÷ er hat ge'sagt, dass es 'unab&si>tli> ge&(ehen &i®÷
er hat ge'sagt, dass es 'unab&si>tli> ge&ma>t &worden &i®÷ er hat ge'sagt, dass es 'unab-
&si>tli> ge&ma>t &worden sRn &kann÷ er hat ge'sagt, dass es 'unab&si>tli> ge&ma>t
&worden sRn &könnte˘ Here, the particular syntactic structure of German subordi-
nate clauses, with verb phrases at the end of sentences, makes it possible for the
last primary stress to be followed by a considerable number of syllables.
Intonation
5.3.4. û 5.4 shows neutral German intonation. Each tonogram must be ana-
lyzed very carefully. Here we will simply provide examples for the three marked
intonemes. In § 5.3.1.1, the third and fourth utterance (of the second group of ex-
amples, before the reduced-form list) show mid-pitch parentheses (Ô § 13.24 of
NPT/HPh), which is also typical of German and French. Here is another example:
… und, &wenn es 'mögli> zu 'ma>en &wäre, … Others may be found in the transcrip-
tions of the text (§ 5.5):
/./: (öIÂ'su:X¢ öaem'm°:bÍg¢&S™ft3 3) /IÂ'zu:xÈ aen'm°:bÍgÈSEft./ I> su>e Rn Möbelge-
(ä⁄.
/?/: (¿'khOmõzi öaos'ö°:st…&ºaeÂ1 1) /¿'kOmózi aos'°:stÚKaeÂ?/ Kommen S¤ Qs Ö®er-
rR>?
/÷/: (¿'fa:º?zi naX5∂YsÍ&dø‰f1 1| {ö&o;d…'mak∂¢&bU‰k3 3}) /¿'fa:Kózi na:x'dYsÍdOKf÷ {o:dÚ-

'makdÈbUKk.}/ Fahren S¤ na> Düsseldorf oder Magdeburg?
û 5.4. German preintonemes and intonemes.
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 3 3)
/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /?/ (2 ' 1 1)
/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /÷/ (2 5 1 1)
/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /,/ (2 ' 2)
Other accents
5.4.0. As we have already said, we think it important to present, in addition to

neutral pronunciation, at least some accents, not only for useful comparisons, but
also to be ready to grasp the pronunciation characteristics of German outside the
former çWest GermanyÇ. We will start from former çEast GermanyÇ (ex ∂∂®, ¤
the present-day north-eastern part of reunified Germany), to Austria, Switzerland,
and South Tyrol (or Alto Adige), to understand di‡erent accents better and more
quickly.
˛ese observations could even be useful in order to acquire a more typical ac-
cent among the last three, mainly if somebody wanted (or had) to be in preferen-
tial contact with those inhabitants, more than with those of Germany. It could al-
so be interesting to see –in NPT/HPh– the phonosyntheses of Pennsylvania Ger-
man˚ or çPennsylvania DubÇ (as it is called, § 21.12) and various Germanic dia-
lects spoken in Germany (NPT/HPh § 17.27), Austria (NPT/HPh § 17.28), Switzer-
land (NPT/HPh § 17.20), Luxembourg (NPT/HPh § 17.22), France (NPT/HPh §
17.21), and Italy (NPT/HPh § 16.2, 16.12, 16.15-6, 16.18).
North-eastern-Germany German
5.4.1.1. ˛e first vocogram shows the vowels of the ex-∂∂® mediatic (and neu-
tral) accent. It is not the local pronunciation of Berlin or of Saxony. As will be seen
shortly, by comparing this vocogram with that of û 5.1, long stressed V are actual-
ly monotimbric diphthongs, or vocalic doublings, with a slight upward move-
ment. Besides, /E, E:, §, O/ are slightly closer (su‚ciently so to use di‡erent phonet-
ic symbols: (™, ™™, #, ø)).
We just give some examples to directly show the di‡erence, thanks to phonetic
transcriptions: ('fi;il) /'fi:l/ v¤l˚ ('ze;eó) /'ze:ó/ sehen˚ ('Sp™;™t) /'SpE:t/ spät˚ and:
('Êa;an) /'ba:n/ Bahn˚ ('zo;o) /'zo:/ so˚ ('âu;ut) /'gu:t/ gut˚ ('thy;y‰) /'ty:K/ Tür˚ ('S°;°n)
/'S°:n/ (ön˘
5. german 215
˛e two realizations of /È/ are slightly lower: ('öUnz‘ºÈ, -ndz-, -nQ-) /'UnzÈKÈ/ un-
sere÷ whereas, the possible vocalization of /K, Ú/ is closer: ('vas…, -x‰, -x˜, -xº, -x) /'va-
sÚ/ Wasser˘
5.4.1.2. By comparing the vocogram provided, it can be seen that the second
elements of /ae, ao, OY/ are more central (and even lower for /OY/): (aÙ, aP, ø+). In
addition, especially the first element of /ao/ is slightly backer and the first of /OY/
is slightly higher, and indeed it crosses the edge towards the upper box: ('öaÙs) /'aes/
Eis˚ ('ÊlaP) /'blao/ blQ˚ ('nø+) /'nOY/ nS˘ ˛ere is little di‡erence for the two xeno-
phonemes /eI, oU/; while, for the possible first-element variants of /’ae, ’ao, ’a÷ ’OY/
they coincide.
We add for C that there is quite a frequent change of voiceless constrictives (and
/z/), after /n, l/, into homorganic sequences of stops + constrictives, or even into
real stopstrictives (Ô § 5.3.2.9). ≈nally, before pauses, /kò/ can be realized as a (pre)-
velar stopstrictive (w, ∞): ('khüi;ik, -w, -∞) /'kKi:k/ Kr¤g˚ ('tha;ak, -w, -∞) /'ta:k/
Tag˚ ('qhu;uk, -w, -∞) /'qu:k/ Zug˘ However, all these realizations are not at all rec-
ommendable.
˛e tonogram shows intonation, which sounds slightly less peculiar than the
çwesternÇ neutral one, approaching what may be called çinternationalÇ.
/i:, ’i/ (i;i, i), /y:, ’y/ (y;y, y) /u:, ’u/ (u;u, u)
/I/ (I), /Y/ (Y) /U/ (U)
/e:, ’e/ (e;e, e), /°:, ’°/ (°;°, °) /o:, ’o/ (o;o, o)
/È/ (È, ‘˘º, º‘, ºÈò)
/E/ (™, ’™), /§/ (#, ’#)÷ /E:/ (™;™, ’™;) /O/ (ø, ’ø)
/Ú/ (…) {“ (x)}
/a/ (a), /a:/ (a;a)
/oU/* (o;o, ±øU)

/eI/* (e;e, ±™I) /OY/ (ø+) {(’Ö+)}
{/’a/ (å)}
/ae/ (aÙ) {(’åÙ)} /ao/ (aP) {(’åP)}
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3)
/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /?/ (2 ' 2 1)
/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /÷/ (2 5 2 1)
/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /,/ (2 ' 2)

Austrian German
5.4.2.1. ˛is accent is the çmediaticÇ one, which prevails in radio and television
broadcastings and is half-way between the slightest and broadest accents. ˛ese ob-
servations are drawn from our (growing) sound archives.
çLongÇ monophthongs are realized as geminate or doubled vocoids and have a
shorter duration although gemination gives an impression of greater fullness,
which almost equalizes true length: not (é:), but (éé).
It is at once clear even that the articulations corresponding to /I, Y, U÷ E[:], §, O/
are closer than in neutral German, so much so that they are represented as (i, y, u÷
™[™], #, ø) (in less broad accents we find (I°, Y°, U°÷ E[E]°, §°, O°), with the unstressed
variants (™, #, ø), slightly closer than in neutral pronunciation): ('fiS) /'fIS/ „(˚
('fyMf) /'fYnf/ fünf˚ ('hunt) /'hUnt/ Hund˚ ('™lf) /'Elf/ elf˚ ('Sp™™t) /'SpE:t/ spät˚ ('q6#lf)
/'qv§lf/ zwölf˚ ('øft) /'Oft/ o⁄˘ Certain words have /e:/ (ee) for /E:/.
5.4.2.2. Both /a/ and /a:/ are back-central: ('StAt) /'Stat/ Stadt˚ ('StAAt) /'Stat/ Staat
(in less broad accents we find (a, aA) (and (Å, ÅÅ) in refined, or a‡ected, ones),
whereas in broader ones we have: (å, åå) and (Ø, ØØ) as well (which will certain-
ly be noted at once).
Austrian traditional dialects generally present phonemic opposition between a
back a and a fronter one, both short and long. It is possible to find this timbre dis-
tinction in language too, where the back timbre is used in traditional words,
whereas the fronter one is used in loanwords and neologisms, as happens for in-
stance in Bank\ /'bA˙k/ ('ÊA˙k) çbenchÇ, /'ba˙k/ ('Êa˙k) çbank, gambling tableÇ.
A very broad accent has /e:, °:, o:/ (eÙ, #°, øo): ('vee, ≠'veÙ) /'ve:/ weh˚ ('Ê°°,
≠'Ê#°) /'b°:/ Bö˚ ('soo, ≠'søo) /'zo:/ so˘
5.4.2.3. /È/ is realized as (Ù, È), with the possible vocalization of /K, Ú/ (å) (with
consonantal accompaniments too); thus we have: ('unsÈºÙ) /'UnzÈKÈ/ unsere and
('vAs…, -å‰, -å˜, -åº, -å) /'vasÚ/ Wasser˘ ˛e symbol (å) corresponds to the one current-
ly used, though less rigorously, in neutral German as well, for (√), which on the
contrary is appropriate for less broad Austrian accents that have (√ï) (and even
(x÷)); whereas the broadest accents have (a[í]). It is to be noted that (Ù) /È/ is front-
-central, ¤ considerably fronter than in neutral German. ˛e most refined or a‡ec-
ted accents may reach (Ùº, Ù√) for /ÈK, Ú/ (Ô the last vocogram but one).
Moving to diphthongs, we can see that /OY/ has just a higher first element, while
/ae, ao/ are decidedly di‡erent, (ÄÙ, åø): ('ÄÙs) /'aes/ Eis˚ ('Êlåø) /'blao/ blQ˚ ('nøY)
/'nOY/ nS˘ Less broad accents have, (ÅÙ, Aø, O°), respectively, while the broadest
ones have (EÙ, ∏ø, √Y) (as in Vienna, where even (πÉ, Øø, ∏ê) occur, and even (O,),
as a compromise, and (@°, §°) as well). Xenophonemes are slightly closer than in
neutral German: /eI, oU/ (ee, ™i÷ oo, øu).
5.4.2.4. In the second vocogram, two further typical diphthongs are evident (al-
though marked in grey, since they only occur in local family and place names), (iÙ,
uÙ) /iÈ, uÈ/: ('∂iÙks, '∂iiks) D¤x˚ ('ºuÙq, 'ºuu™q) Rue˛˘ No variant of /ae, ao, OY/ in
5. german 217
reduced forms are given, because they tend to remain as indicated; nevertheless,
we have shown /’a/ (√), which is possible in reduced forms.
In comparison with neutral German, there are some di‡erences in phonemic
length too, as in: ('Alt…&tum) /'altÚtu:m/ Altertum˚ ('Spiil&Êa‰) /'Spi:lba:K/ sp¤lbar˚
('hA‰q) /'ha:Kq/ Harz˚ ('ÊA‰S) /'ba:KS/ Bar(˚ ('Sust…) /'Su:stÚ/ 6u®er÷ (âÙ'Sloos) /gÈ-
'SlOs/ Ge(loss/-o•˘
/i:, ’i/ (ii, i), /y:, ’y/ (yy, y)

f /u:, ’u/ (uu, u)
/I/ (i), /Y/ (y) /U/ (u)f
/e:, ’e/ (ee, e), /°:, ’°/ (°°, °) /o:, ’o/ (oo, o)
/È/ (Ù, ºÙò, ºÈ, È˘º)
/E/ (™, ’™), /§/ (#, ’#), /E:/ (™™, ’™;) /O/ (ø, ’ø)
/Ú/ (…) {“ (å)}
/a/ (A), /a:/ (AA)
/iÈ/* (iÙ) /uÈ/* (uÙ)
/eI/* (ee, ±™i) /oU/* (oo, ±øu)

/OY/ (øY)
/ae/ (ÄÙ) {/’a/ (√)}
/ao/ (åø)
/ / (2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3)
/¿ / (¿ 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2) /?/ (2 Ç 1 2)
/¡ / (¡ 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2) /÷/ (2 ' 2 1)
/˚ / (˚ 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2) /,/ (2 ' 2)
/i:, ’i/ (±ii, ±i), /y:, ’y/ (yy, y) /u:, ’u/ (±uu, ±u)
/I/ (±I), /Y/ (Y) /U/ (±U)
/e:, ’e/ (±ee, ±e), /°:, ’°/ (±°°, ±°) /o:, ’o/ (±oo, ±o)
/È/ (±Ù, ±ºÙò, ±Èº, ±ºÈ)
/E/ (±E, ±’™), /§/ (±§, ±’#) /O/ (±O, ±’ø)
/E:/ (±EE, ±’™;) /Ú/ {(…) “) (±√)
/a/ (±a), /a:/ (±aA)
/ÈK-/ (±±Ùº-)
/e:/ (≠≠eÙ, ee), /°:/ (≠≠#°) /o:/ (≠≠øo)
/OY/ (O°, O,, ≠√Y, ≠≠∏ê, ≠≠@°, ≠≠§°)
/ae/ (±ÅÙ, ≠EÙ, ≠≠πÉ) /ao/ (±Aø, ≠∏ø, ≠≠Øø)
/…/ (±±Ù√, ±x, ≠a) /a[:]/ (±±Å[Å], ≠å[å], ≠≠Ø[Ø])
˛e last two vocograms show both less broad ((±)) vowel realizations (up to
some a‡ected ones, (±±)), and –on the contrary– some of the broadest realizations
((≠)).
5.4.2.5. Moving to C˚ we find that often /˙ò, ˙0/ become /˙kò, ˙k0/ (but they
are not recommendable): ('qÄÙtu˙, -˙k) /'qaetU˙/ ZRtu« (however, even without
(k), the nasal is always velar, not uvular, in /Kó/ as well: (SpA'qiiºô, -ii‰˙, -ii‰n)).
/t, d/ are more dental than denti-alveolar: (∂e't™kto‰) /de'tEktoK/ Detektor÷ of-
ten /kò, kl, gl/ can be prevelar or retracted palatal (and /kò/ may even become stop-
strictive, but these variants are best avoided): ('tAAk, -´, -∞, -©, -k) /'ta:k/ Tag˚ ('∂u˙-
kl…, -”´l-, -N©-) /'dU˙klÚ/ dunkler˚ ('ºeeâl…, -"l-, -ˆl-) /'Ke:glÚ/ Regler˘
Voiceless stops and stopstrictives are not çaspiratedÇ (except in less broad pro-
nunciations), as we have just seen for /q/: ('pool) /'po:l/ Pol˚ ('toon) /'to:n/ Ton˚
('kint) /'kInt/ Kind˚ ('∫unt) /'∫Unt/ Pfund˚ ('cAko) /'cako/ T(ako˘
Voiced stops are half-voiced, (Ê, ∂, â); but they can also be (b, d, g), between
voiced phones, again in less broad accents; however, in the broadest ones, we gen-
erally find (p, t, k): ('ÊuuÊÙ, -6Ù) /'bu:bÈ/ Bube (often we have (é6é) /ébé/), ('∂uu-
∂ó) /'du:dó/ Duden˚ ('âeeâô) /'ge:gó/ gegen.
On the other hand, within words, b˚ d˚ g followed by heterosyllabic /n, l/ can
become /b, d, g/ (instead of /p, t, k/, as in neutral German pronunciation, which
has neutralization): ('ø‰∂nu˙) /'OKdnU˙/ Ordnu«˚ ('m°°âliÂ) /'m°:klIÂ/ mögli>.
No glottal stop is used, except in less broad accents: (iÂ'™sÙ) /IÂ'EsÈ/ i> esse˚ (te'AA-
t…) /te'a:tÚ/ †eater˘
5.4.2.6. Among constrictives, we find a greater variation (than in neutral Ger-

man) for v˚ mostly when initial: ('v™‰s, 'f-) /'fEKs/ Vers˚ ('fiip…, 'v-) /'vi:pÚ/ Viper˘ Nor-
mally, /z/ is /s/ (s) (while we find (Ω, z) only in less broad accents, and more easily
after C]\ ('sAAgô) /'za:gó/ sagen˚ ('Also) /'alzo/ also˚ ('ºÄÙsó) /'Kaezó/ rRsen (then i-
dentical to ('ºÄÙsó) /'Kaesó/ rR•en]˘ In words such as Stil˚ Strateg¤˚ unlike neutral
German, /st/ is preferred to /St/: ('stiil) /'Sti:l/˚ (&stºAte'gii) /StKate'gi:/ (although they
are both used, in both accents).
In addition, /j/ is an approximant, (j): ('jAA) /'ja:/ ja; generally, /x/ is velar, (x):
('nAAx) /'na:x/ na>. For /KÂ/ we have /Kx/: ('∂u‰x) /'dUKÂ/ dur>; for /-IÂ/ we have
/-Ik/: ('q6Anqik) /'qvanqIÂ/ zwanzig˚ for /òÂ/ we find /k/: ('kiinA) /'Âi:na/ ≥ina˚
but: (me&lA~Âo'lii) /mela˙ko'li:/ Melan>ol¤˘ Often /Â/ is realized as a postpalatal,
(…), mostly in Vienna.
˛e most widely used articulation for /K/ is a uvular constrictive, (º), with the
possibility of postnuclear vocalization (as seen in the first part of this section),
which coexists with a fairly widespread alveolar trill or tap, (R, r) (even velarized,
(R, 5)). ˛is is mainly a non-urban characteristic (but also widespread in Vienna,
although alternating with (º, K)), which is best avoided, even if it does not sound
peculiar: ('ºAA‰÷ 'RAAR, 'rAAr, -AAå) /'Ka:K/ rar˘
Although, of course, it is certainly not recommendable, we want to mention
that the typical broad cennese l is a velarized alveolar unilateral, (÷), which may
occur in every position, although it normally alternates with (l), even in the broad-
5. german 219
est and most typical speakers. In the broadest accents (as in the traditional local
dialect – see the cennese phonosynthesis, § 17.28 of NPT/HPh]˚ we find velar (ı,
”), in the sequences /kl, gl÷ kÍ, gÍ/. In cennese pronunciation again, in addition
to (“) (and (”)), we often find it vocalized in (,) (as in the dialect): ('Spiiâ”, -â,, 'ee-
s“, -s,) /'Spi:gÍ, 'e:zÍ/ Sp¤gel˚ Esel.
5.4.2.7. In non-neutral pronunciation, simple word-internal voiceless intersyl-

labic /0/, after (short) stressed V, are realized as restrained (but evident) geminates,
which we indicate with superscript symbols of the first element, in the variant
form notated only here, (00): ('Støpõ÷ 'Støppõ) /'StOpó/ ®oppen˚ ('v™t…÷ 'v™tt…) /'vE-
tÚ/ Wetter˚ ('tA∫…÷ 'tA∫∫…) /'ta∫Ú/ taπer˚ ('siqó÷ 'siqqó) /'zIqó/ si˛en˚ ('vAs…÷ 'vAss…)
/'vasÚ/ Wasser˚ ('vASó÷ 'vASSó) /'vaSó/ wa(en˚ ('siÂ…÷ 'siÂÂ…) /'zIÂÚ/ si>er˚ ('mAxô÷
'mAxxô) /'maxó/ ma>en˘
˛e insertion of a homorganic stop between /n, l/ and voiceless constrictives or
/z/ (Ô § 5.3.2) is possible, although not particularly widespread.
˛ere are some di‡erences in stressing: (kA'fee) /'kafe÷ ka'fe:/ Ka‡ee˚ ('lAAÊø‰, lA-
'Êoo‰) /la'bo:K/ Labor˚ (tA'ÊAk) /'ta[:]bak÷ ta'bak/ Tabak˚ (pø‰'tii‰, pø‰'tjee) /pOK-
'tje:/ Port¤r÷ Motor ('mootø‰, mo'too‰) /'mo:to:‰, mo'to:‰/˘
Austrian intonation is easily recognized because of its (slightly rising) half-low stressed
syllables and (falling) mid unstressed syllables, occurring between them in preinto-
nemes; mostly the interrogative intoneme (and the suspensive one too) have particular
movements, which can be seen in the tonogram.
Swiss German
5.4.3.1. Even for this accent we will add, when relevant but without further
figures, some more non-neutral characteristics, taken from our sound archives. ˛e
main accent illustrated is the mediatic one – something in between the broadest
“ most local ones and a neutralized, unmarked, accent – expressly acquired.
˛e first vocogram shows the short and long çmonophthongsÇ; actually, in this
accent çlongÇ vowels are diphthongs with narrow movements: ('fiil) /'fi:l/ v¤l˚
('f5yy) /'fKy:/ früh˚ ('âuut) /'gu:t/ gut˚ ('Êeet) /'be:t/ Beet˚ ('°°l) /'°:l/ Öl˚ ('Ñoo) /'vo:/
wo˚ ('SpEEt) /'SpE:t/ spät (which is very stable and typical) ('StaAt) /'Sta:t/ Staat˘ ˛e
last two have non-neutral broad variants: (πE) and (åå) (or (åA) as well, which is
typical of Bern, and (ù∏), typical of Zurich). (˛e phonosynthesis in § 17.20 of
NPT/HPh shows the characteristics of Zurich 6wyzertü˛ {which is Aleman-
nic}, with still more di‡erent realizations.)
Among short V, /I, Y, U/ have closer realizations (i, y, u): ('fiS) /'fIS/ „(˚ ('fyMf)
/'fYnf/ fünf˚ ('hun∂) /'hUnt/ Hund÷ /E, §, O/ are relatively open: ('Elf) /'Elf/ elf˚
('q6§lf) /'qv§lf/ zwölf˚ ('Oft) /'Oft/ o⁄ (with unstressed taxophones (™, #, ø)). For
the spelling ä˚ we can also find a broad non-neutral realization (π): ('fElt, ≠'fπlt)
/'fElt/ fällt÷ /a/ is back-central (A) (which, in broad marked pronunciation, is
rounded too, (ù), or fully back, (å)): ('StAt) /'Stat/ Stadt˘
5.4.3.2. For /È/ we have (Ù), in every context, since /K/ is not uvular: (âÙ'5aA∂Ù)
/gÈ'Ka:dÈ/ gerade˚ ('unsÙRÙ) /'UnzÈKÈ/ unsere˚ ('unsÙR) /'Unz…/ unser˘ Besides, we gen-
erally find (-Ùn, -Ùm, -Ùl) for /ó, õ, Í/: ('faARÙn) /'fa:Kó/ fahren˚ ('looΩÙm) /'lo:zõ/ lo-
sem˚ ('eeΩÙl) /'e:zÍ/ Esel˘ Only in very careful pronunciation, can we find (ó, õ, Í),
and (…, √‰, √˜, √º) as well, even for speakers lacking /K/ (º).
Neutral Swiss diphthongs are /ae, ao, OY/ (aÙ, Ao, OI): ('aÙΩ) /'aes/ Eis˚ ('ÊlAo)
/'blao/ blQ˚ ('nOI) /'nOY/ nS÷ in the broadest accents we find: /ae/ (EI, ÄI), /ao/ (ÄU,
∏U), /OY/ (êI, oÙ). Xenophonemes are decidedly closer than in neutral German: /eI,
oU/ (ee, ei÷ oo, ou).
/i:, ’i/ (ii, i), /I/ (i)

/u:, ’u/ (uu, u), /U/ (u)
/y:, ’y/ (yy, y), /Y/ (y)
/e:, ’e/ (ee, e), /°:, ’°/ (°°, °) /o:, ’o/ (oo, o)
/È/ (Ù, ÙR, RÙ), /Ú/ (ÙR) /O/ (O, ’ø)
/E/ (E, ’™), /§/ (§, ’#), /E:/ (EE, ’™;)
/a:/ (aA), /a/ (A)
/iÈ/ (iÙ), /yÈ/ (yÙ) /uÈ/ (uÙ)
/eI/* (ee, ±ei) /oU/* (oo, ±ou)

/OY/ (OI) {(’ÖI)}
{/’a/ (√)}
/ae/ (aÙ) {(’åÙ)} /ao/ (Ao) {(’åo)}
/ / (2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2) /./ (2 ç 2 3)
/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2) /?/ (2 Ì 1 2)
/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2) /÷/ (2 ç 2 2)
/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2) /,/ (2 ' 2)
/I/ (±I), /Y/ (±Y) /U/ (±U)

/OY/ (≠êi, ≠∏i, ≠øI, ≠oÙ)
/O/ (≠ø)
/E/ (≠™), /§/ (≠#)
/ao/ (≠ÄU, ≠å¯, ≠åo, ≠∏U)
/ae/ (≠EI, ≠ÄI, ≠Åi) /a:/ (≠ù∏, ≠åå, ≠åA)
/E:, E/ >ä≥ (≠πE, ≠π) /a/ (≠ù, ≠å)
In the second vocogram again, three further typical diphthongs are evident (al-
yÙ, uÙ) /iÈ, yÈ, uÈ/: ('∂iÙt) D¤th˚ ('5yÙâ) Rüegg˚ ('huÙp) Huep˘ Except in less marked
5. german 221
–or a‡ected– accents, often /y:, y, yÈ/ become /i:, i, iÈ/. In the same figure, possible real-
izations of reduced forms of /ae, ao, OY, a/ are given: (åÙ, ao, Ö¤, √).
In comparison with neutral German, there are some words with short V, as in:
('A5t) /'a:Kt/ Art˚ ('flOs) /'flo:s/ √o• [√oss\ in Switzerland • is not used], ('jAâ∂) /'ja:kt/
Jagd˚ ('nun) /'nu:n/ nun˚ ('∫E5∂) /'∫e:Kt/ Pferd˚ ('fO5) /'fo:K/ vor˚ ('ÑE5∂Ùn) /'ve:Kdó/
werden˚ ('E5∂Ù) /'e:KdÈ/ Erde˚ ('Ñuks) /'vu:ks/ Wu7˚ ('qE5tliX, -á) /'qhE:‰tlIÂ/ zärt-
li>˘
˛e last vocogram shows broad realizations of /E, E:, a, a:÷ ae, ao, OY/ (and less
broad ones of /I, Y, U/).
5.4.3.3. Moving to C˚ we have to say that /t, d/ are decidedly dental: (∂e'tEktoR)
/de'tEktoK/ Detektor÷ whereas, /k/ is (k, w, ∑, k): ('kin∂, 'w, '∑-, 'k-) /'kInt/ Kind˚
('sAk, -w, -∑, -k) /'zak/ Sa$; please, note that in the transcription of § 5.5.2.4
(and § 5.5.1.2), we write (∑), to insist on this typical realization (although it tends
to be avoided in neutral-like pronunciations, perhaps resorting to a velar stop-sem-
i(con)strictive, (˜), which is half-way between (k) and the other stopstrictives in-
dicated).
/p, t, k÷ ∫, q, c/ are not çaspiratedÇ (unless çaspirationÇ is voluntarily used):
('pool) /'po:l/ Pol˚ ('toon) /'to:n/ Ton˚ ('kuu, 'w, '∑-, 'k-) /'ku:/ Kuh˚ ('∫un∂) /'∫Unt/
Pfund˚ ('qeen) /'qe:n/ zehn˚ ('cAkko) /'cako/ T(ako.
Furthermore, (ö) is lacking, except in less marked and less typical accents: (te-
'aAtÙR) /te'a:tÚ/ †eater˚ (iX'EssÙ, iá-) /IÂ'EsÈ/ i> esse÷ as can be seen, though, lexeme
and grammeme boundaries are respected; only in very broad pronunciations resyl-
labification is possible: (i'XEssÙ, i'á-).
Voiced C of diphonic pairs are actually half-voiced, (Ê, ∂, â÷ Ñ, Ω, Ë), even before
pauses or when syllable-final (where, in neutral German, they are neutralized and
change to /p, t, k÷ f, s, S/). ˛erefore, we generally find /s/ for /z/, after pauses or C\
('ÊuuÊÙ) /'bu:bÈ/ Bube˚ ('ÊuuÊ) /'bu:p/ Bub˚ ('∂uu) /'du:/ du˚ ('un∂) /'Unt/ und˚ ('5ee-
∂Ùn) /'Ke:dó/ reden˚ ('ÊooâÙn) /'bo:gó/ Bogen˚ ('taAâ) /'ta:k/ Tag˚ (âÙ'Ñin) /gÈ'vIn/ Ge-
winn˚ ('leeΩÙn) /'le:zó/ lesen˚ ('saAâÙn) /'za:gó/ sagen˚ ('ÊinsÙ) /'bInzÈ/ Binse˚ ('paAËÙ)
/'pa:ZÈ/ Page˘
5.4.3.4. Often, /f/ occurs instead of (neutral) /v/: (no'fEmÊÙR) /no'vEmbÚ/ No-
vember˚ (f™n'tiil) /vEn'ti:l/ Ventil˚ (ful'kaAn, -w, -∑-, -k-) /vUl'ka:n/ Vulkan˘
For sp˚ ®˚ internal or final we have /sp, st/, but in broad accents we find /Sp, St/:
(k'nOspÙ, ≠-SpÙ) /k'nOspÈ/ Knospe˚ (Êist, ≠-iSt) /bIst/ bi®˚ ('âEstÙRn, ≠-St-) /'gEstÚn/
ge®ern˘ Generally, for internal /S/ (after stressed short V, like for the other C] we
have (SS): ('muSSÙl) /'mUSÍ/ Mu(el÷ for 7 /ks/, in marked pronunciation it is fair-
ly possible to have ç/xs/Ç: ('fuks, ≠-Xs, ≠-ás) /'fUks/ Fu7˘
Only in less broad speech, can we find /Â/ (but articulated as postpalatal (…), or
prevelar (¢)); whereas, normally, we have /x/ (X, á): ('milX, -á÷ ±-…, -±-¢) /'mIlÂ/
Mil>˚ ('AoX, -á) /'aox/ Q>˘ -ig is regularly /Ik/ (¤ ç/Ig/Ç; while /IÂ/ is decidedly
rare and only voluntarily used): ('q6Anqiâ) /'qvanqIÂ/ zwanzig÷ and /òÂ/ is normal-
ly /k/: ('kiinA, 'w-, '∑-, 'k-) /'Âi:na/ ≥ina÷ /j/ is an approximant, /j/: ('jaA) /'ja:/ ja˘
5.4.3.5. ˛e typical articulation of /K/ is uvularized alveolar, a trill in stressed

syllables (5), and a tap in unstressed syllables (R), in every context, even after V\
('5aA5) /'Ka:K/ rar˚ (Re'Akto[o]R) /Ke'akto:K/ Reaktor˘ In regional pronunciation (or,
on the contrary, intentional pronunciation, under the influence of neutral Ger-
man pronunciation), uvular realizations are possible: (º, K, ˜).
In neutral pronunciation /l/ is always alveolar (whereas in non-neutral pronunci-
ation we often find (], ı), before pauses or C]\ ('AllÙ) /'alÈ/ alle˚ ('leeÊÙn) /'le:bó/ le-
ben˚ ('ÑOlf) /'vOlf/ Wolf˚ ('hEl) /'hEl/ hell˘
5.4.3.6. In word-internal position, in neutral Swiss pronunciation, simple inter-

syllabic /0/, after short stressed V (both voiceless and voiced, and spelled as gemi-
nates >pp˚ bb÷ tt˚ dd÷ gg÷ ‡÷ ss÷ mm˚ nn÷ rr÷ ll≥, or represented with digraphs >$÷
π÷ ˛÷ >÷ «≥ or tri-/quadri-graphs >(˚ ˛≥), are realized as restrained (but per-
ceptible) geminates, which we indicate with superscript symbols of the second ele-
ment, (00), thus: ('immÙR) /'ImÚ/ immer˚ ('innÙn) /'Inó/ innen˚ ('hu˙˙ÙR) /'hU˙Ú/
Hu«er÷ and ('StOppÙn) /'StOpó/ ®oppen˚ ('k5AÊÊÙ) /'kKabÈ/ Krabbe˚ ('ÑEttÙR) /'vEtÚ/
Wetter˚ ('Ñi∂∂ÙR) /'vIdÚ/ Widder˚ ('5OââÙn) /'KOgó/ Roggen˚ ('sOkkÙn, -˜˜-, -ww-,
-∑∑-, -kk-) /'zOkó/ So$en÷ ('tA∫∫ÙR) /'ta∫Ú/ taπer˚ ('siqqÙn) /'zIqó/ si˛en˚ ('â5Ec-
cÙn) /'gKEcó/ grä˛en÷ ('AffÙ) /'afÈ/ A‡e˚ ('ÑAssÙR) /'vasÚ/ Wasser˚ ('ÑASSÙn) /'vaSó/
wa(en˚ ('siXXÙR) /'zIÂÚ/ si>er˚ ('mAXXÙn) /'maxó/ ma>en÷ ('hA5RÙ) /'haKó/ harren÷
('k6EllÙ) /'kvElÈ/ Quelle˘
For stressing, we have cases such as: ('AotooR, Ao'too5) /'aoto:K/ Autor˚ ('lAÊoo‰, lA-
'Êoo‰) /la'bo:K/ Labor˚ ('mootøR, mo'too5) /'mo:to:‰, mo'to:‰/ Motor˚ ('Êuff™t, Êuf'fEt)
/bY'fe:/ Bu‡et˚ ('hOtt™l, ho'tEl) /ho'tEl/ Hotel˚ (nOI'jaA5) /'nOYja:K/ NSjahr˘ In addition,
there are interesting words such as: (A&ÊønnÙ'mEnt) /abOnÈ'ma˙, -Å:/ Abonnement˘
Swiss intonation is easily recognized because of its (slightly rising) low stressed sylla-
bles and mid unstressed syllables, which continue the pitch movement at least in nor-
mal preintonemes; even the marked intonemes have particular movements – a close ex-
amination of the tonogram is highly recommended.
South-Tyrol/Alto-Adige German
5.4.4.1. ˛e first vocogram shows the short and long monophthongs of South-
-Tyrolese mediatic pronunciation. Even for this accent it is immediately clear that
the articulations corresponding to /I, Y, U÷ E[:], §, O/ are closer than in neutral Ger-
man – so they are represented with (i, y, u÷ ™[:], #, ø) (in less broad accents we find
(I°, Y°, U°÷ E[:]°, §°, O°), and unstressed (™, #, ø) only slightly closer than in neutral
pronunciation): ('fiS) /'fIS/ „(˚ ('fyMf) /'fYnf/ fünf˚ ('hunt) /'hUnt/ Hund˚ ('™lf) /'Elf/
elf˚ ('Sp™:t) /'SpE:t/ spät˚ ('qV#lf) /'qv§lf/ zwölf˚ ('øft) /'Oft/ o⁄˘
5.4.4.2. /a:/ is diphthongized: ('Stat) /'Stat/ Stadt˚ ('StaAt) /'Stat/ Staat (in less
broad accents /a, a:/ are more similar to one another: (a, a:); whereas, in the broad-
est accents, near the dialects, we can also have (ù, Ø:) (which will certainly be not-
ed at once; Ô § 16.15 of NPT/HPh, where the phonosynthesis of the South-Tyrolese
5. german 223
dialect koiné is given).

Generally, Tyrolese traditional dialects have phonemic opposition between a
non-back a and a back rounded one, both short and long. It is possible to find this
timbre distinction in the language too, where the back timbre is used in traditional
words, whereas the non-back one is used in loanwords and neologisms, as happens
for instance in Ball\ /'pØl/ ('pùl, 'pAl) çballÇ, /'pal/ ('pal) çdanceÇ.
Very broad accents have /e:, o:/ (eI, oU) (as in the dialect): ('ve:, ≠'veI) /'ve:/ weh˚
('soo, ≠'soU) /'zo:/ so (to these /°:/ (°Y) is added: ('p°°, ≠'p°Y) /'b°:/ Bö˚ which does
not belong to the genuine dialect that has historically merged the front-central
rounded series with the front one). On the other hand, the bourgeois dialect of
Bolzano (Bozen) has restored /y:, Y, °:, §, OY/ (y:, y, °:, #, øY), under the influence
of neutral German pronunciation, including /yÈ/ (yÙ, iÈ), by structural analogy.
5.4.4.3. /È/ is realized as (Ù, É), with the vocalization of /K, Ú/ (√) (with conso-
nantal accompaniments too), and in the most broad pronunciations even (∏), as
in the dialects (Ô the phonosynthesis); thus we have: ('unsÉºÙ) /'UnzÈKÈ/ unsere and
('vas…, -√‰, -√˜, -√º, -√÷ 'vùss∏, -∏‰, -∏˜, -∏º) /'vasÚ/ Wasser˘ It is important to note that
(Ù, É) /È/, in less broad accents, given in the last vocogram, are realized slightly
di‡erently (as other V are too) although they are represented by the same symbols.
≈nal -e (not only of verbs) and the first one in -ere(C)ò tend to be dropped (except
in Val Pusteria, or Pustertal), especially in non-controlled pronunciation: ('ty:pÙ,
'ty:p) /'ty:pÈ/ Type (which can coincide thus with ('ty:p) /'ty:p/ Typ]˘
˛e second vocogram shows the diphthongs of South Tyrolese German. ‹ile
/OY/, in comparison with neutral German, di‡ers mostly in its second element that
is unrounded, (O¤); /ae, ao/ are decidedly less wide, (aÙ, aP): ('aÙs) /'aes/ Eis˚ ('plaP)
/'blao/ blQ˚ ('nO¤) /'nOY/ nS˘ In the dialect, for /ae, ao/, we have (aÙ, AP), but also
(aP), which are even less wide; only in Bolzano the same is true for /OY/ (ø¤), since
in traditional dialects it has merged into /ae/ (aÙ), or it is represented by /ui, oi/:
('nui) /'nui/ nui {= nS}, ('foiR) /'foiK) foir {= FSer}. ˛e xenophonemes are quite
rarely used (and, if they are, it is in a completely intentional way): /eI, oU/ (e:, ±ei÷
o:, ±ou).
5.4.4.4. In the second vocogram, two further typical diphthongs are evident (al-
uX) /iÈ, uÈ/: ('tiÙtÍ, ±'∂iitÍ) D¤tl˚ ('wuXns, ±'ku:ns) Kuens˘ In the same diagram, the
possible realizations of /ae, ao, OY, a/ (åÙ, åP, Ö¤, å), in reduced forms, have been
marked.
As already said, the last vocogram shows less broad vowel realizations ((±)),
which are rather similar to the neutral German ones; however, this pronunciation
is still recognizable, since the prosodic characteristics have typical di‡erences.
˛ere are di‡erent distributions too, as for instance /E/ in ('™‰st, 'E-÷ ≠'™∏St) /'e:Kst/
er®˚ ('∫™‰t, 'E-÷ ≠'∫™∏t) /'∫e:Kt/ Pferd (which in neutral German have /e:/: ('öe:‰st,
'∫he:‰t)).
/i:, ’i/ (i:, i), /I/ (i)

ff /u:, ’u/ (u:, u), /U/ (u)
f
/y:, ’y/ (y:, y), /Y/ (y)
/e:, ”e/ (e:, e), /°:, ’°/ (°:, °) /o:, ’o/ (o:, o)
/E/ (™, ’™), /§/ (#, ’#), /E:/ (™:, ’™;) /O/ (ø, ’ø)
/È/ (Ù, ºÙò, Éº-, ºÉ-) /Ú/ (…) {//ÈK// “ (√)}
/a/ (a), /a:/ (aA)
/iÈ/* (iÙ) /uÈ/* (uX)
/eI/* (e:÷ ±ei) /oU/* (o:÷ ±ou)

{/’a/ (å)} /OY/ (O¤) {(’Ö¤)}
/ae/ (aÙ) {(’åÙ)} /ao/ (aP) {(åP)}
/ / (2 2 Ì 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3)
/¿ / (¿ 2 2 Ì 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2) /?/ (2 ' 2 1)
/¡ / (¡ 2 2 Ì 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2) /÷/ (2 ' 2 2)
/˚ / (˚ 2 2 Ì 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2) /,/ (2 ' 2)
/i:, ’i/ (±i:, ±i), /y:, ’y/ (±y:, ±y) /u:, ’u/ (±u:, ±u)
/I/ (±I), /Y/ (±Y) /U/ (±U)
/e:, ’e/ (±e:, ±e), /°:, ’°/ (±°:, ±°) /o:, ’o/ (±o:, ±o)
/E/ (±E, ±’™), /§/ (±§, ±’#) /È/ (Ù, ºÙò, ±Éº-, ±ºÉ-)
/O/ (±O, ±’ø)
/E:/ (±E:, ±’™;)
/Ú/ (…) {“ (±Éº, ±√)}
/a/ (±a)÷
ƒ /a:/ (±a:)‡
5.4.4.5. Moving to C˚ we find that generally internal /˙/ becomes /˙g/ (but it
is not so in less broad accents): ('pºi˙âÙn, ±'ÊºI˙ô) /'bKI˙ô/ bri«en (however, even
without (g), as in less broad accents, the nasal is always velar, not uvular). Espe-
cially in checked syllables with N (above all in stressed positions), V are nasalized
in broad accents: ('vi:n, 'vi:n) /'vi:n/ W¤n˚ ('fa˙, 'fÅ˙) /'fa˙/ Fa«˘
/t, d/ are dental: (te't™kto‰) /de'tEktoK/ Detektor÷ often /òk, kò, kô/ are stopstric-
tives, or even stop-semi(con)strictives, velar (or postpalatal, near front V]\ ('kømõ,
'w-, '˜-) /'kOmõ/ kommen˚ ('søkô, 'søwÙn, -˜-) /'zOkô/ So$en˚ ('tik, -w, -˜, -k,
-%) /'dIk/ di$˘
Voiceless stops and stopstrictives are not çaspiratedÇ (generally even in less broad
accents) as we have just seen for /k/: ('po:l) /'po:l/ Pol˚ ('to:n) /'to:n/ Ton˚ ('kint, 'w-,
'k-) /'kInt/ Kind˚ ('∫unt) /'∫Unt/ Pfund˚ ('cako) /'cako/ T(ako˘
Phonemic voiced stops are voiceless in typical pronunciation, but half-voiced,
5. german 225
(Ê, ∂, â) in less broad accents. However, between voiced phones, they are half-
-voiced, (Ê, ∂, â) (except, usually, in the dialects which –mostly– have (p, t, k/w),
as in the broadest accents. Instead, in less broad accents they are voiced, (b, d, g)):
('pu:ÊÙ, ±-bÈ) /'bu:bÈ/ Bube˘ Half-voiced realizations are possible before internal /n,
l/, too: ('O‰∂nu˙, 'm°:âliÂ) /'OKdnU˙, 'm°:klIÂ/ Ordnu«˚ mögli>. (In Bolzano, we
can find (éBé, éƒé, éŸé) /ébé, édé, égé/: ('Êu:BÙ).)
˛ere is no (ö), except in less broad accents, where however it is less evident than
in neutral German (and, in this case, we could mark it with a special symbol, (,)):
(iÂ'™sÙ, ±,IÂ',EsÈ) /IÂ'EsÈ/ i> esse˚ (te'a;At…, ±te',a:-) /te'a:tÚ/ †eater˘
5.4.4.6. For constrictives, it is to be noted that /z/ is normally /s/ (s) (generally,
even in less broad accents, in Bolzano as well): ('sa;Aâô) /'za:gó/ sagen˚ ('also) /'al-
zo/ also˚ ('ºaÙsó) /'Kaezó/ rRsen (which becomes identical to ('ºaÙsó) /'Kaesó/ rR-
•en]˘ In initial position, before C˚ /s/ practically never occurs (substituted by /S/);
and, as far as internal and final /st/ is concerned, in broad accents, as in the dia-
lects, we typically find /St/: ('li:pstó, ≠-Stó) /'li:pstó/ l¤b®en˚ ('sønst, ≠-nSt) /'zOnst/
son®˘ However, in case they are heterolexemic, we have /st/: ('sams&taAw) /'zams-
ta:k/ Sam®ag (as in the dialects: ('sams&tiw, 'sùms&tik) /'samstik/ sam®ig]˘
For (tautosyllabic) /˘0v/, we have (0V): ('SV™st…) /'SvEstÚ/ 6we®er˚ ('qVaÈ)
/'qvae/ zwR˚ ('kV™l) /'kvEl/ Quell÷ for /f/, it is possible to have /v/, besides in forms
such as Vize (which, even in neutral German, may have the variant with /v/, al-
though not prevailing), even for vò˚ against neutral phonemic rules, in cases such
as positiv\ ('vi:qÙ, &posi'tiÑ). In addition, /j/ is approximant (j): ('ja;A) /'ja:/ ja; gener-
ally, /x/ is velar (x): ('na;Ax) /'na:x/ na>; /Â/ is maintained (even before /K/, contrary
to what happens in Austria): ('tu‰Â) /'dUKÂ/ dur>; but, for /-IÂ/ we have /-Ik/ (ex-
cept in less broad accents) ('qVanqik, -w, -k) /'qvanqIÂ/ zwanzig÷ for /òÂ/ we syste-
matically find /k/: ('ki:na, 'w-, 'k-) /'Âi:na/ ≥ina˘ However, in the dialects, except
in Bolzano, (Â) /Â/ does not exist at all.
˛e most widely used articulation for /K/ is a uvular constrictive, (º), which co-
exists with a fairly widespread uvular trill, (K), with the possibility of postnuclear
vocalization (that, as we have already seen, is back-central (√) (or back, (∏), in the
dialects and in the broadest accents). In absolute final position, after stressed V, in
the dialects and in the broadest accents we have (R): ('ºa;A‰÷ -a;A√÷ ≠-a;AR÷ ≠-Ø:R)
/'Ka:K/ rar˚ ('hi:‰÷ 'hi:√÷ ≠'hi:R) /'hi:K/ h¤r˘
5.4.4.7. In non-neutral South-Tyrolese pronunciation, simple word-internal in-

tersyllabic (voiceless, nasal and lateral) /0/, after (short) stressed V˚ are realized as
restrained (but fairly evident) geminates, which we indicate with superscript sym-
bols of the first element, in the variant form notated only here, (00): ('im…÷ 'imm…)
/'ImÚ/ immer˚ ('Støpõ÷ 'Støppõ) /'StOpó/ ®oppen˚ ('v™t…÷ 'v™tt…) /'vEtÚ/ Wetter˚ ('ta∫…÷
'ta∫∫…) /'ta∫Ú/ taπer˚ ('siqó÷ 'siqqó) /'zIqó/ si˛en˚ ('vas…÷ 'vass…) /'vasÚ/ Wasser˚ ('va-
Só÷ 'vaSSó) /'vaSó/ wa(en˚ ('siÂ…÷ 'siÂÂ…) /'zIÂÚ/ si>er˚ ('maxô÷ 'maxxô) /'maxó/ ma-
>en˚ ('kV™lÙ÷ 'kV™llÙ) /'kvElÈ/ Quelle˘
˛e insertion of a homorganic stop between /n, l/ and voiceless constrictives or
/z/ (Ô § 5.3.2) is possible, although not particularly widespread.
In lofty or foreign words, there is a frequent use of Italian –or Italian-like– struc-
tures: /gn/ = /nj/: (pºo~'jo:sÙ) /pKog'no:zÈ/ Prognose˚ (si~'ja;Al) /zIg'na:l/ Signal˚ (&ºe-
si~'ji:ºô, -º¡, -'ji:‰n, -‰n) /KezIg'ni:Kó/ resign¤ren÷ /t/ = /q/: (ti&ploma'qi:) /diploma-
'ti:/ Diplomat¤˚ (&kaºan'qi:) /gaKan'ti:/ Garant¤÷ /q/ = /c/: (m™‰'ce:∂™s) /mEK'qe:-
dEs/ Mercedes˚ (&pa‰ce'lo:na) /baKqe'lo:na/ Barcelona÷ /S/ = /sk/: ('ske:ma) /'Se:ma/
S>ema˚ (&skiqo'fºe:n) /Siqo'fKe:n, sÂi-/ S>izo#ren÷ /Z/ = /dZ/: (&tËu‰na'list) /ZUKna-
'lIst/ Journali®÷ /kv/ = /kw/ (kj) (in addition to (kV)): (kja‰'t™t) /kvaK'tEt/ Quar-
tett˘ For V˚ we find: /y/ = /u/: (pu&ºokºa'qi:) /byKokKa'ti:/ Bürokrat¤÷ /Oy/ = /eu/:
(eu'ºo:pa) /OY'Ko:pa/ Europa˚ (neu'tºa;Al) /nOY'tKa:l/ nStral˘
South-Tyrolese intonation is easily recognized because of its half-low stressed sylla-
bles, except the first one which is half-high; mostly the interrogative intoneme (and the
suspensive one too) have particular movements, which can be seen in the tonogram.
Text
5.5.0. ˛e story †e North Wind and the Sun follows, given in some di‡erent
(çnormalizedÇ) versions. We start with the (neutral) German pronunciation of
(neutral British) English – this is the first step of the phonetic method (the writ-
ten text is given in § 2.5.2.0). ˛e German translation follows, in its neutral ver-
sion; then the north-eastern accent, followed by the Austrian, Swiss, and South-
-Tyrolese ones. ˛ese transcriptions would have been (visually) more di‡erent, if
we had used the çspecialÇ (denti-alveolar) symbols ((4, 7, fl)), and instead of (‰, …)
(for /K, Ú/) respectively the following possible variants: (√) (neutral), (x) (north-
-eastern), (å, a) (Austrian), (5, R) (Swiss), (√, ∏) (South Tyrolese).
tion of German, by neutral British speakers, fluent in German (after prolonged
contact with native speakers, but with no help from the phonetic method), who
have adequately learned the relative prominences, but who substantially use seg-
mental and intonation elements which are typical of neutral British English (for
reference purposes, although, of course, a neutral accent is not so common). Ob-
viously, the same principle is valid for the foreign pronunciation of English, giv-
en first.
Speakers of American English could prepare their own version both of the Ger-
man pronunciation of English and of their pronunciation of German, as an excel-
lent exercise, by listening to native speakers, best of all after recording them. Of
course, speakers of other languages could do the same thing. ˛e author would be
happy to receive their transcriptions and recordings, both in case of help –should
they need it– and to make their contribution known to others (possibly in our
website on canIPA Natural Phonetics – Ô § 0.12).
German pronunciation (of English)
5.5.1. (z¢'nO‰s 'ÑInt2 ö™ntΩ¢'zan2 v#‰dI'sp¿u:tI˙ 'vIc ÑøsΩ¢'StºO˙g…3 3| 'v™n öe'thºEf¢l…2

'khe:m ö™'lO˙2 ì'ºEpt öInöe'vO‰m 'khlo:k3 3œ| &zeö™'gºi:t2\ &z™tΩ¢'van hu'f§‰st Ωak'si:d¢t2
5. german 227
öIm'me:kI˙ z¢'thºEf¢l…2 'the:k hIs'khlo:k 5öOf1 1| &SUtÊikøn'zi:d…fl "StºO˙g… &z™nzi'öaz…3 3||

'z™n2 z¢'nO‰s 'ÑInt2 'Êlu:2 ö™Ω'ha‰t2 ö™shi'khUt3 3| &ÊatΩ¢'mO‰ hi5blu:1 1| z¢'mO‰ 'khlo:sli2
&dItΩ¢'thºEf¢l…2\ 'fo:lt hIs'khlo:k ö™'ºaonthIm3 3| ì&ö™nö™t'la[:]st2œ\ z¢'nO‰s 'ÑInt2 'âe:f 'öap Ωi-
ö™'thEmpt3 3|| ì'zEn2œ z¢'zan 'SOn 'öaot3 3 ì'ÑO‰mli3 3œ| &ö™ntöI'mi:d,¢tli2\ ˚z¢'thºEf¢l… 'thUk 'öOf3 3
˚hIs'khlo:k3 3|| ìö™nt'Ωo:2œ z¢'nO‰s 'ÑInt2 Ñøsöo'blaec tukøM'fEs2| &z™tΩ¢'zan3 3 vøsΩ¢'StºO˙g…3 3
ì&öøfΩ¢'thu:3 3œ||
¿&∂It¿u'laek1 1 ¿z¢'StOºi2| ¿∂ju'vOn tu'hi:ºIt ö™'ge:n1 1|||)
German text
5.5.2. Ein® ®ritten si> Nordwind und Sonne, wer von ihnen bRden wohl der
Stärkere wäre, als Rn Wanderer, der in Rnen warmen Mantel gehüllt war, des Weges
daherkam. S¤ wurden Rnig, dass derjenige für den Stärkeren gelten sollte, der den
Wanderer zwi«en würde, sRnen Mantel abzunehmen.
Der Nordwind bl¤s mit aller Ma>t, aber je mehr er bl¤s, de®o fe®er hüllte si>
der Wanderer in sRnen Mantel Rn. Endli> gab der Nordwind den Kamπ Qf. Nun
erwärmte d¤ Sonne d¤ Lu⁄ mit ihren frSndli>en Strahlen, und (on na> weni-
gen Augenbli$en zog der Wanderer sRnen Mantel Qs. Da mus®e der Nordwind zu-
geben, dass d¤ Sonne von ihnen bRden der Stärkere war.
Hat dir d¤ Ge(i>te gefallen? Wollen wir s¤ w¤derholen?
Neutral German pronunciation
5.5.3. ('öaenS2 'StüItózIÂ 'nO‰t&ÑInt2 öUn'zOn¢2| &ve‰f¢nöi!'baed/&vo;l d…'StE‰kÈº¢&v™;-

º¢3 3| &öalsåeM'vandÈº…2 ‘&de‰öInöaen/'va‰mõ 'mantÍ g¢'hYlt&Ña;‰2’ ∂¢s'Ñe:g¢s2 ∂å'he:‰-
&kha;m3 3|| zI&vU‰dó'öaenIÂ2| ∂as'∂e:‰&,e;nIg¢2 ‘&fY[‰]dó'StE‰kÈºô 'gEltó&zølt¢2’ &de‰d/'van-
dÈº… 'qhñI˙|&vY‰d¢2 &zaen!'mantÍ 'öapq¢≠mõ3 3||
∂…'nO‰t&ÑImp 'Êli:s2\ mIt'öal…2 'maXt3 3|| &öab…,e'me:‰ ö™‰5bli:s1 1| &∂™sto'fEst…2 'hYlt¢zIÂ
d…'vandÈº…2 ˚öIn&zaen!'mantÍ 'öaen3 3|| 'öEntúIÂ2 'âa:p ∂…'nO‰t&ÑIn2 ∂¡'khaM∫ 'öaof3 3||
'nu:n2\ …'vE‰mt¢ dI'zOn¢2 dI'lUft2| mIti‰M'füOYntúIÂ«2 'Stüa:ló3 3|| öUn'So:n2 ‘na;X'Ñe:nIgô
'öaogõ&blIkô2’| ˚'qho:k3 3 ∂…'vandÈº…2 ˚&zaen!'mantÍ 'öaos3 3|| '∂a:2\ &mUst¢d…'nO‰t&ÑIn2
'qhu:≥bõ2\ &das∂I'zOn¢2| ‘&fønöi!'baedó2’| ∂…'StE‰kÈº¢&va;‰3 3||
¿hat&∂I‰dIg¢'SIÂt¢2 ¿g¢'faló1 1| ¿'vOl/vI‰ zI'vi:d…&ho;ló1 1|||)
Neutral north-eastern German pronunciation
5.5.4. ('öaÙnS2 'StüItózIÂ 'nø‰t&ÑInt2 öUn'zønÈ2| &ve‰fÈnöi!'baÙd/&vool d…'St™‰k‘ºÈ-

&v™™ºÈ23| &öalsåÙM'vand‘º…2 ‘&de‰öInöaÙn/'va‰mõ 'mantÍ gÈ'hYlt&Ñaa‰2’ ∂Ès'Ñe;egÈs2 ∂å-
'he;e‰&khaam23|| zI&vU‰dó'öaÙnIÂ2| ∂as'∂e;e‰&,eenIgÈ2 ‘&fY[‰]dó'St™‰k‘ºô 'g™ltó&zøltÈ2’
&de‰d/'vand‘º… 'qhñI˙|&vY‰dÈ2 &zaÙn!'mantÍ 'öapqÈ&neemõ23||

∂…'nø‰t&ÑImp 'Êli;is2\ mIt'öal…2 'maXt23|| &öab…,e'me;e‰ ö™‰5bli;is21| &∂™sto'f™st…2 'hYltÈ-
zIÂ d…'vand‘º…2 ˚öIn&zaÙn!'mantÍ 'öaÙn23|| 'ö™ntúIÂ2 'âa;ap ∂…'nø‰t&ÑIn2 ∂¡'khaM∫
'öaPf23|| 'nu;un2\ …'v™‰mtÈ dI'zønÈ2 dI'lUft2| mIti‰M'füø+ntúIÂ«2 'Stüa;aló23|| öUn'So;on2
‘naaX'Ñe;enIgô 'öaPgõ&blIkô2’| ˚'qho;ok23 ∂…'vand‘º…2 ˚&zaÙn!'mantÍ 'öaPs23|| '∂a;a2\
&mUstÈd…'nø‰t&ÑIn2 'qhu;u&geebõ2\ &das∂I'zønÈ2| ‘&fønöi!'baÙdó2’| ∂…'St™‰k‘ºÈ&vaa‰23||
¿hat&∂I‰dIgÈ'SIÂtÈ2 ¿gÈ'faló21| ¿'vøl/vI‰ zI'vi;id…&hooló21|||)
Neutral Austrian pronunciation
5.5.5. ('ÄÙnS2 ÇStºitósiÂ 'nø‰t&vint2 un'sønÙ2| &ve‰fÙni!'ÊÄÙ∂/&vool ∂…'St™‰kÈºÙ&v™™-

ºÙ23| &AlsÄÙM'vAn∂Èº…2 ‘&∂e‰inÄÙn/ÇvA‰mõ ÇmAntÍ âÙ'hylt&vAA‰2’ ∂Ùs'veeâÙs2 ∂√-
'hee‰&kAAm23|| si&vu‰∂ó'ÄÙnik2| ∂As'∂ee‰&jeeniâÙ2 ‘&fy[‰]∂óÇSt™‰kÈºô 'â™ltó&søltÙ2’ &∂e‰-
∂/ÇvAn∂Èº… 'q6i˙|&vy‰∂Ù2 &sÄÙn!ÇmAntÍ 'ApqÙ&neemõ23||
∂…Çnø‰t&vimp 'Êliis2\ mit'Al…2 'mAxt23|| &AÊ…jeÇmee‰ ™‰'Êliis21| &∂™sto'f™st…2 ÇhyltÙsiÂ
∂…'vAn∂Èº…2 ˚in&sÄÙn!'mAntÍ 'ÄÙn23|| '™ntliÂ2 ÇâAAp ∂…'nø‰t&vin2 ∂¡'kAM∫ 'åøf23|| 'nu-
un2\ …Çv™‰mtÙ ∂i'sønÙ2 ∂i'luft2| miti‰M'fºøYntliÂ«2 'StºAAló23|| un'Soon2 ‘nAAxÇveeniâô
'åøâõ&Êlikô2’| ˚'qook23 ∂…'vAn∂Èº…2 ˚&sÄÙn!'mAntÍ 'åøs23|| '∂AA2\ &mustÙ∂…'nø‰t&vin2
'quu&âeeÊõ2\ &∂As∂i'sønÙ2| ‘&føni!'ÊÄÙ∂ó2’| ∂…'St™‰kÈºÙ&vAA‰23||
¿hAt&∂i‰∂iâÙ'SiÂtÙ2 ¿âÙÇfAló12| ¿Çvøl/vi‰ siÇvii∂…&hooló12|||)
Neutral Swiss pronunciation
5.5.6. ('aÙnS2 çSt5ittósiX 'nO5t&vint2 un'sOnnÙ2| &veRfÙni!'ÊaÙ∂/&vool ∂ÙRçStE5∑ÙRÙ-

&v™™RÙ23| &AlsåÙM'vAn∂ÙRÙR2 ‘&∂eRinaÙn/çvA5mõ çmAntÍ âÙ'hylt&vaAR2’ ∂Ùs'veeâÙs2 ∂√-
çhee5&∑aAm23|| si&vuR∂ó'aÙni∑2| ∂As'∂ee5&jeeniâÙ2 ‘&fyR∂óçStE5∑ÙRó 'âEltó&søltÙ2’ &∂eR-
∂/çvAn∂ÙRÙR 'q6i˙|&vyR∂Ù2 &ΩaÙn!çmAntÍ çApqÙ&neemõ23||
∂ÙRçnO5t&vimp 'Êliis2\ mit'AllÙR2 çmAXt23|| &AÊÙRjeçmee5 ™RçÊliis2 2| &∂™sto'fEstÙR2 çhyl-
tÙΩiX ∂ÙR'vAn∂ÙRÙR2 ˚in&saÙn!çmAntÍ 'aÙn23|| 'EntliX2 çâaAp ∂ÙR'nO5t&vin2 ∂¡ç∑AM∫
'Aof23|| 'nun2\ ÙRçvE5mtÙ ∂i'ΩOnnÙ2 ∂i'luft2| mitiRM'f5OIntliX?2 çSt5aAló23|| un'Soon2 ‘naAX-
çveeniâô 'Aoâõ&Êli∑∑?2’| ˚çqoo∑23 ∂ÙR'vAn∂ÙRÙR2 ˚&saÙn!çmAntÍ 'Aos23|| '∂aA2\ &mustÙ-
∂ÙR'nO5t&vin2 'quu&âeeÊõ2\ &∂As∂i'ΩOnnÙ2| ‘&føni!'ÊaÙ∂ó2’| ∂ÙRçStE5∑ÙRÙ&vaAR23||
¿hAt&∂iR∂iâÙ'SiXtÙ2 ¿âÙÌfAlló12| ¿çvOll/viR siÌvii∂ÙR&hooló12|||)
5. german 229
Neutral South Tyrolese pronunciation
5.5.7. ('aÙnS2 'StºitósiÂ 'nø‰t&vint2 un'sønÙ2| &ve‰fÙni!'ÊaÙ∂/&vo;l ∂…'St™‰wÉºÙ&v™;-

ºÙ3 3| &alsåÙM'van∂Éº…2 ‘&∂e‰inaÙn/'va‰mõ 'mantÍ âÙ'hylt&vaA‰2’ tÙs've:âÙs2 tå'he:‰-
&waAm3 3|| si&vu‰∂ó'aÙnik2| tas'te:‰&je;niâÙ2 ‘&fy[‰]∂ó'St™‰wÉºô 'â™ltó&søltÙ2’ &∂e‰∂/'van-
∂Éº… 'qVi˙|&vy‰∂Ù2 &saÙn!'mantÍ 'apqÙ≠mõ3 3||
t…'nø‰t&vimp 'pli:s2\ mit'al…2 'maxt3 3|| &aÊ…,e'me:‰ ™‰5Êli:s1 1| &t™sto'f™st…2 'hyltÙsiÂ ∂…-
'van∂Éº…2 ˚in&saÙn!'mantÍ 'aÙn3 3|| '™ntliÂ2 'wa;Ap t…'nø‰t&vin2 t¡'waM∫ 'aPf3 3|| 'nu:n2\
…'v™‰mtÙ ∂i'sønÙ2 ∂i'luft2| miti‰M'fºøYntliÂ«2 'Stºa;Aló3 3|| un'So:n2 ‘naAx've:niâô 'aP-
âõ&Êlikô2’| ˚'qo:w3 3 t…'van∂Éº…2 ˚&saÙn!'mantÍ 'aPs3 3|| 'ta;A2\ &mustÙ∂…'nø‰t&vin2 'qu:&âe;-
Êõ2\ &∂asti'sønÙ2| ‘&føni!'ÊaÙ∂ó2’| t…'St™‰wÉºÙ&vaA‰3 3||
¿hat&ti‰∂iâÙ'SiÂtÙ2 ¿âÙ'faló1 1| ¿'vøl/vi‰ si'vi:∂…&ho;ló1 1|||)
English pronunciation of German
5.5.8. ('aÙnsT2 5s˛>¤TÈnz¤S 'nø;D&v¤nD2 ¨nD'zØnå2| 5v™;‘ fØn&IinÈm'baÙDÈM&vÖ¨ı D™‘-

'sT™‘kû>È&v™‘3 3| &A;ısaÙM'vA;nDÈ>å2 ‘&D™‘>¤naÙnÈM5vA;mÈm 'månT® gû'h‘;ıT&vA;2’ DÈs-
'v™Igûs2 DÈ'h™;‘&khA;m3 3|| zIi&v¨ÈDÈn'aÙn¤S2| Dås'D™;‘&j™In¤gû2 ‘&f‘;DÈn5sT™‘kû>û˙ 'g™ıTó-
&zØıTå2’ &D™‘DÈM5vA;nDÈ>È 'thsv¤˙ûM&v‘;Då2 &zaÙnÈm5månT® 'åÊts¯&n™ImÈn3 3||
D™‘5nø;D&v¤mb 'blIis2\ m¤T'ålå2 'mA;xT3 3|| &A;bÈjÈ5m™;‘> ™‘'blIis32| &D™sT‘¨'f™sTÈ2 5h‘;ıTz¤S
D™‘'vA;nDÈ>È2 ˚¤n&zaÙnÈm'månT® 'a;Ùn3 3|| '™nDl¤S2 'gA:b D™‘'nø;D&v¤n{D}2 Dû˙5khA;mpf
'aÖf3 3|| 'n¯;un2\ ™‘'v™‘mTÈ D¤'zØnå2 D¤'l¨fT2| m¤T&¤È'f>øÙnTl¤Só 's˛>A;lÈn3 3|| ¨n'S‘;¨n2 ‘nA;x-
5v™In¤gûn 'aÖgûm&bl¤kûn2’| ˚'tsh‘¨k3 3 D™‘'vA;nDÈ>È2 ˚&zaÙnÈm5månT® 'aÖs3 3|| 'DA:2\
&m¨sTÈD™‘'nø;D&v¤nD2 'ts¯u&g™IbÈn2\ &DåsD¤'zØnå2| ‘&fØnIinÈm'baÙDÈn2’| D™‘'sT™‘kû>È-
&vA;3 3||
¿&håTD¤ÈD¤gû'S¤STû2 ¿gû'fålÈn21| ¿5vØlÈMv¤È zIi'vIiDÈ&h‘¨lÈn21|||)
6. Spanish
6.0. ˛e Spanish accents that will be dealt with are the neutral Iberian and the
(central-southern) American versions. ˛ere are really very few di‡erences in neu-
tral pronunciation; therefore a diaphonemic transcription is not necessary (where-
as for Portuguese and English it is); the American variant simply has two pho-
nemes less: /†, L/, which become /s, J/. ˛e former two symbols, however, are used
diaphonemically, as they distinguish the two accents.
Requiring informative symbols, to recall this phenomenon more clearly, one
could resort to /†, L/, or –if inclined to a more international type of transcription–
to /s, J/. On the other hand, again, to help foreigners, it is worth indicating the
phonemes /b, d, g/ with /b, ò, g/, in contexts where they are realized as (B, ƒ, Ÿ).
Placing /B, ∑, Ÿ/ (as seen in some text-books and dictionaries with transcriptions)
is no good usage at all: because they are not phonemes, and because in the inflec-
tion of lemmata things do not remain constant.
Although, even for Spanish, the number of speakers with çAmericanÇ accents is
decidedly more consistent than for the Iberian ones, we prefer to consider the lat-
ter çprimaryÇ, because it is closer to the written word; therefore it is more advis-
able, for teaching purposes too, also for more coherent spelling, which, on the oth-
er hand, is a safer guide to pronunciation.
Obviously, even the American accent has many internal variants, which we here
consider to be non-neutral, even if, they are often more widespread than neutral
pronunciation, which (as happens in every language) is decidedly minimal.
Generally, these variants are not stigmatized in the way easily localized pronun-
ciations are, nor do they have negative connotations, as each nation has its own
çnationalÇ accent as well as regional variants. A more in-depth study of Spanish
pronunciation will give the macro-koinés (at least seven for America), to be consid-
ered çneutralÇ, as well as more specific, regional variants.
On the other hand, the non-neutral characteristics of Spanish are shared by most
Hispanic American nations, and in Europe as well, so as to make the non-neutral
accents more alike, even if they remain recognizable. For this reason, regarding
Spanish, other accents will not be presented, other than the two neutral ones (as
done, instead for German, which has more distinct accents, above all in Switzer-
land and Austria).
However, recordings are being collected for a systematic description of the actu-
al Spanish accents. In the meantime, the phonosynthesis of eastern Andalusian can
be seen (in § 17.9 of NPT/HPh).
6. spanish 231
Vowels
6.1.1.1. Spanish has only five vowel phonemes realized as shown in the first vo-
cogram in û 6.1 (i÷ '™, ’e÷ a÷ 'ø, ’o÷ u) /i, e, a, o, u/. For e, o in the neutral Iberian-
-American accent, in stressed syllables, (™, ø) are normal, but, in unstressed sylla-
bles, we find (e, o).
We therefore have examples such as: ('ßi)i ('si)a /'si/ sì˚ ('kRi;ßiß)i (-sis)a /'kRisis/
cr¤¤˚ ('mil) /'mil/ mil˚ (†eR'n™R)i (s-)a /†eR'neR/ cerner˚ (pa'p™l) /pa'pel/ papel˚ ('tj™R-
r:a) /'tjeRr:a/ tierra˚ ('ß™iß)i ('s™is)a /'seis/ se¤˚ ('r:™ßto)i ('r:™s-)a /'r:esto/ rπto˚ ('t™;Xa)i
(-xa)a /'texa/ teja˚ (de'XaR)i (-x-)a /òe'xaR/ dejar˚ ('ßj™mpRe)i ('s-)a /'sjempRe/ siempre˚
(a't™nto) /a'tento/ atento˚ (uß't™‡)i (us-)a /us'teò/ ¨ted˚ ('p™†)i (-s)a /'pe†/ pez˚ ('d™fi-
ƒe)i (-z-)a /'òesòe/ dπde˚ ('k™;ßo)i (-so)a /'keso/ ¢πo˘
And: ('p™;Co) /'peco/ pe>o˚ (kom'pR™) /kom'pRe/ compré˚ ('anda) /'anda/ anda˚
(pa'ta;ta) /pa'tata/ patata˚ ('gøRr:a) /'goRr:a/ gorra˚ ('øi) /'oi/ hoy˚ ('r:ø;ßa)i (-sa)a /'r:o-
sa/ rosa˚ ('ø;Xa)i (-xa)a /'oxa/ hoja˚ (mo'XaR)i (-x-)a /mo'xaR/ mojar˚ (fa'BøR) /fa'boR/
favor˚ ('ßøl)i ('s-)a /'sol/ sol˚ (r:a'†øn)i (-s-)a /r:a'†on/ razón˚ ('gølpe) /'golpe/ golpe˚
('pø;Lo)i (-,o)a /'poLo/ poıo˚ (La'mø)i (,a-)a /La'mo/ ıamó˚ (de'kø;Ro) /òe'koRo/ deco-
ro˚ ('tu;Bo) /'tubo/ tuvo˚ (r:u'møR) /r:u'moR/ rumor˘
6.1.1.2. More çsophisticatedÇ descriptions, as those by Navarro Tomás, are, in

actual fact, excessive; indeed, even acoustic data (which, often indicate di‡erences
not heard by the human ear {not even natives'}), generally agree that there are on-
ly five realizations. In the pre-phonemic time, Navarro Tomás represented the
stressed and unstressed vocoids with di‡erent symbols, including gradations de-
pendent on their position in a checked or unchecked syllable, or because of con-
textual influences, leading back to only five elements. Normally, however, the hy-
per-di‡erentiated gradations come under the stressed ((i, ™, a, ø, u)) and unstressed
((i, e, a, o, u)) phones (Ô û 6.1 again).
û 6.1. Spanish vowels (see text for the second vocogram).
/i/ (i) /u/ (u) /i/ (i) /u/ (u)
{((I))} {((u))}
/e/ /o/ /e/ (™) /o/ (ø)

(™, »™, ’e) (ø, »ø, ’o) {((e, E))} {((o, O))}
/we/ (w™, wÉ,
/a/ (a) w‘, jê, ê÷ ’we,
/a/ (a) {((a, q÷ å))} ’wÙ, ’wÈ, ’j+, ’+)
Resorting to special symbols (Ô û 8.12 of NPT/HPh), which indicate the inter-

mediate gradations between our fundamental vocoids, however, we could useful-
ly profit from some important indications, not only with reference to the second
vocogram given (for which they would be undoubtedly more useful), but also for
(i§, u§) ((I, u)) and for (a@, a#÷ a°) ((a, q÷ å)) (as it would be excessive to use (I, U÷ Å,
A÷ å), and, for those which follow, (e, E÷ o, O)).
For the articulation of e, o, stressed in pronunciation, there is considerable varia-
tion (for speakers — words; Ô the second vocogram of û 6.1); indeed, sometimes
(E°÷ O°) ((E, O)) can be found, especially in checked syllables, or in the /ei, oi÷ r:e, r:o÷
ex, ox/ sequences; or, (™°/e§) ((e)), (ø°/o§) ((o)), above all in unchecked syllables; and
also for /e/ in checked syllables in /m, n÷ d÷ †, s/. However, it is not necessary to
point these out, as their regular timbre, in a stressed position, (™, ø), is normal and
safe, used by real natives (despite the variations). In unstressed syllables, in the
same contexts, instead of ((E, O)), we obviously find (™, ø).
For the sake of curiosity, and only here, we give some adapted cases which are
pertinent to the aforementioned examples: ((†™R'nER)) /†eR'neR/ cerner˚ ((pa'pEl)) /pa-
'pel/ papel˚ (('tjERr:a)) /'tjeRr:a/ tierra˚ (('ßEiß))i (('sEis))a /'seis/ se¤˚ (('r:Eßto))i (('r:Es-))a /'r:es-
to/ rπto˚ (('tE;Xa))i (-xa)a /'texa/ teja˚ ((d™'XaR))i (-x-)a /òe'xaR/ dejar˚ (('ßjempRe))i ('s-)a
/'sjempRe/ siempre˚ ((a'tento)) /a'tento/ atento˚ ((uß'te[‡]))i (us-)a /us'teò/ ¨ted˚ (('pe†))i
(-s)a /'pe†/ pez˚ (('defiƒe))i (-z-)a /'òesòe/ dπde˚ (('ke;ßo))i (-so)a /'keso/ ¢πo˘
And: (('pe;Co)) /'peco/ pe>o˚ ((kOm'pRe)) /kom'pRe/ compré˚ (('gORr:a)) /'goRr:a/ gor-
ra˚ (('Oi)) /'oi/ hoy˚ (('r:O;ßa))i (-sa)a /'r:osa/ rosa˚ (('O;Xa))i (-xa)a /'oxa/ hoja˚ (mø'XaR)i
(-x-)a /mo'xaR/ mojar˚ ((fa'BOR)) /fa'boR/ favor˚ (('ßOl))i ('s-)a /'sol/ sol˚ ((r:a'†On))i (-s-)a
/r:a'†on/ razón˚ (('gOlpe)) /'golpe/ golpe˚ (('po;Lo))i (-,o)a /'poLo/ poıo˚ ((La'mo))i (,a-)a
/La'mo/ ıamó˚ ((de'ko;Ro)) /òe'koRo/ decoro˚ ((r:u'mOR)) /r:u'moR/ rumor˘
Also for /i, a, u/: ((ßen'tIR)) (ßen'tiR)i (s-)a /sen'tiR/ sentir, ((&aßIŸ'naR)) (&aßiŸ'naR)i (-s-)a
/asig'naR/ øignar, (('I;Xo)) ('i;Xo)i (-xo)a /'ixo/ hijo, (('mIRr:å)) ('miRr:a) /'miRr:a/ mirra,
(('r:I;ko)) ('r:i;ko) /'r:iko/ rico; (('ka;Nå)) ('ka;Na) /'kaNa/ caña, (('ma;Co)) ('ma;Co) /'ma-
co/ ma>o, (('ma;,o)) ('ma;,o) /'maJo/ mayo, (('ka;Le)) ('ka;Le)i (-,e)a /'kaLe/ caıe, (('bai-
le)) ('baile) /'baile/ baile; (('qlto)) ('alto) /'alto/ alto, (('mq;Xå)) ('ma;Xa)i (-xa)a /'maxa/
maja, ((kq'XOn)) (ka'Xøn) /ka'xon/ cajón, (('kqußå)) ('kaußa)i (-sa)a /'kausa/ caä, ((q-
'un)) (a'un) /a'un/ aùn, ((bIl'Bqo)) (bil'Bao) /bil'bao/ Bilbao, ((q'O;Rå)) (a'ø;Ra) /a'oRa/ a-
hora; (('tuRko)) ('tuRko) /'tuRko/ turco, (('Xuntå)) ('Xunta)i ('x-)a /'xunta/ junta, (('lu;Xo))
('lu;Xo)i (-xo)a /'luxo/ lujo, ((tuR'r:On)) (tuR'r:øn) /tuR'r:on/ turrón, ((r:u'mOR)) (r:u'møR)
/r:u'moR/ rumor.
6.1.1.3. After /'i, 'u/, /eò|, oò|/ remain (e, o), even if at times we can find (’™, ’ø)
(in neutral pronunciation too): (fe'li;†eß)i (-ses)a /fe'li†es/ felicπ˚ ('r:i;ko) /'r:iko/ ri-
co˘ Even in an unstressed syllable, above all next to /x, r:/, we can have the (™, ø)
timbres, but, for neutral pronunciation, (e, o) are regular and adequate: (&Xela'ti;-
na)i (&x-)a /xela'tina/ gelatina˚ (koR'r:™o) /koR'r:eo/ correo.
We also indicate a pronunciation which can be heard, above all in words of fre-
quent usage, in not slow speech, the sequence /we/ can be pronounced (wÉ) (real-
izing a front-central vocoid); whereas in faster or less controlled speech, the se-
quence can be reduced to a single vocoid (¤ a central rounded (ê)), through pro-
gressive shifts: ('pw™;Blo, 'pwÉ;-÷ 'pw‘;-÷ 'pjê;-÷ 'pê;-) /'pweblo/ pueblo˚ ('nw™;Be, 'nwÉ;-÷
'nw‘;-÷ 'njê;-÷ 'nê;-) /'nwebe/ nueve˚ (&aßta'lw™;Ÿo, -wÉ;-÷ -w‘;-÷ -jê;-÷ -ê;-)i (&as-)a /asta-
'lwego/ høta luego˚ (kweß'tjøn, -wÙ-÷ -wÈ-÷ -j+-÷ -+-)i (-s-)a /kwes'tjon/ cuestión. How-
ever, it is not appropriate to actively adopt this particular kind of pronunciation
(which is shown in the central part of the second vocogram in û 6.1).
6. spanish 233
Diphthongs
6.1.2.1. ˛e various possible diphthongs are biphonemic, with phonetic reali-

zations corresponding to those of monophthongs, joined together (as in Italian):
('l™i) /'lei/ ley˚ (pei'na;ƒo) /pei'naòo/ peinado˚ ('øiŸo) /'oigo/ oigo˚ (&boiko't™o) /boi-
ko'teo/ boicoteo˚ ('baile) /'baile/ baile˚ ('aula) /'aula/ aula˚ (au'ƒa†)i (-s)a /au'òa†/ au-
daz˚ ('d™uƒa) /'òeuòa/ deuda˚ (eu'X™;njo)i (-x-)a /eu'xenjo/ Eugenio˚ ('bøu) /'bou/
bou˚ including (di'Ria) /òi'Ria/ dirìa˚ (na'Bioß)i (-s)a /na'bios/ navìos˚ (&konti'nuo)
/konti'nuo/ continùo…
As far as diphthongs are concerned, we must be absolutely resolute because
(strange though it may seem, in the third millennium), there are deep-rooted in-
correct convictions, dragged through centuries, which are particularly çvaluedÇ
even by Hispanic phoneticians. A look at how things really are, would (— could)
be easy, by simply considering what is phonetic, exclusively in phonetic terms.
Instead, the range of mixtures of omnipresent (and interfering) spelling and
grammatical (not to speak of metrical and diachronic) considerations, still loom,
resulting merely in the creation of chaos of a subject which sets itself apart in being
clear and objective.
6.1.2.2. As said, Hispanic literature (not that it is alone – ¡unfortunately!) dedi-

cates too much e‡ort in complicating what is quite simple. Indeed, instead of
three very common structures, ¤ real diphthongs (('éé, &éé, ’éé)), hiatuses ((é'é,
é&é)), and heterophonic sequences ((0é), such as, (jé), (wé), and the like), they con-
tinue to consider only two of them: çdiphthongsÇ (with fusion: çsyneresisÇ) and
çhiatusesÇ (with separation: çdieresisÇ) but with strained interpretations of medie-
val origin, of a graphic-grammatical and graphic-metrical nature.
Indeed (unless one is a çmagicianÇ and can do phonetics based on graphic-gram-
matical categories), in phonetic terms, it is absurd to speak about çdiphthongsÇ in
the case of (—jé, —wé) (('bj™n) /'bjen/ bien˚ ('gwa;pa) /'gwapa/ %apa].
As a matter of fact, only (—éi, —éu) (('aiRe) /'aiRe/ aire˚ ('kaußa)i (-sa)a /'kausa/
caä] are real diphthongs, as any ('éé, &éé, ’éé) sequences are (('auto) /'auto/ au-
to˚ (&auto'Buß)i (-s)a /auto'bus/ autobùs˚ (au't™ntiko) /au'tentiko/ auténtico]˚ and it
is just as absurd to speak of çhiatusesÇ for ('ié, 'ué), given that only (i'é, u'é) are re-
al hiatuses, as any other (é'é, é&é) sequence ((pa'iß)i (-s)a /pa'is/ paìs]˚ compared to
(pai'ßa;no)i (-s-)a /pai'sano/ pa¤ano˚ a real diphthong. One can, therefore, not trust
literature that only uses two categories (¤ diphthong and hiatus) and, what is
more, who dangerously mix them, so as to include heterophonic sequences in
çdiphthongÇ, and the real diphthong in çhiatusÇ…
Obviously, (real) triphthongs are sequences of three vocoids ('ééé), with promi-
nence on the first element (certainly not (é'éé, éé'é), nor –even– ('jéé, 'wéé), or
(éjé, éwé)), which, instead, occur in ('bw™i) /'bwei/ buey˚ (&paRa'Ÿwai) /paRa'gwai/
Para%ay˘
Consonants
6.2.0. û 6.2 gives the consonant articulations, of the two neutral accents, which
are necessary for satisfactory Spanish pronunciation.
Instead, û 1.9-15, give orograms, grouped by manners of articulation of all the
contoids given in the chapters of this volume, even as secondary, occasional or re-
gional variants of the 12 languages dealt with.
û 6.2. Table of Spanish consonants.
velar round.
labiodental
postalveo-
prevelar
palatal
alveolar
bilabial
palatal
uvular
dental
velar
ö m (M) (n) n (~) N (˙) (,)i
F pb t d k g
Ô C {‚} (›)
ƒ f †i (∑)i /J/|(,) xa (Ÿ) (X)i
_ sa (z)a (ß)i (fi)i (ò)
ß (B) (ƒ) j|(ã) (F) w|(j)
ó R|r:
‹ (l) l (¬) Li
+ (N, M, M, º, ∫) Ô text
Nasals
6.2.1.1. ˛ere are three nasal phonemes, /m, n, N/, with various taxophones for
/n/ (m, M, n, ~, N, «, ˙, ,) (û 1.9.1-2; («) is semi-provelar without full contact; we
could add dental ((˙)), before /t, d÷ †/, for which, however, (n) is su‚cient; below,
we add five more taxophones, (N, M, º, M, ∫), for nasal heterorganic sequences):
('ma;no) /'mano/ mano˚ ('ni;No) /'niNo/ niño˚ (um'p™Rr:o) /um'peRr:o/ un perro˚ (im-
'bj™Rno) /im'bjeRno/ invierno˚ (iM'fj™l) /in'fjel/ infiel˚ (&konten'd™R) ((-˙te˙-)) /konten-
'deR/ contender˚ (kon'†™ñto) ((-˙'†-))i (-s-) ((-˙'s-))a /kon'†ebto/ concepto˚ (kon'ß™;Xo)i
(-s™;xo) ((-˙'s-))a /kon'sexo/ consejo˚ ('ønr:a) /'onr:a/ honra˚ ('a~Co) ((-nC-)) /'anco/ an-
>o˚ ('køN›uXe)i (-xe)a /'konJuxe/ cónyuge˚ (uN'›u˙ke) /un'Junke/ un yun¢e˚ (&koN-
Le'BaR)i (-N›-, -NJ-)a /konLe'baR/ conıevar˚ (u«'w™;Bo) /un'webo/ un huevo˚ ('ba˙ko)
/'banko/ banco˚ ('t™˙go) /'tengo/ tengo˚ ('fRa,Xa)i (-˙xa)a /'fRanxa/ franja˘
˛e articulation of /N/ is palatal, as in Italian, but short (not self-geminant, as in
neutral Italian; even if, at times, it can geminate a little (NN), after a stressed V˚
which is then short): ('ba;No÷ 'baNNo) /'baNo/ baño (Ô Italian ('baN:No) /'baNNo/ ba-
gno]˘
As for /nòw/, even with the prefixes cons-, ins-, trans-, the most normal and suit-
able articulation is with («): (&ko«ßtRu◊'†jøn)i (-«stRu◊'sj-)a /konstRug'†jon/ construc-
ción˚ (i«ß'tante)i (-s-)a /ins'tante/ instante˚ (&tRa«ßfoR'maR)i (-s-)a /tRansfoR'maR/ trans-
formar÷ obviously forms such as (&†iRku«ß'tan†ja)i (&siRku«s'tansja)a /†iRkuns'tan-
†ja/ circunstancia are included in this case.
For the first elements of /mn, nm/ sequences, we find some further taxophones,
6. spanish 235
with double articulations ((N), alveolar–bilabial, in a more precise pronunciation

style, whereas a performance corresponing to the phonemic structure would sound
extremely pedantic, "˝&), or with coarticulations ((M, º), respectively alveolarized
bilabial and labialized alveolar) or with semi-articulations ((M, ∫)), in a more spon-
taneous and less controlled kind of pronunciation (û 1.9.1-2): ('iNno, 'iMno, 'iMno÷
˝'imno) /'imno/ himno˚ (koN'mi;Ÿo, koM-, koº-, ko∫-÷ ˝kon-) /kon'migo/ conmigo˘
For /nò/, neutral pronunciation gives (n), even if the velar realization, which re-
mains non-neutral, is very common, above all in America; for word-final written
-m, we can also find (N, M, M, º, ∫) (the labialized taxophones are due to the spell-
ing), even if (n) is neutral and considered more traditional (probably because of
the spelling): (a◊'†jøn)i (-sj-)a /ag'†jon/ acción˚ ('alBun, -uN, -uM, -uM, -uº, -u∫)
/'albun/ álbum˘ It is important to note that before, a pause, the vibrations of the
vocal folds stop at the same time as the o‡set of the tip of the tongue from the alve-
olar ridge (therefore, something like (-nÈ, -n…, -nO) is not at all acceptable).
Stops
6.2.2.1. Spanish has three diphonic pairs of stops, (p, b÷ t, d÷ k, g) /p, b÷ t, d÷ k,

g/: ('pa;ßo)i (-so)a /'paso/ pøo˚ ('b™;ßo)i (-so)a /'beso/ bπo˚ (um'b™;ßo)i (-so)a /um'be-
so/ un bπo˚ (tu't™o) /tu'teo/ tuteo˚ (do'løR) /òo'loR/ dolor˚ (&kondo'løR) /kondo'loR/
con dolor˚ ('kaldo) /'kaldo/ caldo˚ ('kø;Ce) /'koce/ co>e˚ (go'Ri;la) /go'Rila/ gorila˚
(&u˙go'Ri;la) /ungo'Rila/ un gorila˘
However, the voiced stops, are realized as such only after a pause, after a nasal,
and in the (homorganic) sequence /ld/, as the previous examples demonstrate. As
a matter of fact, in all other contexts, the çnormalÇ realization is approximant, (B,
ƒ) /b, d/, or constrictive, (Ÿ) /g/ (unless one speaks slowly, with precision or empha-
sis): ('lø;Bo) /'lobo/ lobo˚ (eß&ta'Bj™n)i (es-)a /es'ta 'bjen/ πtá bien˚ ('b™RBo) /'beRbo/
verbo˚ ('alBa) /'alba/ alba˚ ('pø;BRe) /'pobRe/ pobre˚ (&añßo'lu;to)i (-ñs-)a /abso'luto/ ab-
soluto˚ (ßu'Bli;me)i (s-)a /su'blime/ sublime˚ (&ßuB-le'BaR)i (&s-)a /sub-le'baR/ sublevar
(in this example, the prefix still sounds as if it is separate), (oñ'taR) /ob'taR/ optar
(both b and v are always /b/ (b, B): Spanish does not have ç/v/Ç).
More examples: ('tø;ƒo) /'toòo/ todo˚ (peR'ƒ™R) /peR'òeR/ perder˚ ('ma;ƒRe) /ma'òRe/
madre˚ ('d™fiƒe)i (-z-)a /'òesòe/ dπde÷ (lofi'ƒ™;ƒoß)i (loz'ƒ™;ƒos)a /los'òeòos/ los dedos˚
(&aƒmi'RaR) /aòmi'RaR/ admirar˚ (aƒ'møßfeRa)i (-s-)a /aò'mosfeRa/ atmósfera˚ (&a‡Xe'ti;-
Bo)i (&a‡xe-)a /aòxe'tibo/ adjetivo÷ ('i;Ÿo) /'igo/ higo˚ (la'Ÿ™Rr:a) /la'geRr:a/ la %erra˚
('a;Ÿwa) /'agwa/ a%a˚ (el'Ÿølpe) /el'golpe/ el golpe˚ ('kaRŸo) /'kaRgo/ cargo˚ ('ßi;Ÿlo)i
('s-)a /'si-glo/ siglo˚ ('diŸno, 'di˙no) /'òig-no/ digno˚ ('t™Ÿnika, -˙n-) /'tegnika/ técnica
(for /gn, kn/, (-«n-) is also possible), (a◊'tøR) /ag'toR/ actor˚ (&di◊†jo'a;Rjo)i (-◊s-)a
/òig†jo'naRjo/ diccionario˘
Before a front V and /j/, /k, g, g/ realize as prevelar, by normal assimilation, but
it is not necessary to systematically use the special symbols ((´, Ò, Ú)): (ki'taR) /ki-
'tar/ ¢itar˚ ('kj™;Ro) /'kjeRo/ ¢iero˚ ('gia) /'gia/ %ìa˚ ('a;Ÿila) /'agila/ á%ila˘ In a true
intervocalic position, we currently have a semi-constrictive articulation, ((y)) (and
((g))): ('a;Ÿo) (('a;yo)) /'ago/ hago (and ('a;Ÿila) ((-gi-)) /'agila/ á%ila]˘
6.2.2.2. In word-final position, (‡) /ò/ is weak (¤ articulated with less tension,
((d)), as well as devoiced, ((D)), unless it is followed by voiced phones): ('ß™‡)i ('s-)a
/'seò/ sed˚ (a'Bla‡) /a'blaò/ hablad÷ often it drops in: (uß't™[‡])i (us-)a /us'te[ò]/ ¨ted˚
(ma'ƒRi[‡]) /ma'òRi[ò]/ Madrid, and in nouns with /éòò/ (not monosyllabic nouns):
(beR'ƒa[‡]) /beR'òaò/ verdad˚ (biR'tu[‡]) /biR'tuò/ virtud˘
Furthermore, in the masculine ending -ado(s)˚ the articulation is just as attenuat-
ed (up to (`), çzeroÇ, in familiar pronunciation, above all the Iberian one, but not
systematically; generally, in American pronunciation, the drop is considered to be
non-neutral): (Le'Ÿa[;ƒ]o)i (,e'Ÿa;ƒo)a /Le'gaòo/ ıegado˚ (ßol'da[;ƒ]oß)i (sol'da;ƒos)a
/sol'daòos/ soldados˘
As seen, before a voiceless C (or before a possible pause), /b, ò, g/ are devoiced:
(oñ'taR, &a‡Xe'ti;Bo, a◊'tøR) (from the previous section). Due to an excessive influ-
ence of writing, above all in the American accent, some articulate /b, ò, g/ as (p,
b÷ t, d÷ k, g) (with voicing in relation to the spelling), before heterosyllabic C
(which, instead, represent a completely normal neutralization): (oñ'taR, op-),
(&ßuB-le'BaR, -b-)i (&s-)a, (&aƒmi'RaR, &ad-), (aƒ'møßfeRa, at-)i (-s-)a, (&a‡Xe'ti;Bo, &ad-)i
(-xe-)a÷ ('diŸno, 'dig-), (a◊'tøR, ak-).
Again, for the same reason, with a further (and more serious) removal from the
real phonic structure, due to improper spelling influence (or because of regional
accents, ™ from Valencia, (v), and from Paraguay, (V)), especially in American pro-
nunciation, some introduce the ç/v/ phonemeÇ in Spanish, which has not existed
for centuries: (&embi'aR÷ ≠&eMvi'aR) /embi'aR/ enviar˘
It is evident that the use we make of /b, ò, g/ is not diaphonemic, as the two ac-
cents substantially coincide; it is moreover, interphonemic, because it is supposed
to show where their realization is not a stop, to help foreigners use it correctly,
without strained deductions (and, often, incorrect – and therefore, the source of
endless problems).
Stopstrictives
6.2.3. ˛ere is only one stopstrictive phoneme, voiceless postalveo-palatal, (C)

/c/ (which, compared to postalveo-palatal protruded (c) /c/, of English or neutral
Italian does not have labial protrusion: ('l™;Ce) /'lece/ le>e˚ (mu'Ca;Co) /mu'caco/
mu>a>o˚ (&CaCa'Ca) /caca'ca/ >a->a->á˘ ˛e regional change from /c/ to (ë) is
typically Andalusian and Caribbean.
Phonetically, there is another palatal stopstrictive, (›), which is voiced, and real-
izes the constrictive phoneme /J/, which only occurs after a pause or after /n, l/:
([koN]'›™Rr:o) /[kon]'JeRr:o/ (con] hierro˚ (&iN›™◊'†jøn)i (-sjøn)a /inJeg'†jon/ inyec-
ción˚ ([eL]'›u˙ke) /[el]'Junke/ (el) yun¢e˘ Often, in familiar (and neutral) pronun-
ciation, after pauses, we also find (J) (real constrictive) or a semi-stopstrictive, (W),
or even a stop-semi-strictive, (Ÿ): ('J™Rr:o, 'Ju˙ke÷ 'W-, 'Ÿ-); the same can occur, in
the order (›, Ÿ, W, J), after /n, l/: (koN'›™Rr:o, koN'Ÿ-, koN'W-, koN'J-), (&iN›™◊'†jøn,
&iNŸ™-, &iNW™-, &iNJ™-)i (-sjøn)a, (eL'›u˙ke, eL'Ju-).
6. spanish 237
Constrictives
6.2.4.1. ˛ere are five constrictive phonemes; four are voiceless: (f) /f/, (†i, sa)
/†/, (ßi, sa) /s/ and (Xi, xa) /x/; whereas (,) /J/ is voiced (palatal) and, if the truth be
told, only semi-constrictives, as it is half-way between an approximant, (j), and the
real constrictive ((J); but rarer in various languages).
(f) /f/ does not pose any problems, even if, often, American and Iberian speak-
ers realize it as a bilabial (constrictive, (å), or approximant, (F)): ([&uM]fa'BøR÷
[&um]åa-÷ [&um]Fa-) /[un]fa'boR/ (un) favor˘
6.2.4.2. ˛e others need further explanations. Indeed, (†) /†/i is neutral only
in the Iberian accent, whereas in the American accent it becomes /s/: (†a'pa;to)i
(sa-)a /†a'pato/ zapato˚ ('†j™;lo)i ('sj-)a /'†jelo/ cielo˚ ('di;†e)i (-se)a /'òi†e/ dice˚ ('lu†)i
('lus)a /'lu†/ luz˘ Starting from an American, or international type of transcription,
it could be more appropriate to use the diaphoneme /s/: /sa'pato, 'sjelo, 'òise, 'lus/.
Before voiced C˚ the articulation becomes voiced: (Xu∑'ŸaR)i (xuz'ŸaR)a /xu†'gaR/
juzgar˚ ('lu∑ ƒo'Ra;ƒa)i ('luz)a /'lu† òo'Raòa/ luz dorada÷ naturally before sonants, in
the American accent, (s) is preferred (as for /s/; Ô the following section): ('dj™∑mo)i
(-smo)a /'òje†mo/ diezmo˘
6.2.4.3. For /s/ the place of articulation changes, from one accent to another,
as /s/ is (apico-)alveolar in Iberian Spanish, (ß)i, but, (lamino-)dental in American
Spanish, (s)a: (eß'ta;ƒoß)i (es'ta;ƒos)a /es'taòos/ πtados˚ ('ßøl)i ('s-)a /'sol/ sol˚ ('pi;ßo)i
(-so)a /'piso/ p¤o˘ (After a stressed V˚ as well as the normal –and more appropriate–
('é;ßé)i ('é;sé)a, one can also have ('éßßé)i ('éssé)a: ('pißßo)i ('pisso)a.) Before voiced
diphonic heterosyllabic C (/b, d, g/), /s/ becomes voiced, (fi)i (z)a: (lofi'BuRr:oß)i
(loz'BuRr:os)a /los'buRr:os/ los burros˚ ('d™fiƒe)i ('d™zƒe)a /'òesòe/ dπde˚ (difi'Ÿußto)i
(-z'Ÿus-)a /òis'gusto/ d¤g¨to˘ In the /st, sò/ sequences, in neutral Iberian pronunci-
ation, (ß, fi) remain, as can be seen in the given examples; only the denti-alveolar
articulation (dental with a raised tip, ((s, z))) is possible, while it is necessary in the
(still Iberian) pronunciation of the sequence /s†/: (es'†™;na) /es'†ena/ πcena (which
in American pronunciation is (e's™;na) /e'sena/, from //es'sena//).
However, before heterosyllabic non-diphonic C (/m, n, N÷ J÷ w÷ l, L/; for /s/ + /r:/,
see the end of this section), the behavior pattern is di‡erent, even if complementa-
ry: in the Iberian accent voicing prevails, (fi, Ü, ß); whereas in the American accent
voicelessness prevails, (s, Ω, z) (even if we transcribe only the first realization for
each accent): ('mifimo)i (-s-)a /'mismo/ m¤mo˚ ('ifila)i (-s-)a /'isla/ ¤la˚ (lofi'w™;ßoß)i
(-s'w™;sos, -'sw-)a /los'wesos/ los huπos˚ ('døò ',™Rr:oß)i ('døë)a /'òos 'JeRr:os/ dos hierros˘
˛e last example shows the normal articulation of the postalveo-palatal kind, (ò)i
(ë)a, before /J/, as also before /L, N/: (laò'Lu;Bjaß)i (laë',u;Bjas)a /las'Lubjas/ lø ıuviø˚
(loò'Nø;Noß)i (loë-, -os)a /los'NoNos/ los ñoños.
If the voiced C that follow are tautosyllabic (¤ when they are part of the same
syllable), /s/ remains voiceless, as even before V˚ /sòé/ (being initial in the phono-
-syllable): ('ßj™ßta)i ('sj™s-)a /'sjesta/ siπta˚ ('ßw™;lo)i ('s-)a /'swelo/ suelo˚ (&loßa'mi;Ÿoß)i
(-sa'mi;Ÿos)a /losa'migos/ los amigos˚ (&mißeR'ma;noß)i (-seR'ma;nos)a /miseR'manos/
m¤ hermanos˘ (In the Catalan pronunciation of Spanish, instead, it is voiced, as

in the Catalan language: (&lofia'mi;Ÿoß, &mifieR'ma;noß).)
For /sòr:/ (also /s˘r:/) the most normal articulations are (Ír:, Rr:, §r:, ¸r:, Í¸:, R¸:)
(however, we only transcribe (Ír:), but /sr:/, even if its actual pronunciation with
(ßi, sa) is decidedly excessive, as if spoken by a çforeignerÇ {both non-Hispanic and
Hispanic}): (laÍ'r:w™;ƒaß)i (-s)a /las'r:weòas/ lø ruedø˚ (&iÍr:a'™l) /isr:a'el/ Israel˘
In the phonemic transcription, we use /s/, since, when speaking in a slow or em-
phatic manner, for (fii, za), the actual pronunciation can undoubtedly be voiceless
even in Iberian pronunciation.
6.2.4.4. ˛e criterion adopted here, only considers two kinds of neutral pro-
nunciation; however, while describing the pronunciations of each single nation,
we will inevitably broaden our criteria so as to adequately include the characteris-
tics of every single country (though, with all the non-neutral variants, which
obviously each area presents). ˛erefore, let us mention a non-neutral variant, for
(American, Canary, and Andalusian Spanish) /s˘/, ¤ a very weak laryngeal approxi-
mant ((h), voiceless; and (H), voiced before voiced phones), which is generally
found together with what is traditionally (but incorrectly), defined as çaspirate(d)Ç
/s/ (which, from a strictly phonetic point of view would mean (sh), as (th)…), be-
fore a pause, or a C˚ or even before a V˘ It is realized as if it were ç/h/Ç. For exam-
ple: (lah'kw™htah) /las'kwestas/ lø cuπtø˚ ('d™Hƒe) /'òesòe/ dπde˚ ('ihlah, 'iH-) /'is-
las/ ¤lø˚ (&loha'mi;Ÿoh) /losa'migos/ los amigos (in neutral pronunciation: (laß'kw™ß-
taß)i (las'kw™stas)a, ('d™fiƒe)i (-z-)a, ('ifilaß)i ('islas)a, (&loßa'mi;Ÿoß)i (-sa'mi;Ÿos)a]˘
Such pronunciation can even get to transform (h, H) into (`), çzeroÇ.
6.2.4.5. Again, referring to non-neutral pronunciation, there can also be çcol-

oringsÇ of (h) (voiceless), depending on the timbre of the preceding vowel. ˛is
often happens, in Argentinian Spanish (where the phenomenon is normally heard;
and, only in more formal conversation, can one avoid it; but, before a pause, it is
considered very uneducated and, thus, more carefully avoided): ('liâta) (palatal)
/'lista/ l¤ta˚ ('kw™hta) (laryngeal) /'kwesta/ cuπta˚ ('pa∆ta) (velar) /'pasta/ pøta˚
('tø∆ta) (laryngeal rounded) /'tosta/ tosta˚ ('guWta) (velar rounded) /'gusta/ %sta÷
('iHla, 'd™Hƒe, 'aHma, 'øHmosis, tuH'ƒj™ntes) /'isla, 'òesòe, 'asma, 'osmosis, tus'òjen-
tes/ ¤la˚ dπde˚ øma˚ ósmos¤˚ t¨ dientπ˘ In neutral pronunciation we have: ('lißta,
'kw™ßta, 'paßta, 'tøßta, 'gußta)i (-s-)a and ('ifila, 'd™fiƒe, 'afima, 'øfimoßiß, tufi'ƒj™nteß)i
('is-)a˘
In Argentinian neutral pronunciation, however, only rarely is /s/ fully (s, z), in
/s˘, sò/ contexts, but it is rather a dental grooved semi-constrictive, (∂, d): ('d™dƒe,
lo∂'p™Rr:o∂) /'òesòe, los'peRr:os/ dπde˚ los perros. (˛e two neutral pronunciations
treated here, have (fi, ß)i (z, s)a. A less neutral but controlled Argentinian pronun-
ciation has (≈) for (∂, d) – Ô û 1.9-18.)
Another, even more marked characteristic, which is typical, above all, of parts
of Andalusia and America (in particular, in the Caribbean and southern areas), /sÊ/
fuse together into (=): (miz'ƒ™;ƒos÷ miH'ƒ™;ƒoh÷ mi+'ƒ™;ƒoh÷ mi'Ï™-÷ mi'†™-÷ -o∆)
/mis'òeòos/ m¤ dedos˚ (&tRez'Bailes÷ &tReH'Baileh÷ &tRe='Bai-÷ &tRe'åai-÷ &tRe'Fai-) /'tRes 'bai-
6. spanish 239
les/ trπ bailπ˚ (laz'Bø;tas÷ laH'Bø;tah÷ la´'Bø-÷ la'åø-÷ la'Fø-÷ -a∆) /las'botas/ lø botø˚
(loz'Ÿa;,os÷ loH'Ÿa;,oh÷ lo≠'Ÿa-÷ lo'xa-÷ lo'∆a-÷ -o∆) /los'gaJos/ los gaıos˚ (tuz'Ÿa;tos÷
tuH'Ÿa;toh÷ tu±'Ÿa-÷ tu'xa-÷ tu'∆a-÷ -o∆) /tus'gatos/ t¨ gatos ((=) and derivatives have
an intermediate type of phonation between (h) and (H)). Neutral pronunciation
is: (mifi'ƒ™;ƒoß, &tRefi'Baileß, lafi'Bø;taß, lofi'Ÿa;,oß, tufi'Ÿa;toß)i (-z-, -s)a˘
Otherwise, before son(or)ants (/m, n÷ l÷ r:/), /s/ can change into (Ò0, =0): ('miz-
mo, 'miΩ-, 'mis-÷ 'miH-, 'mi+-÷ 'mi≈-, 'mi)-) /'mismo/ m¤mo˚ ('azno, 'aΩ-, 'as-÷ 'aH-,
'a´-÷ 'an-÷ 'a£-) /'asno/ øno˚ ('izla÷ 'iΩ-, 'is-÷ 'iH-÷ 'i+-÷ 'iú-÷ 'ia-) /'isla/ ¤la˚ (&iÍr:a'™l, &i-5) /is-
r:a'el/ Israel˘ Neutral pronunciation: ('mifimo, 'afino, 'ifila)i (-s-)a (&iÍr:a'™l)˘
6.2.4.6. ˛e voiced palatal semi-constrictive, (,) /J/ (already introduced in §

6.2.4.1; Ô 6.2.4.3, as well), occurs between vowels, in words or sentences (¤ in con-
texts which are di‡erent from the çstrongÇ ones in § 6.2.3, but, as said there, it is
also possible in those contexts): ('ba;,a) /'baJa/ vaya˚ ('ø;,e) /'oJe/ oye˘
For /J/, there is a pronunciation which could come under the neutral one (from
a familiar to an energetic kind), which is very common in both accents: (‚). Artic-
ulatorily it corresponds to (C) /c/, which comes to form a diphonic pair, thus ren-
dering the consonant system more natural and coherent. Although it is still not
completely neutral, it can be used in a kind of çinternationalÇ accent, simpler and
more functional (even with (s, ,) /s, J/ for /†, L/; therefore indicated by the diapho-
nemes /s, J/, Ô § 6.0); this pronunciation is justified and supported by the actual
use of many Iberian (including Madrilenian) and American speakers: ('ba;‚a, 'ø;-
‚e).
According to the criteria adopted in this chapter, the transformation of /J/ to (ë,
ò) is doubtlessly regional (and typical, for example, of Argentinian pronunciation,
whose neutral local pronunciation has, however, (ò) for /J, L/).
Again, in American and Andalusian pronunciations, above all, /J/ can often be
realized as an approximant, (j), but such pronunciation barely comes under neu-
tral (however small the di‡erence may be, since (,) is only a semi-constrictive); a
systematic use of (j) is regional or foreign.
6.2.4.7. For /x/ too, the place of articulation changes from one accent to anoth-
er (even within the neutral accent), as /x/ is, respectively, uvular, (X)i, and velar,
(x)a: (Xa'møn)i (xa-)a /xa'mon/ jamón˚ (Xe'miR)i (xe-)a /xe'miR/ gemir˚ ('di;Xe)i (-xe)a
/'òixe/ dije÷ when word-final it is weaker, as it becomes an approximant of the same
place of articulation, or even laryngeal: ('bø˜, -h)i ('bø∆, -h)a /'box/ boj÷ it is cur-
rently lost in: (r:e'lø[˜], -ø[h])i (r:e'lø[∆], -ø[h])a /r:e'lox/ reloj˘
In the two accents, there can be some variants for /x/, which are included in neu-
tral pronunciation: respectively, a more vigorous articulation ((º)i, voiceless uvu-
lar constrictive trill), or less vigorous, ((∆)a, voiceless velar approximant), which
we refer to here only. On the other hand, its transformation into (h) (laryngeal),
which is very common in America and Andalusia, cannot be considered neutral,
according to the criteria adopted here.
Approximants
6.2.5.1. ˛e Spanish approximants are /j, w/: ('†j™;lo)i ('sj™-)a /'†jelo/ cielo˚ ('w™;-
Bo) /'webo/ huevo˚ (&awe'kaR) /awe'kaR/ ahuecar÷ devoiced realizations after voice-
less C are dialectal (or foreign): ('tj™;ne÷ ≠'tª-) /'tjene/ tiene˚ ('kwa;tRo÷ ≠'k‹-) /'kwatRo/
cuatro˘ Generally, /j/ only occurs after a tautosyllabic C˚ as in the previous exam-
ples, and in ('r:j™;Ÿo) /'r:jego/ riego. Instead, at the beginning of a syllable, we have
/J/ exclusively (§ 6.2.4.6, 6.2.4.1, 6.2.3), except in certain areas of America, such as
Argentina, where it is found for hiV-: ('›™;lo, ',-)i ('›-, ',-÷ 'j-)a /'Jelo/ hielo˚ ('›™RBa,
',-)i ('›-, ',-÷ 'j-)a /'JeRba/ hierba˚ against ('›™RBa, ',-)i ('›-, ',-)a /'JeRba/ yerba (independ-
ently of the –non-neutral– reduction of /J/ to (j), in certain areas).
For /é[ò]bwé, é[ò]gwé/, in familiar pronunciation, there can be a simplification,
through a velarized bilabial approximant, (ñ), for the first case; or a constrictive,
()) (or (Ÿ), Ô § 9.14 of NPT/HPh), or a semi-constrictive, (m), up to the approxi-
mant (w) (both velar rounded): (a'Bw™;lo, a'm™-, a'ñ™-, a'w™-) /a'bwelo/ abuelo˚ (la-
'Bw™lta, la'm™-, la'ñ™-, la'w™-) /la'bwelta/ la vuelta˚ ('a;Ÿwa, 'a;)a, 'a;ma, 'a;wa) /'agwa/
a%a˚ (la&Ÿwape'tø;na, la&)a-, la&ma-, la&wa-) /lagwape'tona/ la %apetona˘
Instead, for /òw, éw/, in familiar pronunciation, a more vigorous realization is
more frequent (compared to the phonemic transcription): (')™;Bo, 'm™-, 'ñ™-) /'we-
bo/, (&a)e'kaR, &ame-, &añe-) /awe'kaR/. Even in the /nòw/ combination (Ô § 6.2.1.1),
we can have this more vigorous articulation: (u«'w™;Bo, u«')™-, u«'m™-, u«'ñ™-) /un-
'webo/ un huevo˘ In all these cases, we can hear even syntagmatically divided reali-
zations, (Ÿw, Bw) (and even, (˙gw, mbw), for the last case), however it is doubt-
lessly better to avoid them.
6.2.5.2. As well as (j, w) and (B, ƒ) (/j, w/, /b, ò/), there are three more approxi-
mant (taxo)phones, which, in –normal, not at all slovenly– spontaneous conversa-
tion, are the realization of /e, o, a/, in the sequences /0eé, 0oé, 0aé/; therefore we
have, (semi-palatal) /e/ (ã), (semi-velar rounded) /o/ (j) and (semi-prevelar) /a/ (F):
('pãøR) /pe'oR/ peor˚ ('tãa;tRo) /te'atRo/ teatro˚ ('pj™;ta) /po'eta/ poeta˚ (&kjaŸu'laR)
/koagu'laR/ coa%lar˚ (u'nFø;Xa)i (-xa)a /una'oxa/ una hoja˚ ('lFø;tRa pa'Ra;ƒa) /la'otRa
pa'Raòa/ la otra parada˘ In slower, or more solemn speech, we doubtlessly have
(pe'øR, te'a;tRo, po'™;ta, &koaŸu'laR, &una'ø;Xa, la'ø;tRa pa'Ra;ƒa)i (-xa)a, as the phone-
mic transcription indicates.
Furthermore, there are pronunciations which are currently considered to be un-
educated: ('pjøR, 'tja;tRo, 'pw™;ta, &kwaŸu'laR); there is a di‡erence, and it is more
than enough to distinguish the three di‡erent realizations, even if the di‡erence
between (ã, j) and (j, w) might seem negligible (not only for foreigners, but also
for natives who write articles and books, limiting themselves to only two extreme
possibilities, also because of the lack of adequate symbols).
6. spanish 241
Trills
6.2.6.1. Spanish has an alveolar trill /r:/ (r:), with three rapid tappings of the tip
of the tongue against the alveolar ridge (so, (r;) would be enough, but experience
prefers (r:)), and a tap /R/ (R), with a single rapid alveolar contact: ('r:a;Ro) /'r:aRo/ ra-
ro˘ In interphonemic transcriptions (concerning several languages), it is important
to mark the chron(em)e, because otherwise its nature could be hidden, and Span-
ish /r:/ might seem to be a simple trill (with two tappings, as Italian /r/ in stressed
syllables: ('ra:Ro)it /'raro/ raro]˘
˛e two Spanish types ((R, r:)) join together too, giving, for examples: ('tj™Rr:a)
/'tjeRr:a/ tierra (Ô Italian ('tEr:Ra) /'tErra/ terra]˚ (laR'r:a;ƒjo) /laR'r:aòjo/ la radio (Ô Ital-
ian (la'ra:djo)it /la'radjo/ la radio]˘ Furthermore, in Spanish, the two types are dis-
tinctive, between V (even if with length di‡erences, for vowels too): ('ka;Ro) /'kaRo/
caro˚ ('kaRr:o) /'kaRr:o/ carro÷ ('p™;Ro) /'peRo/ pero˚ ('p™Rr:o) /'peRr:o/ perro÷ (&en†e'RaR)i
(-s-)a /en†e'RaR/ encerar˚ (&en†eR'r:aR)i (-s-)a /en†eR'r:aR/ encerrar˘
In our phone(ma)tic analysis, (Rr:) /Rr:/ are heterosyllabic sequences, constitut-
ed by (syllable-final) (R˘) /R˘/ or (word-final) (Rò) /Rò/ + (r:) /r:/, with one + three (or
four, to give more emphasis) tappings. ˛ey are not simple segments such as ç/R,
r/Ç (or çr˚ rÇ in the Hispanic tradition).
6.2.6.2. We now (systematically) examine the distribution of the two types. A-

part from intervocalic context (just seen), with (Rr:) /Rr:/, where the use is phone-
mic, we also find (r:) after a pause or after heterosyllabic C (/n, l, s/): (r:a'tøn) /r:a-
'ton/ ratón˚ ('ønr:a) /'onr:a/ honra˚ (un'r:a;mo) /un'r:amo/ un ramo˚ (al&r:eƒe'ƒøR) /al-
r:eòe'òoR/ alrededor˚ (el'r:™i) /el'r:ei/ el rey˚ (&iÍr:ae'li;ta) /isr:ae'lita/ ¤raelita˚ (miÍ'r:ø;-
paß)i (-s)a /mis'r:opas/ m¤ ropø˘
In the other contexts, (R) is normal, even before a pause, where the vibrations
of the vocal folds stop at the same time as the tip of the tongue is removed from
the alveolar ridge (therefore the following are not at all acceptable (-RÈ, -R…, -RO)):
('mi;Ra) /'miRa/ mira˚ ('miRlo) /'miRlo/ mirlo˚ ('øRƒen) /'oRòen/ orden˚ ('tR™n) /'tRen/
tren˚ (a'BRiR) /a'bRiR/ abrir˚ (&ofRe'†™R)i (-s™R)a /ofRe'†eR/ ofrecer˚ (peR'ƒ™R) /peR'òeR/
perder˚ (&poRfa'BøR) /poRfa'boR/ por favor˚ ('iR po'Ra;Ÿwa) /'iR po'Ragwa/ ir por a%a˘
In familiar pronunciation, (R) /R/ can be weakened in all cases, substituting it
with (¸): ('mi;¸a, 'mi¸lo, 'ø¸ƒen, 't¸™n, a'B¸i§, &of¸e'†™§)i (-s™§)a, (pe¸'ƒ™§, &po§fa'Bø§,
'i§ po'¸a;Ÿwa). On the contrary, in a more energetic or emphatic pronunciation,
/R˘, Rò/ can be strengthened into (r): ('mirlo, 'ørƒen, a'BRir, &ofRe'†™r)i (-s™r)a, (per-
'ƒ™r, &porfa'Bør, 'ir po'Ra;Ÿwa). However, neither of these two phones are indispensa-
ble for çgenuineÇ pronunciation.
Laterals
6.2.7. ˛ere are two lateral phonemes in neutral Iberian Spanish, (l, L)i /l, L/;
whilst in neutral American Spanish, the second merges with /J/ – (l, ,)a /l, L/; more-
over, /l/ has taxophones which are appropriately used, (¬, L) (it is not necessary to
mark explicitly ((l)), as long as the articulation is dental): ('la;ƒo) /'laòo/ lado˚ (ka-
'løR) /ka'loR/ calor˚ (kol'ŸaR) /kol'gaR/ colgar˚ ('alto) {((-lto))} /'alto/ alto˚ (el'†i;ne)i {((el-
'†-))} (el'si;ne)a {((el's-))} /el'†ine/ el cine˚ (ko¬'Cøn) ((-L'C-)) /kol'con/ col>ón˚ (eL'Nø;-
No) /el'NoNo/ el ñoño˚ (eL'›u˙ke, eL'J-) /el'Junke/ el yunke˚ ('kla;ße)i (-se)a /'klase/
cløe˚ ('dø;Ble) /'òoble/ doble˚ (e'la;Ÿwa) /e'lagwa/ el a%a˚ (La'maR)i (,a-)a /La'maR/
ıamar˚ ('ba;Le)i (-,e)a /'baLe/ vaıe˚ (&koNLe'Bando)i (-N›-, NJ-)a /konLe'bando/ con-
ıevando˘ Phonetically, before palatals, even the American accent has (L), although
it does not have the phoneme /L/. In the same context, /J/ is articulated as a real
constrictive, (J), or as a stopstrictive, (›).
Before a pause, even for /l/ (as for /n, R/ and for /ò/), the vibrations of the vocal
folds stop at the same time as the tip of the tongue is removed from the alveolar
ridge (therefore, the following are not at all acceptable (-lÈ, -l…, -lO)): ('ßøl)i ('s-)a
/'sol/ sol˚ (lau'R™l) /lau'Rel/ laurel˘
Structures
6.3. We treat the characteristics of the combination of words in connected

speech, and then, above all, sentence-stress (as Spanish writing is quite explicit
about word-stress, though not exactly without doubts and uncertainties, includ-
ing possible oscillations).
Taxophonics
6.3.1.1. ©th regard to consonant assimilations, they have been dealt with in
the sections of the respective parts. ˛e combination of vowels within words, and
between words in sentences, will be dealt with above all here.
Within a word, two same vowels tend to be reduced to only one, except in for-
mal, slow or controlled speech: (&alBa'a;ka, al'Ba;ka) /alba'aka/ albahaca˚ (a†a'aR,
-'†aR)i (-s-)a /a†a'aR/ azahar˚ (&akRee'ƒø;Reß, &akRe'-) /akRee'òoRes/ acreedorπ˚ (bee'm™n-
†ja, be'-)i (-sja)a /bee'men†ja/ vehemencia˚ (nii'lißta, ni'-) /nii'lista/ nihil¤ta˚ (&alko-
'øl, al'køl) /alko'ol/ alcohol˚ (&koope'RaR, ko&o-, &kope-) /koope'RaR/ cooperar˚ (&†oolo-
'Xia, &†olo-)i (&so-, -'xia)a /†oolo'xia/ zoologìa˘
However, certain words, that otherwise would not be easily recognized, are not
reduced:(kRe'™n†ja)i (-sja)a /kRe'en†ja/ creencia˚ (mo'ø;ßo)i (-so)a /mo'oso/ mohoso˚
(lo'øR) /lo'oR/ loor÷ other words can be reduced except in an intoneme: (le'™R, 'l™R)
/le'eR/ leer˚ ('l™e, 'l™) /'lee/ lee˚ (kRe'™, 'kR™) /kRe'e/ creé˚ (paße'™;moß, pa'ßã™;-, pa'ß™;-) /pa-
se'emos/ pøeemos˘
©th di‡erent V˚ we have: (ko&aŸu'la;ƒo, &kja-) /koagu'laòo/ coa%lado˚ (aR'X™n-
teo, -tão)i (-x-)a /aR'xenteo/ argénteo˚ (leo'paRƒo, lão-) /leo'paRòo/ leopardo˘
6.3.1.2. On the contrary, in formal, slow or controlled speech, (j, ã÷ w, j) can

change into the vocoids (i, e÷ u, o): ('bja;Xe÷ bi'a-)i (-xe)a /'bjaxe/ viaje˚ ('ßwa;Be÷
ßu'a-)i ('swa-)a /'swabe/ suave˚ ('bju;ƒa÷ bi'u-) /'bjuòa/ viuda˚ ('r:wi;ƒo÷ r:u'i-) /'r:wiòo/
6. spanish 243
ruido÷ (al'dãa;no÷ &alde'a-) /alde'ano/ aldeano˚ (lãal'ta‡÷ leal-) /leal'taò/ lealtad˚ ('li;nãa÷
-nea) /'linea/ lìnea˚ ('tja;La÷ to'a-)i (-,a)a /to'aLa/ toaıa˚ (&kjaŸu'laR÷ ko&a-÷ &koa-) /koa-
gu'laR/ coa%lar˚ ('r:ãal÷ r:e'al) /r:e'al/ real˘
It must be remembered that there is a di‡erence between normal pronunciation
(not slow): ('tãa;tRo, &empão'RaR, 'pj™;ta, &kjaŸu'laR) {/te'atRo, empeo'RaR, po'eta, koa-
gu'laR/ teatro˚ empeorar˚ poeta˚ coa%lar] and çuneducatedÇ pronunciation: ('tja;tRo,
&empjo'RaR, 'pw™;ta, &kwaŸu'laR), in addition to slow pronunciation: (te'a;tRo, &empeo-
'RaR, po'™;ta, &koaŸu'laR, ko&a-).
Except in particular cases, for rhythmic reasons (as will soon be seen), the pro-
nunciation with çunauthorizedÇ diphthongs is decidedly uneducated (although it
is very widespread, especially in Latin America): (pa'iß, ≠'paiß)i (-s)a /pa'is/ paìs˚ (ma-
'i†, ≠'mai†)i (-s)a /ma'i†/ maìz˚ (ba'ul, ≠'baul) /ba'ul/ baùl˘ ˛e transformation from
/ae, ao/ to /ai, au/ is equally uneducated: ('kaen÷ ≠'kain) /'kaen/ caen˚ (tRae'Ran÷
≠tRai-) /tRae'Ran/ traerán˚ (bil'Bao÷ ≠-au÷ ≠-aU) /bil'bao/ Bilbao˚ (&baka'lao÷ ≠-au÷ ≠-aU)
/baka'lao/ bacalao÷ in cases such as (&e[◊]ßtRa&oRƒi'na;Rjo, e[◊]ß&tRaoR-)i (-s-)a /e[k]stRaoR-
òi'naRjo/ extraordinario˚ we also have the possibility of: (&e[◊]ßtRFoR-, e[◊]ß&tRFoR-)i
(-s-)a.
6.3.1.3. It is not easy to assess the vocalic (/i, u/) or consonantal value (/j, w/)
of i˚ u in CiV˚ CuV sequences; /i, u/ are definitely more probable near a stress and
at the end of a word: (r:eß'fRio)i (-s-)a /r:es'fRio/ rπfrìo˚ (&r:eßfRi'aR)i (-s-)a /r:esfRi'aR/ rπ-
friar˚ but: (&eMfRja'm™nto) /enfRja'mento/ enfriamento (and also: (r:eß'fRja;ƒo)i (-s-)a
/r:es'fRjaòo/ rπfriado]˚ (flu◊'tuo) /fluk'tuo/ fluctùo˚ (&flu◊tu'aR) /fluktu'aR/ fluctuar
(and also: (&flu◊tu'ø;ßo)i (-so)a /fluktu'oso/ fluctuoso as well as suntuoso˚ virtuoso˚
which have only (-'twø;ßo)i (-so)a /-'twoso/) but: (&flu◊twa'†jøn)i (-'sj-)a /fluktwa-
'†jon/ fluctuación˘
˛e infinitives with /i, u/ (which are prevalently short, and their derivatives,
even when there is no longer the simple, original form) are: (re-, mal-)criar˚ fiar˚
rπfriar˚ enfriar˚ liar˚ (ex-)piar˚ (π-, ¤-)triar˚ %iar˚ (dπ)viar˚ enviar˚ reenviar÷ puar˚
ruar˚ fluctuar÷ concluir˚ excluir˚ incluir˚ ocluir˚ recluir˚ (a-, in-, re-)fluir˚ diluir˚
(re)huir˚ (π)muir˚ (re)construir˚ instruir˚ πtatuir˚ (re)constituir˚ dπtituir˚ instituir˚
rπtituir˚ s¨tituir˚ intuir˘ For ui˚ the pronunciation with /'wi/ is frequent, as well.
Other cases of /i, u/ appear for short or compound forms: (&aBi'øn) /abi'on/ a-
vión˚ (bi'™;njo) /bi'enjo/ bienio˚ (biu'ni;Boko) /biu'niboko/ biunìvoco˚ (tRi'™;njo) /tRi-
'enjo/ trienio˚ (tRi'a˙gulo) /tRi'angulo/ trián%lo˚ (&dje†i'ø;Co, &dj™-)i (-si-)a /òje†i'o-
co/ diecio>o˚ (&beinti'ø;Co, &b™i-) /beinti'oco/ veintio>o˚ (gi'øn) /gi'on/ %ión˚ (i'a;-
to) /i'ato/ hiato˚ (pRi'øR) /pRi'oR/ prior˚ (kRi'an†a)i (-sa)a /kRi'an†a/ crianza˚ (fi'an†a)i
(-sa)a /fi'an†a/ fianza˚ (fi'a;ƒo) /fi'aòo/ fiado˚ (fi'ambRe) /fi'ambRe/ fiambre˚ (pi'a;no)
/pi'ano/ piano˚ but: (&tRja˙gu'laR) /tRjangu'laR/ trian%lar˚ (kRja'tu;Ra) /kRja'tuRa/ cria-
tura˚ (fja'ƒøR) /fja'òoR/ fiador˚ (koM'fjan†a)i (-sa)a /kon'fjan†a/ confianza˚ (fjam-
'bR™;Ra) /fjam'bReRa/ fiambrera˚ (pja'nißta)i (-sta)a /pja'nista/ pian¤ta˘ Let us note,
logically: ('Cja;paß)i (-s)a /'cjapas/ ≥iapø (with no dropping of /j/ after /c/).
We also have: (u'i;ƒa) /u'iòa/ huida (as huir]˚ (di'uRno, 'dju-) /òi'uRno, 'òju-/ diur-
no (but: (dju'tuRno) /òju'tuRno/ diuturno]˚ (Xu'i;†jo, 'Xwi-)i (xu'i;sjo, 'xwi-)a /xu'i†jo,
'xwi-/ juicio (but: (Xwi'†jø;ßo, 'Xw™†)i (xwi'sjø;so, 'xw™s)a /xwi'†joso, 'xwe†/ juicio-
so˚ juez]˚ (tRi'uMfo) /tRi'unfo/ triunfo˚ (tRiuM'fal, tRju-) /tRiun'fal, tRju-/ triunfal˘ For
muy˚ we normally have ('mwi) /'mwi/, but also ('mui) /'mui/ is frequent (even if it
is often considered as dialectal).
Preferably, words like the following have /'wi/, but pronunciation with /u'i/ is
common, too: circuito˚ fortuito˚ gratuito˚ suizo˚ cøu¤ta˚ ruido˚ ruin˚ ruina˚ arruino˘
However, in fast speech, forms with /u'é, i'é/ easily become /'wé, 'jé/: (&deßtRu'iR,
deß'tRwiR)i (-s-)a /òestRu'iR/ dπtruir˚ (&ko«ßtRu'i;ƒo, ko«ß'tRwi;ƒo)i (-s-)a /konstRu'iòo/
construido˚ (fi'a;moß, 'fja;moß)i (-s)a /fi'amos/ fiamos˚ (&a◊tu'aR, a◊'twaR) /agtu'aR/ ac-
tuar˚ (&kaRi'a~Co, ka'Rja~Co) /kaRi'anco/ carian>o˚ (&beinti'u;no, bein'tju;no) /bein-
ti'uno/ veintiuno˘
6.3.1.4. Between words˚ clusters of V are more varied and more numerous, but
the criteria are the same. ©th identical V˚ reduction is greatly favored: (laaR'r:™;Ÿlo,
lFaR-, laR-) /laaR'r:eglo/ la arreglo˚ (lee[◊]ß'pli;ko, lãeß-, leß-)i (-s-)a /lee[k]s'pliko/ le expli-
co˚ (&loolBi'ƒ™, &ljo-, &lo-) /loolbi'òe/ lo olvidé˚ ('a˙gulo oñ'tußo) /'angulo ob'tuso/ án-
%lo obtö˚ (&impla'ka;Ble e˙'kø;no, &impla'ka; Ble˙-) /impla'kable en'kono/ implaca-
ble encono÷ (la'pR™;ßa 'a;†e u'na~CoR r:e'manßo, la'pR™; 'ßa;†e)i (-sa, -se, -so)a /la'pResa
'a†e u'nancoR r:e'manso/ la prπa hace un an>o remanso˚ (e'laiRe 'entRa ßil'Bando, e-
'lai 'Ren-)i (sil-)a /e'laiRe 'entRa sil'bando/ el aire entra silbando˚ (&mafi'B™˙2 'kwa;tRo 'ø;-
Xoß2 ke'ƒøß, &kwa'tRø;-)i (&maz-, -xos, -øs)a /mas'ben 'kwatRo 'oxos ke'òos/ más ven cua-
tro ojos ¢e dos˘
If the V are di‡erent, we have: (loaR'r:™;Ÿlo, ljaR-) /loaR'r:eglo/ lo arreglo˚ (la&oñ-
ßeR'B™, &lFo-)i (-s-)a /laobseR'be/ la observé˚ (loe[◊]ß'pli;ko, ljeß-)i (-s-)a /loe[k]s'pliko/ lo
explico˚ (lae[◊]ß'pli;ko, lFeß-)i (-s-)a /lae[k]s'pliko/ la explico˚ (loim'pli;ko, ljim-)
/loim'pliko/ lo implico˚ (laim'pli;ko, lFim-) /laim'pliko/ la implico˚ ('tø;ƒo a'k™;Lo,
'tø; ƒja-)i (-,o)a /'toòo a'keLo/ todo a¢eıo˚ ('tRißte o'ka;ßo, 'tRiß tão-)i (-is-, -so)a /'tRiste
o'kaso/ tr¤te ocøo˚ (&entReilu'ßjø;neß, &entRi-)i (-sjø;nes)a /entReilu'sjones/ entre ilïo-
nπ˚ ('pu;ƒo außen'taRße, 'pu; ƒjau-)i (-sen'taRse)a /'puòo ausen'taRse/ pudo aëntarse˚
('™;Roe iNmoR'tal, '™;Rje, iº-, i∫-, '™; Rjãi-) /'eRoe inmoR'tal/ héroe inmortal˚ (pa'la;†jo
au'Ÿußto, pa'la; †jjau-)i (-sjo, -sto)a /pa'la†jo au'gusto/ palacio au%sto÷ (ße'Ÿun ße&a-
no'ta;ƒo, ßãano-)i (s-, s-)a /se'gun seano'taòo/ segùn se ha notado˚ (de'ambofi 'mø;ƒoß,
'dãam-)i (-s)a /òe'ambos 'moòos/ de ambos modos˘
Obviously, the function of the vocalic elements that come into contact also
count. In fast speech, a grammeme-final V seems rather redundant; thus, it can be
dropped, even where its morphological function may seem important (however,
there are all the other elements which compensate adequately).
˛us, one could quite easily achieve even çzeroÇ, even with di‡erent V\ (la&aBRi-
'R™, &lFa-, &laB-) /laabRi'Re/ la abriré˚ (lo'ø;ƒjo, 'ljø;-, 'lø;-) /lo'oòjo/ lo odio˚ (mi'i;Xo,
'mãi;-, 'mi;-)i (-xo)a /mi'ixo/ mi hijo˚ (laeß'pø;ßa, lFeß-, leß-)i (-s'pø;sa)a /laes'posa/ la
πposa˚ (la'ø;Ra, 'lFø;-, 'lø;-) /la'oRa/ la hora˚ (lai'Xi;ta, lFi-, li-)i (-x-)a /lai'xita/ la hijita˚
(lo'u;niko, 'lju;-, 'lu;-) /lo'uniko/ lo ùnico˚ (lou'nj™;Ron, lju-, lu-) /lou'njeRon/ lo unie-
ron˚ (me'i;Ba, 'mãi;-, 'mi;-) /me'iba/ me iba˚ (me&ima'Xi;no, &mei-, &mãi-, &mi-)i (-x-)a
/meima'xino/ me imagino˘
6.3.1.5. Even clusters of various V are frequent in these examples (taken from
Navarro Tomás, but retranscribed and completed): (&eßka'l™;Ra aR'r:i;Ba, -'l™; RaR'r:i-)i
6. spanish 245
(&eska-)a /eska'leRa aR'r:iba/ πcalera arriba˚ (a'ma;ƒa eß'pø;ßa, a'ma; ƒFeß-, ƒeß-)i (-s-)a
/a'maòa es'posa/ amada πposa˚ (o'f™Rta i,'Xußta, o'f™R tFi,-, -ti,-)i (-˙'x-)a /o'feRta in-
'xusta/ oferta inj¨ta˚ (pa'la;BRa o'ßa;ƒa, pa'la; BRFo-, BRo-)i (-s-)a /pa'labRa o'saòa/ pala-
bra osada˚ ('ka;ßa u'milde, 'ka; ßFu-, ßu-)i (-s-)a /'kasa u'milde/ cøa humilde˚ ('kj™;Re a-
'BlaR, 'kj™; Rãa-, -Ra-) /'kjeRe a'blaR/ ¢iere hablar˚ ('pw™;ƒe eßkRi'BiR, 'pw™; ƒãeß-, ƒeß-)i
(-s-)a /'pweòe eskRi'biR/ puede πcribir˘
Also: ('nømbRe i'lußtRe, 'nøm bRãi-, bRi-) /'nombRe i'lustRe/ nombre il¨tre˚ ('tj™;ne
oR'Ÿu;Lo, 'tj™; não-, no-)i (-,o)a /'tjene or'guLo/ tiene or%ıo˚ ('X™nte u'milde, 'X™n tãu-÷
tu-)i ('x-)a /'xente u'milde/ gente humilde˚ ('ka;ßi apa'Ÿa;ƒo, 'ka; ßja-)i (-si, sj-)a /'kasi a-
pa'gaòo/ cøi apagado˚ (mi&eßpe'Ran†a, &mieß-, &mjeß-)i (-es-, -sa)a /miespe'Ran†a/ mi
πperanza˚ ('ka;ßi impo'ßi;Ble, 'ka; ßim-)i (-si, si-)a /'kasi impo'sible/ cøi imposible˚
(mio&BliŸa'†jøn, mjo-)i (-'sj-)a /miobliga'†jon/ mi obligación˚ (&niuna'B™†, ni&u-,
&nju-)i (-™s)a /niuna'be†/ ni una vez˘
And also: ('gRi;to a'Ÿu;ƒo, 'gRi; tja-) /'gRito a'guòo/ grito a%do˚ ('pø;ko eß'fw™R†o,
'pø; kjeß-÷ keß-)i (es-, -so)a /'poko es'fweR†o/ poco πfuerzo˚ ('n™;ŸRo iM'fj™Rno, 'n™;
ŸRjiM-, ŸRiM-) /'negRo in'fjeRno/ negro infierno˚ ('kwaRto oß'ku;Ro, 'kwaR tjoß-, toß-)i
(-s-)a /'kwarto os'kuRo/ cuarto oscuro˚ (e˙'ga;No u'ma;no, e˙'ga; Nju-, Nu-) /en'gaNo
u'mano/ engaño humano˚ (&ßuamiß'ta‡, &ßwa-)i (&s-, &s-)a /suamis'taò/ su am¤tad˚ ('im-
petu &eßpan'tø;ßo, -&tu eß-, -pe &tweß-)i (-es-, -so)a /'impetu espan'toso/ ìmpetu πpanto-
so˚ ('tRi;Bu i˙'gRa;ta, 'tRi; Bwi˙-) /'tRibu in'gRata/ tribu ingrata˚ (&poRßuo'nøR, -ßwo-)i
(-s-)a /poRsuo'noR/ por su honor˚ (eß'pi;Ritu u'ma;no, -Ri tu-)i (-s-)a /es'piRitu u'mano/
πpìritu humano˚ ('L™;Ÿa aaƒo'RaR, 'L™;Ÿa aƒo-, 'L™; Ÿaƒo-)i (',™-)a /'Lega aaòo'RaR/ ıega
a adorar˚ ('i;Ba aen†en'd™R, 'i;Ba en-)i (-s-)a /'iba aen†en'deR/ iba a encender˘
Further examples still: (be˙'gan†a ai'Ra;ƒa, -an †Fai-, -an †ai-)i (-sa, s-)a /ben'gan-
†a ai'Raòa/ venganza airada˚ (eß'ta;Ba ao'Ÿa;ƒa, -eß'ta; BFao-, Bao-)i (es-)a /es'taba ao-
'gaòa/ πtaba ahogada˚ (r:o'ßa;ƒa au'Rø;Ra, r:o'ßa; ƒFau-, ƒau-)i (-s-)a /r:o'saòa au'RoRa/
rosada aurora˚ ('kulta eu'Rø;pa, 'kul tFeu-, teu-) /'kulta eu'Ropa/ culta Europa˚ (a'pR™n-
de aa'BlaR, a'pR™n dãaa-, dãa-) /a'pRende aa'blaR/ aprende a hablar˚ ('auRea eß'pa;ƒa, 'au-
Rãa, &au RãFeß'pa;ƒa)i (-s-)a /'auRea es'paòa/ áurea πpada˚ ('mw™Rte ai'Ra;ƒa, 'mw™R tãai-,
tai-) /'mweRte ai'Raòa/ muerte airada˚ (pRe'ßu;me aon'daR, pRe'ßu; mãaon-)i (-s-)a /pRe-
'sume aon'daR/ prπume ahondar˚ ('fR™nte au'Ÿußta, 'fR™n tãau-, tau-)i (-s-)a /'fRente au-
'gusta/ frente au%sta˚ (biR'Xi;neo e˙'kanto, -nãjo, -não)i (-x-)a /biR'xineo en'kanto/
virgìneo encanto˘
6.3.1.6. Examples of vowel clusters in sentences continue: (no'ti;†ja a'l™;ŸRe, no-

'ti; †ja'l™-)i (-s-)a /no'ti†ja a'legRe/ noticia alegre˚ ('r:™Xja eß'tiRpe, 'r:™; XjFeß-, Xjeß-)i (-x-,
-s-)a /'r:exja es'tiRpe/ regia πtirpe˚ ('glø;Rja iNmoR'tal, iº-, i∫-, 'glø; RFi-) /'gloRja inmoR-
'tal/ gloria inmortal˚ (eß'tan†ja o'kulta, eß'tan †jFo-, †jo-)i (es-, -sja)a /es'tan†ja o'kul-
ta/ πtancia oculta˚ (Xuß'ti;†ja u'ma;na, Xuß'ti; †jFu-, †ju-)i (xus'ti;s-)a /xus'ti†ja u'ma-
na/ j¨ticia humana˚ ('na;ƒje a'ku;ƒe, 'na; ƒja-) /'naòje a'kuòe/ nadie acude˚ ('X™;njo
aß'tu;to, 'X™; njjaß-)i ('x™-, -s-)a /'xenjo as'tuto/ genio øtuto˚ (ßi'l™n†jo elo'kw™nte, ßi-
'l™n †jje-)i (si-, -sjo)a /si'len†jo elo'kwente/ silencio elocuente˚ ('ø;†jo i'nu;til, 'ø;
†jji-)i (-sjo)a /'o†jo i'nutil/ ocio inùtil˘
Also: ('n™;†jo oR'Ÿu;Lo, 'n™; †jjoR-, '†joR-)i (-sj-, -,o)a /'ne†jo oR'guLo/ necio or%ıo˚
('ßi;tjo um'bRø;ßo, 'ßi; tjjum'-)i ('si-, -so)a /'sitjo um'bRoso/ sitio umbroso˚ ('bw™lBo aa-
'taRlo, -Bo a't-, 'bw™l Bja't) /'bwelbo aa'taRlo/ vuelvo a atarlo˚ ('b™˙go aempe'†aR,
'b™˙ gjaem-, gjFem-, gjem-)i (-saR)a /'bengo aempe'†aR/ vengo a empezar˚ ('kw™Rpo
ai'Rø;ßo, 'kw™R pjFi-, pjai-) /'kweRpo ai'Roso/ cuerpo airoso˚ (diß'pw™ßto ao&Beƒe'†™R,
diß'pw™ß tjFo-, tjao-)i (-s'pw™s-, -s™R)a /òis'pwesto aobeòe'†eR/ d¤puπto a obedecer˚
('faußto auß'pi;†jo, 'fauß tjFuß-, tjauß-)i (-st-, -s'pi;sjo)a /'fausto aus'pi†jo/ fa¨to a¨-
picio˘
And also: (an'ti;Ÿwa alti'B™†, an'ti; Ÿwal-)i (-™s)a /an'tigwa alti'be†/ anti%a alti-
vez˚ ('l™˙gwa e[◊]ß'tRa;Na, 'l™˙ gwFe-)i (-s-)a /'lengwa e[k]s'tRaNa/ len%a extraña˚ (eß-
'ta;twa iN'mø;Bil, iº-, i∫-, eß'ta; 'twFi-)i (es-)a /es'tatwa in'mobil/ πtatua inmóvil˚ ('a;-
Ÿwa olo'Rø;ßa, 'a; ŸwFo-) /'agwa olo'Rosa/ a%a olorosa˚ ('fa;twa u&mani'ƒa‡, 'fa; twFu-)
/'fatwa umani'òaò/ fatua humanidad˚ ('mu;two a'møR, 'mu; twja-) /'mutwo a'moR/
mutuo amor˚ ('aRƒwo em'p™;No, 'aR ƒwjem-) /'aRdwo em'peNo/ arduo empeño˚ (peR-
'p™;two im'p™;Rjo, peR'p™; twjim-) /peR'petwo im'peRjo/ perpetuo imperio˚ (kon'ti;-
nwo e'lø;Xjo, kon'ti; nwje-)i (-xjo)a /kon'tinwo e'loxjo/ continuo elogio˘
Lastly: ('fa;two oR'Ÿu;Lo, 'fa; twjoR-, twoR-)i (-,o)a /'fatwo oR'guLo/ fatuo or%ıo˚
('mønßtRwo u'ma;no, 'mønß tRwju-, tRwu-)i (-s-)a /'monstRwo u'mano/ monstruo
humano˚ ('r:™;Xja au&toRi'ƒa‡, 'r:™; XjFu-, Xjau-)i (-x-)a /'r:exja autoRi'òaò/ regia autori-
dad˚ (koR'r:jø aeßpe'RaRlo, Feß-, eß-)i (-s-)a /koR'r:jo aespe'RaRlo/ corrió a πperarlo˚ (pa-
'la;†jo au'Ÿußto, pa'la; †jjau-, †jjFu-)i (-sjo, -us-)a /pa'la†jo au'gusto/ palacio au%s-
to˚ (i'ni;kwo au'Ÿu;Rjo, i'ni; kwjau-, kwjFu-) /i'nikwo au'guRjo/ inicuo au%rio˚ (em-
'bi;ƒjo aeu'ß™;Bjo, em'bi; ƒjjaeu-, ƒjaeu-, ƒjFeu-, ƒjjeu-)i (-s-)a /em'biòjo aeu'sebjo/
envidio a Eëbio˘
6.3.1.7. ˛e conjunctions y˚ o (and their variants e˚ u], between V in di‡erent

words (even if with /wé/), are normally realized as (j, w) /j, w/ (but also with (ã,
j)): ('ka;ßa 'jw™Rta, 'ãw™-)i (-sa)a /'kasa 'jwerta/ cøa y huerta˚ ('a;Ÿwa 'jaiRe, 'ãa-) /'agwa
'jaiRe/ a%a y aire˚ (ßa˙'gRj™nta 'ja~Ca, 'ãa-) /san'gRjenta 'janca/ sangrienta y an>a˚
(a'pa;Ÿa jen'†j™nde, ãe-)i (-sj-)a /a'paga jen'†jende/ apaga y enciende˚ ('ka;Le jeß'ku;-
Ce, ãe-)i (-,e jes-, ãe-)a /'kaLe jes'kuce/ caıe y πcu>e˚ (ßo'BRi;na 'ji;Xa, 'ãi-)i (so-, -xa)a
/so'bRina 'jixa/ sobrina e hija˚ (r:i'k™;†a jin'dußtRja, ãin-)i (-sa, -st-)a /r:i'ke†a jin'dus-
tRja/ ri¢eza e ind¨tria˚ ('™ßta wa'k™;La, ja-)i ('™s-, -,a)a /'esta wa'keLa/ πta o a¢e-
ıa˚ ('bla˙ka wa'†ul, ja-)i (-sul)a /'blanka oa'†ul/ blanca o azul˚ ('ßj™;te 'wø;Co, 'jø-)i
('sj-)a /'sjete u'oco/ siete u o>o˚ ('u ;no 'wø;tRo, 'jø-) /'uno u'otRo/ uno u otro˘
˛e real language (¤ the spoken language) shows how grammar futilely compli-
cates things, given that the normal pronunciation of the four written forms [y˚ e÷
o˚ u] is the same (for e there is (ã), too). Naturally, schools have then reinforced the
çneedÇ for distinction, imposing it on pronunciation too; thus slowing down emis-
sion, or paying attention (to spelling), or for the sake of clarity, /i, e÷ o, u/ can
come up again.
6.3.1.8. Usually (except in slow speech), a final C˚ followed by an initial V˚ in

words without breaks, resyllabifies: (e'lø;Ro) /e'loRo/ el oro˚ (u'nømbRe) /u'nombRe/
un hombre˚ ('muCo ßo'nø;Reß)i (so-, -es)a /'muco so'noRes/ mu>os honorπ˚ ('lu †a-
ma'Ri;La)i (sa-, -,a)a /'lu †ama'RiLa/ luz amariıa˘
Hence, there is no di‡erence between: helado and el hado (e'la;ƒo) /e'laòo/, elegi-
6. spanish 247
do and el ejido (&ele'Xi;ƒo)i (-x-)a /ele'xiòo/, hele>o and el he>o (e'l™;Co) /e'leco/, he-
leno and el heno (e'l™;no) /e'leno/, la sabπ and lø avπ (la'ßa;Beß)i (la'sa;Bes)a /la's-
abes/, ena%ø and en a%ø (e'na;Ÿwaß)i (-s)a /e'nagwas/, enojo and en ojo (e'nø;Xo)i
(-xo)a /e'noxo/˘
In emphatic or vigorous pronunciation, or in singing, after stressed V˚ the con-
tinuous non-diphonic C (voiced: /m, n, N÷ l, L/, and voiceless: /f, †, s, x/ – but not
/R, Rr:/, for which length is essential), instead of the normal structure, with ('é;0é),
often have ('é00é): ('u ;mo, "ummo) /'umo/ humo˚ ('a;na, "anna) /'ana/ Ana˚ ('ba;le,
"balle) /'bale/ vale˚ ('X™;fe, "X™ffe)i (x™-)a /'xefe/ jefe˚ ('di;†e, "di††e)i (-se, -sse)a /'òi†e/
dice˚ ('ka;ßa, "kaßßa)i (-sa, -ssa)a /'kasa/ cøa˚ ('i;Xo, "iXXo)i (-xo, -xxo)a /'ixo/ hijo˘
6.3.1.9. Phonetically, two same C are realized as a contained gemination, /00/

(00): (i&nnume'Ra;Ble) /innume'Rable/ innumerable˚ (&ßinne&†eßi'ƒa‡)i (&sinne&se-)a /sin-
ne†esi'òaò/ sin necπidad˚ ('øBBjo) /'obbjo/ obvio˚ (&ßuBBen'†jøn)i (&su-, -'sj-)a /sub-
ben'†jon/ subvención˚ (e'ƒaƒ ƒi'Cø;ßa)i (-sa)a /e'òaò òi'cosa/ edad di>osa˚ (&XuBen'tuƒ
ƒo'Ra;ƒa)i (xu-)a /xuben'tuò òo'Raòa/ juventud dorada˚ (koR'†™l li'X™;Ro)i (-'s™l li'x™-)a
/koR'†el li'xeRo/ corcel ligero˚ (el'lø;Bo) /el'lobo/ el lobo˚ ('lu† †eni'tal)i (-s s-)a /'lu† †e-
ni'tal/ luz cenital˚ ('dj™† †i'ŸaRr:oß)i (-s s-, -os)a /'òje† †i'gaRr:os/ diez cigarros˚ (&loß ße-
'Nø;Reß)i (-s s-, -es)a /losse'NoRes/ los señorπ˚ ('døß ßo'BRi;noß)i (-s s-, -os)a /'òos so'bRi-
nos/ dos sobrinos˘
˛e di‡erence between (0) and (00) is more than enough (and what is neces-
sary) to distinguish cases such as: (&uno'Bi;Lo)i (-,o)a /uno'biLo/ un oviıo and (&un-
no'Bi;Lo)i (-,o)a /unno'biLo/ un noviıo˚ (ßo'nømbReß)i (s-, -s)a /so'nombRes/ son hom-
brπ and (ßon'nømbReß)i (s-, -s)a /son'nombRes/ son nombrπ˚ (a&k™'lø;Ro) /a'ke 'loRo/
a¢el oro and (a&k™l'lø;Ro) /a'kel 'loRo/ a¢el loro˚ ('ma 'ßø;BRan)i ('s-)a /'ma 'sobRan/
más obran and ('maß 'ßø;BRan)i (-s 's-)a /'mas 'sobRan/ más sobran˘
˛e prefix /sub/ sub-˚ before /r:/, is obviously heterosyllabic: (&ßuB-r:a',aR) /sub-
r:a'JaR/ subrayar÷ the same occurs, with other C˚ when the a‚x is clearly perceived:
(&ßuB-limi'nal)i (&s-)a /sub-limi'nal/ subliminal˘
For -dl-˚ the syllabification is /ò-l/: (mi'Raƒ-lo) /mi'Raòlo/ miradlo÷ for -tl-˚ ç/t-l/iÇ
(¤ /ò-l/i) and /-tl/a prevail: ('a‡laß)i ('a;tlas)a /'aòlas, 'atlas/ atlø˚ (a‡'l™;ta)i (a'tl™;ta)a
/aò'leta, a'tle-/ atleta˘
6.3.1.10. As has already been mentioned, spontaneous and normal pronuncia-

tion –for heterosyllabic (voiced or voiceless) stops– has non-stopped realizations:
voiced before voiced C˚ and half-voiced before voiceless ones: ('añto) /'abto, -pt-/
apto˚ (do◊'tøR) /òog'toR, -k't-/ doctor˚ (&oñte'n™R) /obte'neR/ obtener˚ (&a‡ki'RiR) /aòki-
'RiR/ ad¢irir˚ (&aBƒi'kaR) /abòi'kaR/ abdicar˚ (&aƒBeR'tiR) /aòbeR'tiR/ advertir˚ (&ekliñ-
'ßaR)i (-s-)a /eklib'saR, -p's-/ eclipsar˚ (&kon†eñ'†jøn)i (-señ'sjøn)a /kon†eb'†jon, -p'†-/
concepción˚ (&ßuB-,u'ŸaR)i (s-)a /subJu'gaR/ subyugar˚ (&aƒ-,a'†™nte)i (-s-)a /aòJa'†ente/
adyacente˚ (a◊'†jøn)i (-s-)a /ag'†jon, ak-/ acción˚ (e◊'ßa;men)i (-s-)a /eg'samen, ek-/ e-
xamen˚ (aB&neŸa'†jøn)i (-sjøn)a /abnega'†jon/ abnegación˚ (aƒ'møßfeRa)i (-s-)a /aò-
'mosfeRa, at'm-/ atmósfera˚ (&aƒmi'Ra;Ble) /aòmi'Rable/ admirable˚ ('t™Ÿnika, -«n-)
/'tegnika, -kn-/ técnica˚ ('diŸno, -«no) /'òigno/ digno˚ (&ßuBma'Ri;no) /subma'Rino/
submarino÷ (fully voiced or, respectively, voiceless) stop realizations are typical of
emphasis — attention (to spelling).

Lastly, we see some cases of complex consonant clusters: (oñß'ta;kulo)i (-s-)a /obs-
'takulo/ obstáculo˚ (a‡ß'kRi;to)i (-s-)a /aòs'kRito/ adscrito˚ (ko«ß'tante)i (-s-)a /kons'tante/
constante˘
Stress
6.3.2.1. Spanish spelling is quite satisfactory regarding the indication of word
stress; however, some doubts remain concerning clusters of graphic VV˚ above all
with i˚ u÷ furthermore, there are possible oscillations, and di‡erences with respect
to Portuguese or Italian.
˛e position of stress is distinctive (and we can also find threefold phonemic
contrasts, the first of which are nouns, indicated graphically too), as in: ('a;nimo)
/'animo/ ánimo˚ (a'ni;mo) /a'nimo/ animo and (&ani'mø) /ani'mo/ animó; (kon'ti;-
nwo) /kon'tinwo/ continuo˚ (&konti'nuo) /konti'nuo/ continùo and (&konti'nwø)
/konti'nwo/ continuó; ('li;mite) /'limite/ lìmite˚ (li'mi;te) /li'mite/ limite˚ (&limi't™)
/limi'te/ limité÷ (de'pø;ßito)i (-s-)a /òe'posito/ depósito˚ (&depo'ßi;to)i (-s-)a /òepo'sito/
deposito˚ (de&poßi'tø)i (-s-)a /òeposi'to/ depositó˘
For stress oscillations, some examples follow: acné˚ acne÷ aeróstato˚ aerostato÷
ambrosìa˚ ambrosia÷ atmósfera˚ atmosfera÷ a¨triaco˚ a¨trìaco÷ bala¨tre˚ balaùstre÷
cartomancia˚ cartomancìa (but only farmacia]÷ cìclope˚ ciclope÷ conclave˚ cónclave÷
dinamo˚ dìnamo÷ elixir˚ elìxir÷ etìope˚ etiope (but only miope]÷ gladìolo˚ gladiolo÷
ìbero˚ ibero÷ m¤il˚ mìsil÷ olimpiada˚ olimpìada÷ orgìa˚ orgia÷ ósmos¤˚ osmos¤÷ pelì-
cano˚ pelicano÷ pensil˚ pénsil÷ pentagrama˚ pentágrama÷ perìodo˚ periodo÷ policro-
mo˚ polìcromo÷ polìgloto˚ poligloto÷ radar˚ rádar÷ reptil˚ réptil÷ reuma˚ reùma÷ ter-
mostato˚ termóstato÷ utopìa˚ utopia÷ varicπ˚ váricπ˘
6.3.2.2. Lexical compounds and adverbs ending in -mente˚ keep quite a strong
stress even on the first element (according to the scale: ('), (“), (&)): (“køRta'Bølßaß)i
(-sas)a /'koRta'bolsas/ cortabolsø (Ô (&koRta'ƒø;Ra) /koRta'òoRa/ cortadora), (“i˙ka'pj™)
/'inka'pje/ hincapié˚ (“entRe'ƒøß)i (-s)a /'entRe'òos/ entredós (Ô (&entRe'ƒøfi mu'Ca;Coß)i
(-os)a /entRe'òos mu'cacos/ entre dos mu>a>os), (r:e&al'm™nte) /r:e'al'mente/ real-
mente˚ (&beRƒa“ƒ™Ra'm™nte) /beRòa'òeRa'mente/ verdaderamente˚ (“fa†il'm™nte)i (-s-)a
/'fa†il'mente/ fácilmente˘ Also: (“tøƒa'Bia) /'toòa'bia/ todavìa˚ (a&ßi'mifimo)i (a&si-
'mis-)a /a'si'mismo/ øim¤mo (as can be seen in the last example, if a first /'/ is imme-
diately followed by another /'/, it becomes (&); on the other hand, however, if the
form were with only one /'/, ç/asi'mismo/Ç, we should have ç(&aßi'mifimo)i (&asi-
'mis-)aÇ).
To begin to acknowledge the di‡erent stress patterns, compared –for instance–
to Italian, we give some useful examples: (final stressed) acentùo˚ amplìo˚ varìo˚
(stressed on the last but one syllable) abdico˚ altero˚ animo˚ celebro˚ certifico˚ com-
puto˚ convoco˚ denomino˚ deposito˚ d¤puto˚ edifico˚ indico˚ integro˚ interrogo˚ lim-
ito˚ medito˚ modifico˚ modulo˚ penetro˚ significo /signi'fiko/, termino˚ venero˚ violo
/'bjolo/, v¤ito /bi'sito/, limpio /'limpjo/. Furthermore: (a'n™;mja) /a'nemja/ anemia˚
(bi'Ÿa;mja) /bi'gamja/ bigamia˚ (&kaRam'bø;la) /kaRam'bola/ carambola˚ (diß'pu;ta)i
6. spanish 249
(-s-)a /òis'puta/ d¤puta˚ (e'l™;na) /e'lena/ Elena˚ (en&†iklo'p™;ƒja)i (-&si-)a /en†ik-

lo'peòja/ enciclopedia˚ (faR'ma;†ja)i (-s-)a /faR'ma†ja/ farmacia˚ ('mjø;pe) /'mjope/
miope˚ (pa'Rø;ƒja) /pa'Roòja/ parodia˚ (te'Ra;pja) /te'Rapja/ terapia÷ obviously, forms
such as (a'p™ndi†e)i (-se)a /a'pendi†e/ apéndice are less risky, at least when reading.
Let us also note: (r:a'†øn)i (-s-)a /r:a'†on/ razón˚ (r:a'†ø;neß)i (-'sø;nes)a /r:a'†ones/
razonπ˚ ('biRXen)i (-x-)a /'biRxen/ virgen˚ ('biRXeneß)i (-xenes)a /'biRxenes/ vìrgenπ˚
and lastly: (ka'Ra◊teR) /ka'RagteR, -kt-/ carácter˚ (&kaRa◊'t™;Reß)i (-s)a /kaRag'teRes, -k't-/
caracterπ˚ ('r:™;Ximen)i (-x-)a /'r:eximen/ régimen˚ (r:e'Xi;meneß)i (-x-, -s)a /r:e'xime-
nes/ regìmenπ˘
6.3.2.3. Even in Spanish, in connected speech, there are normally words which
are destressed; the articles are among these: (e'lømbRe) /e'lombRe/ el hombre˚ (&elal-
'kalde) /elal'kalde/ el alcalde˚ (la'ka;ßa)i (-sa)a /la'kasa/ la cøa˚ (laß'Ci;kaß)i (-s'Ci;kas)a
/las'cikas/ lø >icø˚ (&una'mi;Ÿo) /una'migo/ un amigo˚ (&unaß'tR™inta peR'ßø;naß)i
(&unas-, -'sø;nas)a /unas'tReinta peR'sonas/ unø treinta personø˘
We then have forms (plurisyllabic too), such as salvo˚ excepto˚ mediante˚ duran-
te÷ and phrases such as rπpecto a˚ junto a˚ encima de˚ delante de\ (a'ma;laŸa) /a'ma-
laga/ a Málaga˚ (ko'n™;La)i (-,a)a /ko'neLa/ con eıa˚ (&empa'Riß)i (-s)a /empa'Ris/ en
Parìs˚ (&ßinßom'bR™;Ro)i (&sinsom-)a /sinsom'bReRo/ sin sombrero˚ (&ante'tø;ƒo) /ante'to-
òo/ ante todo˚ (&baXolo'ßaRBoleß)i (-xolo's-, -es)a /baxolo'saRboles/ bajo los árbolπ˚
(&kontRa&mißa'mi;Ÿoß)i (-sa'mi;Ÿos)a /kontRamisa'migos/ contra m¤ amigos˚ (&defiƒe-
'øi)i (-z-)a /òesòe'oi/ dπde hoy˚ (&entRelo'ßø;Xoß)i (-'sø;xos)a /entRelo'soxos/ entre los o-
jos˘
Furthermore: (&aßta'ki, -Fa-, -aa-)i (&as-)a /astaa'ki/ høta a¢ì˚ (&a†jael'pw™Rto,
-†jFel-)i (-sj-)a /a†jael'pweRto/ hacia el puerto˚ (&paRa&nweßtRofi'w™ßpeƒeß)i (-stRos'w™s-
peƒes)a /paRanwestRos'wespeòes/ para nuπtros huéspedπ˚ (&ßoBRel'ßø;BRe)i (&soBRel's-)a
/sobReel'sobRe/ sobre el sobre˚ (e◊&†eñto'ƒøß)i (-&señto'ƒøs)a /eg†ebto'òos, ek†epto-/
excepto dos˚ (&Xuntoala'pw™Rta, -tja-)i (&xu-)a /xuntoala'pweRta/ junto a la puerta˘
Also: (en&†ima&ƒela'ka;ßa)i (-si-, -sa)a /en†imaòela'kasa/ encima de la cøa˚ (de&lan-
teƒe'mi) /òelanteòe'mi/ delante de mì˘ Even in more or less long series: (&paRa&entRe-
no'ßø;tRoß, pa&RFen-)i (-'sø;tRos)a /paRaentReno'sotRos/ para entre nosotros˚ (&poRen&†i-
maƒe'tø;ƒo)i (-'si-)a /poRen†imaòe'toòo/ por encima de todo˚ (&poRƒe&lante&ƒelXaR-
'ƒin)i (-x-)a /poRòelanteòelxaR'òin/ por delante del jardìn˚ (&defiƒepo&RentRelo'ßaRBo-
leß)i (&dez-, -'saRBoles)a /òesòepoRentRelo'saRboles/ dπde por entre los árbolπ˘
Generally, conjunctions too are destressed (even in phrases, such as en cuanto
(¢e)˚ puπto ¢e˚ supuπto ¢e), except with ora˚ ya˚ bien (disjunctive), øì (consec-
utive), no obstante˚ con todo˚ fuera de (adversative), en efecto˚ por tanto˚ por consi-
%iente˚ øì ¢e (consecutive), apenø˚ aùn no˚ no bien˚ ya ¢e˚ luego ¢e˚ dπpués
¢e˚ en tanto ¢e (temporal), a no ser ¢e˚ dado ¢e˚ con tal ¢e (conditional), por
más ¢e˚ a pπar de ¢e˚ mal ¢e˚ ya ¢e (concessive), (&pweßtoke&noloßa'Bia)i (-sto-,
-sa-)a /pwestokenolosa'bia/ puπto ¢e no lo sabìa˘ At the beginning of elliptic ques-
tions y is stressed: (¿'i tuçpa;ƒRe21)i (-'pa;-)a /¿'i tu'paòRe?/ ¿Y tu padre?
6.3.2.4. It will not be superfluous to observe that there is a di‡erence, in stress

too, between: (e&koße'Ca;ƒo)i (-s-)a /ekose'caòo/ he cose>ado and ('™;ko ßo'nø;Ro) /'e-
ko so'noRo/ eco sonoro˚ (&aLe'Ÿa;ƒo)i (&a,-)a /aLe'gaòo/ ha ıegado and ('a;No 'ma;lo) /'a-
No 'malo/ año malo˚ (&eßto'ma;ƒo)i (&es-)a /esto'maòo/ π tomado and ('™ßto 'pi;ƒo)i
('™s-)a /'esto 'piòo/ πto pido˚ (ßo&naƒmi'Ra;ƒoß)i (s-, -s)a /sonaòmi'Raòos/ son admira-
dos and ('ßø naRmo'njø;ßo)i ('s-, -so)a /'so naRmo'njoso/ son armonioso˘
Object pronouns are destressed, la˚ le˚ lo˚ lø˚ lπ˚ los˚ me˚ nos˚ os˚ se˚ te\ (me'pa;Ro
ami'RaR, me'pa; Rja-) /me'paRo ami'RaR/ me paro a mirar˚ (ofi'Bi;mofi Be'niR)i (oz'Bi;-
moz)a /os'bimos be'niR/ os vimos venir˚ (ße&leßpeR'ƒjø)i (se&les-)a /selespeR'òjo/ se lπ
perdió÷ instead, subject pronouns and indirect pronouns are stressed:('›ø 'ß™)i ('s™)a
/'Jo 'se/ yo sé˚ ('tu 'pw™;ƒeß)i (-s)a /'tu 'pweòes/ tù puedπ˚ ('™l 'di;†e)i (-se)a /'el 'di†e/ él
dice˚ (poR'mi) /poR'mi/ por mì˚ (&paRa'ti) /paRa'ti/ para ti˘
Possessive adjectives are destressed: (&mißeR'ma;noß)i (-se-, -os)a /miseR'manos/ m¤
hermanos˚ (tu'ßø;Xoß)i (-'sø;xos)a /tu'soxos/ t¨ ojos˚ (ßu'ma;ƒRe)i (s-)a /su'maòRe/ su
madre˚ (&nweßtRo'tj™mpo)i (-s-)a /nwestRo'tjempo/ nuπtro tiempo˘
Generally demonstrative adjectives, are destressed (but, from a pragmatic point
of view, they can be considered potentially stressable): (&eßte'li;BRo, “™ß-)i (-s-)a /este-
'libRo/ πte libro˚ (&eße'p™Rr:o, “™-) /ese'peRr:o/ πe perro˚ (a&keLamu'X™R, a“k™-)i (-,amu-
'x-)a /akeLamu'xeR/ a¢eıa mujer˘
6.3.2.5. Relative pronouns [¢e˚ ¢ien{π}˚ cual{π}˚ cuyo{s}] are destressed (con-
trary to interrogative and exclamatory ones): (e'lømbRe ke'Bi;moß)i (-s)a /e'lombRe
ke'bimos/ el hombre ¢e vimos˚ (e˙&ku,o'ka;ßo)i (-so)a /enkuJo'kaso/ en cuyo cøo÷
cual˚ cualπ (with the article) and tal˚ talπ are stressed: ('t™˙go uneR'ma;no2 el'kwaL
'L™;Ÿa 'øi2 ke)i (-L ',-)a /'tengo u'neRmano, el'kwal 'Lega 'oi/ tengo un hermano, el cual
ıega hoy, ¢e…˚ (le'ƒi;Xo 'tal 'kø;ßa)i (-xo, -sa)a /le'òixo 'tal 'kosa/ le dijo tal cosa˘
Relative adverbs [como˚ cuando˚ cuanto˚ donde] are also destressed, contrary to
interrogative and exclamatory ones: (&kwandoe'laiRe ße'kalma, -dje-) /kwandoe'lai-
Re se'kalma/ cuando el aire se calma˚ (la'pla;†a &ƒondeß&tatu'ka;ßa)i (-sa, -s&t-, -sa)a /la-
'pla†a òondeestatu'kasa/ la plaza donde πtá tu cøa˘
‹ereas the indefinites [algo˚ algùn˚ al%no˚ al%ien˚ nadie˚ ningùn˚ nin%no˚ o-
tro] are stressed, cada generally is not: (&kaƒa'ƒia) /kaòa'òia/ cada dìa˘ Even tan is
not stressed, contrary to tanto˚ tanta˘
‹en used as conjunctions, the following adverbs are destressed: luego˚ mien-
trø˚ aùn (which becomes /'aun/), más˚ menos˚ cøi÷ the adverb medio is too (con-
trary to its corresponding adjective).
6.3.2.6. ˛e forms of çtratamientoÇ, don˚ doña˚ fray˚ sor˚ san˚ santo˚ santa˚ are al-
ways destressed before a name: (do˙'kaRloß)i (-s)a /òon'kaRlos/ don Carlos˚ (&doNaƒo-
'lø;Reß)i (-s)a /òoNaòo'loRes/ doña Dolorπ˚ (&ßantoƒo'mi˙go)i (&s-)a /santoòo'mingo/
santo Domingo÷ vocative forms are destressed too, señor˚ señora˚ señorita˚ padre˚ ma-
dre˚ hermano˚ hermana˚ tìo˚ tìa\ (ße&NoRmaR'ti;ne†)i (s-, -s)a /seNoRmaR'tine†/ señor
Martìnez˚ (ße&NoRama'Ria)i (s-)a /seNoRama'Ria/ señora Marìa˚ (&paƒRean'dR™ß, -ƒRãan-)i
(-s)a /paòRean'dRes/ padre Andrés˚ (tio'Xwan)i (-x-)a /tio'xwan/ tìo Juan÷ however,
when not used in forms of çtratamientoÇ, we have the regular: (&una'ßanta mu'X™R)i
(-s-, -x-)a /una'santa mu'xeR/ una santa mujer˚ ('bi;no elße'NøR maR'ti;ne†)i (-s-, -s)a /'bi-
no else'NoR maR'tine†/ vino el señor Martìnez˚ (aeß'kRi;to el'tio 'Xwan)i (aes-, 'x-)a /aes-
6. spanish 251
'kRito el'tio 'xwan/ ha πcrito el tìo Juan˘

Even in vocative phrases, there is destressing: (bwe'nømbRe) /bwe'nombRe/ ¡buen
hombre!˚ (&mala'l™˙gwa) /mala'lengwa/ ¡mala len%a!˚ (gRam'pi;kaRo) /gRam'pikaRo/
¡gran pìcaro!˚ (djofi'mio)i (-s-)a /djos'mio/ ¡Dios mìo!
Even in compound names (of people or places), there is attenuation of the first
element: (Xwa˙'kaRloß)i (x-, -s)a /xwan'kaRlos/ Juan Carlos˚ (ma&RiaXo'ß™;fa)i (-xo's-)a
/ma&Riaxo'sefa/ Marìa Josefa˚ (&ßantoƒo'mi˙go)i (&s-)a /santoòo'mingo/ Santo Domin-
go˚ (&toRr:eƒel'kønde) /toRr:eòel'konde/ Torre del Conde˘
6.3.2.7. Certain common phrases are also destressed: (&boka'BaXo)i (-xo)a /boka-
'baxo/ boca abajo˚ (&pataßaR'r:i;Ba) /patasaR'r:iba/ patø arriba˘
In numbers formed with y˚ the first element is destressed: (&tReintai'†i˙ko)i (-'s-)a
/tReintai'†inko/ treinta y cinco˚ (kwa&Rentai'ßj™;te)i (-'s-)a /kwaRentai'sjete/ cuarenta y
siete÷ also cien(to) before mil is destressed: (†jeN'mil, -M'm-, -º'm-, -M'm-, -∫'m-)i
('s-)a /†jen'mil/ cien mil˚ (&oCo&†jentafi'mil pe'ß™;taß)i (-&sj-, -as-, -'s™;tas)a /oco†jen-
tas'mil pe'setas/ o>ocientø mil pπetø˘ Simple numbers are stressed, even if mono-
syllabic and near a stress: ('døfi 'Ÿa;toß)i (-z 'Ÿa;tos)a /'òos 'gatos/ dos gatos˚ ('tR™ß
ka'Ba;Loß)i (-s ka'Ba;,os)a /'tRes ka'baLos/ trπ cabaıos˚ ('un 'li;BRo) /'un 'libRo/ un libro
(compared to the article: (un'li;BRo) /un'libRo/ un libro).
6.3.2.8. Obviously in long words, as in sentences, some secondary stresses are
introduced, for rhythmic reasons: ('kømpRame&lo) /'kompRamelo/ cómpramelo˚ (a-
'Na;ƒaße&le)i (-s-)a /a'Naòasele/ añádøele˚ (&entRe'Ÿandoße&lo)i (-s-)a /entRe'gandoselo/
entregándoselo˘
Words such as aun¢e˚ con¢e˚ por¢e˚ sino˚ are normally /'aunke, a'unke÷ 'kon-
ke÷ 'poRke÷ 'sino/, however, in sentences, their composition can also bring to stress
patterns such as: (&au˙ke, a&u˙ke, au˙&ke, au˙'k™÷ &ko˙ke, ko˙&ke, ko˙'k™÷ &poRke,
poR&ke, poR'k™÷ &ßino, ßi&no, ßi'nø)i (s-)a, although, they are often considered incor-
rect, for spelling reasons.
Emphasis, particularly in imperatives with enclitic pronouns, can modify the
structure considerably (above all, for stresses), as in: ('da;melo, "da:melo, "da;me&lo,
"da;me'lø, 'da;me'lø, &dame'lø) /'òamelo/ ¡dámelo!
6.3.2.9. ˛e words (a'ø;Ra) /a'oRa/ ahora˚ (a'i) /a'i/ ahì˚ (a'un) /a'un/ aùn/aun˚
when they are not in an intoneme and are linked to what follows, have the fre-
quent variants ('aoRa, 'ai, 'aun): (a'ø;Ra 'Bj™;ne, 'aoRa) /a'oRa 'bjene/ ahora viene˚ (a'i
eß'ta, 'ai)i (-s-)a /a'i es'ta/ ahì πtá˚ (a'um mi 'pa;ƒRe, 'aum) /a'un mi'paòRe/ aun mi pa-
dre˚ (a'un no'ßale, 'au)i (-s-)a /a'un no'sale/ aùn no sale˘
In the case of /'jé[s]ò/, in an intoneme (more often when followed by a pause), it
is quite frequent to find, even in the neutral accent, a pronunciation which, often,
seems as if it were ç/'ié[s]ò/Ç, while, it is generally only /i'é[s]ò/: (paR'tjø, &paRti'ø)
/par'tjo/ partió˚ (a'ƒjøß, &aƒi'øß)i (-s)a /a'òjos/ adiós˚ (lim'pj™, &limpi'™) /lim'pje/
limpié˚ (em'pj™, &empi'™) /em'pje/ en pie÷ however, occasionally, we can doubtless-
ly have the structure ('i&é), even in neutral pronunciation: (paR'ti&ø, a'ƒi&øß, lim'pi&™,
em'pi&™)i (-s)a.
6.3.2.10. In fast and familiar speech, common words and proper names in a pre-
intoneme with ('ia) /'ia/ ìa frequently become ('ja) /'ja/: (al'dia ßi'Ÿj™nte, al'dja, al-
&djaßi'-) /al'dia si'gjente/ al dìa si%iente˚ ('pø;kofi 'ƒiafi ƒeß'pw™ß, 'ƒjafi, 'pø;kofi&ƒjafi)i
(-z, -z, -s-, -s)a /'pokos 'òias òes'pwes/ pocos dìø dπpués˚ (ßu'tia ƒo'lø;Reß, ßu'tja, ßu&tja-
ƒo'-)i (s-, -s)a /su'tia òo'loRes/ su tìa Dolorπ˚ (&doNama'Ria maR'ti;ne†, &doNama'Rja, &do-
Nama&RjamaR'-)i (-s)a /doNama'Ria maR'tine†/ doña Marìa Martìnez˚ (gaR'†ia Ÿu'tj™R-
r:e†, gaR'†ja, gaR&†jaŸu'-)i (-s-, -s)a /gaR'†ia gu'tjeRr:e†/ Garcìa Gutiérrez˚ (&noßeR'Bia
paRa'na;ƒa, -'Bja, -&BjapaRa'-)i (-s-)a /noseR'bia paRa'naòa/ no servìa para nada˘
Other examples: (ßea&Bia'pw™ßto ƒe'pj™, ßea&Bja'-, ßãa-)i (s-)a /seabia'pwesto òe'pje/
se habìa puπto de pie˚ (&eßta'Ria˙ kan'ßaƒoß, -'Rja˙, -&Rja˙kan'-)i (&es-, 'sa;ƒos)a /esta'Rian
kan'saòos/ πtarìan cansados˚ (&nopo'ƒRiaN Le'Ÿa; Ra'tj™mpo, -'ƒRjaN, -&ƒRjaNLe'-)i (,-)a
/nopo'òRian Le'gaR a'tjempo/ no podrìan ıegar a tiempo˘
Intonation
6.3.3. û 6.3 shows the preintonemes and intonemes of the neutral Iberian and
American Spanish language. ˛erefore, let us simply look at the fundamental ex-
amples. It is important to make comparisons both between them and with those
of other languages:
/./: (me'Bøi ma'Na;na poR&lama'Na;na3 3)i (me'Bøi ma'Na;na poR&lamaÇNa;na3 3)a /me-
'boi ma'Nana poRlama'Nana./ Me voy mañana por la mañana.
û 6.3. Iberian-Spanish preintonemes and intonemes.
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 3 3)
/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /?/ (2 ç 2 1)
/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /÷/ (2 ' 1 1)
/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /,/ (2 ' 2)
û 6.4. American-Spanish preintonemes and intonemes.
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 Ç 3 3)
/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /?/ (2 ' 2 1)
/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /÷/ (2 Ì 2 2)
/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /,/ (2 ' 2)

6. spanish 253
/?/: (¿eß'ta nuß't™;ƒeß konçt™ntoß21)i (¿es'ta nus't™;ƒes kon't™ntos21)a /¿es'ta nus'teòes

kon'tentos?/ ¿Están ¨tedπ contentos?
/÷/: (&ßima'Na;na &noRr:e'†i;Bo no'ti;†ja1 1| leß&kRiBi'R™ ƒe'nw™;Bo3 3)i (&sima'Na;na &noRr:e-
'si;Bo noÌti;sja2 2| les&kRiBi'R™ ƒeÇnw™;Bo3 3)a /sima'Nana noRre'†ibo no'ti†ja÷| leeskRibi'Re
òe'nwebo./ Si mañana no recibo noticia, le πcribiré de nuevo.
Text
6.4.0. ˛e transcribed passage, †e North Wind and the Sun˚ is given in four
çnormalizedÇ versions. We start with the (neutral) Iberian pronunciation of (neu-
is given in § 2.5.2.0). ˛e Spanish translation follows, in its neutral version.
tion of Spanish, by neutral British speakers, fluent in Spanish (after prolonged con-
same principle is valid for the foreign pronunciation of English, given first.
Speakers of American English could prepare their own version both of the Span-
ish pronunciation of English and of their pronunciation of Spanish, as an excel-
Iberian Spanish pronunciation (of English)
6.4.1. (de'nøR† 'wind2 ande'ßan2 w™Rdi'ßpju;tin˙ 'gwiC wøfiƒeß'tRø˙geR3 3| 'w™n a-

'tRa;BeleR2 'k™im a'lø˙g2 ì'r:añ tina'wøRm 'kløuk3 3œ| d™ia'ŸRi{ƒ}2\ ƒaƒi'wa˙ xu'f™R ßa◊'ßi;-
ƒeƒ2 iN'm™ikin de'tRa;BeleR2 't™i kiß'køu 'køf1 1| &ßjuBikan'ßi;ƒeR ƒeß"tRø˙geR &ƒandi'aƒeR3 3||
'd™n2 de'nøR† 'win2 'blu2 aß'xaR2 ƒaßi'ku‡3 3| &ba{‡}ƒe'møR xi'Blu1 1| de'møR 'kløufili2 &ƒi-
ƒe'tRa;BeleR2\ 'føul diß'kløuk a'Rau˙xin3 3| ì&an[d]a‡'laß{t}2œ\ de'nøR† 'win˙2 'g™i 'Bañ ƒja-
't™mt3 3|| ì'd™n2œ de'ßan 'ßjø 'naut3 3 ì'wøRmli3 3œ| &andi'mi;ƒja‡li2\ ˚de'tRa;BeleR 'tu 'køf3 3 ˚xiß-
'køuk3 3|| ìan'ßøu2œ ƒe'nøR† 'win{d}2 &wøßo'Blaiß tukoM'f™ß2| &daƒe'ßan3 3 wøfiƒeß'tRø˙geR3 3
ì&øBƒe'tu3 3œ||
¿&diƒjuçlaik21 ¿deß'tø;Ri2| ¿dju'wøn tu'xi;Ri taçŸ™n21|||)
Spanish Text
6.4.2. El viento norte y el sol porfiaban sobre cuál de eıos era el más fuerte, cuan-
do acertó a pøar un viajero envuelto en an>a capa. Convinieron en ¢e ¢ien antπ
lograra obligar al viajero a ¢itarse la capa serìa considerado más poderoso.
El viento norte sopló con gran furia, pero cuanto más soplaba, más se arrebujaba
en su capa el viajero; por fin el viento norte abandonó la emprπa. Entoncπ briıó el
sol con ardor, e inmediatamente se dπpojó de su capa el viajero; por lo ¢e el viento
norte hubo de reconocer la superioridad del sol.
¿Te ha %stado el cuento? ¿Vamos a repetirlo?
Neutral Iberian pronunciation
6.4.3. (el'Bj™nto 'nøRte2 jel'ßøl2\ poR'fja;Ban2 &ßoBRe'kwal 'd™;Loß2\ &eRael'maß 'fw™Rte3 3|

&kwandoa†eR'tø apa'ßa; Rumbja'X™;Ro2 em'bw™lto e'na~Ca 'ka;pa3 3| &kombi'nj™;Ron2 e˙-
&kekje'nantefi lo'ŸRa;Ra2 oBli'Ÿa; RalBja'X™;Ro2 aki'taRße la'ka;pa1 1| ße'Ria kon&ßiƒe'Ra;ƒo2
'maß poƒe'Rø;ßo3 3||
el'Bj™nto 'nøRte2\ ßo'plø ko˙'gRaM2 'fu;Rja3 3| &peRo'kwanto 'maß ßo'pla;Ba1 1| 'maß ßãaR-
&r:eBu'Xa;Ba2 enßu'ka;pa3 3 ì[e]lBja'X™;Ro3 3œ|| poR'fin2\ el'Bj™nto 'nøRte2 a&Bando'nø lFem-
'pR™;ßa3 3|| en'tøn†efi1 1\ BRi'Lø el'ßøl3 3 ìkonaR'ƒøR3 3œ| eiNme“ƒjata'm™nte2 ˚ße&ƒeßpo'Xø3 3 ˚ƒe-
ßu'ka;pa3 3 ì[e]lBja'X™;Ro3 3œ|| &poRlo&kel'Bj™nto 'nøRte1 1\ 'u;Bo ƒeR&r:ekono'†™R3 3 la&ßupe&RjoRi-
'ƒaƒ ƒel'ßøl3 3||
¿&tãaŸußçta;ƒo21 ¿el'kw™nto2| ¿'ba;mo ßaR&r:epeçtiRlo21|||)
Neutral (central-south-) American pronunciation
6.4.4. (el'Bj™nto 'nøRte2 jel'søl2\ poR'fja;Ban2 &soBRe'kwal 'd™;,os2\ &eRael'mas Çfw™Rte3 3|

&kwandoaseR'tø apa'sa; Rumbja'x™;Ro2 em'bw™lto e'na~Ca Çka;pa3 3| &kombi'nj™;Ron2 e˙-
&kekje'nantes lo'ŸRa;Ra2 oBli'Ÿa; RalBja'x™;Ro2 aki'taRse laÌka;pa2 2| se'Ria kon&siƒe'Ra;ƒo2
'mas poƒeÇRø;so3 3||
el'Bj™nto 'nøRte2\ so'plø ko˙'gRaM2 Çfu;Rja3 3| &peRo'kwanto 'mas soÌpla;Ba2 2| 'mas sãaR-
&r:eBu'xa;Ba2 ensuÇka;pa3 3 ì[e]lBjaÇx™;Ro3 3œ|| poR'fin2\ el'Bj™nto 'nøRte2 a&Bando'nø lFem-
ÇpR™;sa3 3|| enÌtønses2 2\ BRi',ø elÇsøl3 3 ìkonaRÇƒøR3 3œ| eiNme“ƒjata'm™nte2 ˚se&ƒespoÇxø3 3
˚ƒesuÇka;pa3 3 ì[e]lBjaÇx™;Ro3 3œ|| &poRlo&kel'Bj™nto ÌnøRte2 2\ 'u;Bo ƒeR&r:ekonoÇs™R3 3 la&supe-
&RjoRi'ƒaƒ ƒelÇsøl3 3||
¿&tãaŸus'ta;ƒo21 ¿el'kw™nto2| ¿'ba;mo saR&r:epe'tiRlo21|||)
6. spanish 255
English pronunciation of Spanish
6.4.5. (&™ıvi5™nT‘¨ 'nø;T™I2 i™ı'sø:ı2\ &phø;fi'A;vån2 5sø;b>™I 'khwA:ı 'D™¬jØs2\ &™>Èı-

5mås f¯'™‘T™I3 3| 5khwA;nD‘¨ ås™‘'Th‘;¨ A;pÈ'sA: ¯uMviÈ'h™‘>‘¨2 &™Mv¯5™ıT‘¨ ™n'A;~cû
'khA;på3 3| &khØMv¤ni'™‘>Øn2 ™˙5kh™;I ki'™n 'A;nT™s lû'g>A;>È2 &Øbl¤5gA:> åıviÈ'h™‘>‘¨2 û-
k¤5ThA;s™I lû'khA;på2| sÈ5>Iiû kûn&s¤DÈ'>A;D‘¨2 5mås pØDÈ'>‘¨s‘¨3 3||
&™ıvi5™nT‘¨ 'nø;T™I2\ sÈ5phl‘;¨ kû˙'g>A;M2 'f¨È>iå3 3| 5ph™‘>‘¨ 'khwA;T‘¨ 'mås sÈ-
'phlA;vå32| 5mås siÈ>¤b¨'hA;vå2 ™ns¯u'khA;på3 3 ì&™ıviÈ'h™‘>‘¨3 3œ|| phø;'fI;in2\ &™ıvi5™nT‘¨
'nø;T™I2 È&bånDÈ5n‘;¨ lA;¤m'ph>™så3 3|| ™n'Thø;ns¤s32\ b>¤5j‘;¨ ™ı'sø:ı3 3 ìkhØnA;'Dø:3 3œ| &™In-
m¤Di&A;TÈ'm™nT™I2 ˚s™I&D™spÈ'h‘;¨3 3 ˚D¤s¯u'khA;på3 3 ì&™ıviÈ'h™‘>‘¨3 3œ|| &phø;lû5kh™;I ™ıvi-
'™nT‘¨ 'nø;T™I32\ 5¯uv‘¨ D¤&>™kûnÈ's™;‘3 3 lÈ&s¯upÈ>iÈ>¤5DA;D D™ı'sø:ı3 3||
¿&Th™Iûg¨'sTA;D‘¨21 &™ı'khw™nT‘¨2 ¿5vA;mØs È&>™pÈ'Th¤Èl‘¨21|||)
7. Portuguese
7.0.1. We present both Brazilian and Lusitanian neutral Portuguese, in this or-
der, although not separated, for various good reasons. ˛e most suitable inter-
phonemic transcription (and useful for both accents), as far as V are concerned,
has to use seven phonemes and four (or five) diaphonemes. ˛erefore, the seven
Brazilian phonemes, /i, e, E, a, O, o, u/, plus /e, È, A, ì, ™/.
©th this transcription, if we ignore or delete the dots under the diaphonemes
(even for given C]˚ we also obtain the transcription for an çinternationalÇ pronun-
ciation, which is closer to the spelling and without the specific Brazilian or Lusi-
tanian peculiarities, as we will see. †e examples show pronunciation, not usage.
It seems correct to prefer neutral Brazilian Portuguese (which has its regional
variants, as Lusitanian Portuguese also has, but they will not be treated here), since
it is simpler, ¤ with fewer phonemes and fewer çsurprisesÇ, closer to spelling and,
therefore, more easily çunderstandableÇ, as well as decidedly more widespread, in
a ratio of 18 to 1! On the other hand, the Brazilians themselves may find it di‚cult
to understand the Lusitanian pronunciation.
7.0.2. Should we –instead– proceed inversely, preferring Lusitanian pronuncia-

tion, again for the V˚ we would need nine phonemes: ç/i, e, E, a, O, o, u, …, å/Ç, in-
cluding ç/E, a, O/Ç, even in unstressed syllables, and with a massive occurrence of
ç/…, å/Ç, almost exclusively –above all ç/…/Ç– in unstressed syllables.
‹at is traditionally merged into ç/å/Ç, for e (¤ /e˘/ + /N, L, S, Z, j/, and for ei
/ei/ as well) albeit very similar (particularly for some people), actually has a çtinyÇ
di‡erence. ˛is can clearly be seen in our vocogram, where –on the contrary– it
does not appear to be so tiny (contrary to traditional practice with a rougher
quadrilateral: /e/ –in these contexts– ('É, ’Ù) and /å/ ('å, ’‘)).
˛erefore, central Lusitanian –by now neutral– has /e/ ('3Iö, ’’Iö, 'ÉI, ’ÙI÷ 'Éã,
'ÉN, 'ÉL, 'ÉS, 'ÉZ) (compared to /e/ ('™Iö, ’eIö÷ 'eI÷ 'eJ), in the rest of Portugal and in
Brazil), that foreigners too often render as /E/, losing a functional opposition,
which is not negligible for native speakers of both accents.
Let us conclude these preliminary remarks (necessary to define the problem
well), underlining the absurd and pointlessly complicated steps made trying to ex-
plain pronunciation, above all Lusitanian pronunciation (we restrict ourselves to
this language {obviously avoiding talking about English, or Danish, or even
French}), making use of graphemes instead of transcriptions, as is still done. On
the other hand, it must be said that no real pronouncing dictionary for Portuguese
has been written; therefore, one must… make the best of it.
7.0.3. As can be seen from phonemic transcriptions, our analysis does not con-
sider V nasalization distinctive, although it must be marked since it is clearly per-
ceptible (above all in Brazilian pronunciation) and typical of Portuguese (but, in
7. portuguese 257
Lusitanian pronunciation, only in checked syllables in N]˘ However, if nasaliza-

tion is lacking –as is often the case in foreigners' pronunciation– comprehension
is not compromised; all the more so because, not rarely, in Portugal vowel nasali-
zation may be hardly perceptible, while the nasal contoid is surely there.
As a matter of fact, we always have sequences of a (nasalized) V plus N÷ the lat-
ter may be missing (phonetically, but not phonemically) only when a word-final
(–) is followed by a word-initial (é) or (–), instead of being dropped, since the
word ends in C\ /ö/. ˛e nasal contoid is homorganic in the case of stops ((m, n,
˙), and of stop-strictives; in Brazilian pronunciation we also find (~)+(C, ‚),
which are taxophones of /t, d/), while it is semi-provelar ((«)) before other con-
toids or before a pause (as will be seen systematically in the sections on N˚ § 7.2.1).
Vowels
7.1.1.1. û 7.1 shows the vocalic realizations of neutral Brazilian Portuguese.

˛is language also has several diphthongs, but, since their starting and finishing
points correspond to some vocoids already present, it may be su‚cient to list them
and give some suitable examples. However, /ei, o™/ have been put in the voco-
gram, with their stressed and unstressed variants, not because they are considered
monophonemic, but owing to their movements which are a little particular.
˛erefore, there are seven phonemes, /i, e, E, a, O, o, u/ (i, e, E, a, O, o, u), with
some taxophones, such as (Au, A∞˘, ’å[s]ò) for /'au, 'aı˘, ’Au, ’Aı˘, ’a[s]ò/ and (iö÷ ’eö,
'™ö÷ Aö÷ '9ö, ’Úö÷ uö) for /iö, eö, aö, oö, uö/ – ¤ for VN sequences, both in
checked syllables (/éö˘0é/) and in unchecked ones (/é˘öé/).
As to /’a[s]ò/, it is to be noted that (’å[s]ò) holds for -a(s) in final rhythm groups,
due to a sort of attenuation, with or without a following pause. On the other
hand, however, the variant (a°) is even possible, although it is more typical of tradi-
tional pronunciation (which is possible as well, provided it is not realized too low).
Anyway, (å) is more recommendable, and this is what we use in this chapter.
˛ere are three broken-line white markers as well, to show possible –but not nec-
essary– articulations, also belonging to the neutral accent, for /i, a, u/ (I, x, U), oc-
curring in rhythm-group final unstressed syllables (with or without -s). Besides, in
the same position of (x), there may additionally be (≈ö), as a possible variant of
(stressed or unstressed) (Aö) /aö/.
7.1.1.2. Here are some first examples (for the time being, let us ignore the dia-
phonemic undersigned dots): (‚i'fi;si∞)b /òe'fisiı/ di˙cil˚ ('e;]i)b /'eıe/ ele˚ ('E;]å)b /'E-
ıa/ ela˚ (ba'ta;tå)b /ba'tata/ batata˚ ('nO;vå)b /'nOva/ nova˚ ('no;vu)b /'novu/ novo˚
('ëu;vå)b /'Suva/ >uva˘ However, it is worthwhile reflecting upon (A): ('pAu) /'pau/
pau˚ (Au'das)b {(Au'ƒaS)l] /Au'òas/ audaz˚ ('mA∞)b {('mAı)l] /'maı/ mal˚ (A∞'tu;Rå)b
{(AÓ'tu;R‘)l] /Aı'tuRa/ altura˘
It is important to distinguish: seca ('se;kå)b /'seka/» çdry (f.)Ç and ('sE;kå)b /'sEka/”
çdries, drought, nuisanceÇ, cerco ('se˜ku)b /'seKku/» çsiegeÇ and ('sE˜ku)b /'sEKku/”
çI encloseÇ, lobo (']o;bu)b /'ıobu/» çwolfÇ and (']O;bu)b /'ıObu/” çlobeÇ, fosso ('fo;su)b
/'fosu/» çtrenchÇ and ('fO;su)b /'fOsu/” çI digÇ.

©th nasalization, we have: ('si«)b /'sin/ sim˚ (&]e˙ga']™˙gå)b /ıenga'ıenga/ lenga-
lenga˚ ('b™I«)b /'bein/ bem˚ ('9;meI«)b /'ìmein/ homem˚ (&AmA'NA«)b /Ama'Nan/ ama-
ˆã˚ (bÚm'b9U«)b /bom'boun/ bombom˚ ('9«˜å)b /'onKa/ honra˚ (A∞'gu«s)b /Aı-
'guns/ al%ns÷ (kA'mi;Nu)b /ka'miNu/ camiô˚ (fe'n9;menu)b /fe'nìmenu/ fenôme-
no˚ (&te]efÚ'n™;må)b /te]efo'nema/ telefonema˚ ('u;niku)b /'uniku/ ùnico˘
û 7.1. Brazilian vowel elements.

/i/ ({'}i) {(’I)}, /i{˘}ö/ (iö) /u/ ({'}u) {(’U)}, /u{˘}ö/ (uö)
/e/ (e), /e{˘}ö/ (™ö, ’eö) /o/ (o), /o{˘}ö/ (9ö, ’Úö)
/ei/ (eI), /eiö˘/ (™Iö, ’eIö) /o™/ (oU, o), /oö˘/ (9Uö, ’ÚUö)
/E/ (E, »™) /O/ (O, »ø)
/a/ (a, Au, Aı, ’å[s]ò) {/’a/ (å)} /a[i/u]{˘}ö/ (A[i/u]{˘}ö) {(≈[i/u]{˘}ö)}
7.1.1.3. Notice that nasalization slightly changes some timbres according to the
diaphonemic symbols used: in particular /aö/ (Aö) (for which, as already seen,
(≈ö) is possible as well), and /'eö, 'Èö, 'oö, 'ìö/ (™ö, 9ö) (when stressed, some-
times, (eö, Úö) may be heard too).
Besides, in word-final position, we have real diphthongs for what –too often and
too hurriedly– is transcribed simply as ç/e, Ú/Ç, ¤ /ein, oun/ ('™I«, ’eI«÷ '9U«, ’ÚU«).
Instead, in the same position, /anò/ opposes the diphthong /aunò/: ('O˜fA«) /'OKfan/
órfã˚ ('O˜fAu«) /'OKfaun/ órfão˘ Later on, we will see other diphthongs, too, both
oral and (phonetically) nasalized.
It has to be noted that in modern neutral Brazilian pronunciation, the nasaliza-
tion of vocoids is more and more evident (even in diphthongs). As already said,
nasalization occurs when a V is followed by a nasal consonant [N), in the same syl-
lable or not, ¤ both in checked and unchecked syllables; and, above all, both in
stressed and unstressed syllables: (&AmA'NA«)b /Ama'Nan/ amaˆã˚ ('bA;Nu)b /'baNu/
baô˚ ('fi;nu)b /'finu/ fino˘
‹ereas, in traditional neutral Brazilian pronunciation, nasalization occurs on-
ly in checked syllables (in N]˚ either stressed or not; but a çtroublesomeÇ occur-
rence of nasalization is possible (or not), in unchecked stressed syllables followed
by /N/ (and with /'aöé/ ('åöé) as well): (&ama'NA«)b;t /Ama'Nan/ amaˆã˚ ('bA;Nu,
'bå;Nu)b;t /'baNu/ baô˚ ('fi;nu)b;t /'finu/ fino˘
Lastly, in mediatic pronunciation, nasalization occurs, in addition to (stressed
or unstressed) checked syllables (in N), even in unchecked stressed syllables fol-
lowed by N÷ but, again, a çtroublesomeÇ occurrence of nasalization is possible even
in /’éNé/ (¤ an unchecked, unstressed syllable, followed by /N/): (&amA'NA«, &a-
ma-)b;m /Ama'Nan/ amaˆã˚ ('bA;Nu)b;m /'baNu/ baô˚ ('fi;nu)b;m /'finu/ fino˘
7. portuguese 259
Lusitanian peculiarities
7.1.2.1. Let us now consider û 7.2 to see the vocalic realizations of neutral Lu-
sitanian Portuguese. It is a good idea to make a close comparison of the two fig-
ures; as a matter of fact (neglecting the broken-line white markers, of the unneces-
sary Brazilian variants, (I, U, x÷ ≈): ('e;]i, -I÷ 'E;]å, -x÷ 'no;vu, -U÷ &AmA'NA, &≈m≈'N≈)b]˚ it
is clear that Lusitanian Portuguese has a higher number of both taxophones and
phonemes: at least two more (which, in an exclusively Lusitanian phonemic tran-
scription, would be ç/…, å/Ç –or, deviating from o‚cial symbols, they should rather
be ç/¢, å/Ç; but, more traditionally rendered as ç/È, å/Ç)– for (’¢, ’Û÷ '¢ò), ('å, ’‘)÷ in
addition to (Åö) /—Aö/ and (Aö˘) /'aö˘/, with occasional oppositions between them
(that, in a Lusitanian way, we ought to mark as ç/aö, åö/Ç).
Besides, (’™, ’a, ’ø) /È, A, ì/ are needed, above all, but not only, in some pre-stress
syllables (by diachronic fusion, which is no longer visible in present-day spelling:
/éé/ = /é/, deriving from a prior /é0é/ structure, with C dropping), in addition
to /’Èı˘, ’ìı˘, ’Aı˘; ’ÈKò, ’ìKò, ’AKò/, as we will see (and /’Au/, and /’Ai/ as well). Fur-
thermore, /’-Èe2÷ ’-ì™2÷ ’-e, ’-È/ are special cases, as in: (ab'd9;meI«)b (‘B'ƒO;m’I«,
±-™n)l /ab'òìmÈe2/ abdômenb˚ -ómenl˚ ('ipsi]ÚU«)b (-î]ÚU«, ±-øn)l /'ipsiıì™2/ ìpsilon˚
(&i˙k]u'zi;vi)b (&i~k9u-, -v[¢], ±-v™)l /inkıu'zive, -È/ inclïve˘
û 7.2. Lusitanian vowel elements.

/e, ’e/ (¢), (Û) in contact with (N, L, S, Z, ã) “ (ãÛò, ã¢ò), but /e/ (¢) between (], º) “ (S, Z)
/i/ (i), /iö˘/ (iö) /u, ’o/ (u), /uö˘/ (uö)
/'e/ (e), /È/ (’™), /eö˘/ (™ö, ’eö)
/ei/ (ÉI, ’ÙI), /eiö˘/ (3Iö˘, ’’Iö) /o/ (o), /ì/ (’ø), /oö˘/ (9ö, ’Úö)
/'e˘/+/N, L, S, Z, j/ (É) /o™/ (o, oU), /ouöò/ (9Uö, ’ÚUö)
/E/ (E, »™) /O/ (O, »ø)
/’a, a'é, a%é/ (‘÷), /’aò/ (‘, å|), /'a˘ö/ (åö) /a[i/u]ö˘/ (A[i/u]ö, ’4[i/u]ö)
/A˘ö/ ('a˘ö), /Aö/ ({'}Åö), /A/ (’a, {'}ai, {'}Au, {'}Aı)
7.1.2.2. ˛e conspicuous Lusitanian reduction of timbres is striking in un-

stressed syllables, where we have (¢, Û) /e, e/ (or, in the exclusively Lusitanian phone-
mic transcription, ç/…/Ç)÷ (u) /u/÷ (‘, å|) /a/ (Ô § 7.4.0); and, more rarely, (i) /i/
(which, however, has the complication of oscillating with (’¢, ’Û), as we will see).
If we thoroughly analyze the phonemic transcription, it becomes clear that the
contradiction between the diaphonemes with underwritten dots and actual pho-
nemes is only outward; as a matter of fact, in Lusitanian pronunciation, for /a/ we
find (‘), in unstressed syllables, but (å), in stressed syllables, when it is followed by
N˚ in checked syllables (with nasalization (Aö˘)) or unchecked (without nasaliza-
tion (å˘ö)).
Every exception is marked with /A/ (besides its other –not fundamental, though
deducible– use, in contact with /u, ı/, seen above): ('E;]‘)l /'Eıa/ ela˚ (b‘'ta;t‘)l /ba'ta-
ta/ batata˚ ('nO;v‘)l /'nOva/ nova÷ (‘'su;kaR, -‘R)l /a'sukAK/ {(a'su;ka˜)b} açùcar˚ (&am‘-
'NA«)l /Ama'Nan/ amaˆã˚ ('sAmb‘) /'samba/ samba˚ ('kå;m‘) /'kama/ cama˘

However, there is one exceptional case where ('a;öé) /'Aöé/ opposes normal
/'aöé/ ('å;öé), as in: (f‘']å;m¨S) /fa'ıamus/ falamos çwe speakÇ (f‘']a;m¨S) /fa'ıAmus/
falámos çwe spokeÇ; of course, in Brazilian pronunciation, they are both (fa']A;-
mus).
7.1.2.3. Here are some other remarkable cases of /A/, in Lusitanian pronuncia-
tion, by contraction: (a) /A/ à [èa a¶]˚ (a'ke;]¢) /A'keıe/ à¢ele˚ (ka'vÉIR‘) /kA'veiRa/ ca-
veira ((a, a'ke;]i, ka'veIRå)b]÷ after CC (simplified or not in their pronunciation –
and in spelling): (a'sAu«)l /A'saun/ a(c)ção˚ (fa'tu;R‘)l /fA'tuRa/ fa(c)tura ((a'sAu«, fa-
'tu;Rå)b]˘ Also (ka'm9i”S)l /kA'moins/ Camões.
Before looking at the two çfurtherÇ phonemes, let us consider the Lusitanian
pronunciation of the examples already given in Brazilian pronunciation: (d¢'fi;siı)l
/òi'fisiı/, ('e;]¢)l /'eıe/, ('E;]‘)l /'Eıa/, (b‘'ta;t‘)l /ba'tata/, ('nO;v‘)l /'nOva/, ('no;vu)l /'no-
vu/, ('Su;v‘)l /'Suva/÷ ('pAu)l /'pau/, (Au'ƒaS)l /Au'òas/, ('mAı)l /'maı/, (AÓ'tu;R‘)l /Aı'tu-
Ra/÷ ('se;k‘)l /'seka/», ('sE;k‘)l /'sEka/”, ('seÍku)l /'seKku/», ('sEÍku)l /'sEKku/”, (']o;Bu)l
/'ıobu/», (']O;Bu)l /'ıObu/”, ('fo;su)l /'fosu/», ('fO;su)l /'fOsu/”.
Furthermore (for both accents): (ka'da;ve˜)b (k‘'ƒa;v™R)l /ka'davÈK/ cadáver˚ ('sO;-
Ro˜)b (-øR)l /'sORìK/ sóror˚ (a'ma;ve∞)b (‘'ma;v™ı)l /a'mavÈı/ amável˚ ('A∞kjo∞)b ('AÓ-
kˆøı)l /'aıkwìı/ álcool˚ (vo∞'ta˜)b (vøÓ'taR)l /vìı'taK/ voltar˘ Of course, if only Bra-
zilian pronunciation were taken into account, even in these cases, no diaphoneme
with underwritten dots would be necessary, since there is no di‡erence in the real-
ization of /e, È÷ o, ì/ (e) and (o).
7.1.2.4. Bearing in mind that nasalization, in Lusitanian pronunciation, is

found only in checked syllables (but, sometimes, it is so slight and hardly percepti-
ble that it could be marked as (◊ö), instead of (–ö)), we have: ('si«)l /'sin/ sim,
(&]e˙g‘']™˙g‘)l /ıenga'ıenga/ lengalenga, ('b3I«)l /'bein/ bem, ('O;m’I«)l /'ìmein/ ho-
mem, (&am‘'NA«)l /Ama'Nan/ amaˆã, (bÚm'b9U«, -ÚU«)l /bom'boun/ bombom,
('9«º‘)l /'onKa/ honra, (Aı'Ÿu”S)l /Aı'guns/ al%ns÷ (k‘'mi;Nu)l /ka'miNu/ camiô,
(f¢'nO;m¢nu)l /fe'nìmenu/ fenómenol˚ (&t¢]¢f¨'ne;m‘)l /teıefo'nema/ telefonema, ('u;-
niku)l /'uniku/ ùnico˘ One further Lusitanian çtroubleÇ, by diachronic assimilation
of two V˚ adds ç/Å/Ç (besides ç/A/Ç), in stressed or unstressed syllables: ('A;”f¨R‘)l (a-
'A«foRå)b /a'anfoRa/ a ânfora˚ (Å;n'ti;Ÿ‘)l (aA~'Ci;gå)b /aan'tiga/ à antiga˘
7.1.2.5. Here are some specific examples to show the di‡erences between the
two accents more clearly. In order to account for the pronunciation of central Por-
tugal, with Lisbon as its focal point, therefore as a model of neutral Lusitanian pro-
nunciation, it is important to know that /e/, in stressed syllables followed by /N, S,
Z, L, j, i/, takes on the pronunciation (É), which is close to the realization of the
Lusitanian phoneme ç/å/Ç (but we must lay great stress on the fact that they are
not alike {even if, occasionally, for some words or specific speakers, the di‡erence
is only very slight}). However, we must point out that even the –more regular and
etymological– pronunciation corresponding to the Brazilian one, is neutral (¤ ac-
ceptable neutral]˚ with /e, ei/ (e, eI), which is kept quite well outside the areas in-
7. portuguese 261
fluenced by Lisbon, with Coimbra leading the way.

Some examples: ('vÉ;Nu)l ('v™;Nu)b /'veNu/ veô˚ ('fÉ;Su)l ('fe;ëu)b /'feSu/ fe>o˚
('vÉ;Zu)l ('ve;òu)b /'veZu/ vejo˚ ('tÉ;Zu)l ('te;òu)b /'teZu/ Tejo˚ (?S'pÉ;Lu)l (is'pe;Lu)b /es-
'peLu/ πpeºo˚ ('sÉ;ãu)l ('se;ãu)b /'seju/ seio˚ ('sÉIS)l ('seIs)b /'seis/ se¤÷ besides ('s3I«)l
('seI«)b /'sein/ sem÷ ('kÉ;Zu kÚU']ÉIt¢ ƒø'vÉ;L‘)l ('ke;òu kÚU']eICi ‚ão've;Lå)b /'keZu
koun'leite òeo'veLa/ ¢eijo com leite de oveºa˘ In unstressed syllables /ei/ (ÙI)l (eI)b
remains: (']ÉItu)l (']eItu)b /'ıeitu/ leito˚ (]ÙI'toR)l (]eI'to˜)b /ıei'toK/ leitor˘
7.1.2.6. ˛e other pre-eminently Lusitanian characteristic, in purely Lusitanian

transcription, would resort to the phoneme ç/…/Ç for (¢), with the taxophone (Û) in
contact with /N, L, S, Z, j/ or followed by /s, a/. However, in our diaphonemic inter-
pretation, we have word-internal /’e/ corresponding to Brazilian /’e/ and to written
-e- (but neither for initial e- {= /i/}, in both accents, nor for final -e {= /e/ (¢)l (i)b}): (nÛ-
'Nu«)l (ne-)b /ne'Nun/ neûm˚ (mÛ'LOR)l (me'LO˜)b /me'LOK/ meºor˚ (f?'SaR)l (fe'ëa˜)b
/fe'SaK/ fe>ar˚ (SZ'ŸaR)l (ëe'ga˜)b /Se'gaK/ >egar˚ (&tZZ‘'ƒi;Lu)l (&teòa'‚-)b /teZa'òiLu/ te-
jadiºo˚ ('o;ZÛ)l ('o;òi)b /'oZe/ hoje˚ (]Û'ãå;m¨S)l (]e'ãA;mus)b /ıe'jamus/ leiamos˚ (&i]¢'ŸAn-
t˙)l (&i]e'gA~Ci)b /iıe'gante/ elegante˚ (dÛZ&v¢Ít¢'BRaR)l (dez&ve˜te'bRa˜)b /òeaveKte'bRaK/
dπvertebrar˚ ('pi;RZS)l ('pi;Ris)b /'piRes/ pirπ˚ (i'E;]‘, 'ãE;]‘)l (i'E;]å, 'ãE;]å)b /i'Eıa/ e ela˘
However, if the sequences /’e/ (Û) + /N, L, S, Z÷ s, a/ are preceded by /ı, K/ (]÷ º, ˜)
(given their dorsal component), the taxophone that should be used is (¢): (&i]¢'ZeR)l
(&i]e'òe˜)b /iıe'ZeK/ eleger˚ ('to;º¢S)l ('to;˜is)b /'toKes/ torrπ˘ In these contexts, /’i/ -i- gen-
erally remains the same (/i/, but it currently becomes /e/): (]iZ'Bo‘, ]Û-)l (]iz'boå)b
/ıia'boa/ L¤boa˚ ('fE;]îS, -]ZS, -]îks)l ('fE;]is, -ks)b /'fEıis/ Félix˚ (mi'LAu«, mÛ-)l (mi'LAu«)b
/mi'Laun/ miºão˚ (di'NÉIRu, dÛ-)l (‚i'NeIRu)b /di'NeiRu/ diêiro˘ We have /’e˘ö/ for
(¢˘ö) as well, while /’eö˘/ is (eö˘): (&t¢n¢'BRo;zu)l (&tene'bRo;zu)b /tene'bRozu/ tenebro-
so˚ (&te≈p¢'Ra;ƒu)l (&tempe'Ra;du)b /tempe'Raòu/ temperado˘
7.1.2.7. Another Lusitanian çoddityÇ consists of the change of /’i/ (i) -i- sequenc-
es (not /iö˘/ (iö)) into ç/…/Ç, ¤ /e/, in adjacent syllables (except for the last one,
whether stressed or not, and the first one, if absolute initial, with no C-]\ (&d¢v¢'ƒiR,
d¢v'-)l (&‚ivi'‚i˜)b /òeve'òiK/ dividir˚ (m[¢]'niStÍu)l (mi'nistRu)b /me'nistRu/ min¤tro˚
(&in[¢]'mi;Ÿu)l (&ini'mi;gu)b /ine'migu/ inimigo˚ (pÍ¢&vi][Û]'Zãa;ƒu)l (pRi&vi]e'òãa;du)b /pRe-
viıÈ'Zjaòu/ privilegiado (in the very last example, the sequence (-]Û'Z-) /-ıÈ'Z-/ results
from what has just been said previously).
However, we find the following exceptions, where i /’i/, corresponding to an
original /'i/, remains /’i/ in derivatives, as in the conditional mood of verbs in -ir:
(d[¢]&v¢ƒi'Ri‘m¨S)l (‚i&vi‚i'RiAmus)b /òeveòi'Riamus/ dividirìamos÷ and in superla-
tives: (&d¢fî'si;]imu)l (&‚ifi'si;]imu)b /òefi'siıimu/ dificìlimo˘
For rare /u/ sequences, the same is true, so we have to resort to the diaphoneme
/™/ to be able to account for this –possible– Lusitanian phenomenon: (f˙'tu;Ru, f¢-,
f¢-, fu-, f¨-, fu-)l (fu'tu;Ru)b /f™'tuRu/ futuro˘
7.1.2.8. In Lusitanian pronunciation, /’o/ (not /’oö˘/ (Úö˘)) corresponds to /’u/:

(&upÍu'BRão;zu, &ø-)l –actually, [h]o[CV]- can be either (u)l or (ø)l– (&opRo'bRão;zu)b /o-
pRo'bRjozu/ oprobrioso˚ (&munut¨'ni‘)l (&mÚnotÚ'niå)b /monoto'nia/ monotonia˚
(mÚ”'sAu«)l (mÚ«'sAu«)b /mon'saun/ monção÷ however, in bureaucratic lexical

compounding, for -o-˚ we find /’ì/: (&mønøsî']a;Bîku)l (&mÚnosi']a;biku)b /mìnìsi-
'ıabiku/ monossilábico˚ (']uzø fÍ4”'seS)l (']uzo fRA«'ses)b /'ıuzìfRan'ses/ lö-francês˘
7.1.2.9. A diaphonemic use of /È, ì/ regards the Lusitanian possibility to have

distinct timbres, (™, ø), before the stressed syllable; as already seen for a˚ this main-
ly occurs for diachronic contraction or after CC (simplified or not {in pronuncia-
tion or writing}): (vø'se)l (vo'se)b /vì'se/ você (from vossemecê˚ vossa mercê {as in
some southern Italian dialects vossìa˚ from vos(tra) signorìa çyour LordshipÇ}), (kÍ™-
'ƒoR)l (kRe'do˜)b /kRÈ'òoK/ credor˚ (&‘k™'seR)l (&ake'se˜)b /akÈ'seR/ a¢ecer˚ (&‘f™'ti;vu)l
(&afe'Ci;vu)b /afÈ'tivu/ afe(c)tivo˚ (f9™k'sAu«)l (f]ek'sAu«)b /fıÈk'saun/ flexão˚ (kø'Ra;-
ƒu)l (ko'Ra;du)b /kì'Raòu/ corado˚ (møR'ƒo;mu)l (mo˜'d9;mu)b /mìK'òomu/ mordo-
mo˚ (&‘ƒø'ti;vu)l (&ado'Ci;vu)b /aòì'tivu/ ado(p)tivo˚ (øp'sAu«)l (op'sAu«)b /ìp'saun/
opção÷ also: (bo'ãaR)l (bo'ãa˜)b /bì'jaK/ boiar (from /oi/).
Besides, this phenomenon arises in compounds and some derivatives, with se-
mantically more distinct elements (as seen above for o as well): (pÍ™'tO;nîku)l (pRe-
't9;niku)b /pRÈ'tìniku/ pretónicol˚ pretô-b, but also in (more) scholarly words: (º™-
'tO;Rîk‘)l (˜e'tO;Rikå)b /KÈ'tORika/ retórica˘
≈nally, note the following Lusitanian minimal pairs: (pÍ¢'ŸaR)l /pRe'gaK/ çto
nailÇ˚ (pÍ™'ŸaR)l /pRÈ'gaK/ çto preachÇ both pregar ((pRe'ga˜)b) and (&k¨R‘'sAu«)l /ko-
Ra'saun/ çheartÇ, (&køR‘'sAu«)l /kìRa'saun/ çcoloringÇ coração ((&koRa'sAu«)b]˘
Diphthongs
7.1.3.1. As far as grammatical or traditional çdiphthongsÇ are concerned, let us

clarify that we consider them biphonemic, and not as unitary phonological enti-
ties, since their extreme points generally coincide with the usual Portuguese vocal-
ic elements.
Furthermore, we want to specify, right from the start, that true diphthongs are
only those formed by two vocoids, /éé/, as /ai/, in ('pai) /'pai/ pai – certainly not
sequences of contoid plus vocoid, /0é/, as /ja/, in ('pãa˜)b ('pªaR)l /'pjaK/ piar˘ On
the other hand, sequences like /é'é/ are not diphthongs either: (pa'is)b (p‘'iS)l /pa'is/
paìs˚ against ('pais)b ('paiS)l /'pais/ pa¤˘
After confirming this, let us also stress the fact that it is not good to transcribe
çtrueÇ diphthongs as if they were sequences of a vowel and a consonant, /é0/, as
ç/aj/Ç, since they are not at all comparable with sequences like /as, aı, aK, an/,
which are structurally very di‡erent. Least of all, are we allowed to consider se-
quences of vowel and consonant plus vowel, /é0é/, as çdiphthong + vowelÇ, or
çvowel + diphthongÇ, like /aja/, in (ka'ãa˜)b (k‘'ãaR)l /ka'jaK/ caiar˚ ('sa;ãå)b (-‘)l /'sa-
ja/ saia˘
7.1.3.2. ˛erefore, with constant reference to û 7.1-2 (for both accents ¤ Bra-
zilian and Lusitanian), we now show the Portuguese diphthongs, even if in the vo-
cograms only /ei, o™/ appear as (eI, eI, ™I, oU, ÚU, 9U)b (ÉI, ÙI, 3I, ’I÷ oU, 9U, ÚU÷ 4i,
7. portuguese 263
4u)l. As a matter of fact, their second elements are (I, U), which are not the exact
realization of the phonemes /i, u/; for the Lusitanian accent, even (4i, 4u) are
placed in the vocogram, because their first element is closer, as occurs however for
/’aö/ (4ö) as well).
≈rst of all, we list them phonetically and diaphonemically: (eI)b (ÉI, ’ÙI)l /ei/,
(Ei, ’™i) /Ei/, (ai) /ai/÷ (ui) /ui/, (oi) /oi/, (Oi, ’øi) /Oi/÷ (iu) /iu/, (eu) /eu/, (Eu, ’™u)
/Eu/, (Au) /au/, (oU, o)b (o, oU)l /o™/ ((o) unstressed /ì™/).
Here are some actual examples: ('˜eIs)b ('ºÉIS)l /'Keis/ re¤˚ (]eI'ë9i«s)b (]ÙI'S9i”S)l
/ıei'Soins/ Leixõπ˚ ('˜Eis)b ('ºEiS)l /'KEis/ ré¤˚ (&˜™i'zi;tus)b (&º™i'zi;tuS)l /'KEi'zitus/ reiz-
itos˚ ('vai) /'vai/ vai÷ ('fui) /'fui/ fui˚ ('sois)b ('soiS)l /'sois/ so¤˚ ('sOis)b ('sOiS)l /'sOis/ só¤˚
(i“RøikA'm™~Ci)b (i“Røik‘'m™nt˙)l /i'ROika'mente/ heroicamente÷ ('viu) /'viu/ viu (and
vi-o as well, since the supposed di‡erence between the two is not at all phonic –in
neutral pronunciation– but derives exclusively from a wish to keep di‡erent mor-
phological forms separate), ('seu) /'seu/ seu˚ (&ëap™u'zi;Nu)b (&S‘p™u'zi;Nu)l /SapEu'zi-
Nu/ >apeuziô÷ (ëa'pEu)b (S‘-)l /Sa'pEu/ >apéu˚ ('mAu) /'mau/ mau˚ ('voU, —vo)
/'vo™/ vou÷ Lusitanian pronunciation prefers the reverse order, ('vo, 'voU), for the
last one.
Instead, the simplification of ('eI)b ('ÉI, ’ÙI)l /ei/ changing into ('e) does not be-
long to neutral pronunciation, although it is quite widespread, mainly in Brazilian
(and southern Lusitanian) pronunciation.
Of course, there are other actual diphthongs, as the following: (i«'f]uu)b (i”'f9-)l
/in'fıuu/ influo˚ ('mou) /'mou/ moo˚ (']uå)b (-‘)l /'ıua/ lua˚ ('˜iå)b ('ºi‘)l /'Kia/ ria˚
('boå)b (-‘)l /'boa/ boa÷ including combinations as in the true triphthongs resulting
from /i+ei, i+au/: ('vieIs)b ('viÙIS)l /'vieis/ vìeis, ('˜ieIs)b ('ºiÙIS)l /'Kieis/ rìeis, ('˜ieI«)b
('ºi’I«)l /'Kiein/ riem, and ('˜iAu«)b ('ºi4u«)l /'Kiaun/ riam.
7.1.3.3. ˛e diaphonemic transcription has to adequately show the characteris-

tics in unstressed syllables as well, seen that, in Lusitanian pronunciation, the diph-
thong elements do not undergo reduction. Note (besides reizitos˚ heroicamente˚
>apeuziô]\ ('faseIs)b (-ÙIS)l /'faseis/ fáce¤˚ (pai'zi;Nu)b (pai'zi;Nu)l /pAi'ziNu/ paizi-
ô˚ (f]ui'des)b (f9ui'ƒeS)l /fıui'òes/ fluidez˚ (oi'ta;vu) /ìi'tavu/ oitavo˚ (miu'di;Nu)b
(miu'ƒi;-)l /miu'òiNu/ miudiô˚ (&adeu'zi;Nu)b (&‘ƒeu'zi;-)l /aòeu'ziNu/ adeuziô˚
(kAu'tE;]å)b (-]‘)l /kAu'tEıa/ cautela÷ in Lusitanian pronunciation, for /ì™/ the mon-
ophthong (o) is preferred, without reduction to (u): (õ'ba˜)b (ºo'BaR)l /Kì™'baK/
roubar˘
˛e only seeming exception is proclitic ao(s)˚ which is not ç/Au[s]/Ç, but simply
/a u[s]/÷ its actual nature is a little hidden by the spelling that unifies the two gram-
memes, which could even be ça o(s)Ç; on the other hand, it is not *au(s)!
˛is goes for both Lusitanian and Brazilian Portuguese; as a matter of fact, pro-
nunciations like (Au) are excessive and pedantic, against the normal realization
(au)b (åu)l. Even in its Lusitanian nasalized form we have (Auö, ’4uö), by coartic-
ulation; or rather, in current Luso-Brazilian pronunciation, we generally find (ø)
/O/: (au']a;du, ao-, ø-)b (åu']a;ƒu, åo-, ø-)l /au'ıaòu/ ao lado˚ (&auzA'mi;gus, &ao-, &ø-)b
(&åuz‘'mi;Ÿ¨S, &åo-, &ø-)l /auza'migus/ aos amigos˘
˛erefore, it is important to mark /'au, ’Au÷ 'ai, ’Ai/, so as to be mistaken no lon-
ger and avoid people believing that, in unstressed syllables, in Lusitanian pronun-
ciation they can be reduced to ç/åu, åi/Ç (as some texts say).
Let us briefly observe (and without showing it in vocograms {although, of
course, this is unavoidable in a book entirely dedicated to the pronunciation of
Portuguese}), that when /E, O/ are half-lengthened in unchecked syllables (or, for
emphasis, even in checked syllables), besides as being realized as normal monoph-
thongs, (E;, O;), they can also be realized as doubling, or as very narrow diphthongs
– more frequently so in Brazilian pronunciation. In comparison with the articula-
tions shown in û 7.1-2, these may start from slightly raised points and reach the
indicated ones, (EE§, OO§), or else they may start from those and lower themselves
a little, crossing the border of the phone below (in the vocogram), ((Eπ°, OØ°)) – in-
cluding intermediate shifts (however, again of the opening type, although limit-
ed), that is ((Ep, OQ)).
7.1.3.4. Moving on to the nasalized versions, instead, we find (Aiö)b ('Aiö,

’4iö)l /aiö/, (Auö)b ('Auö, ’4uö)l /auö/: ('mAi«)b ('mAi«)l /'main/ mãe˚ (&mAi«'zi;-
Nå)b (&mAi«'zi;N‘)l /'main'ziNa/ mãeziâ˚ (&fa]a'RAu«)b (&f‘]‘'RAu«)l /faıa'Raun/ fala-
rão˚ (fa']a;RAu«)b (f‘']a;R4u«)l /fa'ıaRaun/ falaram˘ (©th regard to the vocalic tim-
bres in nasalized diphthongs, note that –in compounds– (&) as a realization of /'/,
followed by another stress, corresponds to /'/, while a rhythmic (&) / / corresponds
to /’/.) As already seen (§ 7.1.1.3), the diphthong /aunò/ opposes /anò/: ('O˜fAu«)b
('OÍf4u«)l /'OKfaun/ órfão˚ ('O˜fA«)b ('OÍf4«)l /'OKfan/ órfã˘
It is to be noted that, in Lusitanian pronunciation as well, there is a (not slight)
di‡erence between /aiö/ and /eiö/; and it is more remarkable in unstressed sylla-
bles (even if /aiö/ is never completely unstressed, since it has a low occurrence in
the Portuguese vocabulary, and always in lexemes, not in grammemes): ('kAi«s)b
('kAi”S)l /'kains/ cãπ˚ (&mAi«'zi;Nå)b (&mAi«'zi;N‘)l /'main'ziNa/ mãeziâ˚ ('s™I«)b
('s3I«)l /'sein/ sem˚ (seI«'vi˜)b (s’I«'viR)l /sein'viK/ sem vir˘ In its stressed Lusitanian
form, the di‡erence between /aiö/ and /eiö/ is not only in the first elements, ¤
(A) (higher-low central) and (3) (lower-mid front-central) respectively, but also in
the second (front) ones: (i) (high) and (I) (lower-high).
Instead, for /’eiö/ and /'eiö/, only the first (front-central) elements are di‡erent,
¤ (’’) (higher-mid) and ('3) (lower-mid); in Brazilian pronunciation, the latter is
(’e) or ('™), which have the same height, but are front, instead of front-central,
while for the first element of Brazilian /aiö/ we find (A) (higher-low, with the possi-
ble variant (≈)), against Lusitanian (A, ’4) (lower-mid when unstressed), which are
both central (but (≈) is back-central).
7.1.3.5. ˛e other nasalizable diphthongs (besides ('Aiö) /aiö/, ('™Iö, ’eIö)b

('3Iö, ’’Iö)l /—eiö/) are\ ('uiö) /'uiö/, ('9iö) /'oiö/, ('9Uö, ’ÚUö) /—ouö/: ('v™I«s)b
('v3I”S)l /'veins/ vens˚ ('vãa;òeI«s)b ('vãa;Z’I”S)l /'vjaZeins/ viagens˚ ('muintu)b ('muin-
tu)l /'muintu/ muito (just one example, varying with ('mäi-)), (]i's9i«s)b (-”S)l /ıi-
'soins/ liçõπ˚ ('s9U«) /'soun/ som˚ (&kÚU˙ka']o˜)b (-~k‘']oR)l /kounka'ıoK/ com calor˘
We have already seen marginal cases as: (ab'd9;meI«)b (‘B'ƒO;m’I«, ±-™n)l /ab'òì-
mÈe2/ abdômenb˚ -ómenl˚ ('ipsi]ÚU«)b (-î]ÚU«, ±-øn)l /'ipsiıì™2/ ìpsilon˘
7. portuguese 265
˛e following forms, with true triphthongs and quadriphthongs, are a bit

çoddÇ: ('p9ieI«, 'p9i«)b ('p9i’I«, 'p9i«)l /'poi[ei]n/ põem˚ ('v™IeI«, 'v™eI«, 'v™I«)b
('v3I’I«, 'v3’I«, 'v3I«)l /'vei[ei]n/ vêm˚ ('veIeI«, 'veeI«, 'v™I«)b ('veI’I«, 've’I«÷ 'v3I«)l
/'v[ei]ein/ vêem˘
Of course, the other çtriphthongsÇ of grammars and teaching tradition are sim-
ply sequences of the two types /0éé, é0é/ (even + /ö/), as for instance: ('fãeIs)b
('fªÉIS)l /'fjeis/ fie¤˚ (']ãais)b (']ãaiS)l /'ıjais/ lea¤˚ ('pjeIRå)b ('pˆÉIR‘)l /'pweiRa/ poeira˚
('sa;ãu) /'saju/ saio˚ ('me;ãå)b ('mÉ;ã‘)l /'meja/ meia÷ (']qAu«)b (']qAu«)l /'ıjaun/ leão˚
('pq9i«s)b ('p'9i”S)l /'pjoins/ peõπ˘
Consonants
7.2.0. û 7.3 is the table of the Luso-Brazilian consonants, which we will exam-
ine systematically, according to manners of articulation. Instead, û 1.9-15 give the
orograms, equally grouped by manners, of all the contoids given in this book, even
as secondary, occasional, or regional variants, for the 12 languages dealt with.
û 7.3. Table of Portuguese consonants.

velarized alveolar
velarized alveolar
postalveo-palatal
postalveo-palatal
velar rounded
protruded
labiodental
rounded
provelar
alveolar
bilabial
palatal
uvular
dental
velar
ö m (n) n (~) N («) (˙)

F pb t d (© á)b kg
Ô (C ‚)b
ƒ f v (Ÿ)l (º)l
_ s z (ë ò)b Sl Zl
ß (B)l (ƒ)l /j/(ã) /w/(j) (˜)b
ó R /K/
‹ (])|ı (∞)b L
/b/ (b, Bl), /t, d/ (t, Cb÷ d, ‚b, ƒl), /k, g/ (k, ©b÷ g, áb, Ÿl), /K/ (˜b, ºl)
Nasals
7.2.1.1. Portuguese has three nasal phonemes: (m, n, N) /m, n, N/: ('kA;mås)b
('kå;m‘S)l /'kamas/ camø˚ ('kA;nås)b ('kå;n‘S)l /'kanas/ canø˚ ('kA;Nås)b ('kå;N‘S)l /'ka-
Nas/ caˆø˘
In addition, there are some taxophones for /ö0, ö˘, öò/, and it is useful to linger
over them, since too many descriptions keep on ignoring them completely or in
part. As a matter of fact, the only result of transcriptions like ç('Ki, 'ıesu, 'ıA, 'bRAku,
'sÚ, 'us/'uS)Ç is to make people think that Portuguese sounds almost like French
–which is decidedly misleading– since they persist in groundless phonological
characteristics.
As we have already said, Portuguese vowel nasalization is an important phonet-

ic aspect; it is stronger in the Brazilian accent (so much so that it even occurs in
unchecked syllables followed by NV] than in the Lusitanian accent, which pres-
ents nasalization only in checked syllables in N˚ where it is very slight and some-
times very hard to perceive (although instruments may nevertheless indicate it, as
happens in languages for which nobody would ever imagine to mark it, being au-
tomatic).
7.2.1.2. ˛erefore, transcriptions like those just mentioned are not trustworthy,
unless they presume that foreigners will inevitably add a nasal consonant (al-
though it is hard to believe), producing something similar to what is expected (ex-
cluding northern French people, who would then have other problems indeed).
On the other hand, this would be a very shoddy way of teaching phonetics.
˛erefore, taxophones are absolutely necessary for exact transcriptions of Por-
tuguese (and for satisfying phonic reproductions), including devoiced variants es-
pecially for the Lusitanian accent (in front of voiceless C]\ (m) + /p, b/: ('t™mpu)b
('t™≈pu)l /'tempu/ tempo˚ ('s9mbRå)b ('s9mbR‘)l /'sombRa/ sombra÷ (n) + /t, d/ (den-
tal, which could be transcribed with ((˙)), but the normal symbol is quite su‚-
cient) and (~) (for Brazilian Portuguese, before (C, ‚) + (i, ã), /t, d/ + /i, e, j/): ('A~-
Cis)b ('Ant?S)l /'antes/ antπ˚ ('v™ndå)b ('v™nd‘)l /'venda/ venda˚ ('9~‚i)b ('9nd¢)l /'on-
de/ onde÷ (˙) + /k, g/: ('nu˙kå)b ('nu~k‘)l /'nunka/ nunca˚ (']i˙gjå)b (']i˙gj‘)l /'ıin-
gwa/ lìn%a˘
7.2.1.3. Lastly, the çsemi-provelarÇ taxophone is very important; it occurs be-

fore any other consonant (among the phonotactically permissible ones, from
which /R/ is excluded). ˛ey are realized as constrictives˚ (f, v÷ s, z÷ ëb, Sl, òb, Zl÷ º):
(i«'fi«÷ e«-)b (-”'f-)l /in'fin÷ en-/ enfim˚ ('d™«su)b ('d™”su)l /'densu/ denso˚ ('kAi«s)b
('kAi”S)l /'kains/ cãπ˚ ('9«˜å)b ('9«º‘)l /'onKa/ honra (possibly even before the tra-
ditional or regional –alveolar– trill realization of /K/: ('9«r[:]å)b ('9«r[:]‘)l]÷ ap-
proximants˚ (ã÷ j÷ ˜): (']A« ãA∞gu'dAu«)b (']A« ãAıŸu'ƒAu«)l /'ıan iAıgu'òaun/ lã e al-
godão˚ (&seI«jA'mi;gu)b (&s’I«j‘'mi;Ÿu)l /sein-ua'migu/ sem o amigo (“ Ô honra]÷ and
laterals˚ (]): (u«']a;du)b (-ƒu)l /un'ıaòu/ um lado÷ it is the same before a pause as
well\ ('si«) /'sin/ sim˚ ('nAu«) /'naun/ não˘
Instead, for /[é]éöò/ followed by N or V(N)˚ the actual realization is (–òö, –òé,
–ò–), where («ò) is dropped, but there is no vowel elision (Ô § 7.3.2.2, Taxophonics]˘
Stops
7.2.2.1. ˛ere are three diphonic pairs, already seen in various examples, (p, b÷
t, d÷ k, g) /p, b÷ t, d÷ k, g/, with dental (t, d) which, in Brazilian pronunciation,
becomes stop-strictives ((C, ‚), seen previously), before /i, e, j/: ('p9mbå)b (-‘)l
/'pomba/ pomba˚ ('kA˙gå)b ('kA˙g‘)l /'kanga/ canga˚ ('t™ndå)b (-‘)l /'tenda/ tenda˚
('Ci;midu)b ('ti;miƒu)l /'timiòu/ tìmido˚ (sAu'da;‚i)b (sAu'ƒa;ƒ¢)l /sAu'òaòe/ saudade˚
('Cãa;tRu)b ('tªa;tÍu)l /'tjatRu/ teatro˘ Before front V or /j/, /k, g/ are realized as pre-
7. portuguese 267
velar, ((´, Ò÷ Úl)), by coarticulation, but it is not necessary to use these symbols, ex-
cept for Brazilian pronunciation before /i, e, j/, where we find (©, á): ('©intu)b ('kin-
tu)l /'kintu/ ¢into˚ ('tO;©i)b ('tO;k˙)l /'tOke/ to¢e˚ (iN'©ãE;tu)b (i~'kªE;tu)l /in'kjEtu/ in-
¢ieto˚ ('áiå)b ('gi‘)l /'gia/ %ia˘
˛e most interesting Lusitanian peculiarity (which is more complicated for for-
eigners, but also for Brazilans who might try to speak like Lusitanians) is constitut-
ed by voiced stops, /b, d, g/, which are realized as actual stops, (b, d, g), only after
pauses, after N (as can be seen in previous examples), and for /ıd/ (ıd), with an api-
cal contact (since both of them are homorganic articulations), or for emphasis or
precision: ('b9U«) /'boun/ bom˚ ('da) /'òa/ dá˚ ('ga;tu)l (-u)b /'gatu/ gato˚ ('kAıdu)l
(-∞-)b /'kaıdu/ caldo÷ (p¢'ƒi;ƒu)l (pe'‚i;du)b /pe'òiòu/ pedido÷ with emphasis: (p¢"di:-
du)l…
7.2.2.2. In all other cases, continuous realizations occur, (B, ƒ, Ÿ): two approxi-
mants and a constrictive respectively. ˛e diaphonemic transcription shows /òb, òò,
òg/, just to underline the di‡erence and to make their distribution adequately un-
derstood (avoiding forced inferences, which risk strengthening wrong concepts).
Of course, in Lusitanian Portuguese, the (word-initial) notation /b, ò, g/ is çpo-
tentialÇ, since it corresponds to (b, d, g) or (B, ƒ, Ÿ) according to actual contexts,
not in absolute terms. In addition, we must admit that in the case of /ıb, ıg/, and
of /Rb, Rò, Rg/, and of (more) scholarly consonant clusters as well, stop realizations
are not rare, (ıb, ıg÷ Rb, Rd, Rg), even without emphasis or desire for precision.
Some examples: ('a;B‘)l ('a;bå)b /'aba/ aba˚ (u'BRi~ku)l (u'bRi˙ku)b /u'bRinku/ o
brinco˚ (]iZ'Bo‘, ]ÛZ-)l (]iz'boå)b /ıia'boa/ L¤boa˚ ('AıBu«, 'Aıb-)l ('A∞bu«)b /'aıbun/
álbum˚ (‘R'Bi;tÍªu, ‘R'b-)l (a˜'bi;tRãu)b /aK'bitRju/ arbìtrio˚ (&‘Bƒi'kaR, &‘bd-)l (&ab‚i-
'ka˜)b /abòi'kaK/ abdicar˚ (&um‘ƒ¢'ƒa;ƒ‘)l (&umade'da;då)b /umaòe'òaòa/ uma deda-
da˚ (p‘'ƒRAu«)l (pa'dRAu«)b /pa'òRaun/ padrão˚ ('aRƒju, 'aRd-)l ('a˜dju)b /'aKòwu/ ár-
duo˚ (dÛZ'ƒ3I«)l (dez'd™I«)b /òea'òein/ dπdém˘
More: (™'Ÿa;Ÿu)l (™'ga;gu)b /E'gagu/ é gago˚ (Aı'ŸOS, Aı'g-)l (A∞'gOs)b /Aı'gOs/ algoz˚
('veZŸu)l (-zgu)b /'veagu/ vπgo˚ (‘'ŸRa;s‘)l (a'gRa;så)b /a'gRasa/ a graça˚ (&‘RŸ‘'ma;s‘,
&‘Rg-)l (&a˜gA'ma;så)b /aKga'masa/ argamøsa˘
7.2.2.3. Besides, in Brazilian (even neutral) pronunciation, /e/ (i÷ I) is typically

added in order to separate word-final stops, or stops + C (di‡erent from /R, ı/): (op-
'ta˜, &opi'ta˜, &opî-)b (øp'taR)l /ìp'taK/ optar˚ (&advo'ga;du, &a‚iv-)b (&‘ƒvu'Ÿa;ƒu)l /aò-
vo'gaòu/ advogado˚ ('˜itmu, '˜i;Cimu)b ('ºit≈u)l /'Kitmu/ ritmo˚ (p'neus, pi'-)b
(p'neuS)l /p'neus/ pne¨˘ Other examples: ('kaƒmãu, -dm-)l ('kadmãu, -‚imãu)b /'kaò-
mju/ cádmio˚ (‘'miŸƒ‘]‘, -gd-)l (A'migda]å÷ -áid-)b /a'migòaıa/ amìgdala˚ ('diŸnu,
-gnu)l ('‚ignu, -áinu)b /'òignu/ digno˚ ('dOŸm‘, -gm‘)l ('dOgmå÷ -áimå)b /'òOgma/
dogma˚ (iŸ'ze;m‘, ig-)l (ig'z™;må, &iái-)b /ig'zema/ eczema˘
In Lusitanian pronunciation, there are some similar cases: (ob'òE;tu, &obi-)b (øB-
'ZE;tu÷ &øBÛ'Z-)l /ob'ZEtu/ obje(c)to˚ (bi']ak, -']a;©i, -©î)b (bi']ak÷ -k˙)l /bi'ıak/ Bilac. Last-
ly, among complicated consonant clusters for Brazilians, we also find cases like:
('aftå, 'afitå, -fîtå)b ('aft‘)l /'afta/ afta˚ but ('k]a;Ru, ©i']-)b ('k9a;Ru)l /'kıaRu/ claro as
well (due to di‡erences in the primary place of articulation).
Constrictives
7.2.3.1. ˛ere are three diphonic pairs of constrictive phonemes, plus a couple
of diaphonemes (/s, a/, which we will see presently): (f, v÷ s, z÷ ëb, Sl, òb, Zl) /f, v÷ s,
z÷ S, Z/: ('fa;su)b (-su)l /'fasu/ faço˚ ('po;vu) /'povu/ povo˚ ('su∞)b (-ı)l /'suı/ sul˚ (te«-
'sAu«)b (-”-)l /ten'saun/ tensão˚ ('vA∞så)b (-Ós‘)l /'vaısa/ valsa˚ ('pE˜så)b ('pEÍs‘)l /'pER-
sa/ persa˚ (pa'se;ãu)b (p‘'sÉ;ãu)l /pa'seju/ pøseio˚ ('va;zu) /'vazu/ vøo˚ (a'za˜)b (‘'zaR)l
/a'zaK/ azar˚ (u'zi~‚ãus)b (u'zindã¨S)l /u'zindjus/ os ìndios˚ (ëe'Res)b (SÛ'ReS)l /Se'Res/ xe-
rez˚ ('ëE˜ëis)b ('SERS?S)l /'SEKSes/ Xerxπ˚ ('o;òi)b ('o;ZÛ)l /'oZe/ hoje˘
In neutral Brazilian, the diaphonemes /s, a/ behave as /s, z/, with distribution:
/s|, s[ò]=, z[ò]Ê, zòé/, while, in neutral Lusitanian, they correspond to /S|, S[ò]=, Z[ò]Ê,
zòé/ (as well as in the çCariocaÇ accent, of Rio de Janeiro, but of course realized as
(ë|, ë[ò]=, ò[ò]Ê, zòé)): ('tRas)b ('tÍaS)l /'tRas/ trás˚ (us'pais)b (uS'paiS)l /us'pais/ os pa¤˚ (i-
'sE∞su)b (?S'sEÓsu)l /is'sEısu/ excelso˚ (bas'ta˜)b (b‘S'taR)l /bas'taK/ bøtar˚ (pes'ka;då)b
(p?S'ka;ƒ‘)l /pes'kaòa/ pπcada˚ (az'mAi«s)b (‘Z'mAi”S)l /aa'mains/ ø mãπ˚ ('azmå)b
('aZm‘)l /'aama/ øma˚ (az']A«s)b (‘Z']A”S)l /aa'ıans/ ø lãs (further examples occur in
other parts of this chapter).
Approximants
7.2.4.1. ˛ere are two approximants, (ã, j) /j, w/ (semi-palatal, and semi-velar
rounded), corresponding to prevocalic unstressed >i˚ e≥ and >u˚ o≥: ('mão;]u) /'mjo-
ıu/ miolo˚ ('g]O;Rãå)b (-‘)l /'gıORja/ glória˚ ('pq9;nãå)b ('pªO;nã‘)l /'pjìnja/ peôniab˚ peó-l˚
('pqAu«)b ('p'Au«)l /'pjaun/ peão˚ (i'dE;ãå)b /i'òEja/ idéia (i'ƒÉ;ã‘)l /i'òeja/ ideia˚ (ko-
'˜e;ãu)b (k¨'ºÉ;ãu)l /ko'Keju/ correio˚ (kÚm'bO;ãu) /kom'bOju/ comboio˚ (sAm'pa;ãu)b
(sA≈-)l /sam'paju/ Sampaio÷ ('a;gjå)b ('a;Ÿj‘)l /'agwa/ á%a˚ ('pjE;tå)b ('pÊ;t‘)l
/'pwEta/ poeta˚ ('va;kju)b (-kû)l /'vakwu/ vácuo˚ (a˜'gji˜)b (‘R'ŸjiR, ‘R'g-)l /aK-
'gwiK/ ar$irb˚ -%irl˚ ('käimbRå)b ('kîimbR‘)l /'kwimbRa/ Coimbra˘
If pronunciation is slowed down, either for clarity or emphasis, (ã, j) /j, w/ may
change (through (j, w)) to (i, u) (and to (e, o) as well, according to spelling): ('g]O;-
Riå)b (-i‘)l, (pi'9;niå, pe-)b (pi'O;ni‘, pe-)l˚ (pi'Au«, pe-), (i'dE;iå)b (i'ƒÉ;i‘)l, (ko'˜e;Iu)b
(k¨'ºÉ;Iu)l, (kÚm'bO;iu), (sAm'pa;iu)b (sA≈-)l÷ ('a;guå)b ('a;Ÿu‘)l, (pu'E;tå, po-)b (-‘),
('va;kuu, -ü), (&a˜gu'i˜)b (&‘RŸu'iR, -g-), (ku'im-, ko-).
Several examples show that, in Lusitanian pronunciation, by assimilation, we
have devoicing after voiceless C˚ and nasalization before nasalized V˚ (ª, ˆ÷ ', î÷ q,
ä); in Brazilian pronunciation, we generally find only nasalization, (q, ä).
Trills
7.2.5.1. Under this manner of articulation, in addition to the alveolar tap, (R)
/R/, we will treat the theoretical uvular trill, /K/, and the diaphoneme /K/ as well.
For the former, there is not much to say, except that it has a single alveolar con-
tact, in fact it may even become an alveolar approximant (¸); in Luso-Brazilian pro-
7. portuguese 269
nunciation, it occurs between V (in the same word), where it distinctively oppos-
es /K/ and after tautosyllabic C\ ('ka;Ru) /'kaRu/ caro (Ô ('ka;˜u)b (-ºu)l /'kaKu/ car-
ro]˚ ('bRa;su)b (-su)l /'bRasu/ braço˚ ('fRiu)b ('fÍ-)l /'fRiu/ frio˘
Besides (as a realization of /K/) (R) occurs, in Brazilian pronunciation, in word-
-final position too, when followed by a subsequent word-initial V˚ with resyllabifi-
cation and behavior as if in word-internal position (¤ /éKòé/=/é˘Ré/), while in Lu-
sitanian pronunciation it also occurs in final position, even before a pause or a C\
(']e 'RA∞gu)b (']e 'RAıŸu, -gu)l /'ıeK 'aıgu/ ler algo˚ (']e˜ 'poUku, 'po-)b (']eÍ 'poku, 'poU-)l
/'ıeK 'po™ku/ ler pouco˚ (nAu«']e˜)b (n4u«']eR)l /naun'ıeK/ não ler˘
7.2.5.2. ˛e phoneme /K/ occurs in word-initial position, even after C or V˚ and

word-internally after /é÷ n, ı, s/ (¤ heterosyllabic C]÷ in neutral Brazilian, it is real-
ized as a voiceless uvular approximant (˜), independently from context, with the
following variants, again independent from neighboring phones, shown in order
of frequency: voiced uvular constrictive (º), or voiced uvular trill (K), even de-
voiced (ü, »). In addition, there are two further variants, which are less neutral:
voiceless uvular constrictive trill (º) and, at last, voiced alveolar trill (r:), which af-
ter /é[ò]/ may become (Rr:): ([éR]r:).
In Lusitanian pronunciation, this phoneme is (º), with the following variants
(again in order of frequency): (˜, K, », ü, Ü) (where (˜) is the voiced counterpart of
(º)), in addition to ([éR]r:), which a little more than a century ago was the only
neutral pronunciation (while it is in the minority today, either provincial or rural).
Some examples: ('˜uå)b ('ºu‘)l /'Kua/ rua˚ (az'˜uås)b (‘Z'ºu‘S)l /aa'Kuas/ ø ruø˚
(u«'ã;tu)b (u«'ºa;tu)l /un'Katu/ um rato˚ ('tE;˜å)b ('tE;º‘)l /'tEKa/ terra˚ ('mE∞˜u)b
('mEıºu)l /'mEıKu/ melro˚ ('t™«˜u)b ('t™«ºu)l /'tenKu/ tenro˘
Speakers who have (r[:]) /K/ may also have /sòK, aòK/ (Rr[:]), and (zz) as well: (‘R-
'r[:]u‘S, ‘z'zu‘S)l ø ruø; assimilation or dropping of /s, a/ is frequent with neutral
/K/ too: (a[˜]'˜uås)b (‘[º]'ºu‘S)l.
7.2.5.3. ˛e diaphoneme /K/ also occurs in word-internal syllable-final position

and corresponds to /K/, in Brazilian pronunciation, but to /R/, in Lusitanian
pronunciation (where it can be realized as (r) before /m, n, ı/); also in the Brazilian
accent /K/ can have the variant (R), which is acceptable (or even (¸), which how-
ever is not neutral): (']a˜gu÷ ']aR-)b (']aRŸu÷ -gu)l /'ıaKgu/ largo˚ ('pO˜tå÷ 'pOR-)b
('pOÍt‘)l /'pOKta/ porta˚ ('a˜må÷ 'aR-)b ('aRm‘÷ 'ar-)l /'aKma/ arma˚ ('kañi÷ 'kaR-)b
('kaRn¢÷ 'kar-)l /'kaKne/ carne˚ ('ka˜]¨s÷ -R]-)b ('kaR]uS÷ -r]-)l /'kaKıus/ Carlos˘
In current –rather uneducated– Brazilian Portuguese, /Kò/ (˜) may drop (possi-
bly lengthening a little the preceding vocoid), above all in infinitives; instead, in
Lusitanian Portuguese, /Kò/ is /R/, often devoiced, (Í, §), or followed by (¢) (more
or less short — devoiced): (fa'ze˜÷ -e;÷ -e)b (f‘'zeR, -Í, -§, -R¢, -R¢)l /fa'zeK/ fazer˚ ('ma˜)b
('maR, -Í, -§, -R¢, -R¢)l /'maK/ mar˘
Several examples show that, in Lusitanian pronunciation, we have (Í) in con-
tact with voiceless C˘
Laterals
7.2.6.1. ˛ere are two lateral phonemes, in both accents, /ı, L/. For the former
we prefer the symbol /ı/, to a more generic /l/, since even before V it is realized as
a semi-velarized alveolar, (]) (or (ı) as well, ¤ completely velarized alveolar, even
if it can also be (l), which used to be the traditional neutral Lusitanian pronuncia-
tion, but only optional nowadays).
After V˚ before a pause or a C˚ in the Brazilian accent, velarized alveolar round-
ed (∞) occurs; it has a frequent vocalized variant, (u) –which, however, is hardly
neutral– often mistaken for (∞).
In the Lusitanian accent, we have (ı) (with the possible uvularized variant, (l)):
(']eICi)b (']ÉIt˙)l /'ıeite/ leite˚ ('k]a;Ru)b ('k9a;-)l /'kıaRu/ claro˚ (a'zu ]is'ku;Ru)b (‘'zu ]ZS-
'ku;Ru)l /a'zuı is'kuRu/ azul πcuro˚ ('sA∞tu÷ 'sAutu)b ('sAÓtu)l /'saıtu/ salto˚ (òe'RA∞÷
-Au)b (ZÛ'RAı)l /Ze'Raı/ geral˚ ('ta;Lu) /'taLu/ taºo˘
‹ile in Brazilian pronunciation, as already said, /ıò, ı0/ may become (u); in
Lusitanian pronunciation, /ıò/ may be followed by a more or less short — devoiced
(¢) in contact with voiceless C˘
Structures
7.3.0. ˛e interesting subjects, for this part, are: metaphony, words in connect-
ed speech, stress and intonation.
Taxophonics
7.3.1.1. In the Portuguese vowel system, there is an important phenomenon to

consider: vowel adjustment (or çmetaphonyÇ), which concerns the timbre of
stressed vowels according to the vowels occurring in the endings.
It is a phenomenon of diachronic origin, going back to the archaic phase of Por-
tuguese, under the influence of Latin endings. ˛e native speakers, either Brazilian
or Lusitanian, use it automatically and coherently, even if it operates in an incom-
plete and sectorial way, further complicated by a number of exceptions.
For foreigners, it is one of the major obstacles to achieving a good Portuguese
pronunciation; actually, it would be of fundamental importance to be able to re-
ly on a pronouncing dictionary, with diaphonemic transcriptions (in order to deal
with both accents simultaneously), considering metaphony as well.
7.3.1.2. Simplifying our exposition a little, we may say that metaphony oper-
ates in partially di‡erent ways with verbs and non-verbs (¤ nouns˚ adjectives and
some pronouns)˘
Furthermore, a distinction is to be made between e and o˘ For non-verbs with
stressed e˚ the endings -o˚ os /-u, -us/ may cause the closing of timbres: (ka'pe;]u[s])b
(k‘'pe;]u, -¨S)l /ka'peıu[s]/ capelo(s)˚ but (ka'pE;]å[s])b (k‘'pE;]‘[S])l /ka'pEıa[s]/ capela(s)˘
7. portuguese 271
However, not all feminine forms have /E/; actually, very often it is not so: ('ze;-
bRå)b (-BR‘)l /'zebRa/ zebra˚ ('se;då)b (-ƒ‘)l /'seòa/ seda÷ on the other hand, not all
masculine forms have /e/ either, so we find: ('bE;]u) /'bEıu/ belo˚ compared to ('ne;-
gRu)b (-Ÿ-)l /'negRu/ negro (plural and feminine as well).
7.3.1.3. For nouns with stressed o˚ only -o /-u/ (m. sg.) may cause closing: ('po˜-
ku)b ('poÍku)l /'poKku/ porco˚ while we have ('pO˜kus)b ('pOÍkuS)l /'pOKkus/ porcos
and ('pO˜kå[s])b ('pOÍk‘[S])l /'pOKka[s]/ porca(s) as well; besides: ('no;vu) /'novu/ no-
vo˚ but ('nO;vus)b (-¨S)l /'nOvus/ novos and ('nO;vå[s])b (-‘[S])l /'nOva[s]/ nova(s)˚ (fo˜-
'mo;zu)b (f¨R-)l /foK'mozu/ formoso˚ but (fo˜'mO;zus)b (f¨R-, -¨S)l /foK'mOzus/ formo-
sos and (fo˜'mO;zå[s])b (f¨R-, -‘[S])l /foK'mOza[s]/ formosa(s)÷ however, we find: (is'po;-
zu[s])b (?S-, -u, -¨S)l /es'pozu[s]/ πposo(s) and (is'po;zå[s])b (?S-, -‘[S])l /es'poza[s]/ πpo-
sa(s)˚ but (is'pO;zus)b (?S-, -¨S)l /es'pOzus/ πposos for the çcoupleÇ.
Nevertheless, we also find several cases with no variation, such as: (a'do;bu[s])b
(‘'ƒo;Bu, -¨S)l /a'òobu[s]/ adobo(s)˚ ('go˜du[s], -å[s])b (-Rƒu[S], -‘[S])l /'goKòu[s], -a[s]/
gordo(s)˚ -a(s)˘ Of course, there are cases with /O/ as well: ('mO;du[s])b ('mO;ƒu, -¨S)l
/'mOòu[s]/ modo(s)˚ ('fO;ku[s])b (-ku[S])l /'fOku[s]/ foco(s)÷ and even feminine forms
with /o/: ('go;tå[s])b (-‘[S])l /'gota[s]/ gota(s)˚ ('fo˜så[s])b ('foÍs‘[S])l /'foKsa[s]/ força(s)˘
7.3.1.4. For verbs˚ the endings which cause closing are -o˚ -a˚ -ø˚ -am /-u, -a, -as,
-aun/ (for second-conjugation forms with stress on the stem): ('de;vu, 'mo;vu {-å,
-ås, -Au«})b ({-‘, -‘S, -4u«})l /'òevu, 'movu {-a, -as, -aun}/ devo˚ movo…
In checked syllables in N˚ the e‡ect is neutralized: ('v™ndu, 'v™~‚i)b ('v™ndu,
'v™nd¢)l /'vendo, 'vende/ vendo˚ vende÷ however, in unchecked syllables, Lusitanian
pronunciation maintain the di‡erence (contrary to Brazilian pronunciation due
to nasalization): ('t™;mu, 't™;mi)b ('te;mu, 'tE;m¢)l /'temu, 'tÈme/ temo˚ teme˚ ('k9;mu,
'k9;mi)b ('ko;mu, 'kO;m¢)l /'komu, 'kìme/ como˚ come˘
For the same reason, nouns behave in the same way: ('s™;não˜)b ('sE;nãøR)l /'sÈ-
njìK/ sênior/sénior˚ ('k9;miku)b ('kO;mîku)l /'kìmiku/ cômico/cómico (with far from
unquestionable consequences on spelling, which is still overestimated).
Lastly, we have the pronouns ('e;]i[s], 'E;]å[s])b (-¢, -¢S, -‘[S])l /'eıe[s], 'Eıa[s]/ ele(s) e-
la(s)˚ ('esCi[s], 'Estå[s])b ('eSt˙, -?S, 'ESt‘[S])l /'este[s], 'Esta[s]/ πte(s)˚ πta(s) and their deriv-
atives. For other indications, and exceptions, good grammars answer the purpose
quite exhaustively (especially if they are less recent).
7.3.1.5. In colloquial Brazilian Portuguese (in common –not lofty– words), an-
other type of vowel adjustment is frequent; it is a synchronic phenomenon which
may cause pre-stressed e˚ o to be realized as /i, u/ (i, u), often (I, U) (Ô û 7.1), when
the next stressed vowel is /i, u/: (me'ni;nu, mi-, mI-)b (m¢'ni;nu)l /me'ninu/ menino˚
(&a]e'gRiå, &a]i-, &a]I-)b (&‘]¢'ŸRi‘)l /aıe'gRia/ alegria˚ (so'˜i;zu, su-, sU-)b (s¨'ºi;zu)l /su'Ki-
zu/ sorr¤o˚ (ve']u;du, vi-, vI-)b (v¢']u;ƒu)l /ve'ıuòu/ veludo˘
However, the same vowels may be realized as (™, ø) when the stress is on open-
er V\ (˜e']O;òãu, ˜™-)b (º¢']O;Zãu)l /Ke'ıOZju/ relógio˚ (ko'˜E;tu, kø-)b (k¨'ºE;tu)l /ko'KE-
tu/ correto/correcto˘
A systematic use of /e, o/ may give the impression of meticulous attention (or,
perhaps, formality); on the other hand, a methodical use of (i/I÷ u/U÷ ™, ø) would
certainly produce something çexcessiveÇ, and strange or foreign, since lofty or rare
words must remain unchanged. Furthermore, we have for instance: foºiâ /fo-
'LiNa/ (fu'Li;Nå)b (f¨'Li;N‘)l çcalendarÇ, but (fo'Li;Nå)b (f¨'Li;N‘)l çsmall leafÇ, which
is felt as a derivative, contrary to the other.
Words in connected speech
7.3.2.1. Clusters such as /éòé/ (where the first V is word-final {even in unstressed
monosyllables: me˚ te˚ se˚ ºe˚ ¢e˚ e˚ de˚ o˚ do, no} + initial V] produce some simpli-
fications within intonation groups, not only in rhythm groups.
Generally, /e, i/ and /u/ are realized as /j, w/, respectively, or are dropped: (en-
'tRe;]is)b (en'tÍe;]¢S)l /entRe'eıes/ entre elπ˚ ('da;gjå, '‚ãa;-)b ('da;Ÿj‘)l /òe'agwa/ de á-
%a˚ ('ãoUtRå 'koizå, 'ão;-)b ('ão;tÍ‘ 'koiz‘, 'ãoU-)l /i'o™tRa 'koiza/ e outra co¤a˚ (si˙'k]i;-
nå)b (sí~'k9i;n‘)l /sein'kıina/ se inclina˘
Further examples: ('to; d[j]esCi't™mpu)b ('to; ƒ[j]eSt˙'t™≈pu)l /'toòu este'tempu/
todo πte tempo˚ (sãa'vi;Ris)b (sª‘'vi;RZS)l /sia'viRes/ se a virπ˚ (&ist[j]™u«'õUbu, -'õ;-)b
(?St[ˆ]™u«'ºo;Bu, -oU-)l /estuEun'Ko™bu/ ¤to é um roubo˚ (äA'mi; gjita']ãA;nu)b (j‘-
'mi; Ÿjît‘']ãå;nu)l /ua'migu ita'ıjanu/ o amigo italiano˘
More: (nAum'po; '‚[ã]i˜)b (n4u≈'po; 'ƒ[ã]iR)l /naumpoòe'iK/ não pôde ir˚ (©ã™'muin
t[j]a']E;gRi)b (kª™'muin t[ˆ]‘']E;ŸR¢)l /keE'muintu a'ıEgRe/ ¢e é muito alegre˚ ('‚i;si L[ã]a-
'e;]i)b ('di;sZ L[ã]‘'e;][¢])l /'òiseLe a'eıe/ d¤se-ºe a ele˚ ('deIë[is] 'ta˜)b ('dÉIS[?S] 'taR)l /'òeiSe
is'taK/ deixe πtar˚ ('òu; R[ã]i'd9;nãu)b ('Zu; R[ã]i'ƒO;nãu)l /'ZuRi i'òìnju/ jùri idôneo/idóneo˘
Besides: ('be;b[j]u 'to;du)b ('be;B[j]¨ 'to;ƒu)l /'bebuu 'toòu/ bebo-o todo˚ ('t[j]u;zåz
'muin 't[j]i;su)b ('t[ˆ]u;z‘Z 'muin 't[ˆ]i;su)l /tu'uzas 'muintu 'isu/ tu ¨ø muito ¤so˚
('gRA~ ‚ão'õ˜, -n do-)b ('gRAn d[ã]ø'ºoR)l /'gRande o'KoK/ grande horror˚ (äAn't9;nãu)b
(j4n'tO;nãu, ä4n-)l /uan'tìnju/ o Antônio/António˘
7.3.2.2. ‹en the V in contact are two /a/, in Lusitanian pronunciation we

have /aa/ = (’a) ç/A/Ç (with greater lengthening, especially if one of them is stressed;
however it is kept only for clarity): ('to;då [a]'ò™~Ci)b ('to;ƒa 'Z™nt˙)l /'toòa a'Zente/
toda a gente˚ (aA'mi;gå, A;'m-, Å;'m-)b (a'mi;Ÿ‘)l /aa'miga/ a amiga˚ (a'a;gjå)b ('a:Ÿj‘,
‘'a;-)l /a'agwa/ a á%a˚ (a[;]'a;gjå)b ('a:;Ÿj‘, a'a:-)l /A'agwa/ à á%a˚ ('vi[å] An'da˜)b ('vi
Ån'daR)l /'via an'daK/ vi-a andar˚ (a'A∞må)b ('A;ım‘, ‘'Aı-)l /a'aıma/ a alma˚ (a'A∞må,
a;'A∞-)b ('A:ım‘, a'A;ı-)l /A'aıma/ à alma˘
Further cases: (&™]a'E;Rå, ™']E;Rå)b (&™]‘'E;R‘, ™']E;R‘)l /Eıa'ERa/ ela era˚ (u'mO;Rå, &uma-
'O-)b (u'mO;R‘, &um‘'O-)l /uma'ORa/ uma hora˚ (&aoRa'sAu«, &øRa-)b (&åøR‘'sAu«, &øR‘-)l /au-
Ra'saun/ a oração˚ ('da;vau, -vø)b ('da;våu, -vø)l /'òavau/ dava-o˚ ('p9;Nå u&seuëa'pEu,
'p9; Nø&seu-)b ('po;N‘ u&seuS‘'pEu, 'po; Nø&seu-)l /'poNa useuSa'pEu/ poâ o seu >apéu˚
('nu˙kå o'vi fa']a˜ 'ni;su, 'nu˙ kø'vi)b ('nu~k‘ o'vi f‘']aR 'ni;su, 'nu~ kø'vi)l /'nunka ì™-
'vi fa'ıaK 'nisu/ nunca ouvi falar n¤so˘
As already mentioned (§ 7.2.1), /[é]éöò/ followed by /ö, éö˘, é/ are –respective-
ly– realized as ([–]–òö, [–]–ò–, [–]–òé), where («ò) is dropped but nevertheless pro-
tects the V from elision: (']A natu'RA∞)b (']A n‘t¨'RAı)l /'ıan natu'Raı/ lã natural˚ (&kÚU-
7. portuguese 273
ni˙'g™I«)b (-3I«)l /kounnin'gein/ com nin%ém÷ (']A A~'Ci;gå, ']A;~ 'C-)b (']A 4n'ti;Ÿ‘,
']A;n 't-)l /'ıan an'tiga/ lã antiga˚ (kÚU'A«sãå)b (kÚU'A”sª‘)l /koun'ansja/ com ânsia÷ (']A
a'zu∞, ']A; 'z-)b (']A ‘'zuı, ']A; 'z-)l /'ıan a'zuı/ lã azul˚ (kÚU'i;su)b (-su)l /koun'isu/ com ¤-
so˚ (u'9;meI 'A∞tu, 'ä9;-)b (u'O;m’I 'AÓtu, 'äO;-)l /un'ìmein 'aıtu/ um homem alto÷ (se-
'qE;]å)b (s’'qE;]‘)l /sein'Eıa/ sem ela˚ (nA'äE)b (n4'äE)l /naun'E/ não é˘
7.3.2.3. ‹en the syllables in contact have identical or similar C˚ we can find
some geminate, due to the dropping of the vowel element: ('fi;©[i] kÚ'mi;gu)b ('fik[˙]
k¨'mi;Ÿu)l /'fike ko'migu/ fi¢e comigo (da&ke][i]']a;du)b (d‘&ke][¢]']a;ƒu)l /òa'keıe 'ıa-
òu/ da¢ele lado˚ ('k9;m[i] 'muintu)b ('kO;m[¢] 'muintu)l /'kìme 'muintu/ come mui-
to˚ ('k9mpRuCi 'tu;du, -t 't-)b ('k9≈pÍut[˙] 'tu;ƒu)l /'kompRute 'tuòu/ compro-te tudo˚
('kAmp[u] peRi'go;zu)b ('kA≈p[u] p¢Ri'Ÿo;zu, -p pÍi-)l /'kampu peRi'gozu/ campo peri-
goso˘
More: (us'peIëi zis&tAuna'dAndu, -eIë ëis-)b (uS'pÉISZ zZS&t4un‘'ƒAndu, -ÉIS S?S-)l /us'pei-
Se zistaunna'òandu/ os peixπ πtão nadando˚ ('oUv[i] 'vO;zis, 'o;-)b ('o;v[¢] 'vO;zZS, 'oU-)l
/'o™ve 'vOzes/ ouve vozπ˚ ('pa;s[i] 'se;du)b ('pa;s[˙] 'se;ƒu)l /'pase 'seòu/ pøse cedo˚ ('pE;-
‚[i] 'tu;du, -∂ 't-)b ('pE;ƒ[¢] 'tu;ƒu, -‡ 't-)l /'pEòe 'tuòu/ pede tudo˚ ('s™~C[i] 'bu;Lå, -n∂
'b-)b ('s™nt[˙] 'Bu;L‘, -n∂ 'b-)l /'sente 'buLa/ sente buºa˘
Chiefly when the syllables contain /t, ò/, one of them may drop completely: (&fa-
ku∞'da;[‚i] ‚i']e;tRås, -a‚ ‚i-)b (&f‘k¨ı'da;[ƒ¢] ƒ¢']e;tÍ‘S, -aƒ ƒ¢-)l /fakuı'daòe òe'ıetRas/
faculdade de Letrø˚ ('pO;[‚iz &]dez]i'ga˜, 'pOd d-)b ('pO;[ƒÛZ &]ƒÛZ]i'ŸaR, 'pOƒ ƒ-)l /'pOòea
òeaıi'gaK/ podπ dπligar˚ ('kA∞[du] ‚i'kA;nå)b ('kAı[du] d¢'kå;n‘)l /'kaıdu òe'kana/ cal-
do de cana˘
More examples: ('ò™~[Ci] ‚i'fO;Rå)b ('Z™nt¢ ƒ¢'fO;R‘, -n d¢-)l /'Zente òe'fORa/ gente de
fora˚ ('ò™~[Ci] ‚i'ReItå)b ('Z™nt¢ ƒ¢'RÉIt‘, -n d¢-)l /'Zente òe'Reita/ gente direita÷ also:
('ba;[Ci]Ci, -CCi)b ('ba;[t˙]t˙, -tt˙)l /'batete/ bate-te˚ ('vEs[Ci]Ci, -sCCi)b ('vES[t˙]t˙, -tt˙)l
/'vEstete/ vπte-te˘
7.3.2.4. Most of all, in Lusitanian pronunciation, even in connected speech, /eò/

tends to drop, after voiced C as well: (f˙']i;p[˙])l (fi']i;pi)b /fe'ıipe/ Filipe˚ (']a;v[¢])l (']a;-
vi)b /'ıave/ lave÷ on the other hand, /uò/ has the same tendency: ('ti;p[u])l ('Ci;pu)b
/'tipu/ tipo˚ (']a;v[u])l (']a;vu)b /'ıavu/ lavo˘
However, generally a fairly perceptible di‡erence is maintained between forms
like /'ıave/ and /'ıavu/, since /u/, although dropped, labializes the preceding C˚ even
if it is bilabial or labiodental. In actual fact, strictly speaking, we have: (']a;ç, 'ti;()l;
the same is true of all other admitted C˚ including /s, z/, which –phonetically–
may then occur even before a pause (with or without lip rounding): ('sint¢z[¢])l
('sintezi)b /'sinteze/ sìntπe˚ (ºu'mA”s[˙])l (õ'mA«si)b /Ko'manse/ romance˚ (&duvi'ƒo;-
z[u], -z)l (&duvi'do;zu)b /òuvi'òozu/ duvidoso˚ ('pa;s[u], -s)l ('pa;su)b /'pasu/ pøso˚ com-
pared to ('pa;s[˙])l ('pa;si)b /'pase/ pøse… Of course, we generally use a çsimplerÇ
transcription, except when we want to lay special stress on the fact.
˛e sequences /0jeò, éjeò/, in the Lusitanian accent, in addition to having a pro-
nunciation which corresponds to its spelling, preserve the –once, more systemat-
ic– possibility of blending the last two elements: ('sE;RãÛ, -Rã¢, -RÛ, -Ri)l ('sE;Rãi)b /'sERje/
série˚ ('ka;ãÛ, -ã¢, -a;Û, -a;i)l ('ka;ãi)b /'kaje/ caie (where lengthening may be the only
di‡erence as to ('kai) /'kai/ cai]˘ In Lusitanian pronunciation, again, the rare in-
stances of /’iò/ oscillate between /i/ (which is more modern and closer to spelling)
and (the more traditional) /e/: ('taksi, -s˙)l ('taksi)b /'taksi/ táxi÷ forms like /'ZuRi/ jù-
ri and /'ZuRe/ jure (which are alike in Brazilian pronunciation: ('òu;Ri)b], in the Lu-
sitanian one, may either be alike: ('Zu;R¢)l, or di‡erent: ('Zu;Ri)l (-R¢)l (respectively).
7.3.2.5. ‹en, at word boundaries, /KòK, ıòı/ come together, they normally sim-
plify: ('ma[˜] '˜ãA∞)b ('ma[R] 'ºãAı)l /'maK 'Kjaı/ mar real˚ ('ma[˜] ˜umo'Ro;zu)b ('ma[R]
ºumu'Ro;zu)l /'maK Kumo'Rozu/ mar rumoroso˚ (kA'nA[∞] ']impu)b (k‘'nA[ı] ']i≈pu)l
/ka'naı 'ıimpu/ canal limpo˚ (kA'nA[∞] ]imi'ta;du)b (k‘'nA[ı] ]¢mî'ta;ƒu)l /ka'naı ıemi-
'taòu/ canal limitado˘
˛e same occurs to /sòs, aòz, sòS, aòZ/, when they are alike: ('dE[s] 'sE;ku]us)b ('dES
'sE;k¨]¨S)l /'òEs 'sEkuıus/ dez séculos˚ ('dEs 'ëa;]is)b ('dE[S] 'Sa;]¢S)l /'òEs 'Saıis/ dez xalπ˚
(a[z]'z9;nås)b (‘Z'zo;n‘S)l /aa'zonas/ as zonø˚ (&azòA'nE;]ås)b (&‘[Z]Z‘'nE;]‘S)l /aaZa'nEıas/
ø janelø÷ however, we find (Ss)l (s)b /ss/ in cases such as: (&?Ss¢']™nt˙)l (&ise']™~Ci)b
/isse'ıente/ excelente˚ (kÍZS'seR)l (kRe'se˜)b /kRes'seK/ crπcer˘
7.3.2.6. In the Lusitanian accent, the sequences /0ı, 0R/ are often realized as
(0¢], 0¢R) (even if it is better to avoid such a pronunciation): ('f9oR÷ f¢']-÷ ≠f¢']-)l
('f]o˜)b /'fıoK/ flor˚ ('k9a;Ru÷ k¢']-÷ ≠k¢']-)l ('k]a;Ru)b /'kıaRu/ claro˚ ('g]O;Rã‘÷ g¢']-÷ ≠g¢']-)l
('g]O;Rãå)b /'gıORja/ glória÷ on the other hand, the sequences /0eı, 0eR, 0oı, 0oR/,
while behaving in exactly the opposite way, produce similar results, even if –in this
case– one can use that pronunciation without hesitation (provided one's speech
rate is not slow).
Some examples: (k¢'Ri‘÷ k'Íi‘÷ 'kÍi‘)l (ke'Riå)b /ke'Ria/ ¢eria˚ (ko'Ro‘÷ k'Ro‘÷ 'kÍo‘)l
(ko'Roå)b /ko'Roa/ coroa˚ (f¢'ROS, f'ÍOS, 'fÍOS)l (fe'ROs)b /fe'ROs/ feroz˚ (&m¢R¢'seR, m¢Í'seR)l
(&meRe'se˜)b /meRe'seK/ merecer÷ in current speech it is normal to reduce the preposi-
tions combined with the definite article pelo(s)˚ pela(s) to /pıé, pé/, also in Brazil-
ian Portuguese [èp'lo˚ po¶]\ (p]A'mAi«, &pe]A-)b (p9‘'mAi«, &p¢]‘-)l /p[e]ıa'main/ pela
mãe˚ ('p]ja˜, p]u'a˜, &pe]u-)b ('p9jaR, p9u'aR, &p¢]u-)l /p[e]ıu'aK/ /p[e]ıu'aK/ pelo ar˘
Compare also: pára ('pa;Rå)b (-‘)l /'paRa/ and para (&paRa, pRaò0, paò0, paRòé,
pRòé)b (&p‘R‘, pÍ‘ò0, p‘ò0, p‘Ròé, pÍòé)l /&paRa, pRaò0, paò0, paRòé, pRòé/: (&paRa'ka,
pRa'ka÷ &paRa'©i, pRa'©i)b (&p‘R‘'ka, pÍ‘'ka÷ &p‘R‘'ki, pÍ‘'ki)l /para'ka, pRa'ka÷ para'ki,
pRa'ki/ para cá˚ para aqui; besides, cada is generally (&kada)b (&kåƒ‘)l /&kaòa/. ˛ese
are restressed forms, when they occur in isolation (as it happens in metalinguistic
usage), in comparison with normal forms, which have no primary stress, but sec-
ondary or weak ones. ˛e same holds true for a(s)˚ da(s), na(s)… (a{s}, da{s},
na{s})b (‘{S}, d‘{S}, ‘{S})l /a{s}, òa{s}, na{s}/, and even for mas (mas)b (m‘S)l /mas/
(with a possible secondary stress for rhythmic reasons, (&måS)l).
In Lusitanian pronunciation again, also /0es, 0es/, mainly in the ending -π˚ may
be quite reduced, up to becoming intense –çsyllabicÇ– (however the dropping of
the V is an uneducated feature): ('f9o;RZS, -R°÷ -ÍS)l ('f]o;Ris)b /'fıoRes/ florπ; combining
what we have just seen above, in a fairly uneducated type of Lusitanian pronun-
ciation, we may also find (f¢']o;ÍS)l), (ºu'mA”s?S, -”s°)l (˜Ú'mA«sis)b /Ko'manses/ ro-
mancπ˚ (&º¢StAu'RAnt?S, &º°t-, -nt°)l (&˜estAu'RA~Cis)b /Kestau'Rantes/ rπtaurantπ˘
7. portuguese 275
In the Lusitanian accent, the sequences /peK, pRe/ often receive an intense C
and confuse with one another (as has happened to per%ntar˚ in comparison to
Spanish pre%ntar]˚ therefore (p”'fÉItu)l may stand for (pe˜'feItu, pRe'feItu)b /peK-
'feitu, pRe'feitu/ perfeito˚ prefeito (with additional variants (p¢Í'fÉItu, pÍ¢'fÉItu)l].
7.3.2.7. In both accents, the preposition com /koun/, followed by the articles,
is reduced to /kon-/ (kÚ), and to (ku, kj, kä) as well: (kÚu'pai, käu-, kju-)b (kÚu-
'pai, kîu-, kû-)l /kon-u'pai/ com o pai˚ (kÚ&umAmu'LE˜, käu-)b (kÚ&um‘mu'LER,
kîu-)l /kon-umamu'LEK/ com uma muºer˚ (kÚaz'mAu«s, käaz-, kjaz-)b (kÚ‘Z-
'mAu”S, kî‘Z-, kˆ‘Z-)l /kon-az'mauns/ com ø mãos˚ (kÚuz']o;bus, kuz-)b (-Z']o;B¨S,
k¨-)l /kon-uz'ıobus/ com os lobos˘
Even em is considerably reduced, up to ç/in/Ç: (eIm&pu˜tu'ges, im-)b (’I≈&p¨Ít¨-
'ŸeS, i≈-)l /ÈimpuKtu'ges/ em portu%ês˚ (eI˙'ka;zå, i˙-)b (’I~'ka;z‘, i~-)l /Èin'kaza/ em
casa˚ (&eqAu'si;]ãu, iAu-, q-)b (’qAu'si;]ãu, iAu-, q-)l /Èin-Au'siıju/ em auxìlio˘ ˛e dash put
before a V˚ in the diaphonemic transcription, could even be dispensed with, with-
out creating problems, since those forms are recognizable, somehow, thanks to the
dot under the symbols too, /ko™n, Èin/. Otherwise, we could use /«/, as a diapho-
neme (but in a systematic way, then, ¤ for all cases of /éöò/); however, this would
make the transcription heavier and the phonemic analysis more complicated.
In rhythm groups, sequenze /ééòé/ = (éò0é): (u&mejA'mi;gu)b (u&mej‘'mi;Ÿu)l
/umeua'migu, umewa-/ o meu amigo.
7.3.2.8. In the neutral Lusitanian accent, as the various examples have shown,
we systematically find (in addition to (≈, n, ~, ”, Ó, 9, Í, ª, ˆ), except in slow and
very precise pronunciation) even (˙, ?÷ u), when between voiceless C, or between
them and pause, and vice versa. It is quite common to hear things like: (uS&pÍ¨f˙-
'so;RZS &p¨Ít¨'Ÿe;zZS)l (us&pRofe'so;Ris &po˜tu'ge;zis)b /uspRofe'soRes poKtu'gezes/ os profπ-
sorπ portu%ππ˘
In Lusitanian pronunciation, /eò, uò/ are fairly regularly devoiced, even com-
pletely, up to their dropping (after voiced C as well) which occurs, for /’e/, even
within words or rhythm groups: (∂S'kuÓp, d?S'kuÓp˙)l (‚is'ku∞pi)b /òes'kuıpe/ dπ-
culpe˚ (&t–vi'zAu«, &t¢ıv-, &t¢]¢-)l (&te]evi'zAu«)b /teıevi'zaun/ telev¤ão˚ (‘p'tE;s, &‘p˙'tE;s˙)l
(&ape'tE;si)b /ape'tEse/ apetece˚ (∂°'pOÍt°, ∂?S'pOÍtuS)l (‚is'pO˜tus)b /òes'pOKtus/ dπ-
portos˘
More: (S'pÍaR, &?Sp¢'RaR)l (&espe'Ra˜)b /ispe'RaK/ πperar˚ (St‘'tAı, &?S-)l (&ista'tA∞)b /ista-
'taı/ πtatal˚ (Sk‘'seR, &°k-, &?S-)l (&iska'se˜)b /iska'seK/ πcøser˚ (&'Bå;Nu, º¢)l (˜e'bA;Nu)b
/Ke'baNu/ rebaô˚ (‘&supÍãuRi'ƒa[ƒ] ƒu'sOı, ‘&s¨p¢&Rãu-)l (a&supeRãoRi'da[‚i] du'sO∞, -'dad
du-)b /asupeRjoRi'òaòe òu'sOı/ a superioridade do sol˚ (u'fin ∂s'≈å;n‘, ∂s¢-, d¢s¢-)l (u-
'fi~ ‚ise'mA;nå)b /u'fin dese'mana/ o fim-de-semana˚ (p‘'RE;s ≈um‘'Bo‘ i'ƒÉ;ã‘, p‘'RE;s
≈u-, p‘'RE;s¢ m-, p‘'RE;s¢ mãu-)l (reading: (pa'RE;semi uma'boa i'dE;ãå, -se mqu-)b} /pa-
'REseme uma'boa i'òEja/ parece-me uma boa ideial/idéiab˘
7.3.2.9. We will now consider some examples of /0uò/ = (±ò) (the symbols for
/0eò/ are more normal, as in ('k™nt)l ('k™~Ci)b /'kente/ ¢ente]\ ('a;tî[[°])l ('a;Ci-
mu[s])b /'atimu[s]/ átimo(s)˚ ('p9å;“[°])l ('p]A;nu[s])b /'pıanu[s]/ plano(s)˚ ('bå;”[°])l ('bA;-
Nu[s])b /'baNu[s]/ baô(s)˚ ('t™≈([°])l ('t™mpu[s])b /'tempu[s]/ tempo(s)˚ ('tÍi;Ì[°])l ('tRi;-

bu[s])b /'tRibu[s]/ tribu(s)˚ ('paÍT[°])l ('pa˜tu[s])b /'paKtu[s]/ parto(s)˚ ('sa;k[°])l ('sa;ku[s])b
/'saku[s]/ saco(s)˚ (']a;)[°])l (']a;gu[s])b /'ıagu[s]/ lago(s)˘
Furthermore: ('tu;5[°])l ('tu;fu[s])b /'tufu[s]/ tufo(s)˚ ('po;ç, 'pO;ç°)l ('po;vu, 'pO;vus)b
/'povu, 'pOvus/ povo(s)˚ ('po;s, 'pO;s°)l ('po;su, 'pO;sus)b /'posu, 'pOsus/ poço(s)˚ ('ka;z[°])l
('ka;zu[s])b /'kazu[s]/ cøo(s)˚ ('ºo;«[°])l ('õ;ëu[s])b /'KoSu[s]/ roxo(s)˚ ('bÉI»[°])l ('beIZu[s])b
/'beiZu[s]/ beijo(s)˚ ('mÉ;’[°])l ('me;ãu[s])b /'meju[s]/ meio(s)˚ ('ka;∂[°])l ('ka;Ru[s])b /'ka-
Ru[s]/ caro(s)˚ ('ka;R[°])l ('ka;˜u[s])b /'kaKu[s]/ carro(s)˚ ('ºo;3[°])l ('õ;]u[s])b /'Koıu[s]/ ro-
lo(s)˚ ('fi;¯[°])l ('fi;Lu[s])b /'fiLu[s]/ fiºo(s)˘
In neutral Brazilian pronunciation, devoicing is quite rare; nevertheless, it may
occur, mainly after voiceless C before a pause, in particular for /e, u/: ('k™~Ci, Cî,
-Ci)b ('k™nt˙)l /'kente/ ¢ente˚ ('po;su, -s¨, -su)b (-su)l /'posu/ poço˘
7.3.2.10. An oral V followed by a nasalized V˚ may be nasalized, especially in

current pronunciation: (&åimpRe'sAu«, &Aim-)b (&‘i≈pÍ¢'sAu«, &4i≈-)l /aimpRe'saun/ a
imprπsão˚ (™'impãu, ™im-)b (-≈pªu)l /E'impju/ é ìmpio˘
Stress
7.3.3.1. ˛e position of stress is fairly well indicated in spelling, once we know

its rules, which are explained in all grammars. From a phonetic point of view, some
secondary stresses occur. ˛ey are distributed alternatively, for rhythmic reasons,
in a similar way as they occur in Spanish or Italian.
Generally, monosyllabic grammemes (and the like) are unstressed (except for
rhythmic secondary stresses, of course): articles [o˚ a˚ os˚ ø˚ um˚ uns]˚ personal pro-
nouns [me˚ te˚ se˚ o˚ a˚ ºe˚ nos˚ vos˚ os˚ ø˚ ºπ˚ and combinations mo˚ ta˚ ºos {…};
eu˚ tu as well, if weak), possessive adjectives [meu˚ te¨˚ sua {…}), prepositions [a˚
com˚ de˚ em˚ por˚ sem˚ sob]˚ prepositions with articles [à˚ ao˚ da˚ do˚ na˚ no˚ num
{…}, pro/prò = çpara oÇ {…}, plo/p'lo = çpeloÇ {…}), conjunctions [e˚ ou˚ mø˚ nem˚
¢e˚ se]˚ the relative pronoun ¢e˚ auxiliaries [sou˚ és˚ é˚ so¤˚ são˚ tens˚ tem˚ têm˚
(es)tou˚ (es)tás˚ (es)tá]˚ forms of çtratamentoÇ [dom˚ frei˚ são˚ seu = çsenhorÇ), oth-
ers [cem˚ grão˚ ¢ão˚ tão÷ impersonal há]˘
7.3.3.2. ˛en there are (actual) lexical compounds, which maintain a fairly strong
stress on their first element, fluctuating between a primary and a strengthened sec-
ondary one (according to the scale ('), (“), (&)); so we have a first /'/ followed by an-
other which is realized as (“) (or (&), if adjacent to the primary stress): (“gja˜da-
'õUpå, -o;-)b (-Rƒ‘'ºo;p‘, -oU-)l /'gwaKòa'Ko™pa/ %arda-roupa˚ (“agja'fO˜Ci)b (“aŸj‘-
'fOÍt˙)l /'agwa'fOKte/ á%a-forte˚ (“A∞Ci'baiëu)b (“AÓtî'BaiSu)l /'aıti'baiSu/ altibaixo˚ (&mA∞-
'kRãa;du)b (&mAÓ'kÍãa;ƒu)l /'maı'kRjaòu/ malcreado˚ (“pAu~‚i']O)b (“pAund¢']O)l /'paun-
de'ıO/ pão-de-ló˚ (“]uzobRazi']eIRu)b (-øBR‘zi']ÉI-)l /'ıuzìbRazi'ıeiRu/ lö-brøileiro˘
˛ere are even some particular compounds, still considered as such (rather than
crystallizations), which maintain the two elements fairly independent; first of all,
we find adverbs in /-'mente/ -mente: (“òustA'm™~Ci)b (“ZuSt‘'m™nt˙)l /'Zusta'mente/ j¨-
7. portuguese 277
tamente˚ (“]indA'm™~Ci)b (“]ind‘'m™nt˙)l /'ıinda'mente/ lindamente˚ (&fRiA'm™~Ci)b

(&fÍi‘'m™nt˙)l /'fRia'mente/ friamente˚ (ko˜&tez'm™~Ci)b (k¨Í&teZ'm™nt˙)l /koK'tea'men-
te/ cortesmente˚ (“fasi∞'m™~Ci)b (“fasîı'm™nt˙)l /'fasiı'mente/ facilmente˘
7.3.3.3. In addition, nouns with the diminutive infix /-z-/ -z- follow the same
pattern: (mu&L™˜'zi;Nå)b (mu&L™R'zi;N‘)l /mu'LEK'ziNa/ muºerziâ˚ (ku&L™˜'zi;Nå)b
(k¨&L™R'zi;N‘)l /ku'LEK'ziNa/ coºerziâ˚ (“ø˜fA«'zi;Nå)b (“øÍf4«'zi;N‘)l /'OKfan'ziNa/ or-
fãziâ˚ (“ëavena'zi;Nå)b (“Sav¢n‘'zi;N‘)l /'Savena'ziNa/ >avenaziâ˚ (a&vø'zi;Nå)b (‘-
&vø'zi;N‘)l /a'vO'ziNa/ avoziâ˚ (a&vo'zi;Nu)b (‘&vo'zi;Nu)l /a'vo'ziNu/ avoziô˚ (&pai'zi;-
Nu)b (-'zi;Nu)l /'pai'ziNu/ paiziô˚ (“9meI«'zi;Nu)b (“øm’I«'zi;Nu)l /'ìmein'ziNu/ ho-
menziô˚ (“9meI«za'Ãu«)b (“øm’I«z‘'ºAu«)l /'ìmeinza'Kaun/ homenzarrão˚ (ã-
&pa'ze;Lu)b (º‘&pa'zÉ;Lu)l /Ka'pa'zeLu/ rapazeºo˚ (]e«&sø∞'zi;tu)b (]e”&søı'zi;tu)l /ıen'sOı-
'zitu/ lençolzito˘ (Once, a graphic grave accent was used in such compounds.)
As to the (phonic) stressing of verbs, it is important to examin the following
examples well; they are very significant and certainly not free from serious doubts
when consideredmerely from an orthografic point of view; they are given in sim-
ple diaphonemica transcription: /li'mitu, li'mita{s}, li'mitaun/ limito, limita(s)˚
limitam; /'bailu, 'baila{s}, 'bailaun/ bailo, baila(s), bailam; /'kauzu, 'kauza{s}, 'kau-
zaun/ causo, causa(s), causam.
Besides: /aK'kwaK/ arcuar, /aK'kuu/ arcuo, /aK'kua{s}/ arcua(s); /in'flwiK/ influir,
/in'fluu/ influo, /in'flui{s}/ influi(s), /in'flwi/ influì, /in'flwiu/ influiu, /in'flwia{s}/
influìa(s); /pa'sjaK/ passear, /pa'seju/ passeio, /pa'seja{s}/ passeia(s), /pa'sejaun/ passe-
iam; /'KiK/ rir, /'Kiu/ rio, /'Kiu/ riu, /'Kia{s}/ ria(s), /'Kiein/ riem, /'Kiaun/ riam; /òi-
'zia/ dizia, /òi'Ria/ diria, /òi'Rei/ direi.
Now, let us observe very carefully the following: /sa'iK/ sair, /sa'iòu/ saìdo, /sa'in-
du/ saindo, /'sai{s}/ sai(s), /sa'i{s}/ saì(s), /'saju/ saio, /'saja{s}/ saia(s), /sa'iu/ saiu,
/sa'ia{s}/ saìa(s), /sa'iaun/ saìam, /'saein/ saem, /sa'iRaun/ saìram, /sai'Riaun/ sairiam,
/sai'Raun/ sairão, /sai'Ria{s}/ sairia(s), /sai'Rei{s}/ sairei(s), /sa'iReis/ saìreis, /sai'Rieis/
sairìeis.
Lastly, we find çinfixedÇ futures and conditionals (which are quite çoddÇ {for
foreigners or Brazilians, too}): (&se']jÉI)l /'se'ıwei/ sê-lo-ei˚ (tÍ‘&taÍ'sªa)l /tRa'taK'sja/
tratar-se-á˚ (&diR'LjaS)l /'òiK'Lwas/ dir-ºo-ás˚ (kÚn&ta']jAu«)l /kon'ta'ıwaun/ contá-lo-ão˚
(&faR'L[ã]i‘)l /'faK'Ljia/ far-ºe-ia˚ (pu&ƒeÍ's[ª]i‘)l /po'òeK'sjia/ poder-se-ia˚ (&di']ji‘S)l /'òi-
'ıwias/ di-lo-iø˚ (kÚn&ta']äi4«)l /kon'ta'ıwian/ contá-lo-iam (reading: (&se']jeI, tRa&ta˜-
'sãa, &‚i˜'Ljas, kÚn&ta']jAu«, &fa˜'L[ã]iå, po&de˜'s[ã]iå, &‚i']jiås, kÚn&ta']äiA«)b).
Intonation
7.3.3.4. û 7.4-5 show the preintonemes and intonemes of the two neutral Por-
tuguese accents. It is important to make comparisons both between them and with
those of other languages:
/./: (çt™;Nu äAçmi;gu çmuintu simçpa;Ciku3 3)b ('tÉ;Nu ä‘'mi;Ÿu Çmuintu si≈Çpa;ti-
ku3 3)l /'teNu un-a'migu 'muintu sim'patiku./ Teô um amigo muito simpático.
/?/: (¿&useçNo; R™¶mE;‚iku12)b (¿&usZ'No; R™'mE;ƒîku21)l /¿use'NoK E'mEòiku?/ O seôr

é médico?
/÷/: (¿&AmAçNA ™çsa;badu2 2| ¿odÚçmi˙gu3 3)b (¿&am‘'NA ™'sa;B‘ƒu2 2| ¿oƒuÇmi˙gu3 3)l /¿A-
ma'Nan E'sabaòu÷ ¿o™òo'mingu./ Amaˆã é sábado, ou domingo?
û 7.4. Brazilian preintonemes and intonemes.
/ / (2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2) /./ (2 ç 3 3)
/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2) /?/ (2 ¶ 1 2)
/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2) /÷/ (2 ç 2 2)
/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2) /,/ (2 ' 2)
û 7.5. Lusitanian preintonemes and intonemes.
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 Ç 2) /./ (2 Ç 3 3)
/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 Ç 2) /?/ (2 ' 2 1)
/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 Ç 2) /÷/ (2 ' 2 2)
/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 Ç 2) /,/ (2 ' 2)
£International∞ accent
7.4.1. We will now provide the èinternational¶ pronunciation of Portuguese.

Of course, it is based more on the Brazilian accent (rather than on the Lusitanian
one, with all its phonetic idiosyncrasies), also if we consider the actual number of
its native speakers. However, even in respect of the Brazilian accent, its most pecu-
liar characteristics are to be put aside (within Brazil itself), from a more interna-
tional point of view – or, rather, point of èhearing¶.
˛erefore, an International pronunciation of Portuguese does not relate to the
èCarioca¶ pronunciation of Rio de Janeiro, but more generally to that of São Paulo
City and other cities in the southern states of Brazil. As a matter of fact, this kind
of pronunciation moves less away from spelling, which is a great advantage inter-
nationally.
7.4.2. Obviously, native speakers (Lusitanian as well) will understand it with-

out problems. But it is not the same to foreigners faced with Lusitanian pronuncia-
7. portuguese 279
/i/ (i, iö) /u/ (u, uö)
/e/ (e, eö) /o/ (o, Úö)
/E/ (E, »™) /O/ (O, »ø)

/a/ (a, Aö) /ai, au/ (ai, au÷ Aiö, Auö)
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 Ç 2) /./ (2 ç 3 3) /?/ (2 ' 1 2) /÷/ (2 Ç 2 2)
tion. However, in teaching and learning, it is important to have the opportunity

to be able to show a kind of pronunciation which is not the mere result of approx-
imative and partial study (subject to so many interferences from other languages,
also because of very di‡erent orthographic èrules¶, as generally happens when for-
eigners study the Portuguese language with no adequate phonic method). On the
contrary, this results from a long reflection, based on phonic naturalness, but also
from true typicalness (which does not èsound foreign¶).
Perhaps, this accent might add some local peculiarities from the two neutral
accents (either Brazilian or Lusitanian, including some regional variants), thus
making it more native-like, although many native speakers do not find the èinter-
national¶ one to be strange at all. To Lusitanians it might sound rather Brazilian-
-like, but with no typical Southern, Central, or Northern peculiarities.
7.4.3. As shown in the figure, the vowels are (i÷ e÷ 'E, »™÷ a÷ 'O, »ø÷ o÷ u) /i, e, E, a,
O, o, u/ (we still use the diaphonemic transcription as in the preceding chapters):
('vi, 'e;li, &™la'dE;vi, 'ga;ta, 'pO;su, &pøsu'daR, 'o;ku, 'u;va) /'vi, 'eıe, Eıa'òEve, 'gata, 'pOsu,
pOsu'òaK, 'oku, 'uva/ vi˚ ele˚ ela deve˚ gata˚ posso˚ posso dar˚ oco˚ uva; including their
nasalized taxophones (i, e, A, Ú, u): ('si˙, pen'denti, 'kAntu, 'kÚnta, 'mundu) /'sin,
pen'dente, 'kantu, 'konta, 'mundu/ sim˚ pendente˚ canto˚ conta˚ mundo. Of course,
the phonemes /e, E÷ O, o/ must be keep distinct, although they are ètroublesome¶
for foreiners, including the other thorny vocalic problem –metaphony– otherwise,
we would really have a èforeign¶ pronunciation. Written e˚ o, in unstressed sylla-
bles, always correspond to /e, o/ (even for esC-); while, only for final -e(s)˚ -o(s), we
have /e, u/: ('lentis, 'mu;Rus) /'ıentes, 'muRus/ lentes˚ muros˘
7.4.4. ˛e diphthongs are simpler, as well. In fact, they all have (i, u) as second
elements: (ei, Ei, ai, Oi, oi, ui÷ iu, eu, Eu, au, ou), /ei, Ei, ai, Oi, oi, ui÷ iu, eu, Eu, au,
ou, o™/: ('rei, 'vou) /'Kei, 'vo™/ rei˚ vou; with their nasalized taxophones (ei, Ai, Úi,
ui÷ Au): ('bei˙, 'mAi˙, 'pÚi˙, 'muintu, 'nAu˙) /'bein, 'main, 'poin, 'muintu, 'naun/
bem˚ mãe˚ põe˚ muito˚ não. Certainly, (Å) would not be a feasible proposition for
the nasalized diphthongs, or for nasalized /a/. ˛ey are too far away from native-
-speaker's reality (although this would certainly not prevent understanding).
On the other hand, a kind of pronunciation which is still international, but a
little less ègenuine¶, might easily renounce the nasalization caused by /ö/ in checked
syllables – all the more so that, in many types of Lusitanian pronunciations, this
nasalization is really very reduced, so that it corresponds to the merely phonetic one
which is present in /éö/ sequences, in most languages without distinctive/phone-
mic nasalization. Normally, this slight degree of nasalization is not indicated.
7.4.5. Beside the èo‚cial¶ phonemic diphthongs, we find a new series of diph-
thongs, derived from the vocalized realizations of //él0, élò// sequences (dia-
phonemically indicated as /éı0, éıò/). By explicitly adding only the one which
does not already coincide with the èo‚cial¶ diphthongs, we have (Ou): as in
(bRa'ziu, 'feutRu, 'mEu, 'sau, 'sOu, 'soutu, 'suu) /bRa'ziı, 'feıtRu, 'mEı, 'saı, 'sOı, 'soıtu,
'suı/ Brasil˚ feltro˚ mel˚ sal˚ sol˚ solto˚ sul.
Actually, these diphthongal realizations are more convenient, for their articula-
tory simplicity and for better understanding spoken Portuguese, because they pre-
pare foreigners for the interpretation èdilemma¶ of /éı/ as (éu) (coinciding with
many phonological /éu/ diphthongs).
7.4.6. As to consonants, as already said, our international pronunciation does

not make use of particular taxophones, which are peculiar of native accents of Por-
tuguese, but are not sustained by a su‚ciently widespread ènatural universality¶.
˛us, we regularly find the assimilation of /n0/, always with full nasal contoids
(not attenuated, as neutral semi-nasals are, instead), before any consonants: ('sAm-
ba, 'fRA~Za, 'fRAngu) /'samba, 'fRanZa, 'fRangu/ samba˚ franja˚ frango. In addition, in
word-final position, (˙) is normal, even before vowels or nasals at the beginning
of a following word: (nAu˙'E, 'lA˙ a'zuu, u˙'o;vu, u˙'mau) /nau˙'E, 'ıa˙ a'zuı, un'o-
vu, un'maı/ não é˚ lã azul˚ um ovo˚ um mal˘ Note that in this only case the neutral
pronunciations, both Brazilian and Lusitanian, have (–ò).
Compare also ('wo;vu, u'mau) /u'ovu, u'maı/ o ovo˚ o mal.
7.4.7. In the international pronunciation of Portuguese, we do not have either

the Brazilian taxophones of /t, d÷ k, g/ + /i, j/, (C, ‚÷ ©, á): (di'kinta) /de'kinta/ de
quinta; nor the continuous taxophones of /b, d, g/ (of Lusitanian, (B, ƒ, Ÿ), indi-
cated as /b, ò, g/): (&obRi'ga;du) /obRi'gaòu/ obrigado. Even more so, /s{ò}0, z{ò}0/ e
/sò/ (diaphonemically /s, a/) are exactly realized as (s, z), without changing their ar-
ticulations: ('pas, 'dezdi) /'pas, 'òeaòe/ paz˚ desde (which are so remarkable in Lusi-
tanian: ('paS, 'deZƒ¢) and in Carioca: ('paë, 'deò‚i)). ˛us, we only have (S, Z) /S, Z/
for written ch˚ x˚ j˚ g: ('Sa, 'Si;kaRa, 'Za, Ze'Rau) /'Sa, 'SikaRa, 'Za, Ze'Raı/ chá˚ xìcara˚ já˚
geral˘
7.4.8. Also the approximants, more naturally, are such, (j, w) /j, w/ (not semi-
-approximants, (ã, j)): ('glO;Rja, 'li˙gwa) /'gıORja, 'ıingwa/ glória˚ lìngua˘ As to /R/,
of course, we have (R) (even in word-final position before a pause or C, where in
neutral Bazilian we find (˜) /K/). ‹ile, for /K/, a more ènatural¶ (r) is better (af-
ter C\ /n, l, s/, diaphonemically /n, ı, s/): ('Únra, &u˙ra'pas, 'biuru, ra'laR) /'onKa, un-
Ka'pas, 'biıKu, Ka'ıaK/ honra˚ um rapaz˚ bilro˚ ralar, and (Rr), after V: ('kaRru, &uRra-
'pas) /'kaKu, uKa'pas/ carro˚ o rapaz˘ ˛en, it occurs even in word-initial position;
7. portuguese 281
while we have (˜)b, (º)l (with so many other variants, Ô § 7.2.5.2).

Besides, /L/ is maintained ('vE;Lu) /'vELu/ velhu; but, more naturally, we have
both (lé) and (éu) (as already seen), which diaphonemically are /ıéı/): ('ljau) /'ıjaı/
leal.
Stress(es) and duration coincide with the neutral ones; while intonation is a
compromise between the two neutral types. To simplify a little, the figure gives
only the unmarked preintoneme and the three marked intonemes.
Text
7.5.0. ˛e transcribed passage, †e North Wind and the Sun, given in six di‡er-
ent çnormalizedÇ versions. We start with the (Brazilian and Lusitanian) neutral
pronunciations of (neutral British) English – this is the first step of the phonetic
method (the written text is given in § 2.5.2.0). ˛e Portuguese translation follows,
in its neutral Brazilian, Lusitanian, and international Portuguese versions. ˛e
variants given in brackets might need slight adjustments, on which the reader is
invited to reflect, according to the occurring segments.
In the text, for the Lusitanian accent, we indicate (å|) /’aò/, before a pause (even
though in the isolated examples given we simply put (‘ò), in order to better show
the di‡erence with the Brazialian accent).
At the end, as usual, the version showing the English pronunciation of Portu-
guese is given; it represents the habits of neutral British speakers, who are fluent
in Portuguese (after prolonged contact with native speakers, but with no help
from the phonetic method), who have adequately learned the relative prominenc-
es, but who substantially use segmental and suprasegmental elements which are
typical of neutral British English (although, of course, a neutral accent is not so
common). Obviously, the same principle is valid for the foreign pronunciations
of English, given first.
Speakers of American English could prepare their own version both of the Por-
tuguese pronunciation of English and of their pronunciation of Portuguese, as an
excellent exercise, by listening to native speakers, best of all after recording them.
Of course, speakers of other languages could do the same thing. ˛e author would
be happy to receive their transcriptions and recordings, both in case of help
–should they need it– and to make their contribution known to others (possibly
in our website on canIPA Natural Phonetics – Ô § 0.12).
Brazilian pronunciation (of English)
7.5.1. (‚i5nO˜s 'ji~‚i2 ™~‚i'sA«2 j™˜‚is'pãu;Ci« 'j¤ë jøz‚isçtR9˙ge˜3 3| 'j™n A-

'tRE;ve]e˜2 'k™I mA']9«2 ì'˜Epi CinA'jO˜m çk]oU©i3 3œ| deãå'gRid2\ d™‚i5jAn u'fE˜ såk'si-
‚i2 ‚i'meI©i~ ‚i'tRE;ve]e˜2 'teI ©is'k]oU çkOf2 2| &ëUbikÚn'side˜ ‚is£tR9˙ge˜ d™~ç‚ãa;-
ze˜3 3||
'd™~2 ‚i'nO˜s 'ji~‚i2 'b]u2 å'za˜‚i2 åziçku‚i3 3| &bå‚i'mO Riçb]u2 2| ‚i'mO˜ 'k]oUz]i2
&‚i‚i'tRE;ve]e˜2\ 'foU∞ ‚is'k]oU kåçRAun‚i«3 3| ì&™nd™t']asCi2œ\ ‚i'nO˜s 'ji~‚i2 5geI 'vap

‚iaçt™mpiCi3 3|| ì'd™~2œ ‚i'sA~ 'ë9U çAuCi3 3 ìçjO˜m]i3 3œ| &™~‚i'mi;‚ãat]i2\ ˚‚i'tRE;ve]e˜
'tu çkOf3 3 ˚isçk]oU©i3 3|| ì™n'soU2œ ‚i'nO˜s 'ji~‚i2 &jøzob]ais tukÚM'fEs2| &d™‚içsA«3 3 jøz-
‚isçtR9˙geR3 3 ì&øv‚içtu3 3œ||
¿&‚i‚ãu¶]ai©i12 ¿‚is'tO;Ri2| ¿‚ãu'j9n 'tji;Ri ta¶g™«12|||)
Lusitanian pronunciation (of English)

7.5.2. (d¢'nOÍs 'jind[¢]2 ™nd¢'sA«2 j¢RƒZS'pªu;tí« ÇjiS j¢ZƒZSÇtÍ9˙g¢R3 3| 'j™n ‘'tÍE;v¢]¢Í2
'kÉI m¢']9«2 ì'ºEp tîn‘ÇjOR≈ Çk9oUk3 3œ| dÉã‘'ŸRiƒ2\ dEƒ¢'jAn ¨ÇfEÍS s˙k'si;ƒ¢2 ƒi'mÉIkín d¢-
'tÍE;v¢]¢Í2 'tÉI k?SÇk9oU 'kOf2 2| &S¨bîkÚ”'si;ƒ¢R ƒZS∞tÍ9˙g¢R ƒ™nÇdãa;ƒ¢R3 3||
'd™n2 d¢'nOÍs 'jim2 'b]u2 ‘'zaR2 ƒ¢zîÇkuƒ3 3| &baƒ¢'mO Ri'B]u2 2| d¢'mOÍ 'k9øUZ]i2 &ƒiƒ¢'tÍE;v¢-
]¢R2\ 'føUı dZSÇk9oUk ‘ÇRAundi«3 3| ì&™nd¢'t9aSt2œ\ d¢'nOÍs 'ji˙2 'gÉI Çvap ‡i‘Çt™mpt˙3 3|| ì'd™n2œ
d¢'sA” ÇS9U ÇAut3 3 ìÇjORm]i3 3œ| &™ndi'mi;ƒã‘t9i2\ ˚d¢'tÍE;v¢]¢Í Çtu ÇkOf3 3 ˚?SÇk9oUk3 3|| ì™”'soU2œ
ƒ¢'nOÍs 'jind[¢]2 &jøzu'B]aiS tukÚõ'fEs2| &d™ƒ¢ÇsA«3 3 jøZƒZSÇtÍ9˙g¢R3 3 ì&øvƒ¢Çtu3 3œ||
¿&diƒãu']aik21 ¿dZS'tO;Ri2| ¿&dãuj9n'tî;Rî t‘'Ÿ™«21|||)
Portuguese text
7.5.3. O vento norte e o sol porfiavam sobre ¢al dos do¤ era o ma¤ forte, ¢an-
do sucedeu pøsar um viajante envolto numa capa. Ao vê-lo, põem-se de acordo em co-
mo a¢ele ¢e primeiro conse%¤se obrigar o viajante a tirar a capa seria considera-
do o ma¤ forte.
O vento norte começou a soprar com muita fùria, mø ¢anto ma¤ soprava, ma¤
o viajante se embruºava na sua capa, até ¢e o vento norte dπ¤tiu. O sol briºou
então com todo o πplendor, e imediatamente o viajante tirou a capa. E øsim o ven-
to norte teve de recoêcer a superioridade do sol.
Você gostou da h¤toriâ? Queremos repetì-la?
Brazilian pronunciation
7.5.4. (uçv™ntu çnO˜Ci ãu'sO∞2 po˜çfãa;vAu« &sobRiçkjA∞ duz'dois2\ ™R9&maisçfO˜Ci3 3|

çkäAndu &suseçdeu paçsa; Ru«vãa'òA~Ci2\ e«çvo∞tu &numaçka;på3 3| ø've;]u2 'p9i[’I]«si
‚ãa'ko˜du2 eI˙çk9; mjaçke;]i &©ipRiçmeIRu2 &kÚ«seçái; sãobRiçga; Ruvãa'òA~Ci2 aCiçRa;
Raçka;på2 2 se&RiakÚ«&sideçRa;du2 u&maisçfO˜Ci3 3||
uçv™ntu 'nO˜Ci2 &kÚmeçsoU aso'pRa˜2 kÚçmuintå çfu;Rãå3 3| masçkäAntu çmai[s] so-
çpRa;vå2 2| çmai zuvãa'òA~Ci2 &sãimbRuçLa;vå &nasjaçka;på3 3| a'tE2 ©ãuçv™ntu 'nO˜Ci2 &‚i-
zisçCiu3 3|| uçsO∞ bRiçLoU en'tAu«2 kÚnçto;du [u]sp]ençdo˜3 3| &ãime“‚ãatA'm™~Ci2 uvãa-
çòA~[Ci] CiçRoU3 3 açka;på3 3| ãa'si2 uçv™ntu çnO˜Ci2 2\ çte;vi &‚i˜e&kÚNe'se˜2\ a&supe&RãoRi-
çda;[‚i]3 3 duçsO∞3 3||)
¿vo'se gos¶toU12 ¿&daisto'Ri;Nå2 ¿keçR™;mu[s] &˜epe¶Ci;]å12|||)
7. portuguese 283
Lusitanian pronunciation
7.5.5. (u'v™nt¨ ÇnOÍt¢ ã¨'sOÓ2 p¨Í'fªa;v4u” &soBR¢ÇkÂı duZ'ƒoiS2\ ™Rø&maiSÇfOÍt˙3 3|

'kîAndu &sus¢'ƒeu p‘Çsa; Ru«vã‘'ZAnt[¢]2\ i«'voÓt¨ &num‘Çka;på3 3| ø've;]u2 'p9i[’I]”s[¢] ƒ‘-
'koRƒu2 ’I~'ko; mj‘Çke;][¢] &k˙pÍi'mÉIRu2 &kÚ”s[¢]'Ÿi; &sªøBRiÇŸa; Ruvã‘'ZAnt[¢]2 ‘tî'Ra; R‘'ka;-
p‘2 2 s¢&Ri‘kÚ”&sîƒ¢'Ra;ƒu2 u&maiSÇfOÍt[˙]3 3||
u'v™nt[¨] 'nOÍt[˙]2 &k¨m¢'so ‘su'pÍaÍ2 kÚ'muint‘ Çfu;Rãå3 3| m‘S'kîAnt¨ ÇmaiS su'pÍa;-
vå2 2| 'mai zuvã‘'ZAnt[˙]2 &sªimbRu'La;v‘ &n‘sˆ‘Çka;på3 3| ‘'tE2 kªu'v™nt[¨] 'nOÍt[¢]2 &ƒ¢zZSÇtiu3 3||
¨'sOı BRiÇLo en'tAu~2 kÚn'to; ƒ[j]¨Sp9enÇdoR3 3| &ãim¢“ƒãat‘'m™nt[¢]2 uvã‘'ZAn[t˙]2 ˚tîÇRo3 3
˚‘Çka;på3 3| ã‘'si2 u'v™nt[¨] 'nOÍt[˙]2 2\ 'te;v[¢] ƒ¢º¢&k¨NZ'seR2\ ‘&sup¢&RãoRiÇƒa;[ƒ¢]3 3 ƒ¨ÇsO;ı3 3||
¿vo'se Ÿ¨S'to21 ¿&ƒ[‘]ZSt¨'Ri;Nå2| ¿k¢'Re;mu[Z] &º¢p˙'ti;]å21|||)
International pronunciation
7.5.6. (u'ventu 'nORti ju'sOu2 poR'fja;vAun &sobRi'kwau duz'dois2\ ™Rau&maisçfORti3 3|

'kwAndu &suse'deu pa'sa; RuMvja'ZAnti2\ eM'voutu &numaçka;pa3 3| au've;lu2 'pÚinsi dja-
'koRdu2 ei˙'ko; mwa'ke;li &kipRi'meiRu2 &kÚnse'gi; sjobRi'ga; Ruvja'ZAnti2 ati'Ra; RaÇka;pa2 2
se&RiakÚn&side'Ra;du2 u&maisçfORti3 3||
u'ventu 'nORti2 &kome'sou aso'pRaR2 kÚ˙'muinta çfu;Rja3 3| mas'kwAntu 'mais soÇpRa;-
va2 2| 'mai zuvja'ZAnti2 &sjimbRu'La;va &naswaçka;pa3 3| a'tE2 kju'ventu 'nORti2 &dizisçtiu3 3|| u-
'sOu bRi'Lou en'tAu˙2 kÚn'to;du usplençdoR3 3| &jime“djata'menti2 uvja'ZAnti2 ˚tiçRou3 3 ˚a-
çka;pa3 3| ja'si˙2 u'v™ntu ÇnORti2 2\ 'te;vi &diRre&koNe'seR2\ a&supe&RjoRiçda;di3 3 duçsOu3 3||
¿vo'se gos'tou12 ¿&daisto'Ri;Na2| ¿ke'Re;muz &repe'ti;la12|||)
English pronunciation of Portuguese
7.5.7. (¯u5v™nT¯ 'nø;Ti j¯u'sØ;ı2 phø;fi'A;vån &s‘¨b>i'khwA:ı DÈz'DøÙs2\ &™>¯u&maÙs-

'fø;Ti3 3| 5khwånD¯u &s¯usÈ'D™I¯ pÈ'sA:> ¯uMv¤È'ZånTi2\ ¤M5vØıT¯u &n¯umû'khA;på3 3|
aÖ5v™Il¯u2 'phøÙnsi Diû'khø;D¯u2 ™I˙5kh‘¨m¯ û'kh™Ili &khIip>¤'m™‘>¯u2 &k‘¨nsû-
5gIisi Èb>¤'gA:> ¯uv¤È'ZånTi2 ÈT¤5>A:> û'khA;pÈ32 sÈ&>¤ûkûn&s¤DÈ'>A;D¯u2 ¯u&maÙs'fø;Ti3 3||
¯u5v™nT¯ 'nø;Ti &k‘¨m¤5s‘;¨ ÈsÈ'ph>A:2 kû5m¯u¤nTÈ 'f¯uÈ>iå3 3| mÈs5khwånT¯ 'maÙs
sÈ'ph>A;vå32| 5ma;Ùz ¯uv¤È'ZånTi2 &s¤mb>¯u5ljA;vÈ &nås¨û'khA;på3 3| È'Th™;I2 k¤¯u5v™nT¯
'nø;Ti2 &D¤s¤'sTIi¯u3 3|| ¯u5sØı b>¤¬'j‘;¨ ™In'ThaÖn2 kûn5Th‘¨D¯ spl™n'Dø:3 3| Ii&m™D¤ÈTÈ-
'm™nTi2 ¯uv¤È'ZånTi2 ˚T¤'>‘;¨3 3 ˚û'khA;på3 3| IiÈ'sI;in2 ¯u5v™nT¯ 'nø;Ti32\ 5Th™Ivi DÈ&>¤kû~jÈ-
's™‘2\ È&s¯upÈ>i&ø;>¤'DA;Di3 3 D¯'sØ;ı3 3||
¿vÈ5s™;I gû'sT‘;¨21 ¿&DaÙsTÈ'>Iinjå2| ¿khû5>™ImÈs &>™pÈ'ThIilå21|||)
8. Russian
8.0.1. ˛e Russian pronunciation given in this chapter is the modern neutral

one, which is decidedly more relevant and less far from spelling (which we certain-
ly cannot define as çfriendlyÇ, in particular for traditional pronunciation, which
had an even greater number of inconsistencies).
In any case, we will show the di‡erences between modern and traditional pro-
nunciation as well (§ 8.3.2). ˛e latter mostly coincides with the çold Moscow
pronunciationÇ. We will also give other more recent variants, which may be found,
in a more or less (un)systematic way, even among people believed to be çneutralÇ
speakers, who can oscillate among modern, traditional, and çalternativeÇ variants.
However, modern neutral pronunciation is clearly definable and recognizable, and
appreciable indeed, although frequently mixed with the other two types.
Furthermore, our own phonemic interpretation di‡ers from Russian-inspired
ones, because it looks more to concrete things than to (more) abstract ones, which
are further away from the true linguistic intuition of native speakers, unless they
are çdeviatedÇ by archaic Soviet preconceived patterns, to the point of accepting
inappropriate solutions without questioning.
‹at is more, this analysis of ours is closer to the o‚cial writing, with obvious
advantages which compensate for many other discordances between orthography
and pronunciation.
Obviously, some other authors have preferred this kind of analysis, as Trofimov
“ Jones (1923), which we had not yet çdiscoveredÇ at the time of our early interpre-
tation, presented for the first time in 1975. We maintain it here, with some refine-
ments (even phonetic ones, with respect to previous choices which turned out to
coincide with those of Trofimov “ Jones – with six vowel phonemes, although they
treated even coronal –palatalized– consonants in a phoneme-like way).
Unfortunately and strangely, the structuring in Jones “ Ward (1969) is of a çfan-
ta-SovietÇ type (given the direct involvement of Ward with the Soviet/Russian
world and an unexplainable –to us– rethink on the part of Jones, who died two
years before the publication of the book, about the adequacy of the 1923 analysis).
Nevertheless, all in all, Jones “ Ward's book remains the best –extensive– treatise
on the subject; it is decidedly better than the very heavy and (almost) unchanging
Soviet and Russian productions.
Most examples we provide are taken from the various texts given in the bibliog-
raphy, by retranscribing them (or transcribing them entirely, when they were on-
ly graphemic or partial). We always do this both phonetically and phonemically,
according to our principles and methods.
Let us focus attention on another notational di‡erence, as well: between our
transcriptions (which are phonetically and phonemically canIPA) and the oƒIPA
(which is o‚cial after the 1993/96 reform): ('Áe8) /'djenj/ {/'dJenJ/oƒ} denì˚ (='ÁeÀ)
8. russian 285
/z'djesj/ {/'zJdJesJ/oƒ} ‘decì˚ (='Á™;ıx⁄) /z'djelatj/ {/'zJdJElÈtJ/oƒ} cdelatì˚ (&⁄i¬i'vi;Ái-

~i[ã]I) /tili'vidiniji/ {/tJIlJI'vJidJInJIjI/oƒ} teleb$den$e˚ (x&jiÀ⁄Ist'v™;÷ -iÀ⁄'v™;) /ajistist-
'vje/ {/ajIsJtJI'sJtJvJE/oƒ;t, ¤ o‚cial and traditional) o ectectbe˘ It seems quite ob-
vious to us that an excess of (J) is certainly harmful to readability too.
8.0.2. At the beginning, we think it useful to show the Cyrillic alphabet, both
roman and italic. ˛e latter especially, since the shape of some letters can be mis-
leading at first, by comparison with the Roman (or Latin) ones typical of certain
kinds of transliteration, which are given in brackets. It is not recommendable to
use the ambiguous ch for /x/, since kh is decidedly more appropriate, while keep-
ing ch for /c/ (in case the most satisfying choice of using £ /c/ and x /x/ is not
made).
For Cyrillic writing, it is important to pay particular attention to the roman >b,
e, n, p, c, y, x≥, and the italic >e, $, π, p, c, t, y, x≥.
a, a [a] ('Fa;) /'a/ c, c [s] ('F™s) /'es/

∫, ∫ [b] ('bF™;) /'be/ t, t [t] ('tF™;) /'te/
b, b [v] ('vF™;) /'ve/ y, y [u] ('ju;) /'u/
g, g [g] ('gF™;) /'ge/ f, f [f ] ('F™f) /'ef/
d, d [d] ('dF™;) /'de/ x, x [x˚ 9˚ h˚ >! {® u}) ('∆Fa;) /'xa/
e, e [e˚ je˚ ye] ('j™;) /'je/ z, z [c˚ _] ('qF™;)/'qe/
e/É, e/É [ë˚ jo˚ yo] ('jø;) /'jo/ u, u [£˚ >] ('Cã™;) /'ce/
µ, µ [`˚ zh] ('qF™;) /'qe/ w, w [∞˚ ´] ('SFa;) /'Sa/
‘, ‘ [z] ('zF™;) /'ze/ ∑, ∑ [3˚ (˚ ´>] (ë'ëãa;) /S'Sa/
$, $ [i] ('i;) /'i/ œ, œ [≤] (t'vøRd¢iz&nak,' j™Í) /t'vjord…iz-
=, = [j˚ ¤] (&ik'RFatkx[ã]I) /“ik'ratkaji/ $ nak, 'jer/ tbepdv= ‘nak
kpatkoe v, v [y˚ y] ('F…;, jI'RF…;) /…, ji'r…/
k, k [k] ('kFa;) /'ka/ ì, ì ['] ('mÅâ©iiz&nak, 'ma©©ii-, 'jeÌ)
l, l [l] ('F™1, -Ó) /'el/ /'mjaxkiiznak, 'mjakkii-, 'jerj/ mrg-
m, m [m] ('F™≈) /'em/ k$= ‘nak
n, n [n] ('F™n) /'en/ <, < [e˚ è˚ “] ('F™;, &F™åbå'Rjøtnx[ã]I) /'e,
o, o [o] ('jø;) /'o/ “eaba'rotnaji/ < o∫opotnoe
π, π [p] ('pF™;) /'pe/ ù, ù [ju˚ yu] ('ju;) /'ju/
p, p [r] ('F™Í) /'er/ r, r [ja˚ ya] ('ja;) /'ja/
8.0.3. In Russian, the normal phonetic syllabification, although not absolute-

ly, considers that /r, l/ preceded by /0[j]/ are heterosyllabic, unless they are preced-
ed by another C (as in (&xåtås'tRa;dx) /aftas'trada/ abtoctpada and other examples
in the text). ˛e same occurs for /0j-jé/ (J-jé): (kåp'ıjun) /kap'lun/ kaπlyn, ('jut-
Rx) /'utra/ ytpo, (kvåd'RFat) /kvad'rat/ kbadpat, ('pFak-¬x) /'paklja/ πaklr, (ıåv-
'Rjø;v¢i) /lav'rov…i/ labpobv=, ('jø∆-Rx) /'oxra/ oxpa, (zviç'jø;) /zvirj'jo/ ‘bepìe˘ ˛is
may not be very surprising within words; but perhaps it could seem to be a bit
strange in word-initial position. Actually, if we adequately consider not single
words but the phrases and sentences which contain them, the logic behind this de-
cision is (almost) evident. In fact, if we listen carefully, this syllabification is gener-

ally confirmed, although it is possible to find contrary opinions: (t'çi;) /t'ri/ tp$,
(s'pjøÍ) /s'por/ cπop, (t'vøRd¢i) /t'vjord…i/ tbepdv=, (&ik'RFatkx[ã]I) /“ik'ratkaji/ $
kpatkoe, (s'tRFa∆) /s'trax/ ctpax, (s'pıFaf) /s'plaf/ cπlab˘
Vowels
8.1.1. Russian orthography is clearly based on morphonological principles,

which certainly privilege lexical and grammatical structures (even diachronically!)
in comparison with phonic ones. ˛e latter are considered more in the abstract,
more in phonological terms, but still chiefly morphologically. Nevertheless, di‡er-
ently from most languages, in Russian orthography we find that the phonology of
vowels and consonants is presented fairly çspontaneouslyÇ, as felt by çnaïveÇ speak-
ers; not in the çsophisticatedÇ way linguists do, with useless complications both
for teaching and descriptive purposes.
Indeed, the Russian orthography uses six vocalic graphemes which correspond ex-
actly to the number of vowel phonemes of this language: $, <, a, o, y, v /i, e, a, o,
u, …/ (clearly, >e, r, É, ù≥ do not indicate çvowelsÇ, but sequences of /j/ + /e, a, o, u/,
that is (j) or (J) + (™, a, ø, u), or (e, Å, P, ¯) when they are also followed by Ç = /J,
i/). By using these six vowel phonemes (obviously listed in a phonic order), twenty-
-two consonant phonemes (including /Z/) are su‚cient, in contrast with over thirty
(¤ from thirty-three up to thirty-nine) used in other analyses, which persist in posit-
ing only five vowels. Of course, this –excessively– complicates both the whole pho-
nological inventory and the relation between pronunciation and writing.
If a comparison is made, the choice is simple and even obvious. In fact, it seems
to be more logical and natural to conclude by saying that, in Russian, C have taxo-
phones which are çpatalalizedÇ by /i, j/, rather than to imagine some çsoftÇ C
which would (çautomaticallyÇ!) make the Russian speakers produce çsoft(ened)Ç
V˚ whereas çhardÇ C would make them produce çhard(ened)Ç V˚ by advancing the
false excuse that çRussian-speaking people are unable to pronounce a clear i (i)
sound after k (k)Ç.
û 8.1. Russian vowel elements.

/'i, ’0iJ/ (i), /i'/ (I°), /’i/ (I) /u/ (u), /JuJ/ (¯)
/'…/ (…), /…'/ (¢°), /’…/ (¢)
/'JeJ/ (e) /'JoJ/ (P)
/'e/ (™) {/'e˘, "e/ (™[Ä])} /'o/ {/’o/} (ø) {/'o˘, "o/ (ø[∏])}
/’a/ (x), /a'/ (å)
/'JaJ/ ('Å, "Å{Ä}) /'a/ (a) {/'a˘, "a/ (a[å])}
/éi/ (éi) diphthongs÷ /éjé/ (é'jé, é’ãé), /éji/ (é'ãi, é’[ã]I), /'i, 'e, 'a, '…, 'o, 'u/ ('i, 'F™, 'Fa, 'F…, 'jø, 'ju)
In modern pronunciation, even the oddity of (©iiò) /kiiò/ >-k$=≥, traditionally

pronounced as ç/k…i/Ç, disappears. ˛erefore, by definitively reversing the çprob-
8. russian 287
lemÇ, everything becomes simple. As a matter of fact, Russian-speaking people say

(©i) and (k…) (in stressed syllables ('©i;), ('kF…;)), since phonemically they are /ki, k…/
not ç/©i, ki/Ç; and the same is true of (’bI, 'bi;÷ ’b¢, 'bF…;) /bi÷ b…/ (not ç/bi÷ bi/Ç), Â.
In addition, for /Jò, J0/, the very spelling indicates /0j/ through >Cì≥, except
in cases where the pronunciation changed centuries ago (whereas the orthography
has remained unchanged, still keeping sequences such as wì˚ µì). Furthermore,
there are (more or less incomplete) assimilations for /00j/, which become (0J),
or (JJ), depending on the type of pronunciation – (more) modern or (more) tra-
ditional, as we will soon see (§ 8.3.2.0-11).
8.1.2. In stressed syllables, the six vowel phonemes are realized as the black
markers shown in û 8.1. Obviously, those with a white center also correspond to
certain unstressed contexts that we will see later on: (t'çi;) /t'ri/ tp$, ('F™;Rx) /'era/
<pa, ('kFak) /'kak/ kak, ('tjøt) /'tot/ tot, ('jum) /'um/ ym, ('bF…t) /'b…t/ ∫vt; be-
sides, we also have: ('qF™∆) /'qex/ zex, ('SFak) /'Sak/ wag, ('qjuk) /'quk/ µyk˘
As some examples have already shown, there are some interesting di‡erences in
our phonetic transcriptions in comparison with phonemic ones, apart from sym-
bol variations such as (™) /e/, (ø) /o/. ‹ile (i, I) /i/ remain unchanged (except in
the sequences (ãi, ãI) /’ji/, which represent >$≥ after V˚ and >e≥ in unstressed sylla-
bles), the most important element is instead the prevelar semi-approximant (F), oc-
curring before stressed /e, a, …/, and the velar rounded semi-approximant (j), be-
fore stressed /o, u/ (all of them preceded or not by a di‡erent C from /j, c, SS, ZZ/).
˛erefore, the V which are di‡erent from /i/ are realized as sequences of (F) + (™, a,
…), or (j) + (ø, u); in particular this happens in stressed syllables, even in com-
pounds and in sentences where distinct timbres occur; that is with /’e, ’o/ too.
Obviously, (F, j) are less çevidentÇ than fully prevelar, or velar rounded, approx-
imants, (j, w); (w) occurs in English ('w¤T, 'khw¤T, 'wø:{<}) /'wIt, 'kwIt, 'wO:≤/ wit,
quit˚ war. It is to be noted that (F, j) are quite di‡erent from a phonic zero, (`)
(although naïve Russian speakers would swear they cannot hear anything but (`)),
as in English ('¤T, 'kh¤T, 'ø:{<}) /'It, 'kIt, 'O:{≤}/ it˚ kit˚ oar). However, in unstressed syl-
lables, the approximants (F, j) do not occur, as will be clear from some examples
given below.
It is important to explain from the very beginning the palatalizing function of
the phonemes /i, j/ on the C which precede them. ˛us we have to pre-empt, here,
the triple division of the Russian C. We find çnormalÇ C, which are palatalizable\
/m, n÷ r÷ l/ (m, m÷ n, ~÷ R, ç÷ ı, ¬), /p, b÷ t, d÷ k, g/ (p, p÷ b, b÷ t, ⁄÷ d, Á÷ k, ©÷ g, á),
/f, v÷ s, z÷ x/ (f, f÷ v, v÷ s, À÷ z, =÷ ∆, â). ˛en there are the palatal ones, in the gener-
al sense that they have a real çpalatalÇ component, in spite of their actual realiza-
tions: /j, c, S[S], ZZ/ (j, ã÷ C[ã], ‚÷ ë[ë], ëë[ã]÷ òò). ≈nally, we have non-palatal C\ /q÷ S,
q/ (q÷ S, q), which are never palatalized (although spelling sequences like >z$, we,
µì≥ exist: (S'ju;) /S'ju/ wìù). We must always keep in mind, then, that */qi÷ Si, qi/
do not occur (any longer) but are substituted by /q…÷ S…, q…/, in spite of historical
writings with >z, w, µ≥ followed by >$, e, r, ù, ì≥˘
8.1.3. After all, /i, j/ (and /c÷ S, Z/) would be su‚cient to adequately explain
how the Russian phonemic system works, which is so typical because of palatali-
zation˘ ˛erefore, we can represent (in general, as a functional category, especial-

ly in our concise phonemic formulae) those C which have a palatal component (¤
(j) /j/, (C) /c/, (ë[ë]) /S[S]/, (òò) /ZZ/) by means of /J/. In our formulae, this also in-
cludes the typical diphthongs, (éi) /éi/ >V=≥]˚ as if they were ç/éj/Ç, which is a
more abstract representation, often used but not by us. In fact, our only conces-
sion to abstraction is the use of /J/ in our formulae, even for /éi/. Another (more
abstract) possibility, which is traditional and frequent in transliterations, would
give //Sc// for /S[S]/.
So if çnormalÇ C are followed by /i, j/, they are realized as çpalatalizedÇ (and ab-
sorb /j/): (m, ~÷ ç÷ ¬), (p, b÷ ⁄/+, Á/_÷ ©, á) ((⁄, Á) occur before V and heterorgan-
ic C; (+, _) occur before homorganic C], (f, v÷ À, =÷ â)÷ obviously, without the addi-
tion of the semi-approximants (F, j), before V˘
˛erefore, we have: ('miÍ) /'mir/ m$p, ('vjø;Ài)) /'vosimj/ bocemì, ('~™;bx) /'nje-
ba/ ne∫o, (kå8'©i;) /kanj'ki/ konìk$, ('çis) /'ris/ p$c, ('zjøÌkx) /'zorjka/ ‘opìka,
('kjøÌ) /'korj/ kopì, ('¬™s) /'ljes/ lec, (bå1'Sjøi) /balj'Soi/ ∫olìwo=, ('sjø1) /'solj/
colì, ('p™Ó) /'pjel/ πel, ('tjøp) /'topj/ toπì, ('bust) /'bjust/ ∫ùct, ('⁄™;ıx) /'tjela/
telo, ('mFa⁄) /'matj/ matì, (+'¬a;) /t'lja/ tlr, ('Áe;⁄I) /'djeti/ det$, (d'v™;, Á'-)
/d'vje/ dbe, (_¬I'nFa;) /dli'na/ dl$na, ('©it) /'kit/ k$t, (&mx~i'©juÍ) /mani'kjur/ man$-
kùp, ('njø;áI) /'nogi/ nog$, ('fi;~Ik) /'finik/ f$n$k, (k'Rjøf) /k'rofj/ kpobì, ('veÀ)
/'vjesj/ becì, (å'À™;) /f'sje/ bce (also (å'Àø;) /f'sjo/ èbcÉ¶) ('gjuÀ) /'gusj/ gycì, (=I'mFa;)
/zi'ma/ ‘$ma, ('⁄i;âii) /'tixii/ t$x$=˘
Naturally, even (C, 'Cãé, ‚) /c/, (ë[ë]) /S[S]/ (and (òò) /ZZ/) have the value of Ç:
('Cã™k) /'cek/ uek, (∆å'Cãu;) /xa'cu/ xouy, (C'¬™n) /c'ljen/ ulen, (åı‚'bFa;) /alc'ba/
alu∫a, (ë'ëit) /S'Sit/ ∑$t, (Ië'ëãu;) /iS'Su/ $∑y, (tå'vFa;çië[ë]) /ta'variS[S]/ tobap$∑˘
˛e phoneme (òò) /ZZ/ is particular and typical only of a kind of traditional and
old-fashioned pronunciation: ('vjøòòI) /'voZZi/ boµµ$, ('jeòòu) /'jeZZu/ e‘µy. ˛e
most modern and recommendable pronunciation has (qq) /qq/, in almost all words:
('vjøqq¢, 'j™qqu) /'voqq…, 'jeqqu/.
Initial /j/ is Ç par excellence, and even after V (keeping well in mind that >e, r,
É, ù≥ –being simply C + V sequences, not çdiphthongsÇ– correspond to /j/ + /e, a,
o, u/): (jI'zF…k) /ji'z…k/ r‘vk, ('j™Ó) /'jel/ el, ('ja;) /'ja/ r, ('jøS) /'joS/ eµ, ('juk) /'juk/ ùg,
(må'ja;) /ma'ja/ mor, (så'jus) /sa'jus/ coù‘, (d'vjø[;ã]I) /d'voji/ dboe, ('njø;vxãx) /'no-
vaja/ nobar, ('Ài;~i[ã]I) /'siniji/ c$nee˘
8.1.4. ˛e four vowel phonemes /e, a, o, u/ may occur between Ç˚ and are real-
ized closer — fronter, as indicated by the grey markers, (e, Å, P, ¯) (again in û 8.1):
('je1) /'jelj/ elì, ('pÅ⁄) /'pjatj/ πrtì, ('⁄P;⁄x) /'tjotja/ tetr, (⁄¯'fak) /tju'fjak/ tù-
frk˘
˛e advancement and raising of /[0]iJ/ is decidedly more limited, (iï) (and, in
the vocogram, there is no special marker di‡erent from the one for normal (i), so
as not to render the figure too heavy): ('bi⁄) /'bitj/ ∫$tì˘
On the contrary, /…/ does not occur in this context; and this phenomenon has
cultivated the myth of the complementarity of (i, …). So they are grouped in the
same phoneme, /i/, under the delusion that a çbetterÇ phonological system has
been found – while it is exactly the contrary. çDeviantÇ schooling is hard to re-
8. russian 289
move, especially in regard to o‚cial writing (with its known and less known prob-
lems) and çrespellingÇ, which is even used in schools in addition to in çscientificÇ
works, with phonemic ambitions. ˛ey would like to find –almost alchemist's–
solutions, by using complex formulae and esoteric iconograms (which we will be
careful not to reproduce).
In û 8.1, three çpotentialÇ phonetic diphthongs, (™Ä, aå, ø∏), are also given,
which can substitute (™;, a;, ø;) (with an çinterpalatalÇ variant, (ÅÄ), for (Å;)). ˛ey
occur mainly in intonemes, in unchecked (final or internal) syllables: (å'À™;, å'À™Ä÷
-ø;, -ø∏) /f'sje÷ -jo/ bce, ('F™;∆x, 'F™Ä∆x) /'exa/ <xo, ('dFa;, 'dFaå) /'da/ da, ('Fa;tx≈, 'Faå-
tx≈) /'atam/ atom, ('ÁÅ;Áx, 'ÁÅÄÁx) /'djadja/ drdr, (d'njø;, d'njø∏) /d'no/ dno,
('gjø;ıxs, 'gjø∏ıxs) /'golas/ goloc˘ ˛ey also occur for emphasis, in which case they
are longer; thus we have in unchecked syllables (™;Ä÷ a;å, Å;Ä÷ ø;∏): (å"À™;Ä÷ -ø;∏)
/f'sje÷ -jo/ bce, ("F™;Ä∆x) /'exa/ <xo, ("dFa;å) /'da/ da, ("Fa;åtx≈) /'atam/ atom, ("ÁÅ;Ä-
Áx) /'djadja/ drdr, (d"njø;∏) /d'no/ dno, ("gjø;∏ıxs) /'golas/ goloc; and in checked
syllables (™Ä÷ aå, ÅÄ÷ ø∏): ("~™Ät) /"njet/ net!, ("qFaå1) /"qalj/ µalì!, ("pÅÄ⁄) /"pjatj/
πrtì!, ("djø∏≈) /"dom/ dom!
8.1.5. Russian also has some ço‚cialÇ diphthongs, all with a front second ele-
ment /éi/ (éi). Here we will consider those occurring in stressed syllables: ('©ii)
/'kii/ k$=, ('pei⁄I) /'pjeiti/ πe=te, ('mFai) /'mai/ ma=, ('CãÅi) /'cai/ ua=, ('bjøi)
/'boi/ ∫o=, (zå'çPi) /za'rjoi/ ‘ape=, ('djui⁄I) /'duiti/ dy=te, ('Á¯i≈) /'djuim/ dù=m,
('vF…idu) /'v…idu/ bv=dy. As can be seen, the orthography uses >=≥ for diphthongs
çconsecratedÇ by grammar. However, mainly in loanwords, others occur, as >ay≥:
('fFaust) /'faust/ Fayct˘
In unstressed syllables, we have (again with (éi)): ('ju;¬ii) /'uljii/ yle=, (Cii'kjøå-
s©ii) /cii'kofskii/ Ua=kobck$=, (tåi'gFa;) /tai'ga/ ta=ga, ('Á™;ıxi⁄I) /'djelaiti/ de-
la=te, (ui'dju;) /ui'du/ y=dy, (Á¯i'mjøåkx) /djui'mofka/ dù=mobka, ('b™;ı¢i)
/'bjel…i/ ∫elv=˘
Instead, purely graphemic çdiphthongsÇ like >$$˚ $r˚ e$˚ ee˚ ae˚ ar˚ aù˚ oe˚ ve≥
do not correspond at all to phono-diphthongs, except when the semi-approximant
(which is shown in round brackets, (é[ã]é)) falls completely. In this case, howev-
er, if the last vocalic element is /i/, the phone (I) is maintained (instead of having
(i), as in phonemic diphthongs, unless it is followed –in sentences– by (J) or /i/):
(vI'tFa;¬i[ã]I, v¢-) /vi'taliji, v…-/ b *tal$$, (vRåÀ'Ài[;ã]I) /vras'siji/ b Pocc$$, ('¬i;¬i[ã]x) /'lil-
ija/ l$l$r, (mu'=e[;ã]I) /mu'zjeji/ my‘e$/-ee (Ô (mu'=ei) /mu'zjei/ my‘e=], (å'Àe~~i[ã]I)
/a'sjenniji/ ocennee, (6'ma[;ã]I) /v'maji/ b mae, (&~IRu'SF…;mxãx) /niru'S…maja/ nepyw$-
mar, (z'nFa;ãu) /z'naju/ ‘naù, ('njø;vx[ã]I) /'novaji/ noboe˚ ('juqn¢[ã]I) /'juqn…ji/ ùµ-
nve˘
˛e following examples are bisyllabic: (på'juk) /pa'uk/ πayk, (må'ãi;) /ma'ji/
mo$, (på'F™t) /pa'et/ πo<t, (du'F™1) /du'elj/ dy<lì˘
8.1.6. As far as V in unstressed syllables are concerned, in addition to what we

have already seen in some examples, in modern pronunciation we have (Ô § 8.3.2,
for çtraditionalÇ and çalternativeÇ pronunciations): (I', ’I, ’iJ) /i/ (including (’Jii)
/0ii/ – thus, /’i/ is (i) when it is followed by (J) or by /i/, even in sentences, with-
out a pause), (å', ò’å, ’x) /a/, (u) /u/, (¢', ’¢) /…/: (CI'sF…;) /ci's…/ uacv, (pi'⁄i;) /pi'ti/ πr-
t$, (&ãIz¢'kFa;) /jiz…'ka/ r‘vka, (å'bF…;Cii) /a'b…cii/ o∫vua=, (&jIRå'ıFaS) /jira'laS/ epa-
law, (&piçimi'¬i;) /pirimi'li/ πepemel$, (&I¬Ik'tçi;CIstvx) /ilik'tricistva/ <lektp$uect-
bo, ('pjø;¬I) /'poli/ πole÷ (&gxıå'vFa;) /gala'va/ goloba, (&åvå˙'gFaÍt, -n'g-) /avan'gart/
abangapd, (k'RFasnxãx) /k'rasnaja/ kpacnar÷ (u'Rjøk) /u'rok/ ypok, ('djø;mu) /'do-
mu/ domy, (Àu'dFa;) /sju'da/ cùda, (À¯'Àu;kx⁄) /sju'sjukatj/ cùcùkatì÷ (q¢&vi¬I'zFa;-
q¢ãx) /q…vili'zats…ja/ z$b$l$‘az$r, (q¢'nFa;) /q…'na/ µena, ('dF…;R¢) /'d…r…/ dvpv˘
For >r≥ in unstressed syllables (and for >Ça≥ too), it is important to explain that
neutral pronunciation has only /i/, whereas a transversal use of (‘, È) (or even (x,
å) /’a/) is very widespread, although decidedly non-neutral. ˛is occurs both in tra-
ditional and alternative pronunciation (and indeed even for speakers who are neu-
tral, one way or another!). ˛is can occur both within lexemes, and in inflected
forms with >r+C≥ consonantal endings (influenced by the forms ending in -r, with
/’ja/, (Jx, ãx)).
˛us we have: (pIt'njø;, ≠p‘t-, ≠påt-) /pit'no/ πrtno, (jI'zF…k, ≠j‘-, ≠jx-) /ji'z…k/ r‘-
vk, (&jIz¢'©i;, ≠&j‘-, ≠&jx-) /jiz…'ki/ r‘vk$, (&pxg¬i'Á™Ó, ≠-¬È-, ≠-¬å-) /pagli'djel/ πoglrdel,
('nFa;CIt, ≠-C‘t, ≠-Cxt) /'nacit/ nauat, (å'bF…;Cii, ≠-C‘i, ≠-Cxi) /a'b…cii/ o∫vua=,
('kjøRmIt, ≠-m‘t, ≠-mxt) /'kormit/ kopmrt, ('Áe;⁄I≈, ≠-⁄‘≈, ≠-⁄x≈) /'djetim/ de-
trm, ('zFa;~IÓ, ≠-‘Ó, ≠-xÓ) /'zanil/ ‘anrl, (&bIspi'⁄i 'pÅ⁄, ≠&bÙspå'⁄i 'pÄ⁄, ≠-pÈ'⁄i) /bis-
pi'ti 'pjatj/ ∫e‘ πrt$ πrtì. (Please note the variants of -$k, as well: (s'pju+~Ik,
≠-~‘k, ≠-~xk) /s'putnik/ cπytn$k.)
çNormalÇ traditional pronunciation, for (pretonic) >e', r', Ça'≥ (¤ occurring in
syllables immediately before the stressed or tonic one in a intoneme) has ç/’e/Ç (É',
Ù'+J), which correspond to modern pronunciation /’i/ (I, iJ): (&bIspÙ'⁄i 'pÄ⁄)t, as
also happens in: (bi'çø;zx)m (bÙ-)t /bi'rjoza/ ∫epe‘a.
In vowel sequences which contain /’a/, we generally find an extension of the use
of (å): (&vååb-Rå'qFa⁄) /vaabra'qatj/ boo∫paµatì, (nåu'gFat) /nau'gat/ naygad, (&pååd-
nå'mju;) /paadna'mu/ πo odnomy, (&nååstRå'vFa∆) /naastra'vax/ na octpobax, (u&åd-
nå'vjø;) /uadna'vo/ y odnogo, (såu'Cãas[t]vxvxÓ) /sau'cas[t]vaval/ coyuactbobal,
(sååt'v™s[t]vxvx⁄) /saat'vjes[t]vavatj/ cootbetctbobatì.
Consonants
8.2. ˛e phonemic structuring we prefer for Russian only has twenty-two conso-
nant phonemes (including /ZZ/), which combine with the six vowels, as we have al-
ready seen in the previous sections. Here we will systematically consider Russian
C's according to their manners of articulation.
Let us observe that no voiced diphonic C occurs before a pause or a voiceless C:
('bjøp) /'bop/ ∫o∫, ('mjøsk) /'mosk/ mo‘g, (t'Rjup©I) /t'rupki/ tpy∫k$, (åså'dju;)
/fsa'du/ b cady. In addition, no voiceless C occurs before a diphonic voiced C (/v/
is a bit particular, Ô § 8.3.1.7): (z'bF…⁄) /z'b…tj/ c∫vtì, (zgå'RF…;) /zga'r…/ c gopv.
≈nally, in general, son(or)ants are partially devoiced before either voiceless C
or pauses; usually, between a voiceless C and a pause, they become voiceless, un-
less they become intense, in which case they are voiced or half-voiced (according
8. russian 291
to their phonic context): ('qF…Í) /'q…r/ µ$p, (Í'tFa;) /r'ta/ pta, ('kFaÍtx) /'karta/ kap-
ta, ('bjøbÍ, -;b“) /'bobr/ ∫o∫p, (_'~™p5, -;p”) /d'njepr/ Dneπp.
˛e table in û 8.2 shows the consonantal articulations of Russian, which are
necessary for an appropriate pronunciation of this language.
Instead, û 1.9-15 show the orograms of all the contoids treated in the chapters
of this book, by grouping them according to manners of articulation, including
secondary, occasional, or regional variants, for the 12 languages dealt with. ˛is
way of displaying them makes the necessary comparisons between di‡erent lan-
guages more straightforward.
û 8.2. Table of Russian consonants.
protruded (non-pr.*)
velariz. postalveo-pal.
velarized alveolar
postalveo-palatal
velar rounded
labiodental
labio-palatal
labiodental
palatalized
prepalatal
laryngeal
prevelar
alveolar
bilabial
palatal
dental
velar
ö m (m) (M) (“) (n) n (~) (2)* (~) (N) (˙)
F p b (p b) t d (+ _) (© á) k g
Ô q (Q) C (‚) (⁄ Á)
ƒ (å 6) f v (f v)
_ s z ë {ò} S q (À =) (,|J) (y)
ß (â) j|(ã) (F) (∆) (j) {H}
ó R (ç)
‹ ı (¬) (L)
/c÷ S, Z÷ x÷ r÷ l/ (C÷ ë, ò÷ ∆÷ R÷ ı)÷ /m, n÷ r÷ l/+(), £÷ 5÷ ñ, Ñ) + ((º, ª, ¸, √, n))
Nasals
8.2.1. Russian has only two nasal phonemes, /m, n/, with various taxophones,
especially for the latter. ˛us: /m/ (m, m, M, “) and /n/ (m, m, M, “, n, ~, 2, N,
˙) (more specific symbols like ((˙, n, ˝)) are not necessary, but –as we will shortly
see– (º, ¸, n÷ ª, √) can be used, for a less-assimilated kind of coarticulation,
which maintains their front lingual contact –alveolar/prepalatal– while adding a
secondary articulation with no contact: bilabial, labiodental, velar).
For /m/: ('mFa;mx) /'mama/ mama, ('ıFa≈px) /'lampa/ lamπa, ('njøR≈) /'norm/
nopm, ('çit), 'çi;tM) /'ritm/ p$tm, ('çiå), 'çi;åM) /'rifm/ p$fm, (m'njøi) /m'noi/
mno=, (≈'∆Fa;) /m'xa/ mxa, (mg'ıFa;) /mg'la/ mgla, ('mik) /'mik/ m$g, ('mÅ⁄)
/'mjatj/ mrtì, ('Àe)) /'sjemj/ cemì, (Im'biÌ) /im'birj/ $m∫$pì, (åM'vjøn) /am'von/
ambon, ('FaõfxRx) /'amfara/ amfopa. /m/ can occur befor heterorganic C: (m'gıFa;)
/m'gla/ mgla, (m'njøi) /m'noi/ mno=, (≈'∆Fa;) /m'xa/ mxa; however, for /mj/, and
/m/ + /i/, we regularly have (m): ('miÍ) /'mir/ m$p, ('Àe)) /'sjemj/ cemì.
For /n/: (&jømbi'çøt, &jøª-) /ombi'rjot, on-/ on ∫epet˚ (kåM'vFa;, -¸'v-) /kan'va/
kanba, (åõ'fFas, å∞-) /an'fas/ anfac, ('njøs) /'nos/ noc, (n'RFaf) /n'raf/ npab, (kå-
'mFa~ÁI) /ka'mandi/ komande, ('~i⁄) /'nitj/ n$tì, ('kjø8) /'konj/ konì˚ (bi~'=in)
/bin'zin/ ∫en‘$n, (&bxRå'bFa8ëIk) /bara'banSik/ ∫apa∫an∑$k, (©I2'qFaÓ) /kin'qal/

k$nµal, ('RFaNS¢\) /'ranjS…/ panìwe, ('tjø˚©ii, -8©-÷ -~k¢i, -∫k¢i) /'tonkii/ tonk$=,
('bFa~k, -∫k) /'bank/ ∫ank˘
˛us, /n0, nò0/ regularly assimilate. Also /nj/ becomes (~), but then it keeps its
phonetic autonomy (even as a phonemic sequence, with a distinctive value), with-
out neutralizations before other C. It must be said, though, as we have already seen
from some examples, that –especially because of spelling influence (and mainly in
less colloquial and more traditional pronunciation)– a complex coarticulated way
of pronouncing is widespread, with partial assimilation: (ºb, ¸v, 8©, ∫k) Â,
which would try to maintain ç(nb, nv, n©, nk)Ç Â. In these cases, people oscillate
considerably; but, on the other hand, should it be important to emphasize a kind
of pronunciation with heterorganic ((n0)), the orthography would use >nœ≥, at
least within words; but it does not do so…
Stops
8.2.2. ˛ere are three diphonic pairs which do not oppose before a pause or a
voiceless C: /p, b÷ t, d÷ k, g/ (p, p, b, b÷ t, ⁄, +, d, Á, _÷ k, ©, g, á). ˛e actual articu-
lation of çpalatalizedÇ /t, d/ is prepalatal which are stopstrictives, but stops before ho-
morganic (or similar) C. Sometimes, we find (+) before pauses as well): ('pjøt) /'pot/
πot, ('ıjøp) /'lop/ lo∫, ('peC) /'pjec/ πeuì, ('tjøp) /'topj/ toπì, ('gjø;ıup) /'golupj/
goly∫ì, ('bF…t) /'b…t/ ∫vt, (å'bF™;tx≈) /a'betam/ o∫ <tom, ('bi⁄) /'bitj/ ∫$tì÷ (t'Rjut)
/t'rut/ tpyt, (åq'qFa;) /at'qa/ otza, (t'kju;) /t'ku/ tky, ('vit) /'vit/ b$d, (⁄'mFa;)
/tj'ma/ tìma, (⁄'fju;) /tj'fu/ tìfy!, (pi+'¬a;, pIt-, 'pe+-¬x) /pit'lja, 'pjetlja/ πetlr, (Rå-
'bjø+~Ik) /ra'botnik/ pa∫otn$k, (åC'Cãøt) /at'cot/ otuet, ('djup) /'dup/ dy∫,
('tjødq¢) /'todq…/ tot µe, ('Áe8) /'djenj/ denì, (_'~a;) /d'nja/ dnr, ('pjø_¬I) /'podli/
πodle, (d'veÌ, Á'-) /d'vjerj/ dbepì, ('kFak) /'kak/ kak, ('pFakt) /'pakt/ πakt, ('¬øk)
/'ljok/ leg, ('kF™;txmu) /'ketamu/ k <tomy, (©Iås'©jøÍ) /kias'kjor/ k$ockep, ('áip©ii)
/'gipkii/ g$∫k$=, ('gjøt) /'got/ god, (g'nju⁄) /g'nutj/ gnytì, (nå'ái;) /na'gi/ nog$˘
Stopstrictives
8.2.3. Russian has two voiceless stopstrictive phonemes, /q, c/, but four reali-
zations, by voicing assimilation (in addition to the palatalized variants of /t, d/,
(⁄, Á), which we have already seen in § 8.2.2). Besides, before a stressed V –di‡er-
ent from /i/– /c/ is (Cã): ('qF…kñ, -%) /'q…kl/ z$kl, (å'⁄™q) /a'tjeq/ otez, (b'RFaqqx)
/b'raqqa/ ∫patza, (pıåQ'dFaR≈) /plaq'darm/ πlazdapm÷ (u'Ci;⁄i1) /u'citilj/ yu$-
telì, ('Cãas) /'cas/ uac, (p¬i'Cãø;) /pli'co/ πleuo, ('ıjuC) /'luc/ lyu, (C'¬™n) /c'ljen/
ulen, (nå‚'Áif) /nac'dif/ naud$b˘
8. russian 293
Constrictives
8.2.4. For the time being, let us introduce the three constrictive diphonic pairs,
(f, f, å÷ v, v, 6) /f, v/, (s, À÷ z, =) /s, z/, (S, q) /S, q/; apart from the palatalized taxo-
phones (of the first two pairs, but not of the last one), the labiodentals have a bila-
bial realization when they do not precede either /j, r, l/ or V (including the voiced
approximants –(F, j)– which are added, from a phonetic point of view, in front of
stressed vocoids): ('fjøn) /'fon/ fon, ('Rjøf) /'rof/ pob, (&ååtå'mFat) /afta'mat/ abto-
mat, (f'fi¬mI) /f'filjmi/ b f$lìme, ('v™Íf) /'vjerfj/ bepfì, ('vjøÓk) /'volk/ bolk,
(S'kFa6q¢) /S'kavq…/ wkaf µe, ('sjøn) /'son/ con, (Rå'sFa;) /ra'sa/ poca.
More examples: (À'~™k) /s'njek/ cneg, ('jøÀ) /'osj/ ocì, ('zjup) /'zup/ ‘y∫, (z'ıjøi)
/z'loi/ ‘lo=, (z'b™;ı¢≈) /z'bjel…m/ c ∫elvm, (I'=u≈) /i'zjum/ $‘ùm, (&bi=Ái'⁄ei) /biz-
di'tjei/ ∫e‘ dete=÷ ('SF™À⁄) /'Sestj/ wectì, ('ıjøS) /'loS/ loµì, ('qF™st) /'qest/ µect,
(q'dFa⁄) /q'datj/ µdatì, (∆å'qju;) /xa'qu/ xoµy˘
Lastly, there is another –quite particular– voiceless constrictive, (ë[ë]) /S[S]/, which
is lengthened before /é/, and has a traditional variant constituted by the corre-
sponding constrictive followed by the (sometimes very weak) stopstrictive, (ëC).
˛is is more complicated and not at all necessary in modern pronunciation (in-
deed, as we have already said, it more aptly belongs to traditional pronunciation).
Before a stressed V (when di‡erent from /i/), a (ã) is inserted: (ë'ëit)m (ë'Cit)t /S'Sit/
∑$t, (påë'ëãa;dx)m (påëC'ã-)t /paS'Sada/ πo∑ada, ('bjøÍë)m (-ëC)t /'borS/ ∫op∑.
˛e possible sequence (ëC) /Sc/ is di‡erent –but quite normal indeed– as in:
(ë'ëã™≈÷ ë'Cã™≈) /S'Sem/ c uem (Ô § 8.3.2.5).
Approximants
8.2.5.1. From a phonemic point of view, Russian has two approximants. Palatal
/j/, which is realized as fully palatal either before a stressed V, ('jé), or in initial posi-
tion in a rhythm group before a (stressed or unstressed) V, (òjé). Instead, /j/ is real-
ized as a palatal semi-approximant after a (stressed or unstressed) V before anoth-
er unstressed V\ (é’ãé) (and also in (é'ãi), for /é'ji/ >V$≥\ (må'ãi;) /ma'ji/ mo$]÷ after
C˚ it changes the sequence into a çpalatalizedÇ C, /0j/ (J) (Ô § 8.1.2-3): ('jÅ⁄) /'jatj/
rtì, (ji'vi⁄) /ji'vitj/ rb$tì, (&mxãI'kjøås©ii) /maji'kofskii/ Markobck$=, (bå1'SFa;-
ãx) /balj'Saja/ ∫olìwar˘
For emphasis, or precision, we can have (j) = (,) (semi-constrictive) and, respec-
tively, (ã) = (j). However, it is more important to note that, in non-slow speech,
the /ijé, éji/ sequences are realized as (ié, éi): ('FaRmiãx, -mix) /'armija/ apm$r,
(må'ãi;, må'i;) /ma'ji/ mo$˘ Sometimes, even in /éjé/ (éãé) sequences (without /i/),
it is not easy to adequately perceive (ã), especially in fast speech: (bå1'SFa;ãx, -a[;ã]x)
(above all in preintonemes).
8.2.5.2. Current Russian orthography still presents some old-fashioned ways of

writing >w˚ µ˚ z≥ followed by >e˚ r˚ É˚ ù˚ $≥˚ and even by >ì≥˘ But in these cases,
nowadays, the value of those V is /e, a, o, u, …/ (obviously, ç>É≥Ç is only used in dic-
tionaries and teaching texts): ('qF™∆) /'qex/ zex, ('SjøÓk) /'Solk/ welk, (&pxRå'Sjut)
/para'Sut/ πapawùt, ('qF…Ík) /'q…rk/ z$pk, ('qF…⁄) /'q…tj/ µ$tì, ('ıjøS) /'loS/ loµì˘
However, they can be followed by /j/ (j) inserted before the V (and in writing
>ì≥ appears too): (S'jøt) /S'jot/ wìet, (S'ju;) /S'ju/ wìù, ('ıjøqju) /'loqju/ loµìù˘
Besides, the palatal approximant can occur after (J), too, then it is phonemical-
ly geminated /jj/, and may have a distinctive value: (s¢ç'jø;) /s…rj'jo/ cvpìe, (p'ju;)
/pj'ju/ πìù, (Á'ja;vxÓ) /dj'javal/ dìrbol, (v'jut) /vj'jut/ bìùt, (IL'jiC) /ilj'jic/ *lì$u˘
Even /sjj, zjj/ can occur, but indicated with >œ≥ (although not always, as in cœe-
µ$tìcr, given at the end of this section): (À'j™;∆x⁄) /sj'jexatj/ cœexatì, (I='jÅ⁄) /izj-
'jatj/ $‘œrtì˘
˛e same occurs for /Jj/: (C'ja;) /c'ja/ uìr (Ô ('Cãat) /'cat/ uad, where the di‡er-
ence is clear also because of the di‡erent syllabic structure). ˛e /ljj, njj/ sequences
are realized as (Lj, Nj) (or even (¬j, ~j), which are already su‚ciently di‡erent):
(L'jøt) /lj'jot/ çs/he poursÇ lìet (Ô ('¬øt) /'ljot/ çiceÇ led or çflightÇ let]˚ (L'ju;)
/lj'ju/ lìù, (vRåN'jø;) /vranj'jo/ bpanìe, (sviN'ja;) /svinj'ja/ cb$nìr˘
˛ere are even cases where a (0) remains separated and uninfluenced by a fol-
lowing /j/; thus, if no stress sign is already present, it is necessary and su‚cient to
introduce a hyphen in the phonemic transcription (as the orthography uses >œ≥):
(åb'j™;∆x⁄) /ab'jexatj/ o∫œexatì, (s'jø;q¢qx) /s'joq…qa/ cœeµ$tìcr, (d&vu∆'ja;Rusn¢i)
/d“vux'jarusn…i/ dbyxœrpycnv=, (t“RansjI6Rå'peis©ii) /t“rans-jivra'pjeiskii/ tpancœe-
bpoπe=ck$=, (&m™q'ja;Rusn¢i) /“mjeq'jarusn…i/ meµœrpycnv=˘
8.2.5.3. ˛e other approximant, /x/, in spite of its (constrictive) o‚cial sym-

bol, is realized as (∆, â) (voiceless, velar or palatal, respectively); in addition, by as-
similation to a following voiced C, we have (y), (velar) semi-constrictive, which
di‡ers from the (less evident and less intrusive) non-phonemic element (F), auto-
matically inserted before /'e, 'a, '…/ in the typical and genuine pronunciation (as
happens with (j), before /'o, 'u/, Ô § 8.1.2): ('∆ju;q¢) /'xuq…/ xyµe, ('mjø∆) /'mox/
mox, ('âit-R¢i) /'xitr…i/ x$tpv=, (gå'Rjøyq¢) /ga'roxq…/ gopox µe˘
˛us, phonetically, Russian has six approximant (or semi-approximant) phones:
(j, ã) /j/÷ (∆, â) /x/; (F, j) /`/, and two semi-constrictives: (y) /x/ and (,) (a possible
variant of /j/, Ô § 8.2.5.1).
£Trills∞
8.2.6. In the Russian phonemic system we find only one çtrillÇ phoneme, which
is realized either as an alveolar, (R), or a prepalatal, (ç), tap – according to contexts.
For emphasis, or speaking in a slow and clear way, as in teaching, it is possible to
hear the corresponding trills, (r, D), which may be used in these situations. But,
for a good pronunciation, these are not necessary; instead, it is more important to
respect the normal degrees of devoicing (Ô § 8.3.1.7): ('RFat) /'rat/ pad, ('pFaÍk)
/'park/ πapk, ('pøt5, -;t”) /'pjotr/ ∏etp, ('çis) /'ris/ p$c, ('çat) /'rjat/ prd, (få'nFaÌ) /fa-
'narj/ fonapì, (Ài~'⁄abÌ, -;bh) /sin'tjabrj/ centr∫pì, ('vi∆[, -;∆·) /'vixrj/ b$xpì, ('jøb-
Rxs) /'obras/ o∫pa‘, ('Fad-çIs) /'adris/ adpec˘
8. russian 295
Laterals
8.2.7. ˛ere is only one lateral phoneme, /l/, with three taxophones, (ı, ¬, L)
(independently of devoicing – Ô § 8.3.1.7); (ı) is a velarized alveolar, but it be-
comes (velarized) dental (which is possible to transcribe with ((Ï))), by assimilation
before /t, d÷ q÷ s, z/: ('ıF…;q¢) /'l…q…/ lvµ$, (s'ıjø;vx) /s'lova/ clobo, ('djuÓ) /'dul/ dyl,
('igÓ, 'i;g®) /'igl/ $gl, (s'mF…sñ, -;s∆) /s'm…sl/ cmvcl, ('¬i;qx) /'liqa/ l$za, ('qFa1) /'qalj/
µalì, ('tjø1kx) /'toljka/ tolìko, ('pFa¬mx) /'paljma/ πalìma, ('Rjub1, -;bˆ) /'rublj/
py∫lì, ('mF…ÀÑ, -;À∆) /'m…slj/ mvclì, (&pjøı'¬it-Rx) /“pol'litra/ πol-l$tpa (here, lexical
compounding shows how it prevails against phonology, since /l+l/ remain separat-
ed, (ı¬), instead of fusing into (¬¬)), (L'jut) /lj'jut/ lìùt˘ Some speakers can have a
velarized dental (or denti-alveolar) (ı) in any case, instead of velarized alveolar, not
only before dental articulations.
Structures
8.3. In these sections we will deal above all with the di‡erences between the
phonic structure and writing, which inevitably presents çsurprisesÇ, since pronun-
ciation changes, whereas orthography remains unchanging, except for o‚cial re-
forms (which however are always insu‚cient and partial, as those of Peter the
Great {1708-1710}, the Academy of Sciences {1735, 1738, 1758}, and Lenin {1917}
– ('¬e;~In) /'ljenin/ Len$n). We will treat some di‡erent distributions of certain
phonemes, in the formation of Russian words.
Taxophonics
8.3.1.1. Let us start by contrasting some (similar, but not identical) structures,
which foreigners are likely to confuse, thus compromising what they say.
Russian grammar considers the division into grapho-syllables to be quite flexi-
ble, for instance: /sis'tra/ (ÀIs'tRFa;) ce-ctpa˚ cec-tpa˚ cect-pa˘ ˛us, it is quite sur-
prising that for the division into phono-syllables, instead, the prevailing approach
perseveres in proposing (or imposing) */si'stra/, Ô § 8.0.3).
In the case of graphic geminates, for instance, we have: An-na /'anna/, but pho-
netically ('Fannx).
8.3.1.2. Obviously, Russian has its particular phonotactics (¤ the grouping of

phonemes). We will give some examples of di‡erent structures: ('vjøtkx) /'votka/
bodka, (g'Á™;) /g'dje/ gde, (s'vFaÁbx) /s'vadjba/ cbadì∫a, (t'kFaC) /t'kac/ tkau, (åp-
'pFaCkx⁄) /ap'packatj/ o∫πaukatì, (p'⁄i;qx) /p'tiqa/ πt$za, (pIt'njø;) /pit'no/
πrtno, (s'pju+~Ik) /s'putnik/ cπytn$k, (pi+'¬a;, pIt-, 'pe+-¬x) /pit'lja, 'pjetlja/ πet-
lr, (påd'møtkx) /pad'mjotka/ πodmetka, (À'⁄ep) /s'tjepj/ cteπì, (tk'nju⁄)
/tk'nutj/ tknytì, (d'qjut) /d'qut/ dµyt, ('bju⁄kx) /'butjka/ ∫ydì-ka, (t'veÌ÷ ⁄'v-)
/t'vjerj/ Tbepì, (+'¬a;) /t'lja/ tlr, (d'v™;÷ Á'v™;) /d'vje/ dbe, (_'~a;) /d'nja/ dnr, (k'v™Í-
∆u) /k'vjerxu/ kbepxy, (S'kju;Rx) /S'kura/ wkypa, (k'ıFaÀ⁄) /k'lastj/ klactì, ('©ja∆tx)
/'kjaxta/ Krxta, (t'©jøt) /t'kjot/ tket, (ås'kjø;çI) /fs'kori/ bckope, (å⁄I'nu⁄) /fti-
'nutj/ btrnytì, (&påÍt'fe¬) /part'fjelj/ πoptfelì, (v'vøÓ) /v'vjol/ bbel, (v'jøt) /vj'jot/
bìet, ('©ju;gu, 'kju-) /'kjugu/ k ùgy, (k'~i;gx) /k'niga/ kn$ga, (6z'g¬at) /vz'gljat/
b‘glrd˘ In traditional (and traditional-like) pronunciation, the palatalization of
/k, g/ also spreads to cases such as the last two: (k'~i;gx)m (©'~i-)t /k'niga/ kn$ga,
(6z'g¬at)m (-á¬at)t /vz'gljat/ b‘glrd˘
More examples: (s'RFa;zu) /s'razu/ cpa‘y, (s'pRFa;vx) /s'prava/ cπpaba, ('zFaåtRx)
/'zaftra/ ‘abtpa, (zRå'Cãøk) /zra'cok/ ‘pauok, (å'ÀÅ;©ii) /f'sjakii/ bcrk$=, (À'j™Ó) /sj'-
jel/ cœel, (6'=Å⁄) /v'zjatj/ b‘rtì, (='¬iqqx) /z'liqqa/ ‘l$tìcr, (='Á™;ıx⁄) /z'djelatj/
cdelatì, (dRu='ja;) /druzj'ja/ dpy‘ìr, (S'ju;) /S'ju/ wìù, (&åtSå'gFa⁄) /atSa'gatj/ otwa-
gatì, (q'dFa⁄) /q'datj/ µdatì, (q'Áøt) /q'djot/ µdet, (q'qFa⁄) /q'qatj/ cµatì,
(C'Cã™tnx) /c'cetna/ t∑etno, (∆'¬PëëI) /x'ljoSSi/ xlectue, (IS'SjøÓkx) /iS'Solka/ $‘
welka, (À⁄i'âi;) /sti'xi/ ct$x$, (∆'vjøst) /x'vost/ xboct, (Rås'qv™t) /ras'qvjet/ pacz-
bet, (C'¬™n) /c'ljen/ ulen, (kåp'Cãø;n¢i) /kap'con…i/ koπuenv=, (CçIz'm™Rnx) /criz-
'mjerna/ upe‘mepno, (&åCëI'vjø;) /atci'vo/ otuego, (⁄'mFa;) /tj'ma/ tìma˘
Some further examples: (m'gıFa;) /m'gla/ mgla, (m'njøi) /m'noi/ mno=, (m'ıFat-
S¢i) /m'latS…i/ mladw$=, (m'~e;~i[ã]I) /m'njeniji/ mnen$e, (≈'ëãe;~i[ã]I) /m'Seniji/
m∑en$e, (m'RFa;mxÍ) /m'ramar/ mpamop, (≈'Cãaqqx) /m'caqqa/ muatìcr, (çIå-
'¬iz≈, -;zõ) /ria'lizm/ peal$‘m, (ÁIåf'RFag≈, -;gõ) /diaf'ragm/ d$afpagm, ('veÁ≈,
-;Áõ) /'vjedjm/ bedìm, (d'RFa∆), -;∆M) /d'raxm/ dpaxm, ('me;ÀIq) /'mjesiq/ mecrz,
(å'pçÅm) /f'prjamj/ bπprmì, ('kFa=8, -;=«) /'kaznj/ ka‘nì, ('peÀ}, -;À¯) /'pjesnj/ πec-
nì, (ı'bFa;) /l'ba/ l∫a, (ı'gFa⁄) /l'gatj/ lgatì, ('igÓ, 'i;g®) /'igl/ $gl, ('RF…∆ñ, -;∆%) /'r…xl/
pvxl, (b'¬™dn¢i) /b'ljedn…i/ ∫lednv=, (S'¬a;px) /S'ljapa/ wlrπa, (Í'tFa;) /r'ta/ pta,
(R'qF…;) /r'q…/ pµ$, (R've;~i[ã]I) /r'vjeniji/ pben$e, ('~™gÍ, -;g“) /'njegr/ negp, (åpi'çøt)
/fpi'rjot/ bπeped, (ç'ja;nxÀ⁄) /rj'janastj/ pìrnoctì, (6'njut[, -;t·) /v'nutrj/ bnytpì˘
≈nally, let us also observe: (åspıåk'nju⁄) /fsplak'nutj/ bcπlaknytì˘
8.3.1.3. Generally, in Russian (but not necessarily, as for instance in quick pro-
nunciation) stops and stopstrictives, in heterorganic sequences, are audibly re-
leased ((0$0)), whereas those in homorganic sequences are inaudibly released
((0æ0); only here we will use the special diacritics): (kå'Rjøp$kx) /ka'ropka/ kopo∫-
ka, (p$'⁄i;qx) /p'tiqa/ πt$za, (kup$'qju;) /kup'qu/ kyπzy, ('jøt$pusk) /'otpusk/
otπyck, (t$'kFaC) /t'kac/ tkau, (ë'ëãøt$kx) /S'Sotka/ ∑etka, (åd$'gFat$kx) /ad'gatka/
otgadka, (s'vFaÁ$bx) /s'vadjba/ cbadì∫a, (åÀig$'dFa;) /fsig'da/ bcegda, (g$'Á™;) /g'd-
je/ gde, (påd$'møt$kx) /pad'mjotka/ πodmetka, (zåt$'me;~i[ã]I) /zat'mjeniji/ ‘atme-
n$e, ('áib$nu⁄) /'gibnutj/ g$∫nytì, (k$'~i;gx) /k'niga/ kn$ga, (ÀiÁ$'mjøi) /sidj-
'moi/ cedìmo=, (d$'veÌ, Á$'veÌ) /d'vjerj/ dbepì˚ (kåg$'dFa;) /kag'da/ kogda, ('⁄øg$b¢)
/'tjogb…/ tek ∫v˘
More: (pItæ'njø;) /pit'no/ πrtno, ('b™dæn¢i) /'bjedn…i/ ∫ednv=, (&vxRå+æ'~ik) /varat-
'nik/ bopotn$k, (pi+'¬a;, pItæ-, 'pe+æ¬x) /pit'lja, 'pjetlja/ πetlr, (fu+æ'¬aÍ) /fut'ljar/ fyt-
lrp. In addition: (åp'pFaC$kx⁄) /ap'packatj/ o∫πaukatì, (åt'tju;dx) /at'tuda/ ot-
tyda, (åq'qFa;) /at'qa/ otza, (&å⁄⁄I'njuÓ) /atti'nul/ ottrnyl, (å⁄'⁄u;dx) /at'sjuda/
otcùda (also (åt'Àu-), and even (åt'su-) /at'su-/), (&åCCI'vjø;) /atci'vo/ otuego (pho-
nemic geminates –and similar homorganic sequences– are realized as phonetic
geminates with a limited duration of the second element: ((0æ0))).
8. russian 297
8.3.1.4. In addition to /q, c/ (q, Q÷ C[ã], ‚), we also find sequences like /ts, dz÷
tS, dq/ (ts, dz÷ tS, dq) (but generally /ts, dz/ (ts, dz) become /q/ {(q) and (Q)}, ex-
cept in compounding, especially with prefixes): (&åts¢'ıFa;ãu) /ats…'laju/ otcvlaù,
(påts'ıju;SxÓ) /pats'luSal/ πodclywal, (nåts'mjøt5, -;t”) /nats'motr/ nadcmotp,
('jødz¢f) /'odz…f/ ot‘vb, (&pxdzxgå'ıjø;vxk) /padzaga'lovak/ πod‘agolobok, (nåd-
'zjøÍ) /nad'zor/ nad‘op, (åt'SF™¬~Ik) /at'Seljnik/ otwelìn$k, (&åbvIt'SFa;ı¢i) /abvit-
'Sal…i/ o∫betwalv=, (&pxdq¢'gFa⁄) /padq…'gatj/ πodµ$gatì, ('tjødq¢) /'todq…/ tot
µe, (d'qju˙g¬I) /d'qungli/ dµyngl$÷ (&gxRåq'kjøi, -ts'k-) /garats'koi/ gopodcko=, (så-
'v™q©ii, -ts©-) /sa'vjetskii/ cobetck$=, (ku'pFaqqx, -atsx) /ku'paqqa, -atsa/ kyπatì-
cr, ('Á™qtvx, -tst-) /'djetstva/ detctbo (only in careful speech the variants given af-
ter a comma are possible, and are due above all to the influence of spelling). Let us
notice the di‡erences between /vj, vvj, v-j/ (v, vvj, vj), in: ('vøÓ) /'vjol/ bel, (v'vøÓ)
/v'vjol/ bbel, (v'jøÓku, 'vø-) /v'jolku/ b elky; (vj) easily becomes (v). However, they
can remain distinct in careful speech – above all in (the most) traditional one.
8.3.1.5. Nowadays, the basic forms with non-palatalizing endings, such as

('ıFa≈px) /'lampa/ lamπa, ('bjømbx) /'bomba/ ∫om∫a, make people produce even
('ıFa≈pI) /'lampi/ lamπe, ('bjømbI) /'bombi/ ∫om∫e, whereas in traditional pro-
nunciation ('ıFa)pI, 'bjømbI) were normal. In any case, we always find: (Im'biÌ)
/im'birj/ $m∫$pì, (åm'bi;q¢ãx) /am'biq…ja/ am∫$z$r˘
8.3.1.6. Consonant gemination is phonemic, even though it is realized as a sim-

ple –fairly limited– phonetic lengthening, which may be absent in fast(er) speech,
unless it is thought important to keep the di‡erence (in the last two examples /n/
(n) corresponds to nn): ('SF…⁄) /'S…tj/ w$tì and (S'SF…⁄) /S'S…tj/ cw$tì, or (på'Á™R-
qxn¢i) /pa'djerqan…i/ πodepµannv= and (påÁ'Á™Rqxn¢i) /pad'djerqan…i/ πoddep-
µannv=˘
˛is kind of lengthening only occurs in word-initial position (even after a
pause) or between V\ (f&fIv-Rå'¬™;) /ffivra'lje/ b febpale, (ss¢'ıFa⁄) /ss…'latj/ ccvlatì,
(Iq'qjø;gx) /iq'qoga/ $‘µoga, ('qFa⁄) /q'qatj/ cµatì, (quq'qFa⁄) /quq'qatj/ µyµµatì,
('dFann¢i) /'dann…i/ dannve, ('jø⁄⁄ipi1) /'ottipilj/ otteπelì, (zå'bju⁄⁄I) /za'but[j]-
ti/ ‘a∫ydìte, (åÁ'Áe¬n¢i) /ad'djeljn…i/ otdelìnv=, ('jødd¢∆) /'odd…x/ otdvx.
For /S[S]/ (ë[ë]) we have: (ë'ëit) /S'Sit/ ∑$t, (Ië'ëãu;) /iS'Su/ $∑y, ('bjøÍë) /'borS/ ∫op∑,
(tå'vFa;çië[ë]) /ta'variS[S]/ tobap$∑; thus, after C˚ it is short; when final after V˚ it is
short (or slightly geminated).
8.3.1.7. As we have seen from various examples, the Russian voiced diphonic
phonemes are substituted by the corresponding voiceless ones, before a pause, or
before voiceless C: (d'Rjuk) /d'ruk/ dpyg, ('vjøtkx) /'votka/ bodka, (&bIskx¬I'ba;~ii)
/biskali'banii/ ∫e‘ kole∫an$=˘ On the contrary, the voiceless phonemes are substi-
tuted by the corresponding voiced ones (or by voiced phones, in the case of /q, c/
(Q, ‚)), before a voiced diphonic C: (&å~Ig'djøt) /anig'dot/ anekdot, (&å6gx~Is-
'tFan) /avganis'tan/ Afgan$ctan, (g'djø;mu) /g'domu/ k domy, (å'⁄™Qb¢Ó) /a'tjeq-
b…l/ otez ∫vl˘
However, >b≥ /v/ alone is not su‚cient to change a preceding voiceless C into a
voiced one; in fact, it has to be followed by a voiced diphonic consonant (such as

/z, d, g/): (åd6'zg¬a;dx) /adv'zgljada/ ot b‘glrda (but (åt'vıFaÀ⁄I) /at'vlasti/ ot blac-
t$]˚ (g6då'v™;) /gvda'vje/ k bdobe (but (k6'nju;ku) /kv'nuku/ k bnyky, (k'vFa≈)
/k'vam/ k bam]˘
˛e only voiced C to occur before a pause, or before voiceless C, are sonants,
/m, n, r, l/ (even if partially devoiced, unless they are preceded by voiceless C, in
which case they are fully devoiced; but only partially so if they are intense): ('tFa≈)
/'tam/ tam, (s'mjøt5, -;t”) /s'motr/ cmotp, ('tF™≈p) /'temp/ temπ, (1'À⁄i⁄) /lj'stitj/
lìct$tì˘ It is useful to insist on the fact that this kind of devoicing is not –and it
must not be– complete, if the previous C is voiced. Before a pause, it is important
not to pronounce a kind of (È) – so phonation must stop before the hold of the C
in question is completed. Another fairly useful device to show this fact could con-
sist in using a çnon-explosionÇ diacritic (æ), in order to counter the fact that a non-
-phonemic (È) is added, by actually halting the articulation. But this is less frequent
among native speakers.
Even unstressed V (between voiceless C, or between these and a pause) may be
devoiced, but less frequently than C˚ and above all in fast speech. ˛us we will
mark them only here (and with only partial devoicing): ('vF…stáåkx, -txåká) /'v…s-
tafka/ bvctabka, (pátå'mjuStá, &pxtå-) /pata'muSta/ πotomy uto, ('Á™;vuS¢k)
/'djevuS…k/ debywek. ˛is may happen to /i/ >=≥ in diphthongs as well, before a
pause (although a {voiced} V may precede, instead of a voiceless C), as well as to
V exclusively followed by voiceless C: ('=im~iî) /'zimnii/ ‘$mn$=, ('Cãe;çÙp) /'cerip/
uepeπ˘ ˛is also occurs in stressed syllables (before a pause): (mu'=eî) /mu'zjei/ my-
‘e=, (tRåM'vaî) /tram'vai/ tpamba=.
8.3.1.8. Written geminate C (and >∑≥) are phonically short before a pause or
before a C: (g'RFa≈) /g'ram/ gpamm, ('vFan) /'van/ bann, (d'qF…n) /d'q…n/ dµ$nn,
(k'ıFas) /k'las/ klacc, (p'ıFaë) /p'laS/ πla∑, (pRåg'RFamn¢i) /prag'ramn…i/ πpog-
pammnv=, ('Rjus©ii) /'ruskii/ pycck$=, (g'Rjupkx) /g'rupka/ gpyππka, ('mjøën¢i)
/'moSn…i/ mo∑nv=˘
©thin lexemes, written geminate C can be realized as phonetically slightly
geminated C˚ (00): (&åsså'nFans) /assa'nans/ acconanc, ('vFannx) /'vanna/ banna,
('kFassx) /'kassa/ kacca, ('tjønnx) /'tonna/ tonna˘
However, more often CC are pronounced short: (&å⁄Is'tFat) /atis'tat/ attec-
tat, (bå'ıjøn) /ba'lon/ ∫allon, (bå'Àein) /ba'sjein/ ∫acce=n, (gRå'mFa;⁄Ikx) /gra-
'matika/ gpammat$ka, (d&çiÀI'Rjøåkx) /drisi'rofka/ dpecc$pobka, (I'¬¯;=i[ã]x) /i'ljuz-
ija/ $llù‘$r, (&kx¬Ik'⁄if) /kalik'tif/ kollekt$b, (&mi¬i'm™t5, -;t·) /mili'mjetr/ m$l-
l$metp, (&åku'pFa;q¢ãx) /aku'paq…ja/ okkyπaz$r, (&pxRå'¬e1) /para'ljelj/ πapallelì,
(pI'Rjøn) /pi'ron/ πeppon, (&çIq¢'ÀøÍ) /riq…'sjor/ peµ$ccep, ('tF™;~Is) /'tenis/ tenn$c,
(&⁄içI'tjø;çi[ã]x) /tiri'torija/ tepp$top$r, (tRå'¬eibus) /tra'ljeibus/ tpolle=∫yc, (I-
'À™nq¢ãx) /i'sjenq…ja/ <ccenz$r, (I'f™kt) /i'fjekt/ <ffekt˘
8.3.1.9. In mid-fast speech, unstressed syllables are reduced (in particular the
non-initial ones occurring immediately before a stress, or the final ones after a
stress), especially near /r, l/: (px&mxıå'Á™Ó, &pxm®å-, &pxmıå-) /pamala'djel/ πomolo-
8. russian 299
del, (mx&ıxdå'qjø;n¢, &mx®då-, &mxıdå-) /malada'qon…/ molodoµenv, (px&∆xRå'~i⁄,

&px∆“å-, &px∆Rå-) /paxara'nitj/ πoxopon$tì, (&kxRå'ju;¬i⁄, k“x'j-, kRx'j-) /kara'ulitj/
kapayl$tì, (&kxRå8'⁄in, k“å8-, kRå8-) /karan'tin/ kapant$n, (&pxçIk'mFa;âIÍ, phIk-,
pçIk-) /parik'maxir/ πap$kmaxep, (&txRå'kFan, t“å-, tRå-) /tara'kan/ tapakan, (mx-
&ıxkå'sjøs, &mx®kå-, &mxÓkå-) /malaka'sos/ molokococ, (gx&ıxså'vFa⁄, &gx®så-, &gxÓså-)
/galasa'vatj/ golocobatì, (px&RxSu'⁄ist, &px”Su-, &pxÍSu-) /paraSu'tist/ πapawùt$ct,
(bi&¬Iså'vFa;t¢i, &biˆså-, &bi1så-) /bilisa'vat…i/ ∫elecobatv=.
Other examples: (dx&Rxgå'vFa;t¢i, &dx“gå-, &dxRgå-) /daraga'vat…i/ dopogobatv=,
(=i&¬Inå'vFa;t¢i, &=iˆnå-, &=i¬nå-) /zilina'vat…i/ ‘elenobatv=, (pi&çIdå'vjøi, &pihdå-, &piç-
då-) /pirida'voi/ πepedobo=, (pi&çivIR'nju⁄, &pihvIR-, &piçvIR-) /pirivir'nutj/ πepebep-
nytì, (&ådmi&~IstRå'⁄i6n¢i, -«s-, -8s-) /administra'tivn…i/ adm$n$ctpat$bnv=, (I-
&~Iq¢å'⁄i;vx, &Ióq¢å-, &Inq¢å-) /iniq…a'tiva/ $n$z$at$ba, (I&~Iq¢'FaÓ, &Ióq¢-, &Inq¢-) /i-
niq…'al/ $n$z$al.
More: (ë'ëi;kxıxtkx, -x®tkx, -xÓtkx) /S'Sikalatka/ ∑$kolotka, ('sju;dxRxgx, -dx“gx,
-dxRgx) /'sudaraga/ cydopoga, (p'çi;txıxkx, -tx®kx, -txÓkx) /'pritalaka/ πp$toloka,
('qFa;vxRxnxk, -vx“nxk, -vxRnxk) /'qavaranak/ µaboponok, ('∆jø;ıxdnx, -ø®dnx,
-øıdnx) /'xoladna/ xolodno, (z'Á™;ıxıx, -™®ıx, -™ııx, -™®x, ='Á-) /z'djelala/ cdelala,
(&åbI'zFa;⁄i1stvx, -⁄Istvx, -⁄ˆstvx, -⁄#tvx, -a⁄stvx) /abi'zatiljstva/ o∫r‘atelìctbo,
(dås'tFa;txCnx, -atCnx, -aCCnx) /das'tatacna/ doctatouno, (mI'nju;txCkx, -tCkx,
-Ckx) /mi'nutacka/ m$nytouka, ('nø;vxvx, -*vx, -vvx) /'novava/ nobogo, (å'sjø;v¢-
vx⁄, -*vx⁄, -vvx⁄) /f'sov…vatj/ bcobvbatì, (då'mjø;vxvx, -*vx, -vvx) /da'movava/
domobogo, (ëëxs'¬i;vxvx, -i*vx, -ivvx÷ -À'¬-) /SSast'livava/ cuactl$bogo, (nxk'¬ø;v¢vxqqx,
-ø*vx-, -øvvx-) /nak'ljov…vaqqa/ naklebvbatìcr, (&zxSpåk'¬ø;v¢vx⁄, -*vx⁄, -vvx⁄)
/zaSpak'ljov…vatj/ ‘awπaklebvbatì, ('qFaÍstvxvx⁄, -t*vx⁄, -tvx⁄) /'qarstvavatj/
zapctbobatì.
8.3.1.10. In the formation of words, phrases, and sentences –with prefixes or

prepositions– there are various particular clusters of V's˚ which otherwise would
not be normal in Russian. ˛ere are frequent reductions, since these positions are
mainly those before a stress: (påå˙g'¬iis©i, på˙g-, -ng-) /paang'liiski/ πo-angl$=ck$,
(zåå'¬e⁄, zå'-) /zaa'ljetj/ ‘aaletì, (nååk'~™;, nåk-) /naak'nje/ na okne, (vååp'ë™;,
våp-) /vaap'Se/ boo∫∑e, (sååt'v™qtvxvx⁄, såt-, -t*vx⁄, -tvx⁄) /saat'vjeqtvavatj/ coot-
betctbobatì, (nååd'njøi, nåd-) /naad'noi/ na odno=, (zåås'tçi⁄, zås-) /zaas'tritj/
‘aoctp$tì, (&sååtnå'Ài⁄, &såt-, &sxt-) /saatna'sitj/ cootnoc$tì, (&sååb-Rå'qF™;~i[ã]I,
&såb-, &sxb-) /saabra'qeniji/ coo∫paµen$e, (våå&duS¢6'¬e;~i[ã]I, vå-, vx-) /vaaduS…v'ljeni-
ji/ boodyweblen$e.
More: (&vIxıå8'Cãe1, &vIıå8-) /vialan'celj/ b$olonuelì, (s&pIq¢'Fa¬n¢i, -'qFa¬-) /spiq…-
'aljn…i/ cπez$alìnv=, (&sxq¢å'¬iz≈, -qå-, -;zõ) /saq…a'lizm/ coz$al$‘m, (&~Iådnåk-
'RFatn¢i, &~Ixd-, &~Id-) /niadnak'ratn…i/ neodnokpatnv=, (~Iå&b¢knå'v™nn¢i, ~iI-, ~I-)
/niab…kna'venn…i/ neo∫vknobennv=, (&~i[ã]Iz'v™snx, ~Iz-) /nijiz'vjesna/ ne$‘bect-
no, (&nåugå'ıjøk, &nxu-, &nu-) /nauga'lok/ na ygolok, (&påugå'vjø;Ru, &pxu-, &pu-)
/pauga'voru/ πo ygobopy, (&uådvå'ka;tx, &uxd-, &ud-) /uadva'kata/ y adbokata, (&uågå-
'Rjø;dx, &uxg-, ug-) /uaga'roda/ y ogopoda, (&påImI'nFa≈, &pxIm-, &p¢Im-, &p¢m-) /pai-
mi'nam/ πo $menam.
8.3.1.11. Some personal pronouns have reduced forms: (⁄i'ba;, ⁄i'ãa;, ⁄i&a, ⁄å,
⁄x) /ti'bja/ te∫r, (⁄i'b™;, ⁄i'ã™;, ⁄i&™, ⁄I) /ti'bje/ te∫e, ('vFas, &vas, vås, vxs) /'vas/ bac,
('vFa≈, &va≈, vå≈, vx≈) /'vam/ bam, ('jÅ ⁄i&b™'dFa≈, 'jÅ ⁄I'dFa≈) /'ja ti'bje 'dam/ r
te∫e dam, ('ja &vam'dFa≈, 'ja vxm'dFa≈) /'ja 'vam 'dam/ r bam dam.
Certain numbers have reduced forms too (although we only provide the mod-
els, which are used for similar forms as well): (&ÁiÀi'⁄i;, ÁiÀ'⁄i;) /disi'ti/ decrt$, (å-
'Ái;nxqqx⁄, -nxqx⁄, -nqx⁄) /a'dinaqqatj/ od$nnadzatì, (å'Ái;nxqqxt¢i, -nxqxt¢i,
-nqxt¢i, -nxqt¢i) /a'dinaqqat…i/ od$nnadzatv=, (d'vFaqqx⁄, d'vFa;qx⁄, d'vFaq$⁄)
/d'vaqqatj/ dbadzatì, (d&vFaqq¢'⁄i;, d&vFaq¢'⁄i;, dvaq'⁄i;, dvåq'⁄i;) /dvaqqa'ti/
dbadzat$, (&piÁÁi'Àat, &piÁi'-, pi[ã]i'-) /piddi'sjat/ πrtìdecrt, (pi'⁄i;ÁiÀi⁄I, -'⁄i;ÁiÀ-
⁄I, -'⁄i[;ã]iÀ⁄I) /pi'tidisiti/ πrt$decrt$, (&S¢=Ái'Àat, &S¢=ãi'-, S¢i'-) /S…zdi'sjat/ wectìde-
crt, (S¢À'⁄i;ÁiÀi⁄I, -'⁄i;ÁiÀ⁄I, -'⁄i[;ã]iÀ⁄I) /S…s'tidisiti/ wect$decrt$, ('ÀemÁiÀxt,
'Àe)Àxt) /'sjemdisjat/ cemìdecrt, (Ài'mi;ÁiÀi⁄I, -'mi;ÁiÀ⁄I, -'mi[;ã]iÀ⁄I) /si'midisiti/
cem$decrt$, ('vjø;ÀimÁiÀxt, 'vjø;Ài)Àxt, 'vjø[;ã]i)Àxt) /'vosimjdisjat/ bocemìde-
crt, (våÀ'mi;ÁiÀi⁄I, -'mi;ÁiÀ⁄I, -'mi[;ã]iÀ⁄I) /vasj'midisiti/ bocìm$decrt$.
8.3.1.12. ≈rst and patronymic names are usually reduced by frequent use, more
than by particular phonemic rules: ('jø;ÀIpxviC, -ÀipiC, -ÀIp¢C, -øÀpviC, -øÀp¢C,
-øÀpC) /'osipavic/ Oc$πob$u, (bå'çi;sxviC, -'çiÀviC, -'çi;ÀiC, -'çi;s¢C, -'çiëC, -'çië) /ba'risav-
ic/ Êop$cob$u, ('pFavıxviC, 'pFa;v®viC, -av¬iC, -avı¢C, -a;¬iC, -a;ı¢C, -a1C, -aÓC) /'pav-
lavic/ ∏ablob$u, (&å¬Ik'sFandRxviC, -and“viC, -andviC, -andçiC, -andR¢C, -a;~iC, -a;-
n¢C, &å¬Ik'sFa8C, ¬Ik'sFa8C, k'sFa8C) /alik'sandravic/ Alekcandpob$u, (vıå'Ái;mIRx6-
nx, -mIR6nx, -mIRxnx, -mIRnx) /vla'dimiravna/ Blad$m$pobna, ('fø;dxRx6nx, -dxRx-
nx, -dR*nx, -dxRnx, -d“nx) /'fjodaravna/ Fedopobna, (bå'çi;sx6nx, -'çisnx) /ba'risav-
na/ Êop$cobna, (kåR'~e[;ã]i6nx, -'~™6nx) /kar'njejivna/ Kopneebna, (få'Áe[;ã]i6nx,
-'Á™i6nx, -'Á™6nx) /fa'djejivna/ Fadeebna, (påÍ'fiç-jI6nx, -'fi;çI6nx, -'fi;çInx, -'fiçnx)
/par'firijivna/ ∏opf$pì$ebna, (så've;LãI6nx, -'ve;¬ãI6nx, -'ve;¬I6nx, -'ve;¬Inx, -'ve¬nx)
/sa'vjeljjivna/ Cabelìebna˘
In addition: ('Fannx mI'∆Faiıx6nx, -ı*nx, -ıxnx, -ınx) /'anna mi'xailavna/ Anna
M$xa=lobna, (&å¬Ik'sFand Rå¬Ik'sFandRxviC, &å¬Ik'sFand Rå¬Ik'sFandR¢C, ¬Ik'sFand Rå¬Ik-
'sFandR¢C, ¬Ik'sFand Rå¬Ik'sFa8C, ¬Ik'sFan ¬Ik'sFa8C, ¬Ik'sFan 'sFa8C, 'sFan 'sFa8C) /alik-
'sandr alik'sandravic/ Alekcandp Alekcandpob$u, (&kxnstå8'⁄i; n¢så'Fa;kxviC, -'⁄i;
nI-, &kxns'⁄i; ~I'sFakC) /kanstan'tin …sa'akavic/ Konctant$n *caakob$u, ('pFa;vI
ı¢'vFa;nxviC, -vi lI-, -vFa8C, 'pFaı 'vFa8C) /'pavil i'vanavic/ ∏abel *banob$u˘
8.3.1.13. Currently, /ji/ >e˚ r≥ becomes /i/: (jI'mju;, I-) /ji'mu/ emy, (jI'qF…;, I-) /ji-
'qi/ eµ$, (jIv'¬aqqx, Iv'¬aqqx, Iv'¬aq[q]) /jiv'ljaqqa/ rblrtìcr, (&~i[ã]iÀ'⁄™stvInnx, ~ii-
'⁄™svInx÷ -'⁄eÀ⁄v-) /nijis'tjestvinna/ neectectbenno.
In general, /ijé/ = ç/ié/Ç (Ô § 8.2.5.1): (vi'⁄i;ãx, -'⁄i;x, -'⁄ix) /vi'tija/ b$t$r, ('FaR-
miãx, -mix, -mIx) /'armija/ apm$r, (&pçiã¯'⁄iqqx, &pçi¯-) /priju'tiqqa/ πp$ùt$tìcr,
(pçi'jÅ+~iãI, pçi'Å+~iI) /pri'jatniji/ πp$rtnee, (&q¢⁄i'j™;, -⁄i'™;) /q…ti'je/ µ$t$e, (&b¢⁄i-
'ju;, &b¢⁄i'u;) /'b…tiju/ ∫vt$ù˘
Besides, usually /0j’jé/ = /’0jé/ and /ii’0é/ = /i’0é/: (&piç-jI'vjøi, &piçI'vjøi) /pirj-
ji'voi/ πepìebo=, (b¢'CãÅC-jI∆, -Å;CI∆) /b…'cacjix/ ∫vuauì$x, ('kFa=N-ju, 'kFa=~-ju,
'kFa=~u) /'kaznjju/ ka‘nìù, (¬u'bjøv-ju) /lju'bovjju/ lù∫obìù, (Svii'qFaÍ, Svi'-, SvI'-)
8. russian 301
/Svii'qar/ wbe=zap, (Áiist'vi;⁄i¬nx, ÁIst-÷ ÁiiÀ⁄-÷ ÁiÀ⁄-) /diist'vitiljna/ de=ctb$-

telìno.
In the case of prepositions + /’jé/, we have /’`é/ too: (vjI'vjø 'djø;mI, v¢'vjø)
/v-ji'vo 'domi/ b ego dome, (sjI'pjønqxmI, s¢'pjøn-) /s-ji'ponqami/ c rπonzam$;
however, by now we frequently hear: (vI'vjø 'djø;mI, ÀI'pjønqxmI), and also:
('©ju;gu) /'kjugu/ k ùgy, instead of ('kju;gu).
8.3.1.14. In traditional pronunciation, /ò’i/ >$-≥ preceded in sentences by C

(which is di‡erent from /c, S, 0j/ >u˚ ∑˚ tì…≥) becomes /…/ (less systematically so
in the case of /k, g, x/, thus we also find (k, g, ∆) + (i, ’I)). However, in modern
pronunciation /i/ remains unchanged, even without changing the C (¤, not (J)),
but with /k, g, x/ (©, á, â) + (i, ’I)): (s'm™ âI'gjø;çI)m (À'm™ ∆…'gjø;ç‘, ∆i-)t /s'mjex i-
'gori/ cmex $ gope, ('©i;gxçu)m ('kF…-, 'kji;-)t /'kigarju/ k *gopù, ('dF… mI'Áøt)m (m…-)t
/'d…m i'djot/ dvm $det, (å'tjiv¬i[ã]Ivx)m (a'tF…v-)t /a'tivlijiva/ ot *bl$eba, ('kjø tI-
'pjø;vxÍ)m (t…-)t /'kot i'povar/ kot $ πobap, (&jønIz'djøyb¢)m (&jøn…z-)t /on-iz'dox-
b…/ on $‘dox ∫v, (ÀI'vFa;nx≈)m (s…-)t /s-i'vanam/ c *banom, (©I'vFa;nu)m (k…-, ki-)t
/k-i'vanu/ k *bany, (tå'vFa;çië ëI'vFan)m (-ë C…-)t /ta'variS Si'van/ tobap$∑ *ban.
Traditionally, Italia, ¤ *tal$r˚ behaves in the same way, so much so that even
for Alitalia (¤ Ali ç©ngsÇ + Italia]˚ we have: (-ı¢-, -ıI-)t rather than (-¬I-)m.
Again in traditional pronunciation, even /ò’i/ ><-≥ preceded in sentences by C
(which is di‡erent from /c, S, 0j/ >u˚ ∑˚ tì…≥), becomes /…/, although it often re-
mains /i/. In modern pronunciation, instead, we have (I) /’i/ (and, above all in al-
ternative pronunciation, (™) ç/’e/Ç), both in absolute initial position and when pre-
ceded by Cò: (å&tI¬I'vFa;txRx, &åt™¬I-)m (&åt¢¬i-, &åtI¬i-)t /at-ili'vatara/ ot <lebatopa˘ In
absolute initial position we find respectively: (&I¬I'vFa;txRx)m (&™-, &É-)a (&¢¬i-, &I¬i-)t /ili-
'vatara, …-/ <lebatopa˚ (I'pjø;∆x)m (™-, É-)a (…-, i-)t /i'poxa, …-/ <πoxa˘
For the non-autoctonous >=‘enwte=n, we have: (&™i=INS'tF™in, &I-, -z™-) /eizinS-
'tein, i-, -ze-/; and (&s™i=INS'tF™inx≈, &si=-, &sIz-, -™N-) /seizinS'teinam, si-, -ze-/ c >=‘en-
wte=nom˘
Pronunciation variants: £modern∞, £traditional∞ and £alternative∞
8.3.2.0. It is undeniable that Russian pronunciation is in general poorly known,

both by native and foreign speakers, even if we refer to çexpertsÇ. In addition, there
are di‡erent methods of description and evaluation, apart from dissimilar applica-
tions of di‡erent criteria on the subject. As we have already said, even o‚cial
çmodelÇ speakers, of the o‚cial radio and television broadcasting corporation too,
fluctuate between more or less modern or traditional pronunciations (or alterna-
tive as well), most probably because of the lack of specific information, too. ˛us
comparisons and convenient choices are di‚cult to make, since the kind of çtran-
scriptionÇ used in handbooks and dictionaries (even in o‚cial and çscientificÇ
ones) is nothing but a graphemic respelling mixed with a few other signs.
However, and with very good reasons, what has been described thus far, belongs
to çmodern neutralÇ Russian pronunciation, which is more and more accepted and
widespread (and also relatively less far away from spelling). We will now indicate
the di‡erences which mainly fall within çtraditionalÇ pronunciation, according to
the çold Moscow pronunciationÇ which was acquired orally. It used to include
some çstrangeÇ exceptions, which in some respect contributed to di‡erentiate it
from (St) Petersburg pronunciation, generally closer to orthography. Since then,
this city has been called Petrograd, then Leningrad and now Saint Petersburg: so
to say çrename it and you'll get over it!Ç.
û 8.3. Vowel elements of traditional (and alternative) Russian.
/'i, ’0iJ, i'/ (iï)t, /’i/ (I)t /JuJ/ (%)t, /’JuJ/ (T)t
/'…, …'/ (…)t, /’…/ (¢)t, /…'/ (…)t /'u, u'/ (u)t, /’u/ (U)t
/’…...'/ (‘, È)t:a˚ /'...’…, ’…ò/ (‘)t:a {/’u/ (û, È, ‘)a}
/'JeJ/ (eï)t /'JoJ/ (+)t
/'e/ (™) {/'e˘, "e/ (™[Ä])}t /'o/ {/’o/} (ø) {/'o˘, "o/ (ø[∏])}t
/'JaJ/ (Ä, "Ä[Ä])t /a'/ (a°)t, /’a/ (x)t
/'a/ (a), /'a˘, "a/ (a[å])t
>e≥ /’iò/ (‘)t, >e, r, Ça≥ /i'/ (É', JÙ'J)t˚ >e≥ /’i[ò]/ (É)a, /’0iJ/ (Ù)a, ><≥ /ò’i/ (É)a
8.3.2.1. In çinterpalatalÇ contexts, traditional pronunciation presents decided-

ly fronter and closer articulations (Ô û 8.3 “ § 8.1.4, although the symbols (i, e)
are çidenticalÇ, but stand for (iï, eï)): ('bi⁄) /'bitj/ ∫$tì˚ ('je1) /'jelj/ elì, ('pÄ⁄)
/'pjatj/ πrtì, ('⁄+;⁄x) /'tjotja/ tetr, (⁄%'fak) /tju'fjak/ tùfrk˘
In pre-tonic syllables (¤ immediately preceding a stressed syllable), traditional
pronunciation has closer realizations than the modern ones for unrounded /i, …/.
Instead, the rounded /u/ is opener in all unstressed positions, except –again– for
pre-tonic syllables (Ô û 8.3, again): /i', …', u'/ (i', …', u')t (I', ¢', u')m: (&åbçi'kjøs)t (-I-)m
/abri'kos/ a∫p$koc, (b…'©i;)t (b¢-)m /b…'ki/ ∫vk$, (u'qF™;)t:m /u'qe/ yµe. Pre-tonic /a'/
is (a')t (å')m: (&Uga'ıjøk)t (&ugå-)m /uga'lok/ ygolok.
Most typically, traditional pronunciation also has ç/e'/Ç (É', Ù'+J) for pretonic >e,
r≥ (including >ua˚ ∑a≥, excepting >$≥, which has /i'/ (iï')). All of these in modern
pronunciation have /i'/ (I', i'+J)): (ÁÙ'¬i⁄)t (Ái'¬i⁄)m /di'litj/ del$tì, (~ÙÀ'⁄i;)t (~iÀ-
'⁄i;)m /nis'ti/ nect$, (tçÙÀ'⁄i;)t (tçiÀ'⁄i;)m /tris'ti/ tprct$, (CÉ'sF…;)t (CI'sF…;)m /ci's…/
uacv˘ Let us thus consider (¬i'sFa;)t (¬I'sFa;)m /li'sa/ l$ca and (¬É'sFa;)t:a (¬I'sFa;)m /li'sa/
leca˘ In /J≤'/ contexts, only another modern phoneme occurs, /u/ (u, ¯): (Àu-
'dFa;)m:t /sju'da/ cùda, (¬¯'bi⁄)m (¬%'bi⁄)t /lju'bitj/ lù∫$tì˘
Modern pronunciation has /i, òji, éji/ for >e≥ in unstressed syllables, and /i/ for
(initial) >ò<≥. In all these cases, çalternativeÇ pronunciation, strengthened by or-
thography, can have ç/’e/Ç (É, ÙJ): (bÙ'çø;zx)a (bi-)m /bi'rjoza/ ∫epe‘a, (&bÙçÉ'qjø;-
n¢i)a (&biçI-)m /biri'qon…i/ ∫epeµenv=, (&ÀÙmÉ'na;)a (&ÀimI-)m /simi'na/ cemena, (pÙ&çÙ-
mÙ'¬i;)a (pi&çimi-)m /pirimi'li/ πepemel$, ('be;çÉk)a (-Ik)m /'bjerik/ ∫epeg, (&åbI'zFa;⁄Ù¬-
nx)a (-⁄i¬-)m /abi'zatiljna/ o∫r‘atelìna, ('vF…;⁄ÙçÙ⁄)a (-⁄içi⁄)m /'v…tiritj/ bvte-
petì, (™'tFaS, É-)a (I'tFaS)m /i'taS/ <taµ, ('mjø;çÉ)a (-ç‘)t (-çI)m /'mori/ mope˚ ('pjø;-
¬É)a (-¬‘)t (-¬I)m /'polji/ πole (for >eò≥ an alternative pronunciation with (‘ò)t is par-
ticularly frequent for neutral grammatical gender).
8. russian 303
8.3.2.2. Modern pronunciation has (’¢) for /’…/, whereas alternative (and often
traditional) pronunciation presents opener variants, (È, ‘). Most frequently, we
find (È)a:t before a stress; (‘)a:t after it; and (È)a (‘)t in absolute final position: (&bÈ-
ta'vjøi)t (&bÈtå-)a (&b¢tå-)m /b…ta'voi/ ∫vtobo=, (&vÈ∆a'Ái⁄)t (&vÈ∆å-)a (&v¢∆å-)m /v…xa-
'ditj/ bvxod$tì, ('vF…;m‘%)ta (-m¢%)m /'v…m…l/ bvmvl, ('jø;p‘t‘)t (-p‘tÈ)a (-p¢t¢)m
/'op…t…/ oπvtv˚ (q…'vjøtnxã‘)t (-nxãÈ, -ãÉ)a (q¢'vjøtnx[ã]I)m /q…'votnaji/ µ$botnoe.
As we have already said, the timbres of /’…/ (È, ‘) are fairly similar to those of /’a/
(x), thus it is easy to think of them as the same sound and to declare their neutral-
ization (as quite a few authors have done). Actually, in general, there is such a
di‡erence, so that they are rarely confused, even in spelling, except for evident cas-
es of poor education.
For >’eò≥, in traditional pronunciation we often find (‘ò)t even for /’…ò/ (in addi-
tion to /’iò/, most surprisingly, as we have seen at the end of § 8.3.2.1): ('ıjuCS¢)m
(-‘)t /'lucS…/ lyuwe˚ ('∆ju;q¢)m (-‘)t /'xuq…/ xyµe˘ Here we may actually speak of pos-
sible neutralization between /’iò/ and /’…ò/, which was more typical in former times.
For /’u/, alternative pronunciation may have (0û, 0È, 0‘÷ JÉ, JI, JÙJ, JiJ) (in
û 8.3, (û) is indicated by a thin broken line and glossed in brackets): (&kûv‘Í'kFaq-
qx, &kÈ-, &k‘-)a (&kuv¢Í-)m /kuv…r'kaqqa/ kybvpkatìcr, (&sûmå'tjø;∆x, &sÈ-, &s‘-)a
(&su-)m /suma'toxa/ cymatoxa, ('zFa;mûq‘≈, -mÈ-, -m‘-)a (-uq¢≈)m /'zamuq…m/ ‘a-
myµem, (kx&mÙ~i'©j™;, -mi-)a (-m¯~i-)m /kamjuni'kje/ kommùn$ke, (I'me;ãÙë&ëiiÀx,
-[ã]i&-)a (-ã¯&-)m /i'mjejuSSiisja/ $meù∑$=cr, (ÀÉ'dFa;, ÀI-)a (À¯-)m /sju'da/ cùda˘
In traditional pronunciation, we can even find: (mid've;ÁÈmI)t (mId've;ÁimI)m
/mid'vjedimi/ medbedrm$˚ (miÁ've;Á‘≈)t (mId've;Ái≈)m /mid'vjedim/ medbe-
dem, ('vF…;~‘s)t (-Is)m /'v…nis/ bvnec÷ and, on the other hand, also: (Ài'vjø_~I)t (ÀI-
'vjød~x)m /si'vodnja/ cegodnr.
8.3.2.3. Adjectives ending in -k$=, -g$=, -x$=, in traditional pronunciation have

/…i/ (¢i), but also (‘i) (usually rendered as ç/Èj/Ç, as if it were (xi) /’ai/ {while being
slightly di‡erent, Ô û 8.1}), when they are preceded by (k, g, ∆), instead of the
modern rendering as /ii/ (©ii, áii, âii) (according to spelling): (z'vjø~k¢i, -k‘i, -∫k-)t
(-˚©ii, -8©ii)m /z'vonkii/ ‘bonk$=, (s'tRjø;g¢i, -g‘i)t (-áii)m /s'trogii/ ctpog$=, ('⁄i;-
∆¢i, -∆‘i)t (-âii)m /'tixii/ t$x$=˘
Nowadays, this traditional pronunciation sounds non-neutral, or lofty. Also
verbs in -$batì behave in this way: (pa'mFaÓk¢vx⁄)t (på'mFaÓ©Ivx⁄)m /pa'malki-
vatj/ πomalk$batì, (na'⁄a;g¢vx⁄)t (nå'⁄Å;áIvx⁄)m /na'tjagivatj/ natrg$batì,
(pa'mFa;∆¢vx⁄)t (på'mFa;âIvx⁄)m /pa'maxivatj/ πomax$batì˘
For unstressed endings with -V=, modern pronunciation has (ii) /ii/ -$=, (ii) /ii/
-e=, (¢i) /…i/ -v=, (xi) /ai/ -o=; the traditional one has ç/Èi/Ç (‘i) for -v=, and the al-
ternative one has ç/ei/Ç (Ùi) for -e= (and, in general, also ç/Èi/Ç (‘i) -v=). ˛ese are
often described as neutralization between the first two (and it is the same in mod-
ern pronunciation) or between the second two (but we have: (¢i)m/(‘i)a V (xi)):
('Ài;~ii) /'sinii/ c$n$=, ('ju;¬ii)m ('ju;¬Ùi)a /'ulii/ yle=, (t'Rjudn¢i)m (-n‘i)t /t'rudn…i/
tpydnv=, (t'Rjudnxi) /t'rudnai/ tpydno=˘
For pretonic wa, µa, za (even with >o≥), modern pronunciation has /0a'/ (0å'),
whereas the traditional one had /0…'/ (0…') (which is now lofty): (Så'ái;)m (S…-)t /Sa'gi/
wag$, (qå'RFa;)m (q…-)t /qa'ra/ µapa, (d&vxqqå'⁄i;)m (-qq…-)t /dvaqqa'ti/ dbadzat$˘

However, for certain words the traditional type of pronunciation is still frequent:
µak™t˚ µacm¢n˚ µab™lì˚ ∫ewam™lì˚ dbådzatì˚ tp¢dzatì˚ lowad™=˘ In gen-
eral, these sequences even have an alternative pronunciation with (‘', È') for /…'/;
the same occurs in pretonic we, µe, ze as well (even with >o≥). But modern
pronunciation has /…'/ = (¢'): (S¢p'tFa⁄) /S…p'tatj/ weπtatì˚ (q¢'nFa;) /q…'na/ µena˚
(q¢'nFa;) /q…'na/ zena.
8.3.2.4. Among the greatest di‡erences in comparison with orthography, in tra-

ditional pronunciation, we find unstressed verbal endings -rt, -r∑$=, which have
/u/ (that however nowadays is rightly considered to be lofty or non-neutral) in-
stead of /’a[0]ò, ’ià/ in modern pronunciation: ('∆jø;ÁUt)t ('∆jø;Áxt)m /'xodjat/
xodrt, (s'tRjø;ãTëëii)t (s'tRjø[;ã]iëëii)m /s'trojiSSii/ ctpor∑$=˘
Another non-neutral pronunciation, which is possible to hear (this time with
the opposite timbre), concerns feminine nouns such as ('djøb-Ruãu÷ ≠-xãu) /'dobru-
ju/ do∫pyù, ('Ài;~¯ãu÷ ≠-i[ã]u) /'sinjuju/ c$nùù˘
Traditional pronunciation can have (x) for (non-pretonic initial) /ò’a/ (å) and
(å) for (final) /’aò/ (x): (&xdnå'vjø;)t (&åd-)m /adna'vo/ odnogo, ('pjøznå)t (-nx)m
/'pozna/ πo‘dno˘
8.3.2.5. Traditional pronunciation has (ëC)t (or, as we have already said, (ëC)t or
(ëCë)t) for (òëë, éëëé, ëò)m /S[S]/, but in Moscow the latter –more agile– pronunciation
has always prevailed: (ëCi'kFa;)t (ëëI-)m /SSi'ka/ ∑eka, (ta'vFa;çiëC)t (tå'vFa;çië[ë])m /ta'va-
riS[S]/ tobap$∑˘ Contrary to the most frequent transliteration type (∞£), the graph-
eme >∑≥ might seem to suggest a closer articulatory relation with >w≥ (S) /S/; and
indeed a constrictive pronunciation is decidedly more recommendable: (ë'ëãÅÀ⁄jI)
/S'Sastjji/ cuactìe, (&piçi'piëëIk) /piri'piSSik/ πepeπ$cu$k (the -u$k su‚x is not inter-
preted as a separation element).
However, in modern pronunciation also (ëC) /Sc/ is normal, when a clear mor-
phemic boundary –which is shown in writing too– is present, with >cu˚ ‘u˚ wu˚
µu˚ ctu˚ ‘du≥, never >∑≥: (ë'Cã™≈) /S'cem/ c uem, (&IëCI'vjø;) /iSci'vo/ $‘ uego˘ /SS/
or /Sc/ occurs in: (vIs'njuëëIt¢i, -ëC-) /vis'nuSSit…i, -Sc-/ becnywuatv=, (bå'RjøëëIt¢i,
-ëC-) /ba'roSSit…i, -Sc-/ ∫opo‘duatv=.
But, between a lexeme and a su‚x, we generally find (ëë) /SS/: (Iz'vjøëëIk) /iz'voS-
Sik/ $‘bo‘u$k, (&piçi'beëëIk) /piri'beSSIk/ πepe∫eµu$k, ('qjøëëI) /'qoSSi/ µectue˘ Be-
tween a prefix and a lexeme, (ëC) /Sc/ is most frequent: (bië&CIıå'veCn¢i) /biScila-
'vjecn…i/ ∫ecuelobeunv=, (&IëCIÍ'⁄i⁄) /iScir'titj/ $cuept$tì, (&RxëCI'∆aqqx) /raSci-
'xaqqa/ pacu$xatìcr. In most commonly used words and when a prefix is no lon-
ger thought of as something separated, we usually find (ëë) /SS/: (Rxë'ëãøskx) /raS'Sos-
ka/ pacuecka, (ë'ëÅÀ⁄jI) /S'Sastjji/ cuactìe, (ë'ëãøt) /S'Sot/ cuet, (Ië'ëã™s) /iS'Ses/ $cue‘˘
≈nally, the phoneme /ZZ/ (òò) (which occurs in few words and only within lex-
emes) is more typical of traditional than modern pronunciation: (ò'òãøt)t (q'qjøt)m
/q'qot/ µµet, ('jeòòU)t ('j™qqu)m /'jeqqu/ e‘µy, (&U[ã]iò'òãÄ⁄)t (&u[ã]Iq'qFa⁄)m /ujiq'qatj/
ye‘µatì, ('pjøòòI)t ('pjøqq¢)m /'poqq…/ πo‘µe÷ for derivative forms of ('djøëC)t
('djøë, 'djøS⁄)m /'doS, 'doStj/ doµdì˚ we have: ('djøòòIk)t ('doZZik/ ('djøqÁIk)m
8. russian 305
/'doqdik/, doµd$k, (daò'òi;)t /daZ'Zi/ (dåq'Ái;)m /daq'di/ doµd$, (daò'òãø≈)t /daZ-

'Zom/ (dåq'Áø≈)m /daq'djom/ doµdem˘
8.3.2.6. As we have seen, in (even modern) Russian, by voicing assimilation,

we have (a voiced semi-constrictive) (y) for /x/: (&jønIz'djøyb¢)m (&jøn…z-)t /oniz-
'doxb…/ on $‘dox ∫v. In a few words belonging to a particular area, traditional pro-
nunciation has: ('bjø;yx)t ('bjø;gx)m /'boga/ Êoga, (yas'pjø⁄)t (gås'pjø⁄)m /gas-
'potj/ gocπodì, (buz'yFa1⁄IÍ)t (buz'gFa1⁄IÍ)m /bjuz'galjtir/ ∫ùctgalìtep (besides,
/gi/ (JI)t, with a true constrictive): (a'bjø;JI)t (å'bjø;áI)m /a'bogi/ o Êoge). ˛e same
occurs for the following forms, which still remain the same even in modern pro-
nunciation: ('bjø∆)t (-∆, -k)m /'box, -k/ Êog, ('yjøspxÁI)t (y-, g-)m /'gospadi/ Goc-
πod$!÷ however, it is thought that before long, (y) for /g/ will eventually disappear
completely (followed by /ZZ/ = /qq, qd/, as we have seen).
For the preposition k˚ followed by g-˚ we have: (y'gjø;RxdU)t (g'gjøRxdu)m /g'go-
radu/ k gopody. Lastly, also in modern Russian we find (H, y) for the ç/h/Ç phono-
styleme in exclamations and onomatopoeic words: (å'HFa;, å'yFa;) ç/a'ha/Ç aga!
In traditional pronunciation /k, g/ are (∆, y) before stops: (tay'dFa;)t (tåg'dFa;)m
/tag'da/ togda, (∆'tjø;)t (k'tjø;)m /k'to/ kto, (∆ka'mju;)t (kkå-)m /kka'mu/ k komy˘
For -g˚ before the ending -k$=˚ and derivatives, we have (©, k÷ â, ∆): ('mÅ©©ii)m,
('mÄ∆k¢i)t /'mjakkii, ±-xk…i/ mrgk$=, ('makkxmu)m, ('ma∆kxmU)t /'mjakkamu,
±-xk-/ mrgkomy, ('¬økk¢i)m, (±-∆k-)t /'ljokk…i, ±-xk-/ legkv=, ('makCI)m, (±-∆CI)t
/'mjakci, ±-xci/ mrgue, ('¬P©©ii)m, (±'¬ø∆k¢i)t /'ljokkii, ±-xk…i/ legk$=, ('¬™kCI)m (±'¬™∆-
CI)t /'ljekci, ±-xci/ legue. But (k) will prevail, even though it is often still consid-
ered to be a non-neutral pronunciation. In fact, for instance, trgua=w$= is al-
ready (⁄Ik'CãÅiS¢i, ≠⁄I∆-) /tik'caiS…i/, and otrgu$tì is (&å⁄Ik'Ci⁄, ≠-∆'C-) /atik'citj/.
In gt, kk sequences we have: ('kjøk⁄I)m (-∆⁄I)t /'kokti/ kogt$, ('njøk⁄I)m (-∆-
⁄I)t /'nokti/ nogt$, ('Áøk⁄x)m (-∆⁄x)t /'djoktja/ degtr˘
˛e pronoun uto is always (S'tjø;) /S'to/, as its compounds are, except neuto
('~eCtx) /'njecta/; whereas n$uto can have two pronunciations: (~IS'tjø;÷ ~iC-
'tjø;) /niS'to÷ nic'to/. In addition, >u≥ stands for /S/ in feminine patronymic names:
('v™;Rx IL'ji;~ISnx) /'vjera ilj'jiniSna/ Bepa *lì$n$una, and in: (kå'~™Snx) /ka'njeS-
na/ koneuno, (nå'RjøSnx) /na'roSnx/ napouno, (s'kjuSn¢i) /s'kuSn…i/ ckyunv=, (ji-
'[ã]iS~Iqx) /ji'jiSniqa/ r$un$za˘
˛e graphemic sequence un used to be /Sn/, in the traditional pronunciation of
common words. In modern pronunciation, we have /cn/, even though for some
words both pronunciations are used. However, in general, we find: ('bju;ıxCnx-
ãx)m (-Sn-)t /'bulacnaja/ ∫ylounar, ('lFa;vxC~Ik)m (-S~-)t /'lavacnik/ laboun$k, (må-
'ıjøCn¢i)m (ma'ıjøSn‘i)t /ma'locn…i/ molounv=˘
8.3.2.7. In traditional pronunciation, the C's that precede Ç (¤ palatal or pala-

talized C] are more consistently palatalized than in modern pronunciation: (za⁄-
'me;~i[ã]I)t (zåt-)m /zat'mjeniji/ ‘atmen$e, (s'kjøÌp)t (s'kjøÍp)m /s'korpj/ ckop∫ì,
('CãeÌ⁄I)t ('Cã™Í⁄I)m /'certi/ uept$.
More: ('Áeƒ©I)t ('Á™å©I)m /'djefki/ debk$, (Á'veÌ)t (d'v-)m /d'vjerj/ dbepì,
(⁄'min)t (t'min)m /t'min/ tm$n, (Á'mit-çii)t (d'm-)m /d'mitrii/ Dm$tp$=, (À'm™;-
nx)t (s'm™-)m /s'mjena/ cmena, (À'meÌ⁄)t (s'm™Í⁄)m /s'mjertj/ cmeptì, (Àpi'nFa;)t

(s'pI-)m /spin'a/ cπ$na, (À'f™;Rx)t (s'f™-)m /s'fjera/ cfepa, (À'v™t)t (s'v™t)m /s'vjet/ cbet,
(©'~i;gx)t (k'~i-)m /k'niga/ kn$ga, (pçI&sxq…a'¬i=mI)t (-¢å'¬izmI)m /prisaq…a'lizmi/ πp$
coz$al$‘me. A pronunciation with a generalized palatalization, although quite
widespread, is not at all neutral: (&kxmu'~iz≈, -;zõ, -mm-÷ ≠-=))t (&kxmu-)m /kamu-
'nizjm, -mm-/ kommyn$‘m˘ Not even in traditional pronunciation is /l/ palatalized
by assimilation: ('mjøıvI) /'molvji/ molbe, nor by gemination: (&pjøı'¬it-Rx) /“pol-
'litra/ πol-l$tpa˘
Traditional palatalization is more tenacious within words than at the beginning:
(&nxÀvi'~Ä;Ci⁄)t (&nxsvi'~Å;Ci⁄)m /nasvi'njacitj/ nacb$nru$tì, (ÀviN'ja;, sv-)t (sviN-
'ja;)m /svinj'ja/ cb$nìr˘
In addition, palatalization due to assimilation is normal, even in modern pro-
nunciation, for homorganic phonemes (except for /l, r/), although a pronuncia-
tion without palatalization is spreading. In fact, it further shows that a phonemic
approach like the one adopted here is more useful: ('SF™À⁄, -s⁄) /'Sestj/ wectì, (kåÀ-
'~e⁄, -s'~-) /kas'njetj/ kocnetì, (À'⁄ep, s'⁄-) /s'tjepj/ cteπì, (='ÁeÀ, z'Á-) /z'djesj/
‘decì, (ÀmiÀ'⁄i;, smis'⁄i;) /smis'ti/ cmect$˘
For heterorganic phonemes, indirect palatalization is no longer current: (Iz-
'b™;)m (i='b™;)t /iz'bje/ $‘∫e, (Råz'mÅ⁄)m (Ra='mÄ⁄)t /raz'mjatj/ pa‘mrtì, (s'm™∆)m
(À'm™∆)t /s'mjex/ cmex˘ ‹en palatalization is required, spelling shows it too: (çi=-
'b™;) /rizj'bje/ pe‘ì∫e, (vå='mi;) /vazj'mi/ bo‘ìm$, (⁄iÀ'm™;) /tisj'mje/ tecìme˘
8.3.2.8. Please, note the di‡erences between modern and traditional pronuncia-
tion, as far as /rJ/ is concerned: ('⁄™RmIn)m ('⁄eçmIn)t /'tjermin/ tepm$n, (⁄IÍ-
'pit)m (⁄iÌ-)t /tir'pit/ tepπ$t, ('À™Rbi[ã]x)m ('Àeçb-)t /'sjerbija/ Cep∫$r, ('v™Íf)m ('veÌf)t
/'vjerfj/ bepfì, ('Cã™RvI)m (-çvI)t /'cervi/ uepb$, ('⁄™R~i[ã]I)m ('⁄eç~-)t /'tjerniji/ tep-
n$e, ('qF™Í⁄)m (-Ì⁄)t /'qertj/ µepdì, (u'À™RÁi[ã]I)m (-eçÁi[ã]‘, -[ã]È)t /u'sjerdiji/ ycep-
d$e, (À'⁄™R¬i⁄)m (-eç¬-)t /s'tjerlitj/ cteplrdì, ('v™ÍÀi[ã]x)m ('veÌÀ-)t /'vjersija/ bepc$r,
(À'v™R=IÓÀx)m (À'veç=IÓsx)t /s'vjerzilsa/ cbep‘$lcr, (kå'm™ÍCIs©ii)m (ka'meÌCiÀ©ii)t /ka-
'mjerciskii/ kommepueck$=˘
Even in traditional pronunciation, as in the modern one, we find (RJ) after ('0é)
(with non-front V]\ ('pFaÍ⁄i[ã]x) /'partija/ πapt$r, ('jøRÁIÍ) /'ordir/ opdep, ('djuR-
~I) (-‘)t /'durni/ dypne, ('mFaR¬x) /'marlja/ maplr, ('kjuÍÀI) (-‘)t /'kursi/ kypce˘ ˛e
same occurs after unstressed V (even if they are front ones): (vIÍ'⁄e⁄) /vir'tjetj/ bep-
tetì, (ÀIR'vis) /sir'vis/ cepb$‘, (vIR'=i;ıx) /vir'zila/ bep‘$la, (=IR'~Ist¢i) /zir'nist…i/ ‘ep-
n$ctv=˘
C + (ç) are not palatalized: (v'çe;mx) /v'rjemja/ bpemr˚ (f'ç™skx) /f'rjeska/ fpecka˚
(påÍ'tç™t) /par'trjet/ πoptpet˚ (∆ån'dçi⁄) /xan'dritj/ xandp$tì˚ (pçIz'çit) /priz'rit/
πpe‘p$t˘
For reflexive forms (in -cr˚ -cì]˚ traditional pronunciation has /s/ (not /sj/), ex-
cept for final-stressed gerunds: (ba'jÄÀ)t (bå'jÅÀ)m /ba'jasj/ ∫orcì (against (&sxbi'RFa;-
ãxs)t (-bI-)m /sabi'rajas/ co∫$parcì]˘ On the contrary, in modern pronunciation re-
flexive verbs have /sj/ (À), except in the third person (in -tcr) and infinitives (in
-tìcr): (~i'Àøqqx) /ni'sjotsa, -qqa/ necetcr, (kıå'djuqqx) /kla'dutsa, -qqa/ kla-
dytcr, (u'Ciqqx) /u'citsa, -qqa/ yu$tìcr˘
8. russian 307
In particular, front-lingual C undergo çpalatalizationÇ by assimilation, in mod-

ern pronunciation too: ('mjøÀ⁄Ik) /'mostik/ moct$k, (¬iÀ'~ik) /lis'nik/ lecn$k,
(u='ÁeCkx) /uz'djecka/ y‘deuka, (Rå'bjø+~Ik) /ra'botnik/ pa∫otn$k, (å_'~i;) /ad-
'ni/ odn$, ('bFa8ëIk) /'banSik/ ∫an∑$k. Before (¬), after (ı, R), or in prefixed words,
or in word-initial position, both pronunciations occur (though çpalatalizationÇ is
more traditional): (pIt'¬a;, pi+-, 'pe+-¬x)m (pÙ+-, 'pe+-)t /pit'lja, 'pjetlja/ πetlr, ('jøs-
¬Ik, -À¬-) /'oslik/ ocl$k, (tåÓs'⁄ak, -À'⁄-)m (taÓÀ'⁄-)t /tals'tjak/ tolctrk, ('møRz~It,
-=~-) /'mjorznit/ mep‘net, (s⁄I'nFa;, À⁄-)m (À⁄É-)t /sti'na/ ctena, (z'ÁeÀ, ='Á-) /z'd-
jes/ ‘decì, (s'~™k, À'~-) /s'njek/ cneg, (&Rxs⁄I'RFa⁄, -À⁄I-)m (-À⁄i-)t /rasti'ratj/ pact$-
patì, (påd'~øs, -_'~-)m (pa_'~-)t /pad'njos/ πodnec.
8.3.2.9. ˛e pronouns $x˚ $m˚ $m$ are more regularly /ix, im, 'imi/ ('i∆, i∆, I∆÷
'i≈, i≈, I≈÷ 'i;mI, &imI, &ImI), whereas traditionally they had an exceptional pronun-
ciation (for >ò$≥) with /ji/, by analogy with ego /ji'vo/, emy /ji'mu/ (but today this is
lofty, or non-neutral).
A stronghold of traditional pronunciation had >Cò$≥ as /0ò…/: (v…'tFa;¬i[ã]U)t /v…-
'taliju/ b *tal$ù, ('kF…;çI)t /'k…ri/ k *pe, by distinguishing them from (vi'tFa;¬i[ã]U)t
/vi'taliju/ B$tal$ù, ('©i;çI)t /'kiri/ K$pe˘ However, native speakers spontaneously
make things natural, by eliminating artifices, thus today a çpalatalizedÇ pronuncia-
tion prevails in both pairs of examples, without doubt because of orthography too.
˛is is a further demonstration that Russian actually has six vowel phonemes, indi-
cated in spelling (with the only problem of unstressed-syllable reductions and his-
torical changes). Purists (of course!) still consider this spontaneous pronunciation
non-neutral, but they will have to change their minds sooner or later. As a matter
of fact, a well-balanced position gives: /'kiri, ±'k…ri/ (where ± indicates a kind of çin-
tentionalÇ pronunciation – used because çit should be usedÇ).
8.3.2.10. O‚cial Russian orthography maintains quite a few letters which do

not correspond (any longer) to actual sounds. ˛e most common case is that of
>t, d≥ between other C\ ('m™sn¢i) /'mjesn…i/ mectnv=, (u'Cãas~Ik) /u'casnik/ y-
uactn$k, (S¢s'sjøt) /S…s'sot/ wectìcot, (tu'çiss©ii, -sq©ii) /tu'risskii, -sqkii/ ty-
p$ctck$=, (kçIs'qFa;) /kris'qa/ kpectza, (&pxdus'qF…;) /padus'q…/ πod y‘dzv, (gå-
'ıFanq¢) /ga'lanq…/ gollandzv, ('À™Íq¢) /'sjerq…/ cepdze, (ÀIÍ'CiSkx) /sir'ciSka/ cepd-
u$wko, ('pjøznx) /'pozna/ πo‘dno, (p'RFaz~Ik) /p'raznik/ πpa‘dn$k, (ëëIs'¬iåCIk,
ëëiÀ-) /SSis'lifcik/ cuactl$bu$k, ('sjø;vIs¬Iv¢i, -viÀ-) /'sovisliv…i/ cobectl$bv=, (áI-
'gFans©ii÷ -nqs-) /gi'ganskii/ g$gantck$=, (gå'ıFans©ii÷ -nq©ii) /ga'lanskii/ golland-
ck$=, (gå'ıFa~kx, -∫kx) /ga'lanka/ gollandka, (Såt'ıFa~kx, -∫kx) /Sat'lanka/ wot-
landka.
Nowadays, indeed, in certain words the graphic C can be restored: ('b™z[d]nx)
/'bjez[d]na/ ∫e‘dna, (z'vøz[d]n¢i) /z'vjoz[d]n…i/ ‘be‘dnv=, (kås[t]'¬a;v¢i, -À[+]'¬-) /kas[t]-
'ljav…i/ koctlrbv=, (pås[t]'ıFa⁄) /pas[t]'latj/ πoctlatì, (Iz'vøs[t]kx) /iz'vjos[t]ka/ $‘-
bectka, (mås[t]'©i;) /mas[t]'ki/ moctk$, (på'j™s[t]kx) /pa'jes[t]ka/ πoe‘dka, ('qjøs[t]-
©ii) /'qos[t]kii/ µectk$=.
Other words show correspondence between writing and pronunciation: (stu-
'Á™ntkx) /stu'djentka/ ctydentka, (å&fIq¢'antkx) /afiq…'antka/ of$z$antka.
Some other particular cases: ('sjønq¢) /'sonq…/ colnze, ('Cãustvx) /'custva/ uybc-
tbo, ('tF…;ÀiCx, 'tF…ëëx) /'t…sica/ tvcrua, (Ài'Cãas, ë'ëãas, ëas) /si'cas/ ce=uac (in the
sense of çnow, at onceÇ), (på'qFa;ıustx, -a;ı¢stx, -aÓstx, b'q-) /pa'qalusta, -l[…]sta/ πoµa-
ly=cta, (z'dRFastvui⁄I, -astui-, -asÀ⁄I, -aÀ⁄, z&dRaÀ⁄, zaÀ) /z'drastvuiti/ ‘dpabctby=-
te.
As a useful reminder, and as a drill (thus in the examples we only mark stress,
through accents), we can say that >t≥ = (`) in the graphic sequences >ctd˚ ctìd˚
ctl˚ ctn˚ ctc˚ ctck≥ (the last one is /sk/): wectìdec®tì˚ neb™ctka˚ cuactl¢-
bv=˚ wectnådzatì˚ $‘b™ctnv=˚ wectìcøt /S…s'sot/, typ¢ctck$=; >d≥ = (`) in
>‘dk˚ ‘dn≥\ πo™‘dka˚ πpå‘dn$k˚ πø‘dno˘
Besides, the sequences >tc˚ dc≥ correspond to /q/, in the pronominal endings
-t(ì)cr: (smi'jøqqx) /smi'joqqa/ cmeetcr, (smi'jaqqx) /smi'jaqqa/ cmertìcr, and
when >t˚ d≥ are followed by the endings -ck$=˚ -ctbo˚ -ctb$e\ ('Á™q©ii) /'djeqkii/
detck$=, (åt'sjuqtvi[ã]I) /at'suqtviji/ otcytctb$e, (&pRå[ã]Iz'vjøqtvx) /prajiz'voq-
tva/ πpo$‘bodctbo, (À'¬™qtvi[ã]I, s'¬-) /s'ljeqtviji/ cledctb$e˘
Lastly, in the genitive endings -ogo, -ego, >g≥ corresponds to /v/: ('b™;ıxvx) /'bjela-
va/ ∫elogo, (jI'vjø;) /ji'vo/ ego˘ ˛us the oddity of (ÀI'vjø_~x) /si'vodnja/ cegodnr
çtodayÇ (= çof this dayÇ) is only seeming.
8.3.2.11. Here we will present the di‡erences between modern and traditional
pronunciation, in reference to poststress-syllable V˚ with /’…/ (‘) for /i/ (>e≥˚ general-
ly described as ç/È/Ç, exactly like /’a/, of unstressed >a˚ o≥, greatly falsifying pho-
netic reality). ˛e –transcribed or retranscribed– examples are taken from Shapiro
(1968).
Nominative and accusative singular of neuter nouns, -e: ('pjø;¬I)m (-¬‘)t /'poli/
πole, ('mjø;çI)m (-ç‘)t /'mori/ mope, ('ve;CI)m (-C‘)t /'vjeci/ beue, (q¢'¬iëëI)m (-ëC‘)t
/q…'liSSi/ µ$l$∑e, (z'dFa;~i[ã]I)m (-[ã]‘)t /z'daniji/ ‘dan$e.
Genitive, dative, and locative singular of nouns and adjectives, -e-: ('Ài;~Ivx)m
(-~‘-)t /'siniva/ c$nego, ('Ài;~Imu)m (-~‘-)t /'sinimu/ c$nemy, (å'Ài;~I≈)m (-~‘≈)t /f'si-
nim/ b c$nem.
Nominative and accusative, singular and plural, of neuter adjectives and pro-
nouns, -e: (z'ljø[;ã]I)m (-[ã]‘)t /z'loji/ ‘loe, (z'ıF…[;ã]I)m (-[ã]‘)t /z'l…ji/ ‘lve, (tå'kjø[;ã]I)m
(ta'kjø[;ã]‘)t /ta'koji/ takoe, (tå'©i[;ã]I)m (ta'©i[;ã]‘)t /ta'kiji/ tak$e, (¬i'ba;qjI)m (-j‘)t
/li'bjaqji/ le∫rµìe, ('vjøÓCjI)m (-j‘)t /'volcji/ boluìe.
Collective numerals, -e\ (d'vjø[;ã]I)m (-[ã]‘)t /d'voji/ dboe, (t'Rjø[;ã]I)m (-[ã]‘)t /t'ro-
ji/ tpoe˘
Comparatives, -ee: (smi'¬e[;ã]I)m (Àmi'¬e;ã‘)t /smi'ljeji/ cmelee, (vIR'~e[;ã]I)m (viR'~e[;-
ã]‘)t /vir'njeji/ bepnee.
Instrumental singular non-feminine and genitive plural, -em, -eb: (u'Ci;⁄i¬I≈)m
(-‘≈)t /u'citilim/ yu$telem, ('pıFa;CI≈)m (-‘≈)t /'placim/ πlauem, (q¢'¬iëëI≈)m (q…-
'¬ië C‘≈)t /q…'liSSim/ µ$l$∑em, (b'RFa;⁄jIf)m (-‘f)t /b'ratjif/ ∫patìeb, ('SF…L-jIf)m (-‘f)t
/'S…ljjif/ w$lìeb.
Instrumental of plural nouns, -Çam$: ('kFap-¬imI)m (-¬‘mI)t /'kaplimi/ kaπlrm$,
('tju;CimI)m (-‘mI)t /'tucimi/ tyuam$, ('RjøëëimI)m (-ëë‘mI)t /'roSSimi/ po∑am$.
8. russian 309
Stress
8.3.3.1. As far as the actual stess force is concerned on the various syllables of
words in Russian sentences, we have to make the situation clear since –on this as-
pect too– confused and misleading ideas freely circulate. As a matter of fact, the
prominence of a certain syllable does not necessarily coincide with its stress(ing)˘
As is well-known, prominence (which makes a given syllable stand out from near-
by ones) is not constituted by stress alone. Rather it is a complex play of stress
force, length, pitch, and timbres of the various segments of the syllables.
Now, in Russian, the vocoids in a pre-tonic syllable (¤ the one that immediate-
ly precedes the stressed –or tonic– syllable in a rhythm group, that is the çfirst pre-
tonicÇ in Russian texts) are articulated in a fairly clear and distinct way, although
slightly less so than in stressed syllables. ˛is fact is most evident for /a/, as a mat-
ter of fact we have for instance: (&gxıå'vFa;) /gala'va/ goloba˘
Nevertheless, we must not confuse a vowel timbre with the degree of stress,
since for rhythmic reasons a secondary stress falls on the first syllable of a word,
not on the second one. Each syllable has a peculiar prominence: (&gx) because of
rhythmic stress (in spite of a decidedly more attenuated timbre – less peripheral
in the vocogram); (ıå) because of its semi-attenuated timbre and a significantly
di‡erent pitch from that of the tonic (syllable) which follows it, although not
marked by a particular symbol (Ô û 8.4). Lastly, (çvFa;) is prominent because of
primary stress, a full timbre, and a half-lengthening too (in unchecked syllable, in
addition to the insertion of (F)).
All too often, even in specific handbooks, we come across statements which
claim that the pretonic syllable, (ıå), would have the second degree of stress,
whereas all the others are weaker, above all those after the stress. However, in (s'tFa;-
Rxãx) /s'taraja/ ctapar˚ for the last two syllables, we have a timbre attenuation (as
for (&gx)) and a stress weakening (as for (ıå)), which might make them seem one
degree lower in comparison with the other two – but it is not so. ˛eir weakening
–if any– is due to the fact that, generally, words given as examples are considered
to occur in an intoneme (even if unintentionally), with a consequent reduction of
articulatory and intonational intensity on posttonic syllables.
8.3.3.2. In Russian words, stress undergoes variations – even determined by

grammar. In fact, the di‡erent paradigms (of nouns, adjectives, and verbs) are cer-
tainly di‚cult, especially for foreigners, who can laboriously find assistance in
grammars and dictionaries.
Here are some examples of distinctive stress (¤ phonemic minimal pairs): ('Rju;-
©I) /'ruki/ çhandsÇ and (Ru'©i;) /ru'ki/ çof the handÇ pyk$, ('Fat-ıxs) /'atlas/ çatlasÇ and
(åt'ıFas) /at'las/ çsatinÇ atlac, ('mju;kx) /'muka/ çtormentÇ and (mu'kFa;) /mu'ka/
çflourÇ myka, ('pFa;çi⁄) /'paritj/ çto steamÇ and (på'çi⁄) /pa'ritj/ çto planeÇ πap$tì,
('pFa;çu) /'parju/ çI steamÇ and (på'çu;) /pa'rju/ çI planeÇ πapù.
˛e following are sub-minimal pairs (phonemically), but equally functional (lin-
guistically): ('jøRgxn) /'organ/ çorganizationÇ and (åR'gFan) /ar'gan/ çorganÇ opgan,
(s'vjøistvx) /s'voistva/ çcharacteristicÇ and (svåist'vjø;) /svaist'vo/ çpropertyÇ
cbo=ctbo, ('zFa;mxk) /'zamak/ çcastleÇ and (zå'mjøk) /za'mok/ çlockÇ ‘amok,

(k'Rjø;ãu) /k'roju/ çI coverÇ and (kRå'ju;) /kra'ju/ çI cut (a dress)Ç kpoù, ('pjø;tx≈)
/'potam/ çsweat (instrumental case)Ç and (på'tjø≈) /pa'tom/ çthenÇ πotom, ('ju;-
q¢) /'uq…/ çnarrowerÇ and (u'qF™;) /u'qe/ çalreadyÇ yµe, ('∆aøs) /'xaos/ çconfusionÇ and
(∆å'jøs÷ '∆aøs) /xa'os÷ 'xaos/ çchaosÇ xaoc, ('pFa∆nu⁄) /'paxnutj/ çto smellÇ and
(på∆'nju⁄) /pax'nutj/ çto blowÇ πaxnytì.
Let us now consider some cases where the stress variation is between neutral and
çdialectalÇ or çslangyÇ pronunciation: (då'bF…;Cx) /da'b…ca/ and ('djø;b¢Cx)d /'do-
b…ca/ do∫vua, (&åb¬Ik'Ci⁄) /ablik'citj/ and (åb'¬™kCi⁄)d /ab'ljekcitj/ o∫legu$tì,
(&mi¬i'm™t5, -;t”) /mili'mjetr/ and (mi'¬i;mIt5, -t”)d /mi'limitr/ m$ll$metp; or be-
tween neutral and çuneducatedÇ pronunciation: (kRå'Ài;vi[ã]I) /kra'siviji/ and (&kRx-
Ài've[;ã]I)p /krasi'vjeji/ kpac$bee, (zvå'~iS) /zva'niS/ and (z'vjø;~IS)p /z'voniS/ ‘bo-
n$wì.
Otherwise, the di‡erence may be of literary stylistic levels, such as a çfolkÇ one
(used in traditional tales and stories): (&mxıå'Á™q) /mala'djeq/ and ('mjø;ıxÁIq)f
/'moladiq/ molodez, (Ái'vi;qx) /di'viqa/ and ('Áe;vIqx)f /'djeviqa/ deb$za, (&ÀiçIb-
'Rjø;) /sirib'ro/ and ('Àe;çIb-Rx)f /'sjeribra/ cepe∫po, ('SjøÓkxv¢i) /'Solkav…i/ and (S¢Ó-
'kjø;v¢i)f /S…l'kov…i/ welkobv=, ('sFa;∆xRn¢i) /'saxarn…i/ and (så'∆FaRn¢i)f /sa'xarn…i/
caxapnv=, (&bxgå'tF…Ì) /baga't…rj/ and (bå'gFa;t¢Ì)f /ba'gat…rj/ ∫ogatvpì; or a çloftyÇ
level: ('nFa;CIt¢i) /'nacit…i/ and (nå'Cãa;t¢i)a /na'cat…i/ nauatv=, ('izbRxnn¢i) /'iz-
brann…i/ and (Izb'RFann¢i)a /izb'rann…i/ $‘∫pannv=, ('¬¯;biëëii) /'ljubiSSii/ and (¬¯'bÅë-
ëii)a /lju'bjaSSii/ lù∫r∑$=, (∆'vFa;¬iëëii) /x'valiSSii/ and (∆vå'¬Åëëii)a /xva'ljaSSii/ xbalr-
∑$=, (m¢S'¬e;~i[ã]I) /m…S'ljeniji/ and ('mF…S¬i~i[ã]I)a /'m…Sliniji/ mvwlen$e.
Lastly, we also find cases of double neutral stress(ing): (t'vjø;Rxk, två'Rjøk) /t'vo-
rak, tva'rok/ tbopog, (I'nFa;CI, 'i;nxcI) /i'naci, 'inaci/ $naue, ('jø;bu∆, å'bju∆) /'o-
bux, a'bux/ o∫yx, (p'Rjø;bIÓ, pRå'biÓ) /p'robil, pra'bil/ πpo∫$l˘
By considering paradigm variation too, we can see: ('Áe;çIvx) /'djeriva/ depebo,
(Ái'çev-jx) /di'rjevjja/ depebìr, (&ÁiçI'vFa;) /diri'va/ depeba÷ including less recom-
mendable pronunciations (which appear after ç;Ç), or are marked as çwrongÇ in
pronunciation dictionaries (here marked with ç≠Ç only in phonetic transcriptions):
('jøddxÓ, åd'dFaÓ) /'oddal, ad'dal/ otdal, (&åddå'ıFa;, ≠'jøddxıx, ≠åd'dFa;ıx) /adda'la/
otdala, ('jøddxıx, åd'dFa;ıx÷ &åddå'ıjø;) /'oddala, ad'dala/ otdalo, ('jøddx¬I, åd-
'dFa;¬I) /'oddali, ad'dali/ otdal$˘
8.3.3.3. In compounds, every element (before the last one, which firmly main-
tains its primary stress, /'/ (')) tends to keep a certain degree of stress, which we will
mark with /“/ (“) (or (&), if in contact with ('), corresponding to a possible rhythmic
stress). Even the vocalic timbre is firmly maintained, with no neutralizations,
which are typical of unstressed syllables): (&sxmå“¬øtxstRå'je;~i[ã]I) /sama“ljotastra'je-
niji/ camoletoctpoen$e, (kåÍ“tjøfi¬ikå'pFaÓkx) /kar“tofilika'palka/ kaptofeleko-
πalka, (“bjøÍtpRxvå_'~ik) /“bortpravad'nik/ ∫optπpobodn$k, (s“pjøÍtkRu'qjøk)
/s“portkru'qok/ cπoptkpyµok, (å“F™Rx“fjøtåÀ'~i;mxk) /a“era“fotas'nimak/ a<pofo-
tocn$mok, (I“¬™ktRx“pFaRxpx&dxgçI'vFa;⁄i1) /i“ljektra“parapadagri'vatil/ <lektpoπa-
poπodogpebatelì, (“gjøs¢z'dFat, -sI-) /“gos-…z'dat/ Goc$‘dat, (&mjøz'bFa~k, &mjøs-,
-∫k) /“moz'bank, “mos-/ Moc∫ank, (&ik'RFatkx[ã]I) /“ik'ratkaji/ $ kpatkoe, (“pjøÓCI-
8. russian 311
'sFa;) /“polci'sa/ πoluaca, (&pjøı'gjø;dx) /“pol'goda/ πolgoda (but ('pjøıÁi8) /'pol-

dinj/ πoldenì has to be noted).
8.3.3.4. Obviously, in actual sentences there are unstressed words too. Mostly
they are functional monosyllables (not lexical ones) such as prepositions, conjunc-
tions, and some particles: (&åtstå'ıFa;) /atsta'la/ ot ctola, (&pxdåk'njø≈) /padak-
'nom/ πod oknom, (kåm'~™;) /kam'nje/ ko mne, (b'RFa⁄-jx i'ÀøstR¢) /b'ratjja i'sjostr…/
∫patìr $ cectpv, (~Iz'nFa;ãu) /niz'naju/ ne ‘naù, (skå'qF…;kx) /ska'q…ka/ ckaµ$-ka,
('jø2q¢) /'onq…/ on µe, (pçi'Áø+-¬I) /pri'djotli/ πp$det l$.
Also pronouns and monosyllabic adjectives can be destressed: (mjøib'RFat)
/moib'rat/ mo= ∫pat, (='Á™Àjøn, -xn) /z'djesj-on, -an/ ‘decì on, (ku'dFa v¢bI'qF…;⁄I)
/ku'da v…bi'q…ti/ kyda bv ∫eµ$te, (&viÀi'j¯8, &ve-) /visji'junj/ becì $ùnì÷ also <to:
(k'tjø F™tå='Á™;ıxÓ, Itå-) /k'to etaz'djelal, i-/ kto <to cdelal, ('vjø;njøn, -xn) /'vo-
non, -an/ bon on, ('vjø;tjøn, -xn) /'voton, -an/ bot on, (vjøt'tjut, vå-) /vot'tut,
va-/ bot tyt, (vjøn'tFa≈, vå-) /von'tam, va-/ bon tam, (jønz'nFaÓ) /onz'nal/ on
‘nal, (S&tjøjøn'tFa≈, S&tåjø-) /Stoon'tam, Stao-/ uto on tam, (&njøjøm'bF…Óta≈,
-º'b-, &nåjø-) /noom'b…ltam, -n'b-, nao-/ no on ∫vl tam, (tåk'vjøt) /tak'vot/ tak
bot (conjunction, whereas the adverb tak does not reduce), ('jøn då'ja;) /'on da-
'ja/ on da r (a conjunction again, whereas da, the adverb çyesÇ is generally stressed
('dFa;); finally: (I'mju ∆xÁb¢S'tjø;) /i'mu xadjb…S'to/ emy xotì ∫v uto.
Here is a list of the most frequent (functional) monosyllables with reduced
forms (realized with unstressed vowel taxophones, required by the context): ∫v,
∫vl, bv, bam, becì, da, kak, l$, mne, mv, ne, n$, o∫, on, ot, πo, πod, cemì, to,
tv. ˛e pronoun r çIÇ can be reduced immediately after a stressed V: (må'gu jx-
pxvI'dFa⁄) /ma'gu japavi'datj/ mogy r πob$datì, (g'Áe jxmå'gu pxıu'Ci⁄) /g'dje ja-
ma'gu palu'citj/ gde r mogy πolyu$tì, (kåg'dFa jxnåCI'nFaÓ) /kag'da janaci'nal/
kogda r nau$nal˘
However, monosyllables can be more independent about vowel timbre than un-
stressed syllables in polysyllables. Consider, for instance: ('vjø;Rxn) /'voran/ bopon
and ('vjøR-jøn) /'voron/ bop on, (&⁄i¬I'sFa;) /tili'sa/ teleca and (&⁄e¬I'sFa;) /tjeli'sa/
te leca, (jIs'~ei) /jis'njei/ rcne= and (jås'~ei) /jas'njei/ r c ne=.
8.3.3.5. On the contrary, certain prepositions and monosyllabic particles can

receive a rhythm-group stress, when the word which follows them has the original
stress on the first syllable: ('b™zviÀ⁄I) /'bjezvisti/ ∫e‘ bect$, ('pjød-Ru©I) /'podruki/
πod pyk$, ('~™;b¢ıx) /'njeb…la/ ne ∫vlo, ('pjøt-çI) /'potri/ πo tp$, ('nFa;pxÓ) /'napal/
na πol, ('nFa;gxRu) /'nagaru/ na gopy, ('nFaÀ⁄Inu) /'nastinu/ na cteny, ('zFa;gxRx-
dx≈, -g“xd-, -gRxd-) /'zagaradam/ ‘a gopodom, (&Rx=Ái'¬i⁄| 'nFadvx, -&¬iÁ'n-) /razdi'litj
'nadva/ pa‘del$tì na dba, ('pjødnxsx≈) /'podnasam/ πod nocom, ('zFa;nxs) /'za-
nas/ ‘a noc, ('jøCCIsu) /'occisu/ ot uacy, ('pjøtpxıx≈) /'potpalam/ πod πolom,
(&japx⁄i'çaı jIvjø'izvidu) /japati'rjal jivo'izvidu/ r πoteprl ego $‘ b$dy, (I'mu 'zFa;-
sxRxk) /i'mu 'zasarak/ emy ‘a copok, (påm'njø;q¢⁄ 'Àem| 'nFa;pi⁄) /pam'noq…tj 'sjemj|
'napitj/ πomnoµ$tì cemì na πrtì.
Also the negative particles ne, n$, which are generally unstressed, may have this
structure, above all with the verb ∫vtì, ('bF…⁄) /'b…tj/, çto beÇ: (jI'vjø;tFam
'~™;b¢ıx) /ji'vo-tam 'njeb…la/ ego tam ne ∫vlo, (&jøntFam'~™;q¢Ó) /on-tam'njeq…l/ on

tam ne µ$l.
Here are the prepositions that can have this stress pattern (most typical of collo-
quial speech): ∫e‘, bo, do, ‘a, $‘, na, o/o∫, ot, πo, πod, πp$. However, it is not
su‚cient that the noun or number that follows is stressed on its first syllable, as
happens, for instance, in: (&jømpxıå&qF…Ók'~i;gu nås'tjøÓ, &jøº-) /ompala'q…l k'nigu
nas'tol, on-/ on πoloµ$l kn$gy na ctol, (&ånå'À™;ıx nås'tjuÓ) /ana'sjela nas'tul/ ona
cela na ctyl.
˛e exact application depends on actual usage, without being possible to pro-
vide a precise and absolute rule. A serious pronouncing dictionary, with real tran-
scriptions (at least in o‚cial IPA]˚ ought to show these forms accurately.
Intonation
8.3.4. û 8.4 shows the preintonemes and intonemes of neutral Russian – then
we just give some illustrative examples, to use for comparisons:
/./: (çF™;tx mjøi¬¯çbi;m¢i &kx≈påç=i;txÍ) /'eta moi-lju'bim…i kampa'zitar./ >to
mo= lù∫$mv= komπo‘$top.
/?/: (¿çvF…; jI&vjø•vi;Ái¬I2 2) /¿'v… jivo'vidili?/ Bv ego b$del$?, (¿&F™tx¬I•kkjø;2 2, -∆•k-)
/¿etalik'ko?, -x'ko?/ >to legko?
/÷/: (çjeÀ¬I &jø~~Iåtçve;⁄It2 2 &janxpI'Sju; jI&vjøåqçqju;3 3) /'jesli on-niat'vjetit÷ ja-na-
pi'Su jivoaq'qu/ Ecl$ on ne otbet$t, r naπ$wy ego otzy.
çElliptic questionsÇ (¤ those without a verb) have the pattern /¿ ÷/: (¿aIgçzFa;mI-
n¢2 2) /¿aig'zamin…÷/ A <k‘amenv?
û 8.4. Russian preintonemes and intonemes.
/ / (2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2) /./ (2 ç 3 3)
/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2) /?/ (2 • 2 2)
/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2) /÷/ (2 ç 2 2)
/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2) /,/ (2 ' 2)
Text
8.4.0. ˛e transcribed passage, †e North Wind and the Sun, gives the neutral
accent; as always, according to the phonetic method, first comes the English text
(Ô § 2.5.2.0) with a broad Russian accent, then the Russian translation, with neu-
tral pronunciation; then follows the çtraditionalÇ accent (not recommendable any
8. russian 313
longer today).
At the end, as usual, the version showing the English pronunciation of Russian
is given; it represents the habits of neutral British speakers, fluent in Russian (af-
ter prolonged contact with native speakers, but with no help from the phonetic
method), who have adequately learned the relative prominences, but who substan-
tially use segmental and intonation elements which are typical of neutral Russian
(although, of course, a neutral accent is not so common). Obviously, the same
principle is valid for the foreign pronunciations of English, given first.
Speakers of American English could prepare their own version both of the Rus-
sian pronunciation of English and of their pronunciation of Russian, as an excel-
Russian pronunciation (of English)
8.4.1. (ÁIçnjøRt 'vint2 åndå'sjøn2 &v™RÁisçpu;⁄I˙k çvic vø=ÁIstçRjø˙gxR3 3| çv™n

åtçRFavıxR2 ç©™m å'ıjø˙k2 ìçRFap ⁄InåçvjøRmk çıjøk3 3œ| Á™åg'çit2\ dxÁIçvjøn
∆uçf™Rst såk'Ài;Ái⁄2 i~çme;©I˙ ÁIt'RFavıxR2 ç⁄e© âIskçıjøk çjøf2 2| &SudbIkånçÀi;dxRt
£stRjø˙gxR &dxnÁiçjø;dxR3 3||
'Áe~2 ÁIçnjøRt 'vint2 çbıju;2 ås'∆FaRt2 åÀâIçkjut3 3| &bxÁIçmjøR âIbçıju;2 2| ÁI-
çmjøRk 'ıjøÀ¬i2 &ÁiÁIt'RFavıxR2\ çfjøıt âIskçıjøk åçRFau~⁄âIm3 3| ì&xntåt'ıFast2œ\ ÁI-
çnjøRt 'vint2 çá™v çjøp ÁIåç⁄™mpt3 3|| ì'Áe~2œ ÁIçsjøn çSjøn çaut3 3 ìçvjøRm¬I3 3œ| &å~-
Ái'mi;Ái+¬I2\ ˚ÁItçRFavıxR çtjuk çjøf3 3 ˚âIskçıjøk3 3|| ìånt'sjø;2œ ÁIçnjøRt 'vint2 vøzåb-
çıFaiC tukåM'f™s2| &dxÁIçsjøn3 3 vø=ÁIstçRjø˙gxR3 3 ì&åvÁIçtju;3 3œ||
¿&ÁiÁu•ıFaik2 2 ¿ÁIs'tjø;RI2| ¿Ájuçvjøn tuçâi;çIt å•á™n2 2|||)
Russian text
8.4.2. Odnaµdv cebepnv= betep $ colnze cπop$l$, kto $‘ n$x c$lìne=.

Kak pa‘ b <to bpemr on$ ‘amet$l$ ‘akytannogo b πla∑ πytn$ka, $dy∑ego
πo dopoge, $ πopew$l$, uto tot $‘ n$x ∫ydet cu$tatìcr camvm c$lìnvm,
komy panìwe ydactcr ‘actab$tì πytn$ka cnrtì πla∑.
Tyt cebepnv= betep πp$nrlcr dytì $‘o bcex c$l; no uem c$lìne= on dyl,
tem c$lìne= kytalcr πytn$k b cbo= πla∑; tak uto b konze konzob cebep-
nv= betep dolµen ∫vl ot cboe= ‘adau$ otka‘atìcr. Togda ‘ac$rlo colnvw-
ko, πytn$k πonemnogy otogpelcr $ bckope cnrl cbo= πla∑. Tak$m o∫pa‘om,
cebepnv= betep bvnyµden ∫vl πp$‘natì, uto colnze c$lìne= ego.
Te∫e πonpab$lacì cka‘ka? ∏obtop$tì ee?
Modern Russian pronunciation
8.4.3. (åd'nFaqd¢2 çÀe;vIRn¢i 've;⁄IR2 I'sjønq¢2\ sçpjø;çi¬I2 2 kçtjøIz–~I∆ Ài¬ç~ei3 3| kåk-

çRFas çvF™;txv ççe;mx2 2 åç~i zå'me;⁄i¬I2 zåçkju;txnxvxå 'pıFaë2 çpju+~Ikx3 3 ìIçdjuëëIvx
&pxdå'Rjø;áI2œ I&pxçIçSF…;¬I2 2| S'tjø;2 çtjøt Izç~iy çbju;ÁIt2 ëëÙçtFaqqx çsFa;m¢≈ çÀi¬n¢≈2 2|
kå&mu'RFa8S¢2 u'dFasqx2\ zåsçtFa;vi⁄ çpju+~Ikx2 2| Àç~Å⁄ çpıFaë3 3||
çtjut 'Àe;vIRn¢i2 çve;⁄IÍ2 2 &pçi~IÓçÀa; 'dju⁄2| &IzååçÀ™∆ çÀiÓ3 3|| ì&njøçCã™≈ Ài¬ç~ei jøn-
çdjuÓ2 2œ ç⁄™≈ Ài¬'~ei2 çkju;txÓÀx 'pju+~Ik2 ås&vjøiçpıFaë3 3|| takS'tjø2\ ìåkånçqF™ kån-
çqjøf2 2œ| çÀe;vIRn¢i çve;⁄IR2 2\ 'djøıq¢m&b¢Ó2| &åtsvåçjei zåçdFa;CI2 &åtkåçzFaqqx3 3|| tågçdFa;
zxÀiçja;ıx çsjøın¢Skx2 2| çpju+~Ik2 ì&px~Im'njø;gu2œ &åtågçç™ÓÀx2 2| Iåsçkjø;çi Àç~aÓ
svjøipçıFaë3 3|| tåç©im çjøb-Rxzx≈2 2\ çÀe;vIRn¢i 've;⁄IR2 çvF…;nuqÁImb¢Ó2 pçIzçna⁄2 2 Stø-
çsjønq¢3 3 Ài¬ç~ei3 3 ìãIçvjø;3 3œ||
¿⁄içb™ pån•RFa;vIıxÀ2 2 ¿sçkFaskx2| ¿&pxåtå•çi⁄ãi–[ã]ø2 2|||)
Traditional Russian pronunciation
8.4.4. (ad'nFaqd‘2 çÀe;vIRn‘i 've;⁄IR2 i'sjønq‘2\ sçpjø;çi¬I2 2 kçtjøIz–~I∆ Ài¬ç~ei3 3|

kakçRFas çvF™;txv ççe;mx2 2 aç~i za'me;⁄i¬I2 zaçkju;txnxvxå 'pıFaëC2 çpju+~Ikx3 3 ìiçdjuë-
CIvx &pxda'Rjø;áI2œ I&pxçiçSF…;¬I2 2| S'tjø;2 çtjøt izç~iy çbju;ÁIt2 ëCîçtFaqqx çsFa;m‘≈ çÀi¬-
n‘≈2 2| kå&mu'RFaNS‘2 u'dFasqx2\ zasçtFa;vi⁄ çpju+~Ikx2 2| Àç~Ä⁄ çpıFaëC3 3||
çtjut 'Àe;vIRn‘i2 çve;⁄IÍ2 2 &pçi~iÓçsFa; 'dju⁄2| &IzaåçÀ™∆ çÀiÓ3 3|| ì&njøçCã™≈ Ài¬ç~ei jøn-
çdjuÓ2 2œ ç⁄™≈ Ài¬'~ei2 çkju;txÓsx 'pju+~Ik2 ås&vjøipçıFaëC3 3|| takS'tjø2\ ìåkançqF™ kan-
çqjøf2 2œ| çÀe;vIRn‘i çve;⁄IR2 2\ 'djøıq‘ºb‘Ó2| &åtsvaçjei zaçdFa;CI2 &åtkaçzFaqqx3 3|| tagçdFa;
zxÀiçja;ıx çsjøın‘Skx2 2| çpju+~Ik2 ì&px~im'njø;gu2œ &åtagçç™Ósx2 2| iåsçkjø;çi Àç~aÓ
svjøipçıFaëC3 3|| taç©im çjøb-Rxzx≈2 2\ çÀe;vIRn‘i 've;⁄IR2 çvF…;nuqÁIºb‘Ó2 pçizçna⁄2 2
Støçsjønq‘3 3 Ài¬ç~ei3 3 ìãiçvjø;3 3œ||
¿⁄içb™ pan•RFa;vIıxs2 2 ¿sçkFaskx2| ¿&pxåta•çi⁄ãi–[ã]ø2 2|||)
English pronunciation of Russian
8.4.5. (ÈD'nA;ZDÈ2 si5™v¤ÈnIi vi'™c¤È2 ¤'sø;ntså2\ 'spø;>¤li32 k5Th‘;¨ ¤z'n¤x sIı'n™;I3 3|

khåk5>A;s 'v™TÈ >i'™mjå32 È5nI;i zÈmi'™ts¤li2 zÈ5kh¯uTÈnÈvÈÑ 'phlA;S2 'ph¯uTn¤kå3 3 ì¤-
5D¯uSc¤vÈ pÈDÈ'>‘¨gi2œ ¤pÈ>¤'S‘;li32| 'ST‘;¨2 5Th‘¨T ¤z'n¤x 'b¯udz¤T2 S¤5ThA;tsÈ 'sA;mÈm 's¤ı-
niÈm32| &khûm¨'>A;nSÈ2 ¨'DA;stså2\ zes5ThA;v¤ts 'ph¯uTn¤kå32| 5snA;ts 'phlA;S3 3||
5Th¯uT si'™v¤ÈnIi2 &ph>Iin¤ı5sA: 'D¯uts2| &¤zÈfsi5™x 'si;¤ı3 3|| ì&n‘¨5ch™m s¤ı'n™;I ‘¨n-
'D¯;uı32œ tsi5™m s¤ıni'™;I2 5kh¯uTÈısÈ 'ph¯uTn¤k2 fÈsvøÙ'phlA;S3 3|| &Thåk'ST‘;¨2\ ìfkûn'ts™;I
kûn'tsØf32œ| si5™v¤ÈnIi vi'™c¤È32\ 'Dø;ıZÈmb®2| &åtsvÈ5j™;I zÈ'DA;ci2 &åTkû'zA;tså3 3|| Thûg5DA:
8. russian 315
zÈsi'A;lÈ 'sø;ınÈSkå32| 'ph¯uTn¤k2 ì&pÈn¤m'n‘¨g¯u2œ &åTûg>i'™ısiå32| ¤f5skø;>i sni'A;ı snøÙ-

'phlA;S3 3|| Thû5khI;im '‘¨b>ÈzÈm32\ si5™v¤ÈnIi vi'™c¤È2 'v‘;n¯uZ[d]z¤m&b¤ı2 p>¤z'nA;ts32
ST‘¨'sø;ntså3 3 &s¤ıni'™;I3 3 ìIi'v‘;¨3 3œ||
¿&ts¤bi5™;I pÈn'>A;v¤lÈS21 ¿'skA;skå2| ¿&phåftÈ'>Iitsi&‘¨21|||)
9. Arabic
9.0.1. In this chapter, we will deal with the çneutral modernÇ pronunciation of
Arabic, corresponding to the çsupraregionalÇ language used in o‚cial radio and
television broadcastings, free from local characteristics (which are typical of every-
-day life in each of the Arabic countries). In fact, as for the other languages treat-
ed in this handbook, this is the most suitable form for general teaching and learn-
ing purposes. It constitutes the basis for local varieties too (which are more or less
important from a numerical and socio-cultural point of view), with some simpli-
fications, modifications and additions.
On the other hand, of course, if substantial contact in particular areas is forseen,
it is advisable to take on some local lexical, semantic, and morphosyntactic charac-
teristics, as well as the phonic ones (which mainly regard some phonemes).
Our transliteration diverges from the more traditional ones used by Arabists
(which are far from being homogeneous, however), especially as far as long vow-
els and diphthongs are concerned: ii˚ aa˚ uu (not as i˚ a˚ u)˚ ai˚ au (but ay˚ aw on-
ly when final, or followed by y˚ w÷ therefore, they are not always ay˚ aw). Further-
more, we use ∞˚ ≠˚ É˚ Æ˚ ‚ (for /S÷ †, ∑÷ X, º/, not digraphs: sh˚ th˚ dh˚ kh˚ gh {not even
í˚ î˚ for the last two}) and ∆˚ ` (instead of –˚ j˚ for /h, Z/), while keeping =˚ ƒ˚ «˚ „
(for /t, d, †, Ã/)˚ and q˚ '˚ ‘ as well (for /›, ö, H/).
Vowels
9.1.1. Neutral Arabic has three short and three long vowels, with some remark-
able taxophones, due to the influence of certain consonants and of syllable struc-
ture. ˛ere are more variations for /a[:]/ and less for /u[:]/, while /i[:]/ is in an inter-
mediate position. ˛ere are two çdiphthongsÇ as well, /ai, au/, which are best con-
sidered as sequences of /a/ + /i, u/, since their neutral realization is obtained pre-
cisely by juxtaposing the two elements, which are subject to the influence of conso-
nants and syllable structure. ˛e influence of the local ways of speaking is very
strong, even if unintentional, in teaching recordings as well, especially for /ai, au/,
but also for the basic V˘
However, the information we will give in this chapter represents the neutral pro-
nunciation, which does not necessarily correspond to everything one may hear
even from good native speakers. Nevertheless, the reader who follows exactly what
is indicated certainly achieves the çneutralÇ pronunciation (not a regional one),
even if –for V– this usage is quite close to that of Levantine Arabic (Ô § 19.2 of
NPT/HPh], in particular for /ai, au/, seen that elsewhere they are generally real-
ized as monophthongs ((e:, o:) or, at most, as narrow diphthongs, (™I, øU)); con-
sider also Gulf Arabic and Egyptian Arabic (§ 19.1 “ § 18.25 in NPT/HPh]˚ while
9. arabic 317
Maghreb Arabic is di‡erent still (Ô Moroccan Arabic, § 18.2 in NPT/HPh]˘ ˛ese

four di‡erent variants of Arabic are not simply çaccentsÇ of the same language, but
four partially di‡erent çdialectsÇ, which normally a‡ect the language itself.
However, here we will consider only çsupranationalÇ (or çinternationalÇ) Arabic
pronunciation (although a few major di‡erences will be dealt with as well).
9.1.2. Always bearing in mind that the unmarked value of /i{:}, a{:}, u{:}/ is (i{:},
Ä{:}, u{:}) (shown by the black markers in the vocogram of û 9.1), we should note
well –and constantly recognize– the list of the Arabic realizations, which have the
following distributions (besides, /é:/ in unstressed syllables = (é)):
/i/ 1.1 (¢), in contact with /t, d, †, Ã, ›/,

1.2 (I), in contact with /h, H, X, º/,
1.3 (I), in checked syllables (with di‡erent C than in 1.1),
1.4 (i), in unchecked syllables (except if 1.1-2);
1.5 (in /ai/) as /i/, for 1.1-4;
/i:/ 1.6 (¢:), between /t, d, †, Ã, ›/ (in checked or unchecked syllables),
1.7 (I:), in contact with /t, d, †, Ã, ›/ (in checked or unchecked syllables),
1.8 (i:), in all other cases (in checked or unchecked syllables);
/a{:}/ 2.1 (å[:]), between /t, d, †, Ã, ›/,
2.2 (A[:]), in contact with /t, d, †, Ã, ›/ (and (ı)),
2.3 (a[:]), in contact with /h, H, X, º, r/,
2.4 (a[:]), utterance-final unstressed (except 2.2),
2.5 (Ä[:]), in contact with other C (also /ö, h/),
2.6 (Ä[:]), utterance-internal word-final unstressed –even in monosyllables–
(except 2.1-3),
2.7 (Ä) /a[h]/, for -a-h (taa' marbuu=a) in pausal position (with no influence
as in 2.2-4),
2.8 (in /ai, au/) as /a/, for 2.2-3 “ 2.5;
/u/ 3.1 (U), between (or in contact with) /t, d, †, Ã, ›, h, H/,
3.2 (U), in checked syllables,
3.3 (u), in unchecked syllables (except 3.1),
3.4 (in /au/) as /u/, for 3.1-3;
/u:/ 3.5 (U:), in checked syllables with /t, d, †, Ã, ›, h, H/,
3.6 (u:), in all other cases.
û 9.1. Arabic vowel elements.
/i/ (i, I, ¢) /u/ (u, U)

/i:/ (i:, I:, ¢:) /u:/ (u:, U:)
/a/ (Ä, a, A, å) /a:/ (Ä:, a:, A:, å:)

9.1.3. According to the distributions just seen, û 9.1 shows the realizations of
the Arabic –short and long– vowels, (i[:], I[:], ¢[:]) /i[:]/, (Ä[:], a[:], A[:], å[:]) {and (Ø[:]),
çKoranicÇ variant, Ô û 9.2) /a[:]/, (u[:], U[:]) /u[:]/. Here are some examples: ('›¢f) /'›if/
qif˚ (›¢'›A:n) /›i:'›a:n/ qiiqaan˚ ('†I:ni) /'†i:ni:/ «iinii˚ (†A'dI:›) /†a'di:›/ «adiiq˚ ('bInt)
/'bint/ bint˚ ('fi:l) /'fi:l/ fiil÷ (†å'›IH÷ †Ø-) /†a'›iH/ «aqi‘˚ ('†Af:) /'†aff/ «a‡˚ ('tA:h) /'ta:h/
=aa∆a˚ ('baHda) /'baHda/ ba‘da˚ ('5a:HIn) /'ra:hin/ raahin˚ ('HÄ:∑a) /'ha:∑a:/ haaÉaa˚
('wÄlÄd) /'walad/ walad˚ ('bÄ:b) /'ba:b/ baab÷ ('†U:›) /'†u:›/ «uuq˚ ('Huna) /'huna:/
hunaa˚ ('†u:f) /'†u:f/ «uuf˚ (ºU'†u:m) /Xu'†u:m/ Æu«uum˚ ('fUndU›) /'fundu›/ funduq˘
û 9.1 does not show the di‡erent realizations of /ai, au/, which result from the
combination (Ä-, a-, A-) + (-i, -I, -¢) or + (-u, -U), according to context: ('bÄIt) /'bait/
bait˚ ('öÄina) /'öaina/ aina˚ ('Haini) /'Haini:/ ‘ainii˚ ('›AIl) /'›ail/ qail˚ ('fÄUz) /'fauz/
fauz˚ ('lÄUn) /'laun/ laun˚ ('HaUdÄ) /'Hauda[h]/ ‘auda-h˚ (mU'›AuwÄm, -AwwÄm)
/mu'›awwam/ muqawwam˚ (öÄu'lÄ:d) /öau'la:d/ aulaad˘
û 9.2. Some Arabic vowel variants.
/ai/ (e:, ™I) frequent /au/ (o:, øU) frequent

çcolloquialÇ variants çcolloquialÇ variants
/a[:]/ (Ø[:]) (between (t, d, †, Ã, ›), in

the çKoranicÇ kind of pronunciation)
9.1.4. û 9.2 shows some frequent realizations of /ai, au/: (e:, ™I÷ o:, øU), which
are very widespread outside neutral and Levantine Arabic. However, one's pronun-
ciation may still be considered neutral, although çcolloquialÇ, even if it uses such
variants, provided all other articulations are appropriate; in fact, this pronuncia-
tion is quite common indeed: ('be:t, 'b™It) /'bait/ bait˚ ('öe:na, 'ö™I-) /'öaina/ aina˚
('He:ni, 'H™I-) /'Haini:/ ‘ainii˚ ('›e:l, '›™Il) /'›ail/ qail˚ ('fo:z, 'føUz) /'fauz/ fauz˚ ('lo:n,
'løUn) /'laun/ laun˘
û 9.3. Colloquial variants and neutralizations.
/’i/ (Ù), /’a/ (‘), /’U/ (P) {/’i, ’a, ’u/ (È) ç/È/Ç possible
frequent çcolloquialÇ variants çcolloquialÇ neutralization)
û 9.3 shows further vocalic articulations, all of which are in the intermediate
realizational area (typically unused in neutral pronunciation, as can be seen in û
9.1), as happens for the variants of /ai, au/ as well. ˛e white markers indicate un-
stressed realizations of /i, a, u/, (Ù, ‘, P), which are considerably centralized. ˛e
9. arabic 319
broken-line white marker, in turn, indicates the realization of a frequent neutrali-

zation of unstressed /i, a, u/ (unified into (È)), which is more typical of quick and
familiar speech (here given as a third realization): (si'jÄ:Z, sÙ-, sÈ-) /si'ja:Z/ siyaa`˚
(tIm'†Ä:l, tÙm-, tÈm-) /tim'†a:l/ tim≠aal˚ (sÄ'lÄ:ma, s‘-, sÈ-) /sa'la:ma/ salaama˚ (sÄH-
'wÄ:n, s‘H-, sÈH-) /sah'wa:n/ sahwaan˚ (su'Hu:la, sP-, sÈ-) /su'hu:la/ suhuula˚ (mUS'tA›:,
mPS-, mÈS-) /muS'ta››/ mu∞taqq˘
Another feature –frequent in some colloquial pronunciations– tends to avoid
realizations like (Ä[:]) in whole (even long) words, if they have /t, d, †, Ã, ›, h, H, X,
º, r/: ('mÄH-Rab, 'maH-) /'mahrab/ mahrab˚ ('tAlÄb, -lab) /'talab/ =alab˚ ('tÄmdI,
'tam-) /'tamdi:/ tamƒii˚ (mÄn'†u:b, man-) /man'†u:b/ man«uub˘
≈nally, û 9.2 also shows the rounded realization of /a[:]/ between /t, d, †, Ã, ›/,
which is more typical of çKoranicÇ pronunciation, as already said. Scattered ex-
amples of it can be found here and there, and in § 9.1.3.
9.1.5. Actually, not every single realization given in û 9.2-3 is necessary for a
good neutral pronunciation of Arabic. Nevertheless, if they are rationed and used
in a natural way (speaking fluently), they help to give greater çspontaneityÇ, simi-
lar to natives' speech again within a kind of colloquial neutral pronunciation. ˛is
will depend on words themselves – for instance, (Ø[:]) is more likely to occur in
çloftyÇ words.
Furthermore, still within the neutral accent (but slightly more çinternationalÇ),
there is another possibility taking a di‡erent approach, ¤ towards a reduction in
the number of vowel taxophones, as regards the realizations of /a[:]/. In fact, they
may reduce to two articulations, in stressed or unstressed syllables: (Ä[:]), for 2.3-
7, and (A[:]), for 2.1-3; thus with a slight overlapping for 2.3, variably resolved by
single speakers.
˛e vocalic realizations belonging to this kind of çinternationalÇ pronunciation
are shown in û 9.4. ˛is çclearerÇ pronunciation generally uses: (i[:], ¤[:]÷ Ä[:], A[:]÷
U[:]) (it may also have (™:, ø:) for /ai, au/), but not necessarily (Ù, ‘, P) (and least of
all (È)), seen in § 9.1.4.
˛e systematic and complete shortening of unstressed long vowels belongs to
çmodernÇ and çinternationalÇ pronunciation (and to dialects as well, generally).
However, in çKoranicÇ pronunciation, /’é:/ (appearing in phonemic transcrip-
tions) are realized as half-long, (’é;). It is not di‚cult to achieve them, if we consid-
er both types of transcription used in this chapter: (›¢'›A:n, ›¢;-) /›i:'›a:n/ qiiqaan˚
('†I:ni, -ni;) /'†i:ni:/ «iinii˚ ('HÄ:∑a, -∑a;) /'ha:∑a:/ haaÉaa˚ ('Huna, -na;) /'huna:/ hu-
naa…
û 9.4. International vowels.
/i/ (i, ¤), /i:/ (i:, ¤:) /u/ (U), /u:/ (U:)
{/ai/ (™:)} {/au/ (ø:)}
/a/ (Ä, A), /a:/ (Ä:, A:)

Geographic variants
9.1.6. Among the main variations and deviations from the neutral form (Ô §
9.1.3), in certain areas, we find that /a:/ never has the (Ä:) timbre, in any context
(as often happens in Iraq and northern Lebanon). Furthermore, in an almost gen-
eral way, in several colloquial variants, the diphthongs /ai, au/ reduce to (e:, ™I÷ o:,
øU) (Ô û 9.2), from Maghreb to the Persian Gulf, except in the Levant. However,
the diphthongs are kept, generally, when they are in absolute final position or fol-
lowed by /j, w/: ('bÄIt, 'b™It, 'be:t) /'bait/ bait˚ ('lÄUn, 'løUn, 'lo:n) /'laun/ laun˚ ('HaIn,
'H™In, 'He:n) /'Hain/ ‘ain÷ ('sÄijId, 'sÄjjId) /'sajjid/ sayyid˚ (mu'SÄuw¢›, -Äww-) /mu'Saw-
wi›/ mu∞awwiq˚ ('nÄi, 'nÄj:, -J:) /'nai/ nayy˚ ('lÄu, 'lÄw, 'lÄ)) /'lau/ law˘
Especially in Maghreb, besides (unstressed) /’i, ’u/, even /’a/ may be dropped (with
possible consequent stress shifts): ('öÄnta, ó'tÄ, n'tÄ) /'öanta/ anta˚ ('›AlÄm, '›Alm)
/'›alam/ qalam˚ (li'sÄ:n, Í'sÄ:n) /li'sa:n/ lisaan˚ (sÄ'lÄ:m, s'lÄ:m) /sa'la:m/ salaam˘
Consonants
9.2.0. û 9.5 gives the articulations of modern neutral Arabic. ˛e main geo-
graphical variants of some phonemes are given in round brackets.
û 1.9-15, instead, show –gathered in groups according to manners of articula-
tion– the orograms of all contoids treated in the chapters of this book, even as sec-
ondary, occasional, or regional, variants for the 12 languages dealt with.
û 9.5. Table of Arabic consonants.
uvularized alveolar
postalveo-palalatal
uvularized dental
postalveopalatal
velar rounded
protruded
pharyngeal
labiodental
laryngeal
alveolar
bilabial
palatal
uvular
dental
velar
ö m (M) (˙) n (~) (˙) (,)

F pb t d td k {(g)} ö
Ô {(G)} {(›)}
ƒ f †∑ {(D)} h
_ s z †Ã S Z
ß j w H (h) H
ó 5|(R)
˘ º˜
‹ (l) l {ı} (¬)
/Ã/ (Ã, {D}), /Z/ (Z, {G}), /h/ (h, H), /r/ (5, R), /X, º/ (º, ˜)
Nasals
9.2.1. ˛ere are two nasal phonemes, /m, n/ (m, M, n, ~, ˙, ,): (mu'mÄ††Äl)
/mu'ma††al/ muma≠≠al˚ (tÄm'Zi:d, -'Gi:d) /tam'Zi:d/ tamìid˚ ('SÄms) /'Sams/ ∞ams˚
9. arabic 321
('ma5-jÄm) /'marjam/ Maryam˚ (mU'hammÄd) /mu'hammad/ Mu∆ammad˚ ('nIm-

nIm) /'nimnim/ nimnim˚ ('Han-wÄ) /'Hanwa[h]/ ‘anwa-h˚ ('ZÄmb, 'G-) /'Zanb/ ànb˚
(mIm'bÄ:b) /min'ba:b/ min baab˚ ('öÄMf) /'öanf/ anf˚ ('wI~S) /'winS/ win∞˚ ('∑Ä˙k)
/'∑ank/ Éank˚ ('ºA,›) /'Xan›/ Æanq˚ (m¢,'›u:wa) /min'›u:wa/ min quuwa˘ How-
ever, the çKoranicÇ pronunciation tends to avoid assimilating /n/ to the following
C\ ('GÄnb, mIn'bÄ:b, 'öÄnf, 'wInS, '∑Änk, 'ºan›, mIn'›u:wa).
Stops
9.2.2.1. Arabic has no ç/p/Ç, but only /b/, which however is realized as (p) when
followed by voiceless C\ ('bÄ:b) /'ba:b/ baab˚ ('lÄbÄn) /'laban/ laban˚ ('haps) /'habs/
∆abs˘ On the other hand, neutral Arabic has no ç/g/Ç, either; while it has two voice-
less stops, velar and uvular, /k, ›/ (k, ›) (in phonemic opposition): ('k[h]Uskusu,
kUs'k[h]usu) /'kus“kusu/ kuskusu˚ (mIk'†a:5) /mik'†a:r/ mik≠aar˚ ('mÄlIk) /'malik/
malik˚ (›A'di:m) /›a'di:m/ qadiim˚ (öA›'dÄ:m) /a›'da:m/ aqdaam˚ ('sU:›) /'su:›/ su-
uq˚ (&öAı›UR'öÄ:n) /al›ur'öa:n/ al-Qur'aan˚ (sA›'›å:tA÷ -'›Ø:-) /sa›'›a:ta[h]/ saqqaa=a-h˘
(›) enjoys great prestige, even among speakers who do not use it, although very
frequently it is substituted by other articulations (as will be seen in § 9.2.7). Note:
('kÄlb) /'kalb/ kalb çdogÇ and ('›Alb) /'›alb/ qalb çheartÇ.
Furthermore, we have the diphonic pairs /t, d/ (t, d) and /t, d/ (t, d) (uvular-
ized), which is quite peculiar. ˛ey are dental; and /t/ may be a little çaspiratedÇ,
when at the beginning of a stressed syllable (but we will mark it only here). Often,
/t, d/ are denti-alveolar if final before a pause (but it is not necessary to use ((4, 7))):
(tÄ'dÄ:wUl) /ta'da:wul/ tadaawul˚ (Si't[h]Ä:ö) /Si'ta:ö/ ∞itaa'˚ ('had:) /'hadd/ ∆add˚ (bA-
'tå:t¢s÷ -'tØ:-) /ba'ta:tis/ ba=aa=is˚ ('dA5t, 'då5t÷ 'dØ5t) /'dart/ ƒar=˚ ('dAZIR, -GIR) /'da-
Zir/ ƒaìr˘
Although neutral Arabic has no (g), this sound is frequent in di‡erent dialects,
as a variant of other phonemes, mainly of /Z/ and /›/. ˛erefore, it is natural that
the isolated phonemes may currently be brought to normalization, by changing
their articulations, in order to form a more homogeneous and coherent system. E-
ven the shift of /Z/ to (Z) (instead of the more çKoranicÇ –and ancient– (G)), or to
(g), is a part of this trend.
9.2.2.2. ˛e last neutral Arabic stop is /ö/ (ö), which may occur in every posi-
tion, as the other C do, and may be geminated as well. In word-initial position, it
automatically occurs when no other C is present: (öÄ'mi:n) /öa'mi:n/ amiin˚ ('sÄ:-
öIh) /'sa:öih/ saa'i∆˚ ('mÄ:ö) /'ma:ö/ maa'˚ ('zÄnnÄö) /'zannaö/ zanna'˚ (&RuöÄ'sÄ:ö) /ru-
öa'sa:ö/ ru'asaa'˚ (öÄl'öÄ:n) /öal'öa:n/ al-aan˚ ('5aös) /'raös/ ra's˚ ('bÄdö) /'badö/ bad'˚
(sÄö'öÄ:l) /saö'öa:l/ sa''aal˘
˛erefore, in Arabic, any word traditionally beginning with a V (¤ vowel), pho-
nically, begins with /ö/ (ö), because in this language all phono-syllables begin with
a C\ ('öÄb) /'öab/ ab˚ (öi'dÄ:nÄ) /öi'da:na[h]/ idaana-h˚ ('öUm:) /'öumm/ umm˘ On the
other hand, Arabic does not tolerate syllables beginning with more than one C (ex-
cept rare cases of loanwords not adapted to Arabic phonology). Consequently, in
actual pronunciation, a short V is prefixed; generally, it is /i/ (but, sometimes, /u,
a/, in accordance with the following V]˚ and /a/ in neutral pronunciation, for the
article – while, in the dialects, we more often find (™, I)); of course, in isolated
forms, /ö/ is prefixed as well.
However, when words with CC- (¤ with an initial consonant cluster) occur –in
connected speech– after a word ending in a V˚ it is not necessary to add the V (nor
/ö/), therefore the two words are linked. If, instead, the preceding word ends in a
C˚ then the V is added, but /ö/ is not. ˛e reader is referred to grammars, where this
phenomenon (called wa«la) is generally treated quite widely. It is to be found in
connection with the article, certain verbal forms, the imperative and a dozen
nouns. Among these, the most important are: ('öIbn, -bó, -b¢n) /'öibn/ ibn˚ ('öImRUö)
/'öimruö/ imru'˚ ('öIsm, -sõ, -s¢m) /'öism/ ism˚ (öI†'nÄ:ni) /öi†'na:ni/ i≠naani\ (Ra'öÄi-
tUb 'ni:) /ra'öaitu b'ni:/ ra'aitu bnii˚ ('bÄ:bUl 'bÄIt) /'ba:bu l'bait[i]/ baabu al-baiti˘
Constrictives
9.2.3. Among the phonemes belonging to this articulation manner, we find /f/
(f) (but not the corresponding voiced phoneme): (fa'5i:d) /fa'ri:d/ fariid˚ (öIf'sÄ:d)
/öif'sa:d/ ifsaad˘ In addition, there are two diphonic pairs, which pose no problems,
/†, ∑÷ s, z/ (†, ∑÷ s, z): (†Ä'lÄ:†) /†a'la:†/ ≠alaa≠˚ ('mÄ∑IR) /'ma∑ir/ maÉir˚ ('∑Äm:)
/'∑amm/ Éamm˚ ('da5s) /'dars/ dars˚ ('za:5) /'za:r/ zaar˚ ('kÄnz) /'kanz/ kanz˘
However, there are two more diphonic pairs, with variations that may pose
some phonemic dilemmas; they are /†, Ã/ (†÷ Ã/D) and /S, Z/ (S÷ Z/G). We prefer (Ã,
Z) for their voiced members, as they are more modern and more integrated in the
phonologic system than their more çKoranicÇ variants (D, G), which are consid-
ered more prestigious (even by those who do not use them), but have di‡erent
place or manner of articulation. ˛erefore, they complicate the phonemic system.
However, they can be used – especially in a kind of pronunciation which aims at
the traditional more than at the international accent: (mah'ÃU:Ã, -DU:D) /mah'Ãu:Ã/
ma∆„uu„˚ ('ÃA:mIö, 'D-) /'Ãa:miö/ „aami'÷ ('†UR†UR, †UR'†u:R) /'†ur†ur, †ur'†u:r/ «ur-
«u(u)r˚ (Ra'ºI:†) /ra'Xi:†/ raÆii«÷ (öIS'hÄ:d) /öiS'ha:d/ i∞haad˚ (öÄS'jÄ:ö) /öaS'ja:ö/ a∞yaa'˚
(mu'SÄuwÄS, -ÄwwÄS) /mu'SawwaS/ mu∞awwa∞˚ (öÄ'SÄd:) /öa'Sadd/ a∞add˚ (RaS'SÄ:S)
/raS'Sa:S/ ra∞∞aa∞˚ (öÄS'SaRu) /öaS'Sarw/ a∞∞arw˚ (ZÄ'mi:l, GÄ-) /Za'mi:l/ àmiil˚ ('öÄZmaH,
'öÄG-) /'öaZmaH/ a`ma‘˚ ('tÄ:Z, -G) /'ta:Z/ taa`˘
In the pharyngeal place of articulation, we find the voiceless constrictive /h/ (h)
(currently, the çcorrespondingÇ voiced sound is considered to be constrictive as well,
but in neutral pronunciation, it is clearly an approximant, /H/ (H), as we will see be-
low, § 9.2.4): ('hUbbi) /'hubbi:/ ∆ubbii˚ (mah'tu:m) /mah'tu:m/ ma∆tuum˚ (mU'hAd-
d¢R) /mu'haddir/ mu∆aƒƒir˚ ('faRIh) /'farih/ fari∆˚ (fah'ha:S) /fah'ha:S/ fa∆∆aa∞˘
Arabic also has a diphonic pair of uvular constrictive trills, (º, ˜) (as will be
seen), which phonemically may be represented with the o‚cial symbols /X, º/.
Approximants
9.2.4.1. Let us first consider the least peculiar ones (although there are rather
free occurrences), /j, w/ (j, w), even realized as (i, u), for /0jò, 0wò/ (and, possibly,
9. arabic 323
for /òj0, òw0/, in colloquial variants, as no doubt in the dialects) and (ij/jj,
uw/ww), for /éjjé, éwwé/): ('jÄ:wIR) /'ja:wir/ yaawir˚ (wA'†I:jÄ) /wa'†i:ja[h]/ wa«ii-
ya-h˚ (wU'†u:l) /wu'†u:l/ wu«uul˚ ('sÄijId, 'sÄjjId) /'sajjid/ sayyid˚ (nÄu'wÄ:m, nÄw'w-)
/naw'wa:m/ nawwaam˚ ('nÄi) /'najj/ nayy˚ (mÄn'Hi:) /man'hi:/ manhiyy˚ ('öÄbu)
/'öabw/ abw (Ô ('öÄbu) /'öabu/ abu).
˛e çKoranicÇ pronunciation prefers (-jj-, -ww-), as in the cases seen above. Let
us also consider these further examples, which show us the di‡erences between
modern pronunciation and traditional çKoranicÇ pronunciation. In principle,
they coincide even with the most important cases where, even in colloquial accents
and dialects, /ai, au/ do not change into monophthongs ((™:, ø:)).
˛is happens when they are in absolute final position, and when in front of /j,
w/ or after /i:, u:/, respectively, or when final, after C˚ as the following examples
will show: ('kÄi, 'kÄj, -J) /'kai/ kay (Ô ('kÄij, 'kÄj:, -J:) /'kaij/ kayy), ('lÄijÄn, 'lÄjjÄn)
/'lajjan/ layyan˚ (jÄu'mi:jÄ, -JÄ) /jau'mi:ja[h]/ yaumiiya-h˚ ('Humi, 'Humj, -mJ) /'Humj/
‘umy˚ ('lÄu, 'lÄw, 'lÄ)) /'lau/ law˚ ('dÄuwaR, 'dÄww-) /'dawwar/ dawwar˚ (Ha'du:wÄ,
-u:)Ä) /Ha'du:wa[h]/ ‘aduuwa-h˚ ('sÄHu, 'sÄHw, -H)) /'sahw/ sahw˚ ('Hafu, 'Hafw, -f‹,
-fä) /'Hafw/ ‘afw˘
9.2.4.2. As we have said above (§ 9.2.3), the Arabic phoneme /H/ (H) is an ap-
proximant (and generally it is laryngealized as well, ((ó)), which is fairly easy to de-
tect by its lower intrinsic tonality and creaky voice): ('HaIn) /'Hain/ ‘ain˚ ('maHa)
/'maHa/ ma‘a˚ ('baHda) /'baHda/ ba‘da˚ ('naHnaH, naH'na:H) /'naHnaH, naH'na:H/ na‘na(a)‘˚
(&faHHa'li:jÄ) /faHHa:'li:ja[h]/ fa‘‘aaliiya-h˚ ('sÄlH) /'salH/ sal‘˘ It is occasionally possible
to hear some peculiar regional –non-neutral– variants, as that with a slight simul-
taneous laryngeal stop, (?), or else a pharyngealized laryngeal stop, (ö), ™:
('na?na?, na?'na:?, 'nAönAö, nAö'nA:ö).
˛e last Arabic approximant is a true laryngeal phone, /h/ (H, h), and has a very
free occurrence; it is typically (lenis) voiced (H), but it becomes (lenis) voiceless,
when near a pause, or a voiceless C˚ or when geminate: (&öItti'ZÄ:h, -G-) /öitti'Za:h/
ittiàah˚ ('mUhtaR) /'muhtar/ muhtar˚ ('hÄ:∑iHi) /'ha:∑ihi:/ haaÉihii˚ (mÄH'bu:l)
/mah'bu:l/ mahbuul˚ (&öInHi'zÄ:m) /öinhi'za:m/ inhizaam˚ (hÄf'nÄ:f) /haf'na:f/ haf-
naaf˚ ('hija) /'hija/ hiya˚ ('ka5h) /'karh/ karh˚ ('bIh) /'bih/ bih˚ ('›AH-wÄ) /'›ahwa[h]/
qahwa-h˚ (wÄh'hÄ:Z, -G) /wah'ha:Z/ wahhaa`˘
In our transliteration, taa' marbuu=a is indicated by a hyphen, -a-h (while anoth-
er –only seemingly more recommendable and less complicated– solution could be
-a–); it is pronounced (Ä, Äh) /a[h]/ (but (a, A), if preceded by C which are capable
of modifying timbres). It is to be noted that a realization with (h) represents a very
careful, çKoranicÇ pronunciation, while the normal realization of -aò is (a): ('hÄz-
zÄ) /'hazza[h]/ hazza-h (çmovementÇ) but: ('hÄzza) /'hazza/ hazza (ç(he) shookÇ).
Trills
9.2.5. Typically the voiced alveolar /r/ is realized as a velarized trill, (5), general-
ly, in stressed syllable, and as a tap, (R), in unstressed syllables. ˛ey influence the
timbre of /a/ (a): ('5Ip›) /'rib›/ ribq˚ (maR'bu:H) /mar'bu:H/ marbuu‘˚ ('maRIh) /'mar-
ih/ mari∆˚ (mIR'5i:h) /mir'ri:h/ mirrii∆˚ (mi'5a:h) /mi'ra:h/ miraa∆˚ ('fU5fUR, fUR'fu:5)
/'furfur, fur'fu:r/ furfu(u)r˘ It is possible to hear (¸), mainly for final /r/, but this pro-
nunciation is not recommendable.
As already said above (§ 9.2.4), Arabic has a diphonic pair of uvular constrictive
trills, /X, º/ (º, ˜): (baº'Si:S) /baX'Si:S/ baÆ∞ii∞˚ ('ºaUº) /'XauX/ ÆauÆ˚ (faº'ºa:Ri) /faX-
'Xa:ri:/ faÆÆaarii˚ ('ãdÄn) /'ºadan/ ‚adan˚ (†A'˜i:R) /†a'ºi:r/ «a‚iir˚ ('bÄ:lI˜) /'ba:liº/
baali‚˚ (mÄS'˜u:l) /maS'ºu:l/ ma∞‚uul˚ (tÄ'wa˜˜Ul) /ta'waººul/ tawa‚‚ul˘
Laterals
9.2.6. ˛ere is one lateral phoneme, /l/ (l, ¬, ı) (the third taxophone occurs in
contact with /t, d, †, Ã, ›/; it occurs as a phonostyleme (¤ a stylistic phoneme),
too, in Allaah and derivatives (provided that it is not preceded by /i/): (&mutÄ'lÄö-
lIö) /muta'laöliö/ mutala'li'˚ (tÄl'bi:s) /tal'bi:s/ talbiis˚ ('lÄIl) /'lail/ lail˚ (mÄ¬'jÄ:n)
/mal'ja:n/ malyaan˚ (zÄl'lA:›A) /zal'la:›a[h]/ zallaaqa-h˚ (tAı'›I:h) /tal'›i:h/ talqii∆˚
(&bIsmIl'lÄ:h) /bismil'la:h/ bismillaah˚ (öAı'ıA:h) /öal'la:h/ Allaah˘ For the typical
complete assimilation of /l/ in the article al˚ see below (§ 9.3.1.1).
Geographic variants
9.2.7. Very often, /†, ∑/ are pronounced like /t, d/, mainly in big cities in North
Africa, or like /s, z/ as well, particularly in the Middle East. In each one of these
cases a phonemic distinction is lost. In Iraq, /Ã/ is (D), as in traditional and çKo-
ranicÇ pronunciations; elsewhere it is often realized as (Ã), as in Egypt and Syria,
but it may even be confused with /t, d/, above all in Maghreb.
˛e grapheme ìim˚ /Z/ (Z), has very many geographical, social, and religious,
variants. ˛e normal (Z) prevails in the Middle East and in North Africa, while
(G) (typical of Koranic reading) is used in Jordan, Saudi Arabia (typical of Bedou-
ins) and Iraq. But in some areas, as in Egypt (Cairo), Sudan and Oman, we find
(g); elsewhere, even (›), as in Luxor (southern Egypt), and (J).
For instance, /'Za:b/ àab is ('ZÄ:b) in the Levant (Lebanon, Palestine, and Syria)
and in Africa (except Egypt and Sudan, as we have just said); it is ('GÄ:b) in Arabia,
the Persian Gulf, Jordan, Iraq and among the rural and the nomadic peoples in
Morocco.
˛e grapheme qaaf˚ /›/ (›), very often becomes (ö), above all in Cairo and oth-
er big cities; but it becomes (H, k) as well, or even (g), particularly in central-south-
ern Egypt, in rural areas of Morocco, and among Saudi Arabia Bedouins (who of-
ten, typically, change /k/ into (c)). For instance, /'›alb/ qalb may be: ('›Alb÷ 'öÄlb,
'Halb, 'kÄlb, 'gÄlb).
In the Levant, /òö/ is generally quite weak, therefore we could transcribe it as (,)
(instead of (ö)). In Maghreb, /ö/ may not even be present at all.
9. arabic 325
Structures
9.3.0. Here we will deal with assimilation, quantity, and some typical reduc-
tions of colloquial speech, still within neutral pronunciation (although with geo-
graphical variants).
Taxophonics
9.3.1.1. ˛e definite article, (öÄl) /öal/ al˚ obligatorily assimilates completely to

all apical or laminal C following it. ˛erefore, in such cases we may say that the ar-
ticle is /a0/ with a following homorganic /0/ – ¤ something like ç/a*/Ç, as in the
neutral-Italian pronunciation phenomenon called co-gemination. ©th /Z/, assimi-
lation takes place if it is pronounced (Z), but there is no change if it is pronounced
(G), or (g), Â: (öÄS'SÄms) /öal'Sams/ al-∞ams˚ (öaR'5A›†, -5å›†) /öal'ra›†/ al-raq«˚ (öÄt-
'tutUn) /öal'tutun/ al-tutun˚ (öÄz'zÄlÄl) /öaz'zalal/ al-zalal˚ (öAd'd¢:›) /öad'di:›/ al-
-ƒiiq˚ (öÄZ'ZÄmÄl, öÄ¬'GÄ-÷ öÄl'gÄ-) /öal'Zamal/ al-àmal˚ (öÄl'kUSk) /öal'kuSk/ al-ku∞k˚
(öÄl'bahR, -ah{) /öal'bahr/ al-ba∆r˚ (öÄl'wÄlÄd) /öal'walad/ al-walad˘
Even voicing assimilations are quite common indeed, therefore a voiced final C
may become voiceless, or devoiced, mainly after voiceless C÷ while voiceless C may
become fully (or partially) voiced, between voiced phones. Besides, many cases of
assimilation (regarding place or manner of articulation) are possible, even accom-
panied by the dropping of some phones: (›As'sÄmIHa) /›ad'samiHa/ qad sami‘a˚
('lÄm 'juRIS 'SÄiöÄn) /'lam 'jurid 'Saiöan / lam yurid ∞ai'an˚ ('öIbHa∑ '∑Ä:lika) /'öIbHa†
'∑a:lika/ ib‘a≠ Éaalika˚ ('HUttu) /'Hu∑tu/ ‘uÉtu˚ ('öIhfaZ 'Za:Raka, -G 'G-) /'öihfaÃ 'Za:ra-
ka/ i∆fa„ àaraka˘
In Arabic both vowel and consonant quantities are distinctive. Consonant quan-
tity is shown by gemination ((00)) between V˚ but by lengthening ((0:)) else-
where: ('öÄb) /'öab/ ab˚ ('öÄ:b) /'öa:b/ aab˚ (ZÄ'mÄ:l, G-) /Za'ma:l/ àmaal˚ (ZÄm'mÄ:l,
'G-) /Zam'ma:l/ àmmaal˚ ('öUm:) /'öumm/ umm˚ ('›AtÄla) /'›atala/ qatala˚ ('›A:tÄla)
/'›a:tala/ qaatala˚ ('›AttÄla) /'›attala/ qattala˘
Unstressed /é:/ are (é;) only in the çKoranicÇ kind of pronunciation, since they
are generally shortened, (é) (Ô § 9.1.5).
9.3.1.2. In colloquial speech, unstressed /i, u/ tend to drop whenever this does
not form three-C clusters. On the other hand, when in connected speech two
word-final C are followed by a word-initial C˚ then a short V˚ generally /i/, is insert-
ed to divide the cluster. In certain cases, the added V may even bear stress; and
sometimes a V inserted in a certain place may cause –or allow– the dropping of
another short V˘
Furthermore, long V tend to shorten a little in checked syllables (but less than
in unstressed syllables); and short final V in polysyllables tend to drop (above all
grammemes, and /énò/ as well, except for accusative /anò/, which may become
/a:ò/, in any position, even non-pausal). Verbs and pronouns are more likely to
maintain the V˚ since endings have distinctive and pragmatic values.
Let us see some examples: ('hÄ:∑Ä ki'tÄ:b, 'hÄ:∑Äk 'tÄ:b) /'ha:∑a: ki'ta:b[un]/ haa-
Éaa kitaabun˚ (öÄl'hIb-RU 'tAijIb, 'tAjjIb) /öal'hibru 'tajjib[un]/ al-∆ibru =ayyibun˚ (kÄ-
'tÄptu&biHi, -tUb&Hi) /ka'tabtu 'bihi/ katabtu bihi˚ ('kÄ:nÄ fIl'bÄIt) /'ka:na fi:albait[i]/
kaana fii al-baiti˚ (Ra'öÄitUl 'bÄIt) /ra'öaitu al'bait[a]/ ra'aitu al-baita˚ (kÄ'tÄpt) /ka-
'tabt[u]/ katabtu˚ (&sÄkÄ'ki:n) /saka:'ki:n/ sakaakiin˘
9.3.1.3. As far as çpausal formsÇ are concerned, let us take from Mitchell (1990)
some examples (which we will transcribe again appropriately), keeping in mind
that this is an çorthologicalÇ phenomenon people use to pronounce words in into-
nemes, including preceding words, semantically and syntactically linked (to the
exclusion of grammemes).
˛is category includes final short V (with or without infinitive -n) – ('kÄtÄb)
/'katab[a]/ kataba˚ ('jÄktUb) /'jaktub[u]/ yaktubu˚ ('liöÄ~ 'jÄktUb) /'liöan 'jaktub[a]/
li'an yaktuba˚ (&fimÄ'da:RIs) /fi:ma'da:ris[a]/ fii madaarisa˚ (fIl'bÄIt) /fi:l'bait[i]/ fii al-
-baiti÷ ('bÄIt) /'bait[un]/ baitun˚ (fi'bÄIt) /fi:'bait[in]/ fii baitin˚ ('mUn∑u 'zÄmÄnI˙
wÄ'Zi:z, -'Gi:z) /'mun∑u 'zamanin wa'Zi:z[in]/ munÉu zamanin waìizin˘ However,
(accusative) -an /an/ may be substituted by /a:/: (öaH'tA:HU HIS'5i:nÄ di'na:Ra) /öaH'ta:-
hu HiS'ri:na di:'na:ra:/ a‘=aahu ‘i∞riina dinaaran˚ except for adverbs like: ('ha:lÄn)
/'ha:lan/ ∆aalan˚ ('öÄ¢dAn) /'öaidan/ aiƒan˘
Lastly, taa' marbuu=a [¤ -atin˚ -atan˚ -atun] is substituted by /a[h]/, which is
generally pronounced (Ä) (or (Äh) in a {more} çKoranicÇ style): (ZÄ'mi:lÄ)
/Za'mi:la[h]/ àmiila-h ((ZÄ'mi:lÄtUn, &ZÄmi'lÄtUn, %G-) /Za'mi:“latun/ àmiilatun]˚
('fÄtahat mÄ'da:RisÄ lÄi'li:jÄ, &mÄda'5isÄ) /'fÄtahat ma'da:“risa lai'li:ja[h]/ fata∆at
madaarisa lailiiya-h ((lÄi'li:jÄtÄn, &lÄili'jÄtÄn) /lai'li:“jatan/ lailiiyatan]˚ (&fIlZu'nÄinÄ,
-Gu-) /fi:lZu'naina[h]/ fii al-ùnaina-h ((Zu'nÄinÄ&ti, &ZunÄi'nÄti, %G-) /Zu'nai“nati/
ùnainati]˘
9.3.1.4. Colloquially, very often /ö/ is not maintained when it occurs within
words or at the end of words – it is dropped or changed into /j, w/, or else it
lengthens a possible preceding V\ ('miöÄ, 'miÄ, 'mijÄ, 'mi:Ä) /'miöa[h]/ mi'a-h˚ ('jÄö-
ºu∑u, 'ja:ºu∑u, ja'ºu∑u) /'jaöXu∑u, jaö'Xu∑u/ ya'ÆuÉu˚ ('5aös, '5a:s) /'raös/ ra's˚ (sÄ-
'mÄ:ö, sÄ'mÄ:) /sa'ma:ö/ samaa'˘ ‹en two hamzas occur in contiguous syllables,
the first one is maintained: ('ZÄ:öÄ &[ö]ÄZÄ'luHUm, '[ö]ÄZÄ&luHUm, [ö]Ä'ZÄlHUm, 'GÄ:öÄ,
-ÄGÄ-) /'Za:öa öaZa'luhum, 'öaZaluhum/ àa'a aàluhum˘
In /0j, 0w, 0r, 0l/ sequences, Arabic syllabification is heterosyllabic, /0˘j, 0˘w,
0˘r, 0˘l/: (mIt'5a:s) /mit'ra:s/ mitraas˚ ('öÄtlÄfa, öÄt'lÄfa) /'öat“lafa/ atlafa˚ ('mÄdRasÄ,
mÄd'Ra-) /'mad“rasa[h]/ madrasa-h˚ ('öÄd-la) /'öadla/ adla˚ ('ma5-jÄm) /'marjam/ Mar-
yam˚ ('mUsRIH) /'musriH/ musri‘˚ (mIs'wÄ:k) /mis'wa:k/ miswaak˚ ('mÄS-wi) /'maSwi/
ma∞wi˚ ('öÄfRaza, öÄf'Raza) /'öaf“raza/ afraza˚ ('mÄk-wa) /'makwa/ makwa˚ ('öÄ¬-jÄn)
/'öaljan/ alyan˚ ('öÄH-wa) /'öahwa/ ahwa˘
9.3.1.5. In final position, after C˚ the sonants (/m, n, r, l/) may be realized in
di‡erent ways, according to how accurately one speaks. From a phonemic point
of view, they are just C˚ but –phonetically– they may be plain (or devoiced, main-
ly in front of a voiceless C]˚ or intense (çsyllabicÇ), or even with a short epenthet-
9. arabic 327
ic V (like (I, ¢)): ('›¢s≈, -sõ, -s¢m) /'›ism/ qism˚ ('lÄdn, -dó, -d¢n) /'ladn/ ladn˚ ('fÄtn,
-tó, -t¢n) /'fatn/ fatn˚ ('dUHn, -hn, -Hó, -H¢n) /'duhn/ duhn˚ ('bÄdR, -d{, -d¢R) /'badr/
badr˚ ('m¢†R, -†á, -†{) /'mi†r/ Mi«r˚ ('fÄtú, -tÍ, -t¢l) /'fatl/ fatl˚ ('5AtÓ, -t–, -t¢l) /'ratl/ ra=l˘
9.3.1.6. Here are some examples of typical Arabic phonotactics: (taö'bi:n) /taö-
'bi:n/ ta'biin˚ (mÄö'†u:R) /maö'†u:r/ ma'≠uur˚ ('mÄtHUb) /'matHu:b/ mat‘uub˚ ('öÄ†-
›Al) /'öa†›al/ a≠qal˚ ('mÄdºal) /'madXal/ madÆal˚ (mÄ∑'Hu:R) /ma∑'Hu:r/ maÉ‘uur˚
('tÄzHu) /'tazhu/ tazhu˚ ('mÄsZId, -GId) /'masZid/ masìd˚ ('mÄSta) /'maSta/ ma∞ta˚
(mÄS'˜u:l) /maS'ºu:l/ ma∞‚uul˚ ('mA†5aH) /'ma†raH/ ma«ra‘˚ ('öAdZaHa, öAd'ZaHa) /'öad-
ZaHa/ aƒà‘a˚ ('öAdHafa, öAd'Hafa) /'öadHafa/ aƒ‘afa˚ ('öAÃlÄma, öAÃ'lÄma, -D-) /'öaÃla-
ma/ a„lama˚ (maH'Zu:n, -Gu:n) /maH'Zu:n/ ma‘ùun˚ (maH'5u:f) /maH'ru:f/ ma‘ruuf˚
(öaH'mÄ:l) /öaH'ma:l/ a‘maal˚ (ma˜'Su:S) /maº'Su:S/ ma‚∞uu∞˚ ('mA›ha) /'ma›ha/ maq-
ha˚ (mÄl'öÄ:n) /mal'öa:n/ mal'aan˚ ('jÄiöÄsu, jÄi'öÄsu) /'jai“öasu/ yai'asu˚ ('öÄuHÄma,
öÄu'HÄma) /'öau“hama/ auhama˘
Stress
9.3.2.1. For words of two or more syllables, we have the patterns given below.
It should be kept in mind that ç/à/Ç stands for çlightÇ syllables (/0é/); ç/9/Ç for
çheavyÇ ones, ¤ consisting of çheavyÇ sequences like /é00, é:0, éé0/, which are
located counting from their syllabic nucleous onwards, up to the next (belonging
to another sequence). ˛erefore, in this kind of calculation, we do not consider
them to be true phono-syllables. In addition, ç/à/Ç indicates a light or heavy sylla-
ble –indi‡erently– with no direct influence on stress assignment. ˛e symbol ç/“/Ç
indicates alternative stressing, which is substitutive (certainly not simultaneous –
as a matter of fact, one is free to choose either stress pattern from sequences show-
ing both /'/ and /“/):
2 syll. /'àà, à'9, '9à/,
3 syll. /'ààà, àà'9, à'9à, '9“àà/,
4 syll. /“àà'àà, ààà'9, àà'9à, à'9“àà, “9'ààà/,
5 syll. /à“à'ààà, àààà'9, ààà'9à, àà'9“àà, à“9à'àà, 9“àà'àà/,
6 syll. /àà“àà'àà, ààààà'9, àààà'9à, ààà'9“àà, àà“9à'àà, à9“àà'àà, 9àà'ààà/.
˛ey function as a useful point of reference, for analyses and to find correspon-
dences; in fact, it would not be easy to try to memorize them.
9.3.2.2. ˛e solution to the formulae with variants, to read along columns, pro-
vides:
/'9àà, 9'àà/÷ /àà'ààà, à'àààà/, /àààà'àà, àà'àààà/,
/àà'àà, 'àààà/, /àà'9àà, àà9'àà/, /ààà'9àà, ààà9'àà/,
/à'9àà, à9'àà/, /à9à'àà, à'9ààà/, /àà9à'àà, àà'9ààà/,
/9'ààà, '9ààà/÷ /9àà'àà, 9'àààà/÷ /à9àà'àà, à9'àààà/.
In patterns with two possible stressings, the variants may be of two types: çEgyp-
tianÇ (Cairo), as: /'9“àà, à'9“àà, àà'9“àà, ààà'9“àà/; or çliteraryÇ (— dialectal, like
those of southern Egypt), with the following possibilities: /“àà'àà, “9à'àà/, /à“à'ààà,
à“9à'àà, 9“àà'àà/, /àà“àà'àà, àà“9à'àà, à9“àà'àà/.
For /à9“àà'àà/, we may find the patterns /à'9àààà/, /à9à'ààà/ as well (which
constitute çloftierÇ stressings, as can be seen in the story in § 9.4.2.1-2).
All the stress patterns we give belong to modern neutral pronunciation. ˛ere-
fore, one is free to choose, provided certain structural homogeneousness is main-
tained.
A dialectal peculiarity found in Lebanon (which should not be followed) puts
final stress on words ending in /é:ò, ééò/ (which, in neutral pronunciation, are not
çheavyÇ enough to bear the stress): ('mInHuma, mIn'Huma) (and (&mInHu'ma:))
/'min“huma:/ minhumaa˘
9.3.2.3. Prefixes do not influence the application of the stress rule, in di‡erent
actual words; nor does the article even when it assimilates completely. But the rule
is modified by the dropping of some (vocalic or consonantal) phones, because this
changes the syllabic structure, both within words and at their end, before a pause.
As far as secondary stress in polysyllabic words is concerned, it tends to occur
on alternate syllables, but preferring the heaviest ones, whenever possible.
Lastly, here are some examples: (Ra'su:l) /ra'su:l/ rasuul˚ (sÄ'fÄ~Z, -~G) /sa'fanZ/ sa-
fan`˚ (mu'5a:sIl) /mu'ra:sil/ muraasil˚ (ta'5assUl) /ta'rassul/ tarassul˚ ('HA:†¢mÄ, HA'†¢-)
/'Ha:“†ima[h]/ ‘aa«ima-h˚ (&mutÄ'fÄuw¢›, -Äww¢›) /muta'fawwi›/ mutafawwiq˚ (mu-
'fa:RA›A, &mufa'5A›A) /mu'fa:“ra›a[h]/ mufaaraqa-h˚ ('mÄd-Ra&sÄ, mÄd'5asÄ) /'mad-
“rasa[h]/ madrasa-h˚ ('daRa&ki) /'daraki:/ darakii˚ (&kÄtÄ'bÄHu, 'kÄtÄ&bÄHu) /“kata-
'bahu/ katabahu˚ (mUº'tÄli&fÄ, 'mUºtÄ&lifÄ) /“muX'talifa[h]/ muÆtalifa-h˚ (&öÄZÄ'lu-
HUm, 'öÄZÄ&luHUm, öÄ'ZÄlHUm, -GÄ-) /“öaZa'luhum, öa'Zalhum/ aàluhum˘
9.3.2.4. We give further useful examples (again completed and retranscribed

from Mitchell, 1990), both with çpausalÇ and çpre-pausalÇ forms (Ô § 9.3.1.3): ('5a-
mÄt) /'ramat/ ramat˚ (Ra'mÄthu) /ra'mathu/ ramathu˚ ('öahad) /'öahad/ a∆ad˚ (&öa-
ha'duHUm, 'öaha&duHUm) /“öaha'duhum/ a∆aduhum˚ ('SÄdda) /'Sadda/ ∞adda˚ ('SÄd-
dÄHu, SÄd'dÄ-) /'Sad“dahu/ ∞addahu˚ ('öa5dA) /'öarda:/ ardaa˚ (öa5'dA:Hu) /öar'da:hu/
ardaahu˚ (kÄ'tÄpti) /ka'tabti/ katabti˚ (kÄ'tÄptiHi, &kÄtÄp'tiHi) /ka'tab“tihi/ katabti-
hi˚ (öIs'taı›A) /öis'tal›a:/ istalqaa˚ (&öIstaı'›A:Hu) /öistal'›a:hu/ istalqaahu˚ ('kÄ:tÄ&ba,
kÄ'tÄba) /'ka:“taba:/ kaatabaa˚ (&kÄtÄ'bÄ:Hu) /ka:ta'ba:Hu/ kaatabaahu˚ (&kÄtÄ'bÄta,
'kÄtÄ&bÄta) /“kata'bata:/ katabataa˚ (&kÄtÄ'bÄtÄ:&Hu) /kataba'ta:hu/ katabataahu˚ (kÄ-
'tÄbÄ&ta, 'kÄ:tÄ&bÄta) /“ka:'tabata:/ kaatabataa˚ (&kÄtÄbÄ'tÄ:Hu, kÄ&tÄ-) /ka:taba'ta:hu/
kaatabataahu˚ (&SÄZa'5atUn, 'SÄZa&RatUn) /“SaZa'ratun/ ∞aàratun˘
Here are some more –longer– examples: (&öÄdwijÄ'tuHu, öÄd'wijÄ&tuHu) /ad“wija-
'tuhu/ adwiyatuhu˚ (mUR&tÄbi'tAtUn, mUR'tÄbi&tAtUn) /mur“tabi'tatUn/ murtabi=a-
tun˚ (&SÄZa'5atu&Hu, SÄ'ZaRa&tuHu) /Sa“Za'ratuhu/ ∞aàratuhu˚ (&SÄZa&Ratu'Huma, &SÄZa'5a-
tu&Huma) /SaZa“ratu'huma:/ ∞aàratuhumaa˚ (&öÄdwijÄ'tuHu&ma, öÄd'wi-) /öadwija'tu-
huma:/ adwiyatuhumaa˚ (mu&tÄZÄn'nibÄ&tUn, &mutÄ'ZÄnni&bÄtUn, -GÄ-) /muta“Zan-
'nibatun/ mutaànnibatun˚ (mu&tA›A'tilÄtUn, &mutA'›Ati&lÄtUn) /muta“›a:'tilatun/
mutaqaatilatun˘
9. arabic 329
Intonation
9.3.3. û 9.6 shows the preintonemes and intonemes of modern neutral Arabic.
˛e continuative intoneme is not very di‡erent from the suspensive one; there-
fore, generally, the pause which follows the suspensive type has greater duration.
˛e interrogative intoneme in the Levant is of the rising-falling type, /?/ (2 ' 1 2), in-
stead of that given here. It will be interesting to compare the tonograms (but also
the V and C] referring to the four geographic Arabic varieties (Ô § 9.1.1 – which
di‡er in grammar as well, but most of all in their vocabulary). We will merely give
some illustrative examples, for neutral intonation, to be used for comparisons:
/./: ('lÄ: 'öaHRIf mÄ&dinÄ'tÄkUm23) {(mÄ'di:nÄ&tÄkUm23)} /'la: 'öaHrif[u] ma“di:na'ta-
kum./ Laa a‘rifu madiinatakum.
/?/: (¿'hÄl öÄlki'tÄ:b ZÄ'di:d21) {(GÄ-)} /¿'hal öalki'ta:b[u] Za'di:d[un]?/ Hal al-kitaabu
àdiidun?
/÷/: ('jUmkIn &öÄnnA'›u:m bi'ZÄulÄ2 2) {(bi'GÄu-)} /'jumkin[u] öanna'›u:m[a] bi'Zau-
la[h]÷/ Yumkinu an naquuma bi-àulatin…
û 9.6. Arabic preintonemes and intonemes.
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3)
/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /?/ (2 ' 2 1)
/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /÷/ (2 ' 2 2)
/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /,/ (2 ' 2)
Text
9.4.0. ˛e story †e North Wind and the Sun follows. According to the Phonetic
method we start with the version in Arabic pronunciation of (neutral British) En-
glish (the written text is given in § 2.5.2.0). ˛e Arabic translation follows, in its
neutral version.
tion of Arabic, by neutral British speakers, fluent in Arabic (after prolonged con-
and suprasegmental elements which are typical of neutral British English (for refer-
ence purposes, although, of course, a neutral accent is not so common). Obviously,
the same principle is valid for the foreign pronunciations of English, given first.
Speakers of American English could prepare their own version both of the Ar-
abic pronunciation of English and of their pronunciation of Arabic, as an excel-
Arabic pronunciation (of English)
9.4.1. (då'nø5s 'wInd2 öåndå'sån2 w™5dIs'bjutI˙ 'wIS wåzzåst'5ø˙gå523| 'w™n öåt'5å-

fålå52 'k™:m öå'lø˙k2 ì'5åbt öinå'wø5m 'klø:k23œ| z™å'g5i:d2\ &dåtzå'wån Hu'f™5s såk'si:dId2
öIn'm™:kIn dåt'5åfålå52 't™:k hIsk'lø:k 'øf2 2| &SUdbikån'sidå5ds "t5ø˙gå5 &zåndi'åzå523||
'd™n2 då'nø;5s 'wInd2 'blu:2 öåz'Hå5d2 öåzHi'kUd23| &båtdå'mø5 HIb'lu:2 2| zå'mø5 'klø:sli2
&dIdzåt'5åfålå52\ 'fø:ld HIsk'lø:k å'5åUndHIm23| ì&öåndåt'lÄ{:}st2œ\ zå'nø5s 'wInd2 'g™:f 'öåb
diå't™mt23|| ì'd™n2œ då'sån 'Søn 'öÄUt23 ì'wø5mli23œ| &öåndi'mi:djåtli2\ ˚dåt'5åfålå5 'tUk 'öøf23
˚hIs'klø:k23|| ìöånd'sø:2œ zå'nø5s 'wInd2 wåzåb'låIZd tukåM'f™s2| &zåtdå'sån23 wøsdåst'5ø˙-
gå523 ì&öåfzå'tu:23œ||
¿&didju'låIk21 ¿dås'tø:5i2| ¿&duju'wøn tå'Hi5It öå'g™n21|||)
Arabic text
9.4.2. ˛is passage highlights the fact that the çmodern classicalÇ Arabic lan-
guage is a rather artificial concept. In fact, the currently unwritten short V have
very fluctuating realizations, due to both their presence or absence and to their
timbres (themselves) (/i, a, u/). As the number of recordings (of di‡erent speakers)
increases, the number of variations also increases (even for stressing and ortholo-
gy, ¤ the use of intonemes and pauses).
9.4.3. Kaanat rii∆u al-∞amaali tataàadalu wa al-∞amsu fii ayyin minhumaa kaa-

nat aqwaa min al-uÆraa, wa iÉ bi-musaafirin ya=la‘u mutala‚‘an bi-‘abaa'atin samii-
katin. Fa ittafaqataa ‘alaa i‘tibaari al-saabiqi fii i`baari al-musaafiri ‘alaa Æal‘i ‘a-
baa'atihi al-aqwaa.
‘a«afat rii∆u al-∞amaali bi-aq«aa maa ista=aa'at min quuwatin. Wa laakin kul-
lumaa izdaada al‘a«fu, izdaada al-musaafiru tada≠≠uran bi-‘abaa'atihi, ilaa an usqi=a
fii yadi al-rii∆ fataÆallat ‘an mu∆aawalatihaa. Ba‘da'iÉin sa=a‘ati al-∞amsu bi-dif'i-
haa, famaakaana min al-musaafiri illaa an Æala‘a ‘abaa'atahu ‘alaa al-tauu. Wa
hakaÉaa iƒ=arrat rii∆u al-∞amaali ilaa al-i‘tiraafi bi-anna al-∞amsa kaanat hiya
al-aqwaa.
Hal kaanat al-qi««atu àmiila? Hal turiidu an nuraddidahaa?
9.4.4. ('kÄ:nÄt2 '5i:hUS SÄ'mÄ:l[i]2 &tÄtÄ'ZÄ:dÄ&lu wÄS'SÄms[u]2 2| fi'öÄij[In] 'mInHu&ma2»|

'kÄ:nÄt 'öA›wa2 &mInöÄl'öuºRa23| wÄ'öI∑ bimu'sÄ:fIR[In]2| ì'jAtıAHU” &mutÄ'lÄffI&Ham2 &bI-
9. arabic 331
Ha'bÄ:öÄ[tIn] sÄ'mi:kÄ23œ|| 'fÄt tÄfA'›Ata2 2|’ 'HalaH ti'ba:RIs 'sÄ:b¢›[¢]2[ &fiöIZ'ba:RIl mu'sÄ:-
fIR[i]2| 'Hala 'ºalHI Ha&bÄöÄ'tiHIlÌ 'öA›-wa23||
'HA†AfÄt2 '5i:hUS SÄ'mÄ:l[i]|| bi'öA›†A 'mÄ: öIstA'tA:öÄt m¢,'›u:wa23|| wÄ'lÄ:kIn2 ì'kUllÄ-
mÄz• 'dÄ:dÄl 'HA†f[u]2 2œ|| öIz'dÄ:dÄl mu'sÄ:fIR[u] tÄ'dÄ††u&Ran2] &biHa'bÄ:öÄ&tIh2 2| ì'öilÄ
öÄn'öUs›¢&tA2Ô fi'jÄdIR '5i:h23œ|| &fÄta'ºallÄt 'Ham mU&hawÄlÄ'tiHa23||»Ò baH'dÄöi&∑In2|»» &sA-
tA'öÄtIS»” 'SÄmsu bi'dIföi&Ha2| &fÄmÄ'kÄ:nÄ mIn&öÄlmu'sÄ:fIR[i]2| 'öIllÄ öa,'ºala&Ha»’ Ha-
&bÄöÄ'tÄHu23»[ ì'HalÄt 'tÄu23œ|| 'wÄ 'HÄkÄ&∑Ä»Ì ö¢d'tA5Rat2 '5I:hUS SÄ'mÄ:l[i]2 2| 'öilÄl &öIHti'5a:-
f[i]2 bi'öÄnnÄS 'SÄms[Ä]2| 'kÄ:nÄt2 'hijÄl 'öA›-wa23||
¿'hÄl 'kÄ:nÄt öAı'›¢††Atu2 ¿ZÄ'mi:lÄ21|| ¿'hÄl tu'5i:d[u]2 'öÄn &nuRad'didÄ&Ha21|||)»•
» mIn'Huma2 — ” jAt'ıAHU — ’ 'tÄfA&›Ata2 2| — [ sÄ'b¢›¢2| — Ì Ha'bÄ:öÄ&tiHIl — •

kUl'lÄmÄz — ] &tÄdÄ†'†uRan2 —  bI&HabÄ'öÄtIh2 2| — Ô &öÄnöUs'›¢tA2 — »Ò mUha'wÄ-
lÄ&tiHa23||, mU'ha:wÄ&lÄti&Ha23||, mU&hawÄ'lÄti&Ha23|| — »» -öI∑2|, 'baHdÄ&öi∑In2|, -&öI∑2| — »”
'sAtA&öÄtIS — »’ 'öa,ºa&laHa — »[ Ha'bÄ:öÄ&tÄHu2 — »Ì HÄ'kÄ∑Ä — »• nu'5addidÄ&Ha21|||
English pronunciation of Arabic
9.4.5. ('khπnπ˛2 5>Iih¯uS SÈ'mπli2» &TπTÈ5GπDÈ&l¯u wπS'Sπms¯u32| fIi5aÙ¤m 'm¤nhÈ-

&mA;2|” 5khπnπT 'A;kwû2 &m¤nπı'¯uk>å3 3| wπö5¤∑ &bIimÈ'sπfÈ>¤n2| ì5jA;tlÈ&h¯u’ &m¯uTÈ-
'lπf¤håm2 &b¤hÈ5bπöÈT¤n sÈ'mIikå3 3œ|| 5fπT[ TÈfû'khA;Tå32| 5hålÈö T¤'bA;>¤s 'sπbûk[û]2Ì
&fIiG5bA;>¤ı mÈ'sπfÈ&>Ii2| 5hålû 'khåıhi hÈ&bπöÈ'ThIih¤ı 'A;kwå3 3||
'hA;sÈ&fπT2 '<Iih¯uS SÈ'mπli||• bi'A;ksÈ 'mA: ¤stÈ'ThA:T m¤˙'k¯uA;23|| wÈ'lπk¤n2 ì'kh¨lÈ-
mπz] 'DπDÈı 'hA;f¯u32œ|| ¤z'DπDÈı m¯u5sπfÈ&>¯u tÈ'Dπ†È&>ån2 &bIihÈ'bπöÈ&TIi32| ì5IilÈ πn-
'¯uskû&TA;2 fIi5πD¤È '>Iix3 3œ|| &fπTû5khπlÈT 'håm mÈ&hA;wûlÈ'ThIihå3 3|| båö'DaÙ&∑¤n2| &sA;-
TA;5πT¤S 'Sπms¯u bIi'D¤f¤hå2| &fπmû5khπnÈ m¤n&πımÈ'sπfÈ&>Ii2| 5¤ı lπ˙'khålÈhÈ A;&bπ-
öÈ'Thπh¯u3 3 ì5hålπT 'Tha;Ö3 3œ|| 5wπö 'hπkû∑ÈÔ öÈD'ThA;>ÈT2 5>Iih¯uS SÈ'mπli32|»Ò 5öIilπı
&ö¤ÈT¤'>A;fi2 bi5πnÈS 'Sπmså2| 'khπnπT2 5hIiπı 'A;kwå3 3||
¿5hπı 'khπnπT A;ı'kh¨såT¯2 ¿GÈ'mIilÈ21|| ¿5hπı T¯u'>IiD¯u2 ¿5πn»» &n¨È>È'DIiDÈ&hå21|||)
» -'mπ;ı2 — ” m¤n'h¯umå — ’ jåT'lA;h¯ — [ 5faÈT — Ì sÈ'bIik[i] — • -'mA;li2 — ]

k¨'lA;mÈ —  &πnÈ'skIiTÈ2 — Ô hû'khπ∑È — »Ò -'mA;li32| — »» ¿&πıTÈ'>I;iD2 ¿5πn
10. Hindi
10.0.1. Neutral Hindi pronunciation is presented in detail (whereas regional

variants are given only for the /EE, OO/ ae˚ ao phonemes, which constitute the ma-
jor peculiarity – Ô û 10.2.å). Our transliteration diverges from more traditional
one(s) – and from English orthography as well, which neglects vowel duration. It
shows çlongÇ vowels by doubling their graphemes (ii˚ aa˚ uu), as it does for conso-
nants (pp˚ nn), even when there is no opposition between short and long (ee˚ oo),
for coherence. On the contrary, the historical indication of diphthongization is
kept, for the two vocalic phonemes mentioned at the beginning (ae˚ ao), instead
of using a more complicated spelling (even if a little less inaccurate, perhaps, such
as ùù˚ §§]˘
We can still find –and quite often, even if it is, rightly, losing ground– a kind
of transliteration which shows the three short vowels, /i, a, u/ (I, å, U), as i˚ a˚ u˚
and the three corresponding long, /ii, aa, uu/ (ii, aa, uu), as i˚ a˚ u÷ but, at the
same time, it shows /ee, oo/ (ee, oo), just as e˚ o (since there are no corresponding
short phonemes). ‹en transcriptions are not added, in that kind of system, it
would be decidedly better to write e, o. However, we are left with the problem of
/EE, OO/, which –if transcriptions are still lacking– could perhaps coincide more
with the last indications given above, if one chose to write them as ™, Ø.
10.0.2. Nasalized vowels are marked with the çtildeÇ sign (i˚ q˚ ãã); however, in
accordance with the system of marking long vowels with a macron, awkwardly,
the tilde should be put over the macron (≤˚ >˚ <]˚ as some transcribe. Nevertheless,
others use –less satisfactory– digraphic devices (aµ˚ aµ÷ añ˚ añ).
Postalveolar consonantal articulations are indicated by a dot underneath (=˚ ƒ˚
ó); postalveopalatal ones with an inverted circumflex (or ha£ek\ £˚ À˚ ∞; instead of
traditional, but ambiguous, c˚ j˚ ≈]÷ for the uvulars of Arabic and Persian loanwords
we use particular signs (q˚ Æ˚ ‚; instead of digraphs or other more complex combi-
nations, or less evident, from a visual point of view, as well). ˛ese have been men-
tioned in order to avoid both signs and also digraphs which could be too generic.
˛e latter are reserved for çaspiratedÇ consonants (ph˚ bh˚ óh…). Furthermore, we
decidedly prefer w (to v]˚ for (6, j) /w/.
10.0.3. Traditional devanagari script [deewnaagrii /deew'naagrii/ (de6'naag-Ri))

is not of great help, unless one has already learnt it. On the other hand, it is more
syllabic than alphabetic (and with a lot of monographs, indeed more than 150, in
addition to the over 40 basic signs), for sequences of polyphonemic graphemes.
˛erefore, it is not suitable to indicate actual phonic structures in a simple way,
with a further complication constituted by (short) çinherentÇ a, which is not writ-
ten when preceded by C˚ except in (some) transliterations. ˛ese transliterations
10. hindi 333
are, basically, of two kinds: those that indicate /a/ only when it is really pro-
nounced, and those that show every a (or very many), as for instance in ('måt-låb)
/'matlab/ matlab (or matalaba]. However, the actual phonetic situation may be
something in between, as can be seen in § 10.3.1.1 as well.
Vowels
10.1.1. û 10.1 shows Hindi vowels, which are ten: three short, (I, å, U) /i, a, u/,
and seven çlongÇ. ˛ese are actually diphthongs: five monotimbric, with narrow
movements, but nevertheless perceptible, (ii, ee, aa, oo, uu) /ii, ee, aa, oo, uu/, and
two more evident ones (even if, generally, they are simply described as long V˚
themselves), (Ä™, ∏ø) /EE, OO/ (because native speakers think they are monoph-
thongs, including the variants given, and use them as such when learning foreign
languages).
Let us see, for now, some examples of the three short V\ ('dIn) /'din/ din˚ ('påR)
/'par/ par˚ ('kUl) /'kul/ kul÷ the three corresponding diphthongs are: ('diin) /'diin/
diin˚ ('paaR) /'paar/ paar˚ ('kuul) /'kuul/ kuul÷ the other four diphthongs are: ('beeR)
/'beer/ beer˚ ('bÄ™R) /'bEEr/ baer˚ ('booR) /'boor/ boor˚ ('b∏øR) /'bOOr/ baor˘ We will
deal again with the geographic variants of /EE, OO/ (Ô û 10.2.å) again, only here,
('bÄ™R) /'bEEr/ baer˚ ('b∏øR) /'bOOr/ baor\ ('bå™R, 'b√øR) (east: Bihar, West Bengal),
('bE™R, 'bOøR) (west: Rajasthan), ('bπER, 'bØOR) (northwest: Panjab)˘
û 10.1. Hindi vowels.
/ii/ ('ii, &i, ’i) /uu/ ('uu, &u, ’u)
/i/ (I) /u/ (U)
/ee/ ('ee, &e, ’e) /oo/ ('oo, &o, ’o)
/EE/ ('Ä™, &Ä, ’™) /OO/ ('∏ø, &∏, ’ø)
/a/ ('å, &å, ’å0, ’‘˘)
/aa/ ('aa, &a, ’a)
10.1.2. Each Hindi vowel may be (distinctively) nasalized: (t'hI) /t'hi/ thi˚ ('Hì™,
&Hì, H™) /'híí/ hãq˚ (b'HÅÅ®) /b'hÅÅ#/ bhããó˚ (k'h_9) /k'hÓÓ/ khã£÷ let us consider, for
instance ('Råg) /'rag/ rag çveinÇ ('RAg) /'rÅg/ rãg çcolorÇ. Currently, words such as
('Hå∫s) /'hans/ hans tend to be confused with ('HAs) /'hÅs/ hãs÷ but, in neutral pro-
nunciation, they must be accurately distinguished, even if (∫) has no full contact
with the alveolar ridge (Ô § 10.2.1.1-2).
‹en ae˚ ao are followed by /j, w/, they correspond to (åI, åU) /ai, au/: ('måIãa)
/'maijaa/ maeyaa˚ (tåI'jaaR) /tai'jaar/ taeyaar˚ ('HåUja) /'hauwaa/ haowaa˘ ˛e same
should hold for Sanscrit words with ae˚ ao (èai˚ au¶); but, currently, these become
/EE, OO/ (Ô § 10.2.1.2).
Intra-lexemic sequences /eeh0, ooh0/ may be realized as short vowels: ('seeH-Ra,
'seH-) /'seehraa/ seehraa˚ ('mooH-låt, 'moH-) /'moohlat/ moohlat÷ when there is gram-
memic derivation, no shortening occurs: ('leeH-jÉ) /'leehja/ leehya˚ ('mooH-na)
/'moohnaa/ moohnaa˘ Even in English loanwords we find (more or less evident)

shortenings: ('pee˛) /'pee˛/ pee= çstomachÇ, but ('pe;˛, 'pe˛, 'p™˛) /'pee˛/ pee= çpet (ani-
mal)Ç.
˛e sequence /ah/, in front of a C˚ or in front of short /a/, or at word boundary
(/ah0, aha, ahò/), is realized as ('ÄH, ’ÉH) (which could be marked as ç/E/Ç): (kÉH-
'naa) /kah'naa/ kahnaa˚ (pÉH'laa) /pah'laa/ pahlaa˚ (lÉ'HåR) /la'har/ lahar˚ ('tÄH) /'tah/
tah˘ In the other cases, /a/ remains (Ô the following section) with the following re-
alizations (å, ‘, É, ê, x, ∑): (kx'Haa) /ka'haa/ kahaa˚ (d‘'Hii) /da'hii/ dahii÷ in Sanscrit
loans we find /a/ before /ha/ as well: (R‘'Hås-jÉ, 'RåHåsª) /ra'hasja/ rahasya˚ (gx'Hån)
/ga'han/ gahan˚ (mê'Håt:j∑) /ma'hattwa/ mahattwa˘
û 10.2. Regional variants (å) and unstressed neutral taxophones of /a/ (∫).
å. Regional variants of ae˚ ao /'EE, 'OO/: ('E™, ∫. Attenuated taxophones of /’a˘/: (‘),
'Oø) west (Rajasthan); ('πE, 'ØO) northwest ((’0‘)), (’jÉ, ’ãÉ÷ ’j∑), ((’±ê)): ± (m, p[h],
(Panjab); ('å™, '√ø) east (Bihar, West Bengal). b[H], å, 6), ((’ôx)): (k[h], g[H], ›, ˜, r).
10.1.3. In unstressed syllables, çinherentÇ a is pronounced only when it is neces-

sary to give substance to a phono-syllable. ˛us, it is often not pronounced at all,
except in the case of consonant clusters which are not so easy to produce. Conse-
quently, at the end of words (or word-internally, mainly after /h/), some un-
checked phono-syllables are generally produced with a fading vocoid of the (‘)
type (Ô û 10.1). However, this timbre, although attenuated (in length as well),
changes in accordance with the contoids preceding it (even in /0h/ sequences).
˛erefore, as shown in û 10.2.∫, after labials ((m, p[h], b[H], å, 6)) it has rounded
lips, (ê); after velars or uvulars ((k[h], g[H], ›, ˜, r)), it moves back, (x) (besides, af-
ter (j), we have (∑)); after /j/, it moves forwards, (É) (this phone also occurs in
('ÄHÉ0, ’ÉHÉ0) /ah0/ ahC˚ and with /h/, near /ee, EE/, as well – as an echo).
It is a good thing to manage to use these five vocoids (in their attenuated, rather
than full, forms), since the coarticulatory logic is quite evident. However, a rather
satisfying result can be achieved, if we systematically use an attenuated (‘) (while
a full (å) would sound too pushy).
Let us see some examples (but it should be noted that, often, in various pub-
lished texts, we find ç(È)Ç for (å), even if stressed): ('kåN˛-h‘) /'kan˛h/ ka¿=h˚ ('på~-
C‘) /'panc/ pan£˚ ('kåRmê) /'karm/ karm (çkarmaÇ), ('baÅ˙gx) /'baang/ baa;g
(('baÅ˙) /'baa˙, 'baang/ is possible as well), ('muuRk-hx) /'muurkh/ muurkh˚ (åM'6å-
ãÉ) /an'waj[a]/ anway(a)˚ (‘'gåM-jÉ) /a'gamj[a]/ agamy(a)˚ ('ån-jÉ) /'anj[a]/ any(a)˚ (‘-
'gåπ-jÉ) /a'gaNj[a]/ aga¿y(a)˚ ('mooH‘&na) /'moohnaa/ moohnaa˚ ('mÄHÉl) /'mahl/
mahl˚ ('meeHÉ&tåR, &meHÉ'tåR) /'meehtar/ meehtar˘
10. hindi 335
10.1.4. In unstressed syllables, the phonetic diphthongs are normally realized

as short monophthongs (or, in slow or more accurate pronunciation, as half-
-lengthened monophthongs): ('HIndi÷ -di;) /'hindii/ hindii˚ (I'daaRa÷ -Ra;) /i'daaraa/
idaaraa˚ ('jaadÚ÷ -dÚ;) /'jaadÚÚ/ yaadõõ˚ (ëa'baaë÷ ëa;-) /Saa'baaS/ ∞aabaa∞˘ According
to stress strength in sentences, for /EE, OO/, as in hae˚ we have: ('HÄ™, &HÄ, ’H™) /hEE/.
Unfortunately, Hindi grammars persist in placing among the çvowelsÇ the
grapho-syllable which in Sanscrit indicated /(/ (“) and traditionally is transliterat-
ed ®, but today it only stands for /ri/ (RI) (¤ a /0é/ sequence): (ë'RI) /S'ri/ ∞ri˘
Consonants
10.2.0. û 10.3 shows Hindi consonants, including phono-stylemes for words

coming from Sanscrit (corresponding to ¿˚ ;˚ «) and Arabic, Persian, Turkish and
English (q˚ f˚ z˚ Æ, ‚), and taxophones as well.
û 1.9-15, instead, show the orograms (gathered by articulation manners) of all
the contoids given in the chapters of this book –even as secondary, occasional, or
regional, variants– for the 12 languages dealt with. ˛is exposition makes neces-
sary comparisons more direct.
û 10.3. Table of Hindi consonants.
rounded
postalveo-
laryngeal
palatal
provelar
veolar
alveolar
bilabial
palatal
uvular
postal-
dental
velar
velar
ö mÌ|(M) (n) nÌ|(∫) {N|(π)} (~|µ) (n) («Ì) {˙Ì}|(˙) {(,)}

F p5 bÌ t5 dÌ ˛5 ÃÌ k5 gÌ {›} {ö}
Ô C5 ‚Ì
ƒ {å} 6
_ s {z} {ßÌ} ë /w/
ß j|(ã) {˜} (h) H
R ®Ì (j) {r}
ó
‹ (l) lÌ ($) (¬)
/c, G/ (C, ‚), /S/ (ë), /j/ (j, ã), /F/ (å), /w/ (6, j), /r/ (R), /#/ (®)
Nasals
10.2.1.1. ˛ere are two fundamental nasal phonemes, /m/ (m), and /n/ (m, n,
N, ~, ˙, ,), since the NC sequences are homorganic. Besides, (M) ((˘)} occurs be-
fore /w, F/; (∫) ((ˆ)) before /s/; (n) ((q)) before /j/; and («) {(Ö)} before /h/ – with
a rare /˙/, which would give /˙h/ (and this would show the advantage of consider-
ing sequences of Ch biphonemic, even for stops) or /ngh/ (˙gH, «H). (It is worth
observing that (M, ∫, µ, n, «) are nasals with no full contact (¤ semi-nasals): semi-
-labial, semi-alveolar, semi-postalveo-palatal, semi-palatal, and semi-provelar, re-
spectively, Ô § 9.9 of NPT/HPh˚ and (π) {(¯)} as well, given in § 10.2.1.2.)
On the other hand, it is not necessary to use the specific symbols ((˙, n)):
('mooH) /'mooh/ mooh˚ ('såmbål) /'sambal/ sambal˚ ('tiim ma'taÅe) /'tiin maa'taaee/
tiin maataaqq˚ (såM'jaad) /sam'waad/ samwaad˚ ('nåbH) /'nabh/ nabh˚ ('kåN˛h)
/'kan˛h/ ka¿=h˚ ('kå~‚) /'kanG/ kanÀ˚ ('6åµë) /'wanS/ wan∞˚ ('ån-jÉ) /'anja/ anya˚
('på˙k) /'pank/ pa;k˚ (&I,›x'laab) /in›a'laab/ inqalaab˚ ('sI«H[x]) /'si˙h[a]/ sinh(a)˘
In some words, we find /m, n/ before heterosyllabic C\ (bê'RaÅmda) /ba'raam-
daa/ baramdaa˚ (åm'Ruud) /am'ruud/ amruud˚ ('gUm˛i) /'gum˛ii/ gum=ii˚ ('CåmCa)
/'camcaa/ £am£aa˚ ('‚Umka) /'Gumkaa/ Àhumkaa˚ ('meenka) /'meenkaa/ meenkaa
(indicated in writing by the segments m˚ n˚ instead of by anuswaar˚ a diacritic
sign).
10.2.1.2. Furthermore, in lofty Sanscrit words, also /N, ˙/ (N, Í÷ ˙) occur, and
have specific graphemes, ¿˚ ;, but generally change into /n/. ˛e more frequent
genuine realization of /N/ is (Í), a nasalized postalveolar flap, or even a nasalized
postalveolar approximant, (¯), so it is better to use the symbol of the diaphone,
(π), which incorporates these values, although it generally becomes /n/. Also (~)
has a particular grapheme, n, even if it does not represent a phoneme (as was the
case instead in Sanscrit): ('baÅm) /'baam/ baam˚ ('baÅn) /baan/ baan˚ ('baÅπ, 'baÅN,
'baÅn) /'baaN/ baa¿˚ (gx'πeeë, gx'Neeë, gx'neeë) /ga'NeeS/ ga¿ee∞˚ (‘'gåN-jÉ, ‘'gåπ-jÉ)
/a'gaNja/ aga¿ya˚ ('6aÅ˙måI, -˙mêãÉ, -«m-, -nmÄ™, -mmÄ, -mm™) /'waa˙maj/ wa;-
may˚ ('baÅ˙[gx]) /'baang/ baa;g.
Furthermore, we find the sequences /mh, nh/ (mH, nH), which (together with
/lh/ (lH) and, possibly, /˙h/, Ô § 10.2.1.1) have no o‚cial devanagari graphemes,
but combinations. In fact, they did not occur in Sanscrit, contrary to çaspiratedÇ
stops and stopstrictives, including /#h/ (®H), which comes from /Ãh/ (ÃH): (kUm-
'HaaR) /kum'haar/ kumhaar˚ ('kaÅnH) /'kaanh/ kaanh˘
Stops
10.2.2.1. ˛ere are four diphonic pairs, /p, b÷ t, d÷ ˛, Ã÷ k, g/ (p, b÷ t, d÷ ˛, Ã÷ k,

g), in addition to the voiceless uvular phonostyleme /›/ (›) (which, currently, be-
comes /k/ (k)): (pI'taa) /pi'taa/ pitaa˚ ('åb) /'ab/ ab˚ ('Raat) /'raat/ raat˚ (n‘'dii) /na-
'dii/ nadii˚ (˛'hiik) /˛'hiik/ =iik˚ ('pINÃ) /'pinÃ/ pi¿ƒ˚ ('k∏9n) /'kOOn/ kaon˚ ('gaÅna)
/'gaanaa/ gaanaa˚ ('kÄ™) /'kEE/ kae˚ ('›Ä™) /'›EE, 'kEE/ qae˘
10.2.2.2. ˛e most remarkable peculiarity of stops is that the elements of di-

phonic pairs may occur in sequences, with /h/, producing /ph, bh÷ th, dh÷ ˛h, Ãh÷
kh, gh/ (ph, bH÷ th, dH÷ ˛h, ÃH÷ kh, gH) (it is not rare to find that the çaspiratedÇ
voiced ones are, actually, devoiced, (ÊH, ∂H, ∂H, âH), although a fully voiced pro-
nunciation is perfectly acceptable too). Generally, they are considered to be uni-
tary phonemes: çaspiratedÇ opposed to the corresponding çnon-aspiratedÇ. No
doubt, this opinion derives from traditional writing as well, since particular graph-
emes are in use.
We prefer to consider the çaspiratedÇ sounds as phonemic (and phonetic) se-
10. hindi 337
quences constituted by plain stops + /h/, which is realized as (h), after voiceless C˚
or as the normal (in Hindi) voiced laryngeal approximant, (H), after voiced C (all
the more so because they are realized as heterosyllabic, instead of tautosyllabic; this
can be seen by the placement of stresses, which is more evident and logical with-
in a word or a rhythm group): ('pål) /'pal/ pal˚ (p'hål) /p'hal/ phal÷ ('baala) /'baalaa/
baalaa˚ (b'Haala) /b'haalaa/ bhaalaa÷ ('tål) /'tal/ tal˚ (t'hål) /t'hal/ thal÷ ('daa6a) /'daa-
waa/ daawaa˚ (d'Haa6a) /d'haawaa/ dhaawaa÷ ('˛åppa) /'˛appaa/ =appaa˚ (˛'håppa)
/˛'happaa/ =happaa÷ ('Ãiil) /'Ãiil/ ƒiil˚ (Ã'Hiil) /Ã'hiil/ ƒhiil÷ ('kaal) /'kaal/ kaal˚
(k'haal) /k'haal/ khaal÷ (gI'Raa) /gi'raa/ giraa˚ (gHI'Raa) /ghi'raa/ ghiraa˘
10.2.2.3. It is not unusual for /b, bh/ to be realized as (6, 6H). Besides, attenua-
tions are also possible for /k/ (∆, ◊, â), /kh/ (xh, x), /g/ (Ÿ, y, µ), /gh/ (ŸH). Before
front vowels (and before /j/), /k[h], g[h]/ are realized as prevelar, but no special sym-
bol (([”]´, [”]Ò)) is necessary. In final position, the stops may have inaudible reali-
zations: ('naak, 'naakæ) /'naak/ naak˚ ('åb, 'åbæ) /'ab/ ab÷ this is contrary to what hap-
pens to çaspiratedÇ sequences, which do not simplify, even if the laryngeal element
may be less evident, in this final position (for other C too), but it may not be miss-
ing, because it is distinctive\ ('siikh, -kh) /'siikh/ siikh˚ ('nåbH, -bH) /'nabh/ nabh
(and: ('boo‚H, -‚H) /'booGh/ booÀh˚ ('baa®H, -®H) /'baa#h/ baaóh]˘ Only within se-
quences like /0h0/, may /h/ be dropped (Ô § 10.3.1.5). Also word-final /h/ may be
attenuated (and even disappear completely): (b'jaaH, -aaH, -aa) /b'jaah/ byaah˘
Stopstrictives
10.2.3. We only find the postalveopalatal diphonic pair, /c, G/ (C, ‚) (with the
corresponding çaspiratedÇ sequences, /ch, Gh/ (Ch, ‚H), and the possibility of
(äH), as for the stops): (C‘'tUR) /ca'tur/ £atur˚ ('Raa‚) /'raaG/ raaÀ˚ ('Caal) /'caal/
£aal˚ (C'haal) /c'haal/ £haal˚ ('‚aal) /'Gaal/ Àaal˚ (‚'Haal) /G'haal/ Àhaal˘ In various
contexts, there may be frequent attenuated realizations (¤ constrictives or approx-
imants), even after a pause (or, instead, sharper ones, ¤ stops), for /c/ (ë, À÷ T), /ch/
(ëh, Àh÷ Th), /G/ (ò, ö÷ D), /Gh/ (òH, öH÷ DH).
Constrictives
10.2.4. In actual fact, we find two voiceless constrictives: /s, S/ (s, ë) (sometimes,
the latter is realized as velarized postalveolar, (∑), ¤ (ß) with velarization) and the
voiced /w/ (6, j) (whose rounded semi-velar approximant variant, (j), mainly oc-
curs after C˚ after /uu, u/, and sometimes after a pause – but, in actual fact, the
two types alternate quite freely): ('sÄ™R) /'sEEr/ saer˚ ('kooëIë) /'kooSiS/ koo∞i∞˚ (&R‘6I-
'6aaR) /rawi'waar/ rawiwaar˚ ('nii6, 'nii˘, 'niiM) (with possible nasalization, near
nasalized V]\ /'niiw/ niiw˚ (6'Råt) /w'rat/ wrat˚ ('HåUja) /'hauwaa/ haowaa˚ (s'jåRg)
/s'warg/ swarg˚ (6ê'HÅÅ, |j∑-) /wa'hÅÅ/ wahãã˘
In Sanscrit loans, we also find /ß/ (ß) (which currently becomes /S/ (ë): ('bIß, 'bIë)
/'biß/ bi«; on the other hand, /s/ becomes (ß), before /˛/: ('kåß˛) /'kas˛/ ka«= (shown
in writing as well). In Persian, Arabic, and English loans, we find /F, z/ (å, z) too
(which currently become /ph, G/ (ph, ‚)): (åê'›iiR, phê-, -'kiiR) /Fa'›iir, -'kiir/ fa-
qiir˚ ('åUt, p'hUt) /'Fut/ fut˚ (ba'zaaR, ba'‚aaR) /baa'zaar/ baazaar˘
Approximants
10.2.5. In this articulatory manner, there are two fundamental phonemes, /j,
h/ (j, ã÷ H, h); (the semi-palatal) (ã) occurs between V˚ in unstressed syllables: ('jee)
/'jee/ yee˚ (dH'jaÅn) /dh'jaan/ dhyaan˚ ('lIe, 'lie, 'lIãe) /'lijee/ liyee˘ ‹en in unstressed
final position (with an inherent a]˚ its sound is (-ãÉ, -™); when preceded by i˚ it
drops, often closing /i/ {(I) = (i)}, except in careful pronunciation: (s‘'måãÉ, s‘'må™)
/sa'maj/ samay˚ (k'ßåãÉ, -å™, k'ë-) /k'ßaj/ k«ay˚ ('CaaãÉ, 'Caa™) /'caaj/ £aay˚ (k'ßåt-RIãÉ,
kßåt'RIãÉ, -IÉ, -iÉ, kë-) /k'ßatrij/ k«atriy˘
Generally, the /h/ phoneme is (H)÷ while (h) occurs with voiceless çaspiratedÇ
consonants. Near nasalized V˚ /h/ becomes nasalized: ('Haathi) /'haathii/ haathii˚
('gåRH) /'garh/ garh˚ (&pÄHÉ'laa) /pah'laa/ pahlaa˚ ('teeRÉH, te'RÄH) /'teerah/ teerah˚
(HAs'naa) /hÅs'naa/ hãsnaa˚ ('bÅÅH) /'bÅÅh/ bããh˚ (kx'HÅÅ) /ka'hÅÅ/ kahãã˘
˛ere are two further approximants, for Persian and Arabic loans, for which the
o‚cial uvular constrictives symbols are often used, /X, º/ (or, even less precisely,
the velar ones, /x, Ÿ/); they are uvular approximants (˜, ˜) (but, for the voiced one,
more often, the uvular tap, (r), occurs). However, currently they become /k, g/ (k,
g): (d‘'˜ål, d‘'kål) /da'Xal/ daÆal˚ ('ãana, 'kaana) /'Xaanaa/ Æaanaa (Ô (k'haana)
/k'haanaa/ khaanaa]˚ ('baar, 'baa˜, 'baag) /'baaº/ baa‚ (Ô ('baag) /'baag/ baag]˘
£Trills∞
10.2.6. In this category, we have an alveolar tap, /r/ (R), and a postalveolar flap,
/#/ (®), which oppose distinctively (and sometimes the former may be stronger, a
true trill (r), or –on the contrary– weaker: an approximant (¸); often, the latter is
weaker than normal: an approximant (Í), similar to British English (>), but with
no lip rounding at all): (H‘'Rå®) /ha'ra#/ haraó˚ (lå®'kaa) /la#'kaa/ laókaa˘ ˛ere is al-
so the sequence /#h/ (®H, ÍH): (bå®'Haa, -Í'Haa) /ba#'haa/ baóhaa (Ô (bê'®aa, -'Íaa) /ba-
'#aa/ baóaa]˘
Laterals
10.2.7. ˛ere is only one lateral phoneme, /l/ (l, $, ¬); besides, there is the se-
quence /lh/ (lH): ('laat) /'laat/ laat˚ (mê'laal) /ma'laal/ malaal˚ ('kå¬ C‘'loo) /'kal ca-
'loo/ kal £aloo˚ ('kå¬ jÉ'HÅÅ 'aao) /'kal ja'hÅÅ 'aaoo/ kal yahãã aaoo˚ ('Ãaa$Ãa) /'ÃaalÃaa/
ƒaalƒaa˚ ('kuula) /'kuulaa/ kuulaa˚ ('kuulHa) /'kuulhaa/ kuulhaa˚ ('deelHi) /'deelhii/
Deelhii˘
10. hindi 339
Structures
10.3.0. We will consider here the relationships between segments, syllabic struc-
ture, stress, and intonation. Most examples –re-transliterated and transcribed– are
based on recordings expressly made (taken from Shukla, 2000).
A typical Hindi pronunciation shows a particular kind of paraphonic setting
with breathy voice §ÿ@, or, less positively, with tense voice ≠§÷@.
Taxophonics
10.3.1.1. As for V˚ which oppose as short and çlongÇ, or rather (very) narrow
diphthongs (generally represented by geminating symbols, Ô § 10.1.1), gemina-
tion is distinctive for C too: (pê'taa) /pa'taa/ pataa˚ ('påtta, påt'taa) /'pattaa/ pattaa˚
(bê'Caa) /ba'Caa/ ba£aa˚ ('båCCa, båC'Caa) /'baccaa/ ba££aa˚ (U'see) /u'see/ usee˚
('Usse, Us'see) /'ussee/ ussee˘ ˛is fact changes the syllabic structure, consequently,
often even stress changes (although without phonemic relevance).
We have already mentioned and demonstrated in our examples, that –in
Hindi– sequences of two or three C syllabify moving the last one to the beginning
of the next syllable: ('såt-jÉ) /'satja/ satya˚ ('gåd-Ha) /'gadhaa/ gadhaa˚ (åbH'Råk) /abh-
'rak/ abhrak˚ ('ëUk-l‘) /'Sukla/ ∞ukla˚ (åkh'®aa) /akh'#aa/ akhóaa. Obviously, in case
of isolated initial sequences, the syllabicity scale joins the elements in one syllable,
although some slight di‡erence is maintained; however, if they are internal, they
divide into two syllables, including the preceding V\ (‚'Hiil) /G'hiil/ Àhiil. ˛e
geminates are (0˘0) between V˚ but (0:˘) + C˚ even for /j, w, h, r, #, l/ (in this last
context, especially short stops and stopstrictives are often realized as (0:˘) + C˚ thus
neutralizing the di‡erence with geminates): ('bUÃ:Ha) /'buÃÃhaa/ buƒƒhaa˚ (6Id[:]-
'ãaal‘ãÉ, -lÄ™, -lÉ) /wid'jaalaj/ widyaalay˘ If the number of C in the sequences ex-
ceeds three, the last two move to the beginning of the second syllable: (såt'jaaRth-
pR‘&kaë) /sat'jaarthprakaaS/ Satyaarthprakaa∞.
Another interesting phenomenon, that complicates the description and the ac-
quisition of this language, concerns the epenthesis of a vowel; therefore, an attenu-
ated vocoid is inserted (Ô § 10.1.3, although here we indicate it simply as an audi-
ble o‡set, ($)), not only in complex consonant clusters, but also –in not quick pro-
nunciation– at the end of words, even after a single consonant: (‘'gåR$) /a'gar/ agar˚
('uupåR$) /'uupar/ uupar˚ (Cål$'naa) /cal'naa/ £alnaa˚ ('phuul$) /'phuul/ phuul˚ ('ëåR$-
båt) /'Sarbat/ ∞arbat˚ (båd$'maaë) /bad'maaS/ badmaa∞˚ (lå®$'kaa) /la#'kaa/ laókaa˚
(khI®$'kii) /khi#'kii/ khiókii˚ (åbH'jaas$) /abh'jaas/ abhyaas˚ (s‘'måã$) /sa'maj/ samay˚
(Rakh$'naa) /rakh'naa/ rakhnaa˚ (Ug$'naa) /ug'naa/ ugnaa˚ ('uugH$na;) /'uughnaa/
££ghnaa˚ ('på®$) /'pa#/ paó˚ ('på®H$) /'pa#h/ paóh…
10.3.1.2. Hindi phonotactics presents some peculiar consonant clusters, both

at the beginning and end of words. In fact, we may find, for instance: (m'RIg)
/m'rig/ mrig˚ (m'laÅn) /m'laan/ mlaan˚ (n'jaa™) /n'jaaj/ nyaay˚ (nRI'ëå∫s) /nri'Sans/
nri∞ans˚ (p'jaala) /p'jaalaa/ pyaalaa˚ (b'Rå‚) /b'raG/ braÀ˚ (b'laak) /b'laak/ blaak˚
(bH'Råm) /bh'ram/ bhram˚ (tj∑'Raa) /twa'raa/ twaraa˚ (t'Raas) /t'raas/ traas˚ (d'juut)
/d'juut/ dyuut˚ (dH'jåni, -∑'nii) /dh'wani/ dwani˚ (dH'RU6) /dh'ruw/ dhruw˚ (Ã'joo®-
Hi, Ãjo®'Hii) /'Ãjoo#hii/ ƒyooóhii˚ (C'jUt) /c'jut/ £yut˚ (‚'jooti) /G'jooti/ Àyooti˚ (k'jaa)
/k'jaa/ kyaa˚ (k'jaath) /k'waath/ kwaath˚ (kh'jaab) /kh'waab/ khwaab˚ (g'RaÅm)
/g'raam/ graam˚ (g'laÅni) /g'laani/ glaani˚ (gH'RaÅπ, -N, -n) /gh'raaN/ ghraa¿.
More: (˜'jaal, kh'j-) /X'jaal/ Æyaal˚ (H'Raas) /h'raas/ hraas˚ (ëmê'ëaÅn) /Sma'Saan/
∞ma∞aan˚ (ë'RaÅnt) /S'raant/ ∞raant˚ (ë'låth) /S'lath/ ∞lath˚ (s'kåndH) /s'kandh/ skandh˚
(skhx'lån) /skha'lan/ skhalan˚ (s'tåR) /s'tar/ star˚ (s'thål) /s'thal/ sthal˚ (s'mIt) /s'mit/
smit˚ (s'naÅn) /s'naan/ snaan˚ (s'jaaH) /s'jaah/ syaah˚ (s'jåRg) /s'warg/ swarg˚ (s'Råß˛a)
/s'ras˛aa/ sra«=aa˚ (z'jaada) /z'jaadaa/ zyaadaa˚ (6jåt'haa) /wjat'haa/ wyathaa˚ (6'Råt)
/w'rat/ wrat˘ In words of Sanscrit origin, we find /òkß/ as well (but people current-
ly change it into (kë)): (k'ßåπ, k'ßåN, k'ëån) /k'ßaN/ k«a¿˚ (k'ßiiR, k'ë-) /k'ßiir/ k«iir˘
Furthermore, for initial sequences with /òs0[0]/, current pronunciation prefixes
an epenthetic vowel, generally (I, I) – but (å, å) is possible as well (and also (‘, ‘),
with the other variants seen, Ô § 10.1.3), before non-front vowels: (s'tRii, Is-, Is-)
/s'trii/ strii˚ (sp'huuRti, Is-, Is-, ås-, ås-, ‘s-, ‘s-) /sp'huurti/ sphuurti˚ (s'naÅn, Is-, Is-, ås-,
ås-, ‘s-, ‘s-) /s'naan/ snaan (also with /S/: (ë'look, Ië-, Ië-, åë-, åë-, ‘ë-, ‘ë-) /S'look/ ∞look]˘
10.3.1.3. As far as word-final position is concerned, we find consonant clusters

such as: ('gUpt) /'gupt/ gupt˚ ('ëåbd) /'Sabd/ ∞abd˚ ('lUbdH) /'lubdh/ lubdh˚ ('˛åps)
/'˛aps/ =aps˚ ('nåbz) /'nabz/ nabz˚ ('kUb‚) /'kubG/ kubÀ˚ ('mUåt) /'muFt/ muft˚ ('Uts)
/'uts/ uts˚ ('Råkt) /'rakt/ rakt˚ ('dågdH) /'dagdh/ dagdh˚ ('åks) /'aks/ aks˚ ('mookß, -kë)
/'mookß/ mook«˚ ('så˜t, -kht) /'saXt/ saÆt˚ ('ëå˜s, -khs) /'SaXs/ ∞aÆs˚ ('bå˜ë, -khë) /'baXS/
baÆ∞˚ ('CUst) /'cust/ £ust˚ (s'jåsth) /s'wasth/ swasth˚ ('kåß˛) /'kas˛/ ka«=˚ ('6aaëp)
/'waaSp/ waa∞p˘
In final position, geminates are possible as well, realized as long: ('gåp:) /'gapp/
gapp˚ ('Cåm:) /'camm/ £amm˚ ('CIt:) /'citt/ £itt˚ ('Råd:) /'radd/ radd˚ ('ån:) /'ann/ ann˚
('såR:, -r[:]) /'sarr/ sarr˚ (pRåp'hUl:) /prap'hull/ praphull˚ (b'Hå˛:) /b'ha˛˛/ bha==˚ (U'‚åÃ:)
/u'GaÃÃ/ uÀaƒƒ˚ ('UC:) /'ucc/ u££˚ (nI'lå‚:) /ni'laGG/ nilaÀÀ˚ ('dåg:) /'dagg/ dagg÷
sequences which include a laryngeal are also found: ('‚Ut:h) /'Gutth/ Àutth˚ ('jUd:H)
/'juddh/ yuddh˚ ('sIk:h) /'sikkh/ sikkh˚ (s'jåC:h) /s'wacch/ swa££h˘
≈nal consonant clusters, in morphological derivation, resyllabify in accordance
with the phonic structure of the Hindi language: ('paap) /'paap/ paap˚ ('paa-pi)
/'paapii/ paapii÷ ('Råkt) /'rakt/ rakt˚ ('Råk-tIm) /'raktim/ raktim˘
10.3.1.4. Short (I, å, U) /i, a, u/, in final position, have the peculiarity of fading
(Ô § 10.1.3), to a point in which they drop as well, as happens to /a/, (å÷ å, ‘, ê, x,
∑÷ `), or strengthen, ¤ (i, u), simply as closer realizations of /i, u/, or actually be-
coming /ii, uu/. In this case, stress shifts are also possible, according to the weight
of the syllables constituting given words: ('Rå6i, R‘'6ii) /'rawi/ rawi˚ ('tIthi, tIt'hii)
/'tithi/ tithi˚ ('ëIëu, ëI'ëuu) /'SiSu/ ∞i∞u˚ ('6åsu, 6ê'suu) /'wasu/ wasu˘ ˛e change Vò =
VVò is not considered completely neutral, in spite of being very widespread indeed
(with many supporters too).
≈nally, as many examples have already shown, sequences of /'ééö/ + /é, ò, 0/
are realized as ('é–ö): ('HaÅni) /'haani/ haani˚ ('kaÅm) /'kaam/ kaam˚ (ak'RaÅnt)
/aak'raant/ aakraant˘
10. hindi 341
10.3.1.5. Dealing with consonants, we have already seen the assimilatory char-
acteristics within words. ˛e same holds in sentences, for words linked by mean-
ing, especially if joined in rhythm groups, as in: ('tiim ma'taÅe) /'tiin maa'taaee/ ti-
in maataaqq˚ ('tiim pê'piite) /'tiin pa'piitee/ tiin papiitee˚ ('tiiN 'Ãaal) /'tiin 'Ãaal/ ti-
in ƒaal˚ ('tii˙ kx'mål) /'tiin ka'mal/ tiin kamal˚ ('tii˙ 'gaaÉ) /'tiin 'gaaj/ tiin gaay˚
('tii~ 'CaaÉ) /'tiin 'caaj/ tiin £aaj˚ ('tii~ '‚aal) /'tiin 'Gaal/ tiin Àaal˚ ('tiin ë‘'Raab) /'ti-
in Sa'raab/ tiin ∞araab˚ ('tiin 'jaaR) /'tiin 'jaar/ tiin yaar˚ ('tiiM 'jåRß, -Rë) /'tiin 'warß/
tiin war«˚ ('tii, ›x'saai, -˙ kx-) /'tiin ›a'saaii/ tiin qasaaii˚ ('tii« 'Haath) /'tiin 'haath/
tiin haath˘
Besides, both within words and sentences, in not slow –nor emphatic– speech,
for diphonic C˚ voicing assimilation is regular, to the second element of a sequence
(while a possible /h/ is lost): ('ågbåR, åg'båR) /'akhbar/ Akhbar˚ (tåz'biiH) /tas'biih/
tasbiih˚ ('CUb 'bÄ™˛ho, 'CUb b™˛'hoo) /'cup 'bEE˛hoo/ £up bae=hoo˚ ('Chåb gx'jaa)
/'cap ga'jaa/ £hap gayaa˚ ('saad 'bÄ™˛ho, 'saad b™˛'hoo) /'saath 'bEE˛hoo/ saath bae-
=hoo˚ ('åp 'tåk) /'ab 'tak/ ab tak˚ ('Haad 'doo) /'haath 'doo/ haath doo˚ ('aakpåR) /'aag-
par/ aak par˚ ('eeg 'dIn) /'eek 'din/ eek din˚ ('‚åpki) /'Gabki/ Àab ki˚ ('baa˜ 'kaa, -k
'k-) /'baaº 'kaa/ baa‚ kaa˘
Stress
10.3.2.1. In Hindi, stress position is not distinctive; in fact, the same speaker,
in di‡erent occasions, may stress di‡erent syllables of the same word. Furthermore,
these fluctuations also depend on the placing of words in sentences, on nearby
words, on orthological highlighting and emphasis. Still more important is the fact
that stress is distributed among rhythm groups, usually moving back from the end,
according to syllabic çweightsÇ. ˛is holds for isolated words as well, but always
with a certain flexibility. For instance, we normally have ('HIndi) /'hindii/ hindii˚
but (HIn'dii&ke, -&ka) /hin'diikee, -kaa/ hindii kee˚ hindii kaa˘
On the other hand, given its non-distinctiveness, native speakers use stress as
something fluctuating (without fully realizing it), frequently alternating, for rhyth-
mic reasons, within rhythm groups. After all, it is the same thing for segmental
duration and for syllabic pitch, in languages where they are not distinctive: they
may change quite freely, without real problems. In Hindi intonemes (both for the
three marked and the unmarked one, or continuative), the terminal posttonic syl-
lable, generally, bears a secondary stress, which complicates the (already unsettled)
di‡erentiation and identification of stress strength on the di‡erent non-light sylla-
bles (but sometimes on the light ones too).
10.3.2.2. However, some rules may be formulated in order to produce a coher-

ent e‡ect, if rigorously applied (even if they might be considered excessively pre-
cise or even mechanical as regards current language).
Regardless of the C that may precede a V˚ we define a light syllable one which
contains a short V˚ (I, å, U) /i, a, u/ not followed by any C (in the same syllable):
(kI, ki) /ki/ ki˚ (sU'måtI, -ti) /su'mati/ sumati÷ within a word, the attenuated reali-
zations of /a/ (‘, É, x, ∑, ê) do not count (Ô § 10.1.3), being usually more elusive,
(‘, É, x, ∑, ê), and are just a mere physical support, necessary to make a word pro-
nounceable, but they may drop completely.
Furthermore, we have mid syllables˚ constituted by VC (¤ a short V and a C]˚
or by VV\ ('bål) /'bal/ bal˚ (k'jaa) /k'jaa/ kyaa˚ ('HIndi) /'hindii/ hindii˚ ('ëåjja) /'Saj-
jaa/ ∞ayyaa˚ including çdisyllabicÇ syllables in counting morae, as (b'Haai) /b'haaii/
bhaaii (ç/aa/ + /ii/Ç = four morae).
Besides, there are heavy syllables˚ formed by VCC˚ or VVC (more rarely VVCC
as well): ('ånt) /'ant/ ant˚ ('aÅm) /'aam/ aam˚ ('aaRt) /'aart/ aart˚ ('6aaëp) /'waaSp/
waa∞p˘
10.3.2.3. Stress assignment, in isolated words, is done on the basis of the identi-
fication of the çheaviest syllableÇ, as in: (U'paadHi) /u'paadhi/ upaadhi˚ (U'paÅnt)
/u'paant/ upaant˚ (&ad-jo'paÅnt) /aadjoo'paant/ aadyoopaant˚ (kx'lii) /ka'lii/ kalii˚
(kx'maÅn) /ka'maan/ kamaan˚ ('kaÅmna) /'kaamnaa/ kaamnaa˚ (ko'πaaRk, ko-
'NaaRk, ko'naaRk) /koo'Naark/ koo¿aark˚ ('ãÅndani) /'Xaandaanii/ Æaandaanii˚
(‚'jaÅmIti) /G'jaamiti/ Àyaamiti˚ (&tabe'daaR) /taabee'daar/ taabeedaar˚ (&tIgU'naa)
/tigu'naa/ tigunaa˚ (p&RIthji'Raa‚-Ra&so) /prithwii'raaGraasoo/ prithwiiraaÀraasoo.
More: (bån'duugba&zi) /ban'duukbaazii/ banduukbaazii˚ (måR'daÅ˙gi) /mar-
'daangii/ mardaangii˚ ('maÅndHa&ta) /'maandhaataa/ maandhaataa˚ (&såt-jåpR‘'kaaë)
/satjapra'kaaS/ Satyaprakaa∞˚ (såt'jaaRth-pR‘&kaë) /sat'jaarthprakaaS/ Satyaarthprakaa∞˚
(&sa˙go'paÅ˙g) /saangoo'paang/ saangoopaang˚ (sa'maÅn) /saa'maan/ saamaan˚ ('HaÅ-
ni) /'haani/ haani˘
If a word has more than one non-light syllables of the same weight, there are two
possibilities: the stress preferably hits either the last syllable but one or the last but
two (or even the very last, especially if constituted by VV˚ as happens more often
within a sentence, with particles and postpositions): (ë‘'kUnt‘&la, ë‘&kUnt‘'laa) /Sa-
'kuntalaa/ ∞akuntalaa˚ (gx'®eeRI&ãa, gx&®e;RI'jaa) /ga'#eerijaa/ gaóeeriyaa˚ (bê'HaadU&Ri,
bê&HadU'Rii) /ba'haadurii/ bahaadurii˚ (&mêHab'HaaRåt) /mahaab'haarat/ mahaa-
bhaarat˚ (jUd'HIß˛hIR, &jUdHIß˛'hIR, -ë˛-, -ë'˛-) /jud'hiß˛ir/ Yudhi«=hir˚ (s‘'HuulI&ãåt, s‘&Hu-
lI'jåt) /sa'huulijat/ sahuuliyat.
More examples: (a'ëiiR-jad, &aëiR'jaad) /aa'Siirwaad/ aa∞iirwaad˚ ('å›xl&månd, &‘-
›xl'månd) /'a›lmand/ aqlmand˚ (&ana'kaÅni, a&naka'nii) /aanaa'kaanii/ aanaakaanii˚
(dH'jåni, -∑'nii) /dh'wani/ dhwani˚ (påR'jåRti, &påRjåR'tii) /par'wartii/ parwartii˚
('båRtån, båR'tån) /'bartan/ bartan˚ ('bås-ta, bås'taa) /'bastaa/ bastaa˚ (b'Haala, bHa-
'laa) /b'haalaa/ bhaalaa˚ (s‘'mIti) /sa'miti/ samiti˚ (sa'laÅna, &sala'naa) /saa'laanaa/
saalaanaa˚ (så~'Caalån, &så~Ca'lån) /san'caalan/ san£aalan˚ (&HeRap'heeRi, He&Raphe-
'Rii) /heeraap'heerii/ heeraapheerii˘
10.3.2.4. ˛e same stress pattern occurs in inflected and derived words as well:
(&båd-HI'kÚÚ) /badhi'kÚÚ/ badhikõõ˚ (&låg-HU'tåR) /laghu'tar/ laghutar˚ (&ëUCI'tåm) /Su-
ci'tam/ ∞u£itam˚ (mås'leega, &måsle'gaa) /mas'leegaa/ masleegaa˚ ('laapê&ta;, &lapê'taa)
/'laapataa/ laapataa˚ (&gxlI'jaaRa, gx&lIãa'Raa) /gali'jaaraa/ galiyaaraa˚ (pa'gålpån, &pa;-
gål'pån) /paa'galpan/ paagalpan˚ (sUn'dåRta, &sUndåR'taa) /sun'dartaa/ sundartaa˚
(b™H'naapa, &b™Hna'paa, b™&H™na'paa) /bah'naapaa/ bahnaapaa˘
10. hindi 343
Among Hindi monosyllables, lexemes bear a stress, even in sentences, while

grammemes (¤ postpositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries, enclitics) are unstressed
or half-stressed: ('åb) /'ab/ ab˚ ('kåm) /'kam/ kam˚ ('kaÅm) /'kaam/ kaam˚ ('∏øR) /'OOr/
aor˚ ('deeë) /'deeS/ dee∞÷ but (ka) /kaa/ kaa˚ (Hì, H™) /híí/ hãq˘
10.3.2.5. Lexemic compounds, normally, have the following stress pattern (' “)
/' “/ (since the second stress, which is generally more attenuated, may sometimes
reach a degree of prominence which is relatively slightly more perceptible than a
secondary stress): (R‘'sooig“Hår) /Ra'sooiig“har/ rasooiighar˚ ('deeënI“ka[a]la) /'deeSni-
“kaalaa/ dee∞nikaalaa˚ ('6Iëj∑“ko[o]ë) /'wiSwa“kooS/ wi∞wakoo∞˚ ('duuRdåR“ëi[i]) /'duur-
dar“Sii/ duurdar∞ii˚ ('dI¬-‚‘“la[a]) /'dilGa“laa/ dilÀalaa˚ ('nImn‘lI“khIt) /'nimnli“khit/
nimnlikhit˚ ('CåndR‘“ka[Å]nta) /'candra“kaantaa/ £andrakaantaa˚ ('CåndR‘“ka[Å]nta-
“sånt‘ti) /'candra“kaantaa“santati/ £andrakaantaasantati.
More: (mê'Haasåb“Ha[a]) /ma'haasab“haa/ mahaasabhaa˚ ('HIndumê“Ha[a]såb-
“Ha[a]) /'HInduma“haasab“haa/ mahaasabhaa˚ ('tuu 'kåRm“Hi[i]M j'jåkti&HÄ) /'tuu
'karm“hiin w'jaktihEE/ tuu karm-hiin wyakti hae˚ ('tuu 'kåRm“Hi[i]«&HÄ) /'tuu 'karm-
“hiinhEE/ tuu karm-hiin hae˚ ('aÅm“ja[Å]m) /'aam“waam/ aam-waam˚ ('kaÅnÚ-
“ka[Å]n) /'kaanÚÚ“kaan/ kaanõõ-kaan˚ ('kåÅm“ka[a]‚) /'kaam“kaaG/ kaam-kaaÀ˚ ('Ä™-
sa“6Ä[™]sa) /'EEsaa“wEEsaa/ aesaa-waesaa˘
Complete reduplications always keep both stresses: ('laal 'laal) /'laal'laal/ laal-
-laal˚ (d'HiiRe d'HiiRe) /d'hiireed'hiiree/ dhiiree-dhiiree˘
10.3.2.6. ˛ere is a di‡erence between compounds and collocations (which

have independent sentence ictuses): ('laalpåg&®i;) /'laalpag#ii/ laal-pagóii çpolice-
manÇ (¤ çred-turbanÇ) and ('laal 'påg-®i, 'laal påg'®ii) /'laal 'pag#ii/ laal pagóii çred
turbanÇ, ('kaala&pani) /'kaalaapaanii/ kaalaa-paanii çpenal colonyÇ (¤ çblack-wa-
terÇ) and ('kaala 'paÅni) /'kaalaa 'paanii/ kaalaa paanii çblack waterÇ, ('mii˛ha&te;l)
/'mii˛haateel/ mii=ha-teel çsesame-oilÇ (¤ çsweet-oilÇ) and ('mii˛ha 'teel) /'mii˛haa
'teel/ mii=ha teel çsweet oilÇ, ('niil&ga;™) /'niilgaaj/ niil-gaay ç(a species of) large an-
telopeÇ (çblue-cowÇ) and ('niil 'gaa™) /'niil 'gaaj/ niil gaay çblue cowÇ.
For contrast, there is emphasis on the marked element (and attenuation on the
second occurrence of the unmarked element): (¿'HIndu"måndIR2 2 ¿'jaa &HIndug£HåR3 3)
/¿'hinduu"mandir÷ ¿'jaa 'hinduug"har./ hinduu-mandir, yaa hinduu-ghar?˚ ('åtmêp-
£Reem2 2 'jaa &a;tmêg£jaÅn3 3) /'atmp"reem÷ 'jaa 'atmg"jaan./ atm-preem, yaa atm-gyaan˘
Intonation
10.3.4. û 10.4 shows the preintonemes and intonemes of the neutral Hindi lan-
guage. We will merely give some illustrative examples, to use for comparisons. Let
us observe that the posttonic syllables of the interrogative ((2 1)) and suspensive
((2 2)) intonemes, which are in the higher parts of the mid and high bands (as will
be clear from û 10.4), are generally accompanied by falsetto (for all kind of voic-
es), which is marked with (Ú) after the intonemes, in phonotonetic transcriptions.
In addition, paraphonically, there is a peculiar type of çIndian voiceÇ, with murur
voice §ÿ@ or, in the broadest accents (≠), with tense voice §÷@:
/./: (&mìçHIndi bolçtaa–Hu3 3) /míí'hindii bool'taahuu./ Mãq hindii booltaa h££.
/?/: (¿k'jaa6™h pUs'tåkpå®H R‘'Hii&HÉ21Ú) /¿k'jaawah pus'takpa#h ra'hiihEE?/ Kyaa
wah pustak paóh rahii hae?
/÷/: (‚åb'mì™ ‚ål'dii ‚ål'dii bol'taa&Hu2 2Ú ap'meeRi 'baat n‘'Hii &s‘måCçtee3 3)
/Gab'míí Gal'dii Gal'dii bool'taahuu÷ aap'meerii 'baat na'hii samaGh'tee./ êab
mãq Àaldii-Àaldii booltaa h££, aap meerii baat nahii samaÀhtee.
û 10.4. Hindi preintonemes and intonemes.
/ / (2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2) /./ (2 ç 3 3)
/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2) /?/ (2 ' 2 1)
/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2) /÷/ (2 ç 2 2)
/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2) /,/ (2 ' 2)
Text
10.4.0. ˛e story †e North Wind and the Sun follows. According to the Pho-
netic method we start with the versions in Hindi pronunciation of (neutral Brit-
ish) English (the written text is given in § 2.5.2.0). ˛e Hindi translation follows,
in its neutral version.
tion of Hindi, by neutral British speakers, fluent in Hindi (after prolonged con-
and suprasegmental elements which are typical of neutral British English (for refer-
ence purposes, although, of course, a neutral accent is not so common). Obviously,
the same principle is valid for the foreign pronunciations of English, given first.
Speakers of American English could prepare their own version both of the Hin-
di pronunciation of English and of their pronunciation of Hindi, as an excellent
exercise, by listening to native speakers, best of all after recording them. Of course,
speakers of other languages could do the same thing. ˛e author would be happy
to receive their transcriptions and recordings, both in case of help –should they
need it– and to make their contribution known to others (possibly in our website
on canIPA Natural Phonetics – Ô § 0.12).
10. hindi 345
Hindi pronunciation (of English)
10.4.1. (d‘çnOR˛ '6INÃ2 End‘'sån2 6‘RÃIsçpãuu˛I˙ ç6IC 6åsd‘eß˛çRO˙–gåR3 3| ç6En

e˛'RE6‘&låR2 çkeem å'lO˙2 ìçREp ˛Ineç6åRm çklook3 3œ| deeåg'RiiÃ2\ dE˛d‘ç6ån HuuçååRß˛
såk'siiÃeÃ2 ImçmeekI˙ då˛'RE6‘&låR2 ç˛eek hIskçlook 'Oå2 2Ú| &SUÃ6ikånçsIÃeRÃ eß˛£RO˙g‘R
&dEndåçå–dåR3 3||
'dEn2 d‘çnOR˛ '6INÃ2 ç6luu2 Es'haåRÃ2 EshiçkUÃ3 3| &6å˛d‘çmOR Hi6'luu2 2Ú| d‘çmORk 'loos-
&li2 &ÃIÃd‘˛'RE6‘&låR2\ çåoolÃ HIskçlook ‘çRåuN&ÃIm3 3| ì&ENÃE˛'laåß˛2œ\ d‘çnOR˛ '6INÃ2 çgee6
çåp d‘‘ç˛Em˛3 3|| ì'dEn2œ d‘çsån çëOn çåu˛3 3 ìç6åRm–li3 3œ| &ENÃI'miiÃã‘˛&li2\ ˚d‘˛çRE6‘låR ç˛Uk
çOå3 3 ˚hIskçlook3 3|| ìEn'soo2œ d‘çnOR˛ '6INÃ2 6åzO6çlåië ˛uk‘M'åEs2| &dE˛d‘çsån3 3 6åzd‘eß˛-
çRO˙–gåR3 3 ì&O6d‘ç˛uu3 3œ||
¿&ÃIÃãu'låik21Ú ¿d‘eß'˛oo&Ri2| ¿&Ãuãuç6ON ˛uçHi‘RI˛ ‘'geen21Ú|||)
Hindi text
10.4.2. Uttarii hawaa aor suuraÀ is baat par Àhagaó rahee thee ki ham doonõõ
mqq zyaadaa balwaan kaon hae. Itnee mqq garam £oogaa pahnee eek musaafir udhar
aa niklaa. Hawaa aor suuraÀ doonõõ is baat par razii hoo gayee ki doonõõ mqq see
Àoo pahlee musaafir kaa £oogaa utarwaa deegaa wahii zyaadaa balwaan samÀhaa
Àaayeegaa.
Is par uttarii hawaa apnaa puuraa zoor lagaakar £alnee lagii. Leekin wah Àaesee
Àaesee apnaa zoor baóhaatii gayii waesee waesee musaafir apnee badan par £oogee koo
aor bhii zyaadaa kas kar lapee=taa gayaa. Ant mqq hawaa nee apnii koo∞i∞ band kar
dii. Phir suuraÀ teezii kee saath niklaa aor musaafir nee turant apnaa £oogaa utaar
diyaa. Is liyee hawaa koo maannaa paóaa ki un doonõõ mqq suuraÀ hii zyaadaa bal-
waan hae.
Kyaa tumhqq yah kahaanii a££hii lagii? Kyaa phir see sunaa££?
10.4.3. (&Utt‘çRii H‘'6aa2 ç∏øR çsuu–Rå‚2 2Ú| Is'baat2 &påR‚H‘'gå® R‘&Heçthee2 2Ú| ki'Håm
'doÚnÚ&me2| zçjaada bål'6aÅn2| çk∏9n–HÄ3 3|| It'nee&me2| gxçRåm Cooçgaa &pÄHÉçnee2 2Ú|
'eek2 mUçsaa&åIR2 2Ú| Ud'HåR2\ çaa nIkçlaa3 3|| H‘ç6aa2 2Ú| ç∏øR 'suu&Rå‚2| çdoÚnÚ2 2Ú Is'baat2
&påRRaçzii Hogxçjee2 2Ú|| kiçdoÚ&nÚ çmee&se2 2Ú &‚opåHçlee mU'saa&åIR2| &kaCoçgaa3 3| ìUçtåR-
6a deçgaa2 2Úœ|| 6ê'Hii2| zçjaada bål'6aÅn2 såm‚'Haa ‚aãeçgaa3 3||
çIs&påR2 2Ú| ì&Utt‘çRii H‘'6aa2œ åpçnaa çpuuRa 'zooR2 l‘çgaakåR Cålçnee l‘çgii3 3|| 'lee&kIn2|
'6ÄH2 ìç‚Ä™se '‚Ä™&se2 &åpnaçzooR2 2Ú\ bê®çHaati gxçjii2 2Úœ| ç6Ä™se '6Ä™&se2\ mU'saa&åIR2|
ìåpçnee bêçdåm 'påR2œ| çCooge 'koo2| ç∏øR bçHii zçjaada 'kås&kåR2| l‘çpee˛ta gxçjaa3 3||
çånt 'mee2| H‘ç6aÅne çåpni çkoo&ëIë2 2Ú| çbånd kåRçdii3 3|| p'hIR2| 'suu&Rå‚2 teçzii keçsaath
nIkçlaa3 3|| ç∏øR mUçsaaåIR 'nee2| çtURånt çåpna Coçgaa3 3 ìUçtaaR dIçjaa3 3œ| IsçlI&ãe2 2Ú| H‘-
ç6aa koçmaÅnna pê'®aa2| &kiUnçdoÚnÚ çmee2 2Ú| çsuuRå‚ 'Hii2 zçjaada bålç6aÅn–HÄ3 3||
¿çkjaa tUm'Hee2| ¿çjÄh kx'HaÅ&ni2 ¿åC:çhii l‘'gii21Ú| ¿çkjaa phIRçsee sU'naa&u21Ú|||)
English pronunciation of Hindi
10.4.4. (&¨TÈ5>I;i hÈ'wA:2 5aÖÈ 's¨È>ÈG32| ¤s'bA;T2 &pA;Gû5gA: &>åhÈ'Th™;I32| khIi5håm

'D‘¨n‘¨&m™In2| zi5A;DÈ bÈı'wA:n2| 'khaÖn&haÙ3 3|| ¤T'n™Im™In2| gû5>åm c‘¨'gA: &pπhÈ-
'n™;I32| 5™Ik mÈ'sA;f¤å32| ¨'DA:2\ 5A: n¤k'lA:3 3|| hÈ'wA:32| 5aÖÈ 's¨È>ÈG2| 'D‘¨n‘¨n32 ¤s'bA;T2 &på-
>È5zI;i &h‘¨gû'j™;I32|| khIi5D‘¨n‘¨n 'm™In&s™I32 &G‘¨pÈ5l™;I mÈ'sA;f¤å2| &khåcû'gA:3 3| ì¨-
5ThA;wû D™I'gA:32œ|| wû'hI;i2| zi5A;DÈ bÈı'wA:n2 såm5GA: GaÙû'gA:3 3||
'¤spA;32| ì&¨TÈ5>I;i hû'wA:2œ åp5nA: 'ph¨È>È 'zø:2 lû5gA;kû cÈı'n™;I lû'gI;i3 3|| 'l™Ik¤n2|
'wA:2 ì5GaÙs™I 'GaÙs™I2 &åpnÈ'zø:32\ bA;5hA;Ti gû'jI;i32œ| 5waÙs™I 'waÙs™I2\ mÈ'sA;f¤å2| ìåp-
5n™;I bÈ'Dåm 'phA:2œ| 5ch‘¨gû 'kh‘;¨2| 5aÖÈ 'bI;i zi'A;Dû 'khåskA;2| lÈ5ph™ITû gû'jA:3 3||
5ånT 'm™;In2| hû5wA;n™I 'åpni 'kh‘¨S¤S32| 5bå˙â kA;'DI;i3 3|| 'ph¤;å2| 's¨È>ÈG2 T™I5zI;i k™I'sA;T
n¤k'lA:3 3|| 5aÖÈ mÈ'sA;f¤È 'n™;I2| 5Th¨È>ÈnT 'åpnA; c‘¨'gA:3 3 ì¨5ThA: di'A:3 3œ| ¤s'lIi™I32| hû-
5wA: k‘¨'mA;nÈ pÈ'>A:2| &khIiÈn5D‘¨n‘¨n 'm™;In32| 5s¨È>ÈG 'hI;i2 zi5A;DÈ bÈı'wA:n&h™I3 3||
¿5khjA: T¨m'h™;In2| ¿5jA: kû'hA;ni2 ¿È5chI;i lû'gI;i21| ¿5khjA: &ph¤È's™;I sÈ'na;Ön21|||)
11. Chinese
11.0.1. We provide the modern neutral pronunciation of Mandarin Chinese

[pàto«huà /¶phu5thu˙6hwa/ (çp·u^thU,7˜wa), çcommon languageÇ, based on Pe-
kin{g}ese), by using the o‚cial transliteration [pinyin /5phin5jin/ (^p·I~5jIn)), but
accompanied by a careful phonetic transcription (which is necessary to show and
acquire a good pronunciation) and by a phonemic transcription (established ac-
cording to precise descriptive and teaching strategies).
Chinese has various (especially vocalic) taxophones and a syllabic structure with
definite phonotactic limitations. ˛erefore, in the presentation of phonemes it is
always useful to deal with all the various possible syllables, especially when they
have peculiar characteristics.
We maintain the criterion that Chinese syllables have a consonantal initial be-
fore a final element, which –in addition to a vocalic nucleus (/i, y, M, u÷ e, X, o÷
a/)– may have an intermediate consonantal element (/j, ¥, w/ i˚ ü˚ u) — a termi-
nal one (which can be vocalic: /i, e÷ u, o/; or consonantal: /n, ˙, >/).
11.0.2. We will see that Chinese syllables always begin with a contoid, even
when they lack a real initial. In the case of close vowels, //òi, òy, òu// (whereas /M/
only occurs after the initials /q[h], s/}, we actually have /ji, ¥y, wu/ (recognized by
pinyin too: yi˚ yu˚ wu).
˛e other vowels, /e, X, o, a/, are preceded by (ö) (or, but less advisably, by the
following voiced phones (y, H, r, «) – respectively, velar semi-approximant, {lenis}
laryngeal approximant, uvular tap, and semi-provelar nasal).
11.0.3. Let us observe that the Chinese phonetic çtraditionÇ still follows the
phonic çfantasiesÇ of the Swedish sinologist Karlgren, who thought that Mandarin
had two çretroflexÇ (or çapicalÇ) vowels, rendered with çq, QÇ. Actually, the former
is simply a back-central vocoid, (M) (where neither çretroflexionÇ nor the lamina
are active); the latter, on the other hand, is precisely a postalveolar approximant
contoid found in the initial (⁄) />/ r˚ changed into the corresponding intense
(çsyllabicÇ) contoid, (Ö). ˛e same çphonetic traditionÇ also lists another rare
çretroflex (mid) vowelÇ, rendered with çæ&Ç which in actual fact is just the sequence
(öX⁄) /X>/ er˘ It seems surprising, to say the least, that the Journal of the Internation-
al Phonetic Association has accepted and published (in 2003), as an çillustration of
the IPAÇ, a paper which still proposes çq, QÇ –although ipa-like masqueraded as ç(≥)Ç
in both cases!– by describing them as ç(apico-)laminal denti-alveolarÇ (where no
groove is rightly mentioned) and çapical post-alveolarÇ approximants respectively.
˛e latter is correctly described (¤ can(Ö)), while the former is still not (¤ can(¡));
there is a great (articulatory, auditory, and acoustic) di‡erence between (¡) and
(M).
Continuing our review of the peculiarities of this kind of phonetics çà la chi-

noiseÇ (done in China) and based on a çKarlgrenizedÇ pinyin, we will then see a
real phonetic transcription (whose appropriate symbols we will present here in
square brackets, ( )). In the West, some things can be rectified, but generally oth-
ers are messed up… ˛erefore, Mandarin would have seven vowels: first, i (i, I, ¤)
/i/, but with two additional çvariantsÇ –incorrectly placed among front vowels (be-
cause of the grapheme i]– èq¶ (M) /M/, in zi (qM) /qM/, ci (qhM) /qhM/, si (sM)
/sM/, and èQ¶ (Ö) /ˇ/, in ˜i (fiÖ) /fiˇ/, >i (fihÖ) /fihˇ/, í (ßÖ) /ßˇ/, ri (⁄Ö) />ˇ/; how-
ever, they are true phonemes, not çvariantsÇ. ˛en, ü (y, Y) /y/ and u (u, U) /u/,
with the additional çvariantÇ (y, Y) /y/, in yu˚ ju˚ qu˚ xu÷ where the only actual vari-
ant would be just the grapheme: u instead of ü˚ after çpalatalÇ consonantal graph-
emes, since –as a phoneme– /y/ is always /y/, irrespective of the way it is spelled.
11.0.4. Continuing, we have e (X, É, ‘, x, ∑) /X/, with its çvariantÇ (™) /e/, in con-
tact with /j, ¥, i/, and (É) in /ae/. But it is decidedly safer to consider /X/ and /e/ as
two separate phonemes, given the great phonetic di‡erence, because of interpho-
nemic reasons (even if, from an intraphonemic point of view, ¤ just within the
Chinese language, they could –or should– be considered as taxophones of the
same phoneme). In addition, o (ø, Ö) /o/, with its çvariantÇ (U) /u/ – which, on the
contrary, is a di‡erent phoneme. Instead, o –in contact with labials [mo˚ bo˚ po˚
fo˚ ou˚ wo/Cuo]– could be considered as a variant of /X/, as many Chinese phonolo-
gists do, by using ç(X, È)Ç. However, the occurrence of the syllables o˚ yo˚ lo (al-
though rare) requires that a phoneme /o/ is introduced, which will obviously oc-
cur near labials as well. ˛en we have a (a, Å, A) /a/, with its variants (jEn, ¥Än),
for ian˚ üan˘
≈nally, this phonetics çà la chinoiseÇ even has a çzero (graphic) vowelÇ, when
pinyin çsmartlyÇ economizes on vowels, by writing un for /wXn/ (w‘n), and iu for
/jou/ (jPU), ui for /wei/ (wÙI), where a vowel is definitely present, phonically! No
doubt, uen˚ iou˚ uei would have been much better. ˛anks to the use of diapho-
nemes, then, more realistically we will also have the diphthongs /ae, ao/ (ÅÉ, AÖ),
instead of a more abstract representation as /ai, au/: ai˚ ao (pinyin stays on the
fence: -i˚ -o)!
11.0.5. We will now present the o‚cial romanization. Starting from the (conso-
nantal) initials, which are 23 (with a double occurrence of y˚ with two di‡erent
values), we will not present them alphabetically, but by logical phonic groups, ac-
companied by their phonemic and çsimpleÇ phonetic transcriptions. ˛e latter is
çsimpleÇ, because it shows only one variant (whereas, below, we will provide all
necessary details):
b /p/ (p), p /ph/ (ph), m /m/ (m), f /f/ (f)÷
d /t/ (t), t /th/ (th), n /n/ (n), z /q/ (q), c /qh/ (qh), s /s/ (s), l /l/ (l)÷
˜ /fi/ (fi), > /fih/ (fih), ´ /ß/ (ß), r />/ (⁄)÷
j /q/ (Â), q /qh/ (Âh), x /s/ (¿)÷
g /k/ (k), k /kh/ (kh), h /h/ (˜)÷
w /w/ (w), y /j/ (j) “ /¥/ (¥).
11. chinese 349
11.0.6. ˛e finals are 39 (with a triple occurrence of i˚ with three di‡erent val-
ues). ˛ey are presented according to their graphic syllabic nucleus. ˛is time,
they are given in alphabetical order, even in the seven cases where the romaniza-
tion has not been a happy one (as we will show in >ç Ç≥). Also the exclamations e
/e/ (™), yo /jo/ (jø) occur (with various tonemes, including çzeroÇ). ˛e three finals
which do not occur without an initial are marked with an asterisk (*):
å
a /aò/ (a), ia˚ òya /jaò/ (ja), ua˚ òwa /waò/ (wa)÷
ai /ae/ (ÅÉ), uai˚ òwai /wae/ (waÉ)÷ yai /jae/ (sole word, yái)
an /an/ (Ån), ian˚ òyan /jan/ (jEn), uan˚ òwan /wan/ (wÅn), üan˚ òyuan (j/q/x +
uan) /¥an/ (¥Än)÷
a« /a˙/ (a,), ia«˚ òya« /ja˙/ (ja,), ua«˚ òwa« /wa˙/ (wA,)÷
ao /ao/ (AÖ), iao˚ òyao /jao/ (jaÖ).
™
e /Xò/ (X, Xx|, ’x|), ie˚ òye /jeò/ (j™), üe˚ òyue (j/q/x + ue) /¥eò/ (¥™)÷
ei* /ei/ (™I) {(ÉI)}, en /Xn/ (Én), er /X>/ (X⁄)÷
e«* /X˙/ (x,), ue«˚ òwe« /wX˙/ (w∑,) {(wø,)}.
¤
i /iò, òjiò/ (i, ji), (s-/z-/c-) /Mò/ (M) > ï (with ü]≥, (´-/˜-/>-) /ˇò/ (Ö) > ï ≥÷
in˚ òyin /in/ (In, òjIn)÷ i«˚ òyi« /i˙/ (¤˙, òj¤˙)÷
ui˚ òwei /wei/ (wÙI) {(w¤i)} > uei ≥.
ø
o /oò/ (ø, øx|), ou /ou/ (øU) {(∑U)}, uo˚ òwo /woò/ (wø, wøx|) {(w∑, w∑x)}÷
o«* /u˙/ (U,) > u« ≥, io«˚ òyo« /ju˙/ (jU,) {(¥U,)} > iu«˚ yu« ≥.
¨
u˚ òwu /uò, òwuò/ (u, wu)÷ ü˚ òyu (j/q/x + u) /yò, ò¥yò/ (y, ò¥y)÷
un˚ òwen /wXn/ (w‘n) > uen ≥; ün˚ òyun (j/q/x + un) /yn, ò¥yn/ ([ò¥]Yn) {([ò]¥In,
[òj]Yn)}÷
iu˚ òyou /jou/ (jPU) {(jü)} > iou ≥.
Vowels
11.1.1. In our analysis, Chinese has eight vowel phonemes: /i, y, M, u÷ e, X, o÷

a/ (û 11.1). Instead, û 11.2.å-∫ show the thirteen taxophones (¤ contextual allo-
phones – grey markers), which are very important for a good neutral pronuncia-
tion of Mandarin Chinese.
On the other hand, û 11.8 presents the most recommendable realizations for
an çinternationalÇ pronunciation, which is slightly simplified, but not distorted.
Of course, this çinternationalÇ pronunciation will not use the realizations shown
in û 11.2-7, which however are very important, because the foreign speakers who
can recognize them will be greatly helped in better understanding spoken Chinese
(though they need not be able to use actively those shown in û 11.6-7).
Let us start then, by systematically considering each phoneme, with all the taxo-
phones belonging to neutral pronunciation (indicating some possible phonetic

variant as well, again more to for recognition than for actual use, û 11.4).
11.1.2. We first find the close front phoneme, /i/: /[òj]i, [òj]in, [òj]i˙/ ([òj]i, [òj]In,
[òj]¤,) (C/y)i˚ (C/y)in˚ (C/y)i«\ (5ji) /5ji/ yi˚ ([~ii) /¶ni/ n`˚ (4jIn) /•jin/ yìn˚ (5ÂIn)
/5qin/ jin˚ (7j¤¥) /6ji˙/ yí«˚ (5Â¤,) /5qi˙/ ji«˘
˛e close front-central rounded, /y/, has a fairly limited distribution, ju˚ qu˚ xu˚
yu˚ nü˚ lü (with or without -n), /[¥]y, [¥]yn/ (¥y, ¥Yn) [variants with -n˚ (¥In, jYn)]:
(5Ây) /5qy/ ju˚ ([Â·yy) /¶qhy/ qà˚ (7¿y) /6sy/ xú˚ ([¥yy) /¶¥y/ yà˚ (5ÂYn, 5Â¥In)
/5qyn/ jun˚ (4Â·Yn, 4Â·¥In) /•qhyn/ qùn˚ (7¿Yc, 7¿¥Ic) /6syn/ xún˚ (4¥Yn, 4¥In,
4jYn) /•¥yn/ yùn˘
More conveniently, pinyin could have used çzü˚ cü˚ sü˚ yüÇ, by phonemically in-
terpreting these syllables as we do: (Ây, Âhy, ¿y) /qy, qhy, sy/. It could also have
avoided introducing an allograph without dieresis, by using yü for o‚cial yu (¥y)
/¥y/ as well. Indeed, /¥y/ could even be /jy/; but since the phoneme /¥/ is present,
it is more adequate to use it. In this way, as it seems convenient, it could also be
used to show –even phonemically– the possible oscillations between (¥Yn, jYn,
¥In): /¥yn/, and ç/jyn, ¥in/Ç). ˛erefore, it could have been possible to write
çz/c/siu«Ç, instead of the o‚cial j/q/xio« for (ÂjU,, ÂhjU,, ¿jU,) /qju˙, qhju˙,
sju˙/ (thus also è-u«¶˚ instead of the o‚cial -o« for (0U,) /0u˙/).
11.1.3. ˛en we find the close back-central (without lip rounding!), /M/, which
only occurs in /qM, qhM, sM/ (qM, qhM, sM) zi˚ ci˚ si\ (7qœ) /6qM/ zí˚ (4q·M)
/•qhM/ cì˚ (5sM) /5sM/ si (but we could extend its use to a sequence like ç/M>/Ç, in
place of /ˇ/, for /fiˇ, fihˇ, ßˇ, >ˇ/ (fiÖ, fihÖ, ßÖ, ⁄Ö) ˜i˚ >i˚ í˚ ri\ ([fiÎÎ) /¶fiˇ/ ˜`˚
(5fi·Ö) /5fihˇ/ >i˚ (4ßÖ) /•ßˇ/ ´ì˚ (7⁄Î) /6>ˇ/ rí]˘
˛e last close phoneme is back rounded, /u/ (u, U), and we are obliged to use
two di‡erent graphemes, because of the nature of pinyinization: u˚ o« (instead of
a more logical u«]\ ([wuu) /¶wu/ wà˚ (4lu) /•lu/ lù˚ (5kU,) /5ku˙/ go«˚ (7fiU¥) /6fiu˙/
˜ò«˘
û 11.1. Mandarin vowels.

/[òj]iò/ ([òj]i) (òy)i /M/ (M) (z/c/s)i
/[ò¥]yò/ ([ò¥]y) (l/n)ü˚ yu (“ j/q/x + u] /[òw]uò/ ([òw]u) (òw)u
/Xò/ (X, Xx|) (ò)e˚ /X>/ (X⁄) (ò)er
/jeò/ (j™) ie˚ òye /[w]oò/ ([w]ø, [w]øx|) (u)o˚ ò(w)o
/¥eò/ (¥™) (l/n)üe˚ òyue (“ j/q/x + ue]
/aò/ (a) (ò)a÷ /jaò/ (ja) ia˚ òya÷ /waò/ (wa) ua˚ òwa
11.1.4. ˛e inventory of the vowels of neutral Chinese continues with three

mid vowels. We always find /e/ (™) e in the sequences /jeò, ¥eò/ (j™, ¥™) ye/Cie˚
yue/Cüe\ (4j™) /•je/ yé˚ (5tj™) /5tje/ die˚ ([¿¥™™) /¶s¥e/ xu‘˚ (7¥™) /6¥e/ yuè.
˛en, /X/, with the following distribution /Xò, X>, [w]Xn, [w]X˙/ (öX[x|], öX⁄, Én,
11. chinese 351
w‘n, x,, w∑,) e˚ er˚ en˚ un/wen˚ e«˚ ue«/we«. ˛e last one has the variant (wø,)
(which, if necessary, could be indicated as /wo˙/): (7ö$[*|]) /6X/ è˚ (5öÉn) /5Xn/ en˚
(4öX⁄) /•X>/ ér˚ (7fËc) /6fXn/ fèn˚ ([w‘‘c) /¶wXn/ w‘n˚ (7f*¥) /6fX˙/ fè«˚ (5w∑,÷ 5wø,)
/5wX˙/ we«˚ (7w≤¥÷ 7wø¥) /6wX˙/ wè«˘
≈nally, we have /o/ (öø[x|]) o˚ which can occur in the syllables /o, jo/ (ø[x|], jø[x|]),
in addition to normal /mo, po, pho, [0]wo/ ([ø[x|], (ø[x|], (hø[x|], [0]wø[x|]), mo˚
bo˚ po˚ wo/Cuo\ (5[ø[x|]) /5mo/ mo˚ (4(ø[x|]) /•po/ bó˚ (7(·ø[*|]) /6pho/ pò˚ ([wøø,
[wø*|) /¶wo/ wœ˚ (5fiwø) /5fiwo/ ˜uo˚ (ÒÃ,5jø) /•ha˙5jo/ há«yo˚ (7öø[*|]) /6o/ ò! ‹en
final, before a pause, /X, o/ normally have the accompaniment (x), as can be seen from
various examples. Instead of /mo, po, pho/, we could even pose /mwo, pwo, phwo/,
for ([ø[x|], (ø[x|], (hø[x|]), while maintaining /mou, phou/ (møU, phøU) (/pou/
does not occur), by dissimilation.
11.1.5. Lastly, we find the open vowel, /a/, with its distributions and various
taxophones, /[0]aò, jan, ¥an, [w/0]an, [j]a˙, wa˙/ (öa, jEn, ¥Än, [w/0]Ån, [j]a,, wA,):
(5öa&ëa) /5aqa/ aza˚ (7t·a) /6tha/ tà˚ (4jEn) /•jan/ yán˚ ([tjEEc) /¶tjan/ di∑n˚ (7¥Éc)
/6¥an/ yuàn˚ (5Â·¥Än) /5qh¥an/ quan˚ ([öÅÅc) /¶an/ ∑n˚ (4p·Ån) /•phan/ pán˚ (4p·a,)
/•pha˙/ pá«˚ ([wÅÅc) /¶wan/ w∑n˚ (5ja,) /5ja˙/ ya«˚ ([wAA¥) /¶wa˙/ w∑«˘
û 11.2.å. Important taxophones.
/[òj]in/ ([òj]In) (òy)in /[ò¥]yn/ ([ò¥]Yn) {([ò]¥In), [òj]Yn)} yun

(“ j/q/x + un, “ lün)
/Xn/ (Én) (ò)en
/jan/ (jEn) ian˚ òyan /wXn/ (w‘n) un˚ òwen
/¥an/ (¥Än) yuan
(“ + j/q/x + un, “ lüan] /[w]an/ ([w]Ån) (u)an˚ ò(w)an
û 11.2.∫. Further important taxophones.
/u˙/ (U,) ong

/[òj]i˙/ ([òj]¤,) (òy)ing /ju˙/ (jU˙) {(¥U,)} iong˚ òyong
{/[w]oò/ ([w]∑, [w]∑x|) (u)o˚ ò(w)o]
/X˙/ (x,) eng /’Xò|/ (x) e /wX˙/ (w∑,) {(wø,)} ueng˚ òweng
/[j]a˙/ ([j]a,) (i)ang˚ ò(y)ang /wa˙/ (wA,) uang˚ òwang
Diphthongs
11.1.6. Moving to diphthongs (Ô û 11.3), we have /[w]ei, [w]ae, [j]ao, [j]ou/ (™I,
wÙI, ÅÉ, waÉ, jaÖ, AÖ, øU, jPU) ei˚ ui˚ (u)ai˚ (i)ao˚ ou˚ iu÷ for /[w]ei, [j]ou/ there are
also the possible variants (shown in û 11.4, which are not necessary for a good
pronunciation, and will be given only here), (ÉI, w¤i, ∑U, jü): (5f™I÷ 5fÉI) /5fei/ fei˚
(5twÙI÷ 5tw¤i) /5twei/ dui˚ ([öÅÅË) /¶ae/ ∑i˚ (7waË) /6wae/ wài˚ ([öAAÖ) /¶ao/ ∑o˚ ([ÃAÖ)
/¶hao/ h∑o˚ (4jaÖ) /•jao/ yáo˚ (5öøU÷ 5ö∑U) /5ou/ Ou˚ ([møøU÷ [m≤≤U) /¶mou/ mœu˚
(5tjPU÷ 5tjü) /5tjou/ diu˘
û 11.3. Mandarin diphthongs.
/wei/ (wÙI) ui˚ òwei /jou/ (jPU) iu˚ òyou

/ei/ (™I) ei /ou/ (øU) (ò)ou
/ae/ (ÅÉ) (ò)ai /jao/ (jaÖ) iao˚ òyao
/wae/ (waÉ) uai˚ òwai /ao/ (AÖ) (ò)ao
û 11.4. Possible diphthong variants.
{/wei/ (w¤i) ui˚ òwei] {/jou/ (jü) iu˚ òyou]
{/ei/ (ÉI) ei] {/ou/ (∑U) (ò)ou]
Vowels with final in />/ (⁄) -r
11.1.7. ˛is characteristic is typical of Peking (Beijing). It enjoys prestige, but

is not completely accepted into neutral language, pàto«huà, although it is regular-
ly indicated in dictionaries and grammars. Actually, the Pekinese themselves often
try to avoid it; whereas the other Chinese (whether Mandarin or non-Mandarin)
have not fully master of its use, fluctuating considerably.
However, its true and genuine distribution shows very substantial neutraliza-
tions, since the segments that actually occur (besides /ˇ/, preceded by /fi[h]-, ß-, >-/:
(fiÖ, fihÖ, ßÖ, ⁄Ö) ˜i˚ >i˚ í˚ ri, already seen in § 11.1.3) are /X>, X˙>, a>, a˙>/ (X⁄,
≈⁄, å⁄, ˙⁄), as shown in û 11.5 (which includes (öX⁄) /X>/ er˚ § 1.4). ˛ey are repre-
sented in pinyin either by e(n)r˚ e«r˚ a(n)r˚ a«r˚ or by the original syllables with
the addition of -r˚ although their pronunciation is reduced to the four already seen,
which can be preceded by the middle consonants /j, ¥, w/, often deriving from
original /i, y, u/. Let us see at once the four types: (5kX⁄) /5kX>/ ger˚ ([p$$Y) /¶pX>/
b‘nr˚ (4˜≈⁄) /•hX˙>/ hé«r˚ ([nååY) /¶na>/ n∑r˚ (7påY) /6pa>/ bànr˚ (5q˙⁄) /5qa˙>/
za«r÷ (5˜wå⁄) /5hwa>/ huar˚ (7mjåY) /6mja>/ miànr˘
We will now consider those with etymological writing, but which are always re-
alized as /X>, X˙>, a>, a˙>/ (X⁄, ≈⁄, å⁄, ˙⁄), preceded –or not– by /j, ¥, w/ (some-
times /¥, w/ correspond to ü and u/o]\ (4p·å⁄) /•pha>/ páir˚ (7Â·¥$Y) /6qh¥X>/ qúr˚
(7ßw$Y) /6ßwX>/ ´úr˚ (7q·$Y) /6qhX>/ cír˚ ([q$$Y) /¶qX>/ z`r˚ (5kwå⁄) /5kwa>/ guanr˚
(5kw≈⁄) /5kwX˙>/ go«r˚ (5sw‘n&~¥X⁄, -~&~-) /5swXnn¥X>/ sunnür˚ (4¿i&fwX⁄) /•sifwX>/
xìfur˚ (^fiÖ4ljX⁄) /5fiˇ•ljX>/ ˜iliùr˚ (4ÂjX⁄) /•qjX>/ jiér˚ (5ã2bå[t·w$$Y) /5hapa¶thwX>/
habatu`r˚ (7tU¥œ¸j<Y) /6tu˙qjX˙>/ dò«ji«r˚ (7j$Y) /6jX>/ yínr˚ ([s$$Y) /¶sX>/ s`r˚ (5˜X⁄)
11. chinese 353
/5hX>/ heir˚ (5t·jå⁄) /5thja>/ tianr˚ (4mjå⁄) /•mja>/ miáor˚ (7q·w$Y) /6qhwX>/ cuòr˚
(4t·wX⁄) /•thwX>/ tóur˚ (^ßÅm5p·wX⁄) /5ßan5phwX>/ ánpor˘
û 11.5. Vowels with />/ (⁄) -r.
/X>/ (X⁄) -e(n)r…

/X˙>/ (≈⁄) -engr…
/a>/ (å⁄) -a(n)r…
/a˙>/ (˙⁄) -angr…
11.1.8. O‚cial orthography separates the forms which in Chinese characters

are çnormalÇ plus ér˘ ˛erefore, non-Mandarin people tend to pronounce the two
syllables separated and with their tones (as in a sort of çinternationalÇ Mandarin).
In addition, many non-Pekinese Mandarin people join the two syllables into one,
but with less neutralizations. Hence, besides the four genuine syllables (with or
without middle consonants), we can also find the following ones, excluding those
with front close vowels, /i, y/ (i, I, ¤÷ y, Y), that articulatorily do not adapt to (⁄),
which is postalveolar. ˛us, we mark them with an asterisk, to advise that, al-
though it is possible to hear them pronounced in that way by Chinese people, they
do not fall within neutral pronunciation: *(7ßuY) /6ßwX>/ ´úr˚ *(5kU⁄÷ 5kÚ⁄)
/5kwX˙>/ go«r˚ *(4¿i&fu⁄) /•sifwX>/ xìfur˚ *(^fiÖ4ljPU⁄÷ -4ljü⁄) /5fiˇ•ljX>/ ˜iliùr˚
*(4Âj™⁄÷ 4ÂjÉ⁄) /•qjX>/ jiér˚ *(5ãbå[t·wÙÙY) /5hapa¶thwX>/ habatu`r˚ *(5˜™⁄÷ 5˜É⁄)
/5hX>/ heir˚ *(4mjaÖ⁄) /•mja>/ miáor˚ *(7q·wøY÷ 7q·w≤Y) /6qhwX>/ cuòr˚ *(4t·øU⁄÷
4t·∑U⁄) /•thwX>/ tóur˚ *(^ßÅm5p·ø⁄) /5ßan5phwX>/ ánpor˘ In any case, of course,
these pronunciations are not to be imitated.
Vowel reductions
11.1.9. In syllables with neuter/zero tonemes (Ô § 11.3.3.4), some timbric re-

ductions occur (together with shortenings), mainly in di‡erent positions from
word-final ones, or in intonemes. As a matter of fact, in actual language, apart
from in slow and accurate speech, some neutralizations occur too. It is fundamen-
tal to know them, at least to understand spoken Chinese (well). ˛ey need not be
used actively, although an appropriate use of them decidedly improves pronuncia-
tion. In order to adequately show the behavior of di‡erent unstressed syllables (for
vowel, consonant, and pitch reductions), sometimes we also had to use rare words,
rather than omitting something significant.
û 11.6 shows the most important reductions, which actually occur in non-tonic
syllables (¤ in the real sense of çdeprived of any of the four basic tonemesÇ, Ô §
11.3.3.1-3). ˛e examples given are to be interpreted as in a sort of decreasing scale,
starting from a prepausal position, in an intoneme (for the first variants), up to
modifications produced within a sentence, in a preintoneme (for the others). As
can be seen, (¤) applies to /i[n/˙], y[n]/: (7tiœ∂i), (-3d¤) /6titi/ dídi˚ (5kwÅ~&ñi), (-3B¤)
/5kwansi/ guanxi˚ (7¿jaœ¸y), (-3¸i, -3©¤) /6sjaqy/ xiàqu÷ and (û), to /M[>], u[˙]/: (7ji-
œΩœ), (-3zŒ) /6jisM/ yísi˚ (7⁄Ë∫œËÎ), (-3ΩŒ) /6>Xnßˇ/ rèní˚ (5ßu&Ñu), (-vû) /5ßufu/ úfu˘
û 11.6. Reductions in syllables with çzeroÇ tones (in quick speech, not in an intoneme; where-
as, in an intoneme, the distinct timbers of û 11.1-3 are used).
/i, y/ (¤) /M, u/ (û)

/Xn, e/ (È), /[w]ei/ ([j]È¤) /X[˙], o/ (X), /[j]ou/ ([ã]X¨)
/a[n]/ (å[n]), /[w]ae/ ([j]åÉ) /a˙/ (√,), /[j]ao/ ([ã]√Ö)
11.1.10. In addition, we have (È), for /[j/¥]e, [w]Xn/, and (È¤) for /[w]ei/: ([Âj™™-
^©ã™), (-1©ã™, -1©ãÈ) /¶qjeqje/ ji‘jie˚ (7öÅËœ⁄Ëc), (-3⁄Ëc, -3⁄Èc) /6ae>Xn/ àiren˚ (7m™I-
œm™I), (-3mÈ¤) /6meimei/ mèimei÷ then (X), for /X, [w]X˙, [w]o/, and ([j]X¨), for
/[j]ou/: (5kX&âX), (-2gX) /5kXkX/ gege˚ (çt¤¥^2X), (-1"X) /¶ti˙fiX/ d`«˜e˚ (5¿jEN&Ëx,),
(-2ΩX,) /5sjanßX˙/ xiané«˚ (7Âj™œm$), (-3m$) /6qjemo/ jièmo˚ (çnwÅ©^∆jø), (-1hjX)
/¶nwanhwo/ nu∑nhuo˚ (7¥U¥œ∂øU), (-3d$¨) /6¥u˙tou/ yò«tou˚ (4p·x,&jøU), (-2ãX¨)
/•phX˙jou/ pé«you˘
Lastly, we have: (å) in /a[n], [w]a, [w]ae/: (7paœÊa), (-3bå) /6papa/ bàba˚ (5ma&ma),
(-2må) /5mama/ mama˚ (ç¿i^∆wan), (-1hjån) /¶sihwan/ x`huan˚ (7t·ÅËœthaË), (-3tåË)
/6thaethae/ tàitai÷ and (√) in /a˙, [j]ao/: ([wÅÅ∫^Ëa,), (-1Ω√,) /¶wanßa˙/ w∑ná«˚
(5fiÖ&∂AÖ), (-2d√Ö) /5fiˇtao/ ˜idao˘
û 11.7. Further reductions in syllables with çzeroÇ tones (in even quicker speech, not in an
intoneme; then, in an intoneme, the realizations of û 11.6 are also possible).
/i, y, M[>], u/ (¢)

/ae/ (É), /ja/ (jÉ) /ou, uo, ao/ (∑)
/X, -X-÷ a, -a-/ (‘)
11.1.11. In û 11.7 other attenuations are shown, or neutralizations too, which

are possible in even faster –but still çnormal and genuineÇ– speech.
We find (¢) for /i, y, M, u÷ >/ (z/c/s˚ ˜/>/´)i˚ ü˚ u\ (7tiœ∂i), (-3d¤, -3d^) /6titi/ dídi˚
(5kwÅ~&ñi), (-2B¤, -2B^) /5kwansi/ guanxi˚ (7¿jaœ¸y), (-3©i, -3©¤, -3©^) /6sjaqy/ xiàqu˚
(7jiœΩœ), (-3zŒ, -3z^) /6jisM/ yísi˚ (7⁄Ë∫œËÎ), (-3ΩŒ, -3Ω^) /6>Xnßˇ/ rèní˚ (5ßu&Ñu), (-2vŒ, -2v^)
/5ßufu/ úfu÷ and (∑) for /ou, uo, ao/: (çnwÅ©^∆wø), (-1hjX, -1h∑) /¶nwanhwo/ nu∑n-
huo˚ (7¥U¥œ∂øU), (-3d$¨, -3d≤) /6¥u˙tou/ yò«tou˚ (4p·x,&jøU), (-2ãX¨, -2ã∑) /•phX˙jou/
pé«you˚ (5fiÖ&∂AÖ), (-2d√Ö, -2d∑) /5fiˇtao/ ˜idao˘
11. chinese 355
Besides, (É) in /ae, ja/ (É, ãÉ): (7t·ÅËœthÅË), (-3tåË, -3tË) /6thaethae/ tàitai˚ (4⁄É~-
&¸ãa), (-2©ãå, -2©ãÉ) /•>Xnqja/ rénjia÷ and (‘) for /X/ an for any other /a/ a: (5kX&âX),
(-2g‘) /5kXkX/ gege˚ (çt¤¥^ËX), (-1Ω‘) /¶ti˙ßX/ d`«˜e˚ (7öÅËœ⁄*c), (-3⁄‘c) /6ae>Xn/ àiren˚
(5¿jEN&Ëx,), (-2Ω‘,) /5sjanßX˙/ xiané«˚ (7paœÊa), (-3bå, -3b‘) /6papa/ bàba˚ (5maœma),
(-3må, -3m‘) /5mama/ mama˚ (ç¿i^∆wan), (-1hjån, -1hj‘n, -1hÏn) /¶sihwan/ x`huan˚
(çwÅ∫^Ëa,), (-1Ωå,, -1Ω‘,) /¶wanßa˙/ w∑ná«˘
£International Mandarin∞ vowels
11.1.12. û 11.8 shows the vowel realizations that are su‚cient for an çinterna-
tionalÇ pronunciation of Chinese, without taxophones (thus, without either atten-
uations or neutralizations such as those given in û 11.6-7; equally, we do not even
mark creaky voice, which is çsuperfluousÇ in an international kind of pronuncia-
tion). So we have only eight monophthongs (and four diphthongs, obtained by
combining five of the eight basic ones). ˛ey are a satisfactory result, once (M, x)
have been learned.
˛erefore, we have: (5ji) /5ji/ yi˚ ([~ii) /¶ni/ n`˚ (•jin) /•jin/ yìn˚ (5Âin) /5qin/ jin˚
(7ji˙) /6ji˙/ yí«˚ (5Âi˙) /5qi˙/ ji«˘
˛en: (5Ây) /5qy/ ju˚ ([Âhyy) /¶qhy/ qà˚ (7¿y) /6sy/ xú˚ ([¥yy) /¶¥y/ yà˚ (5Âyn)
/5qyn/ jun˚ (•Âhyn) /•qhyn/ qùn˚ (7¿yn) /6syn/ xún˚ (•¥yn) /•¥yn/ yùn˘
Besides: ([wuu) /¶wu/ wà˚ (•lu) /•lu/ lù˚ (5ku˙) /5ku˙/ go«˚ (7fiu˙) /6fiu˙/ ˜ò«
(•j™) /•je/ yé˚ (5tj™) /5tje/ die˚ (7¥™) /6¥e/ yuè˚ ([¿¥™™) /¶s¥e/ xu‘÷ and (7öx) /6X/ è˚ (5öxn)
/5Xn/ en˚ (•öX⁄) /•X>/ ér˚ (7fxn) /6fXn/ fèn˚ ([wxxn) /¶wXn/ w‘n˚ (7fx˙) /6fX˙/ fè«˚ (5wx˙)
/5wX˙/ we«˚ (7wx˙) /6wX˙/ wè«˘
More: (5mø) /5mo/ mo˚ (•pø) /•po/ bó˚ (7phø) /6pho/ pò˚ ([wøø) /¶wo/ wœ˚ (5fiwø)
/5fiwo/ ˜uo˚ (Òha˙5jø) /•ha˙5jo/ há«yo˚ (7öø) /6o/ ò! and (5öa&qa) /5aqa/ aza˚ (7tha)
/6tha/ tà˚ (•jan) /•jan/ yán˚ ([tjaan) /¶tjan/ di∑n˚ (7¥an) /6¥an/ yuàn˚ (5Âh¥an)
/5qh¥an/ quan˚ ([öaan) /¶an/ ∑n˚ (•phan) /•phan/ pán˚ (•pha˙) /•pha˙/ pá«˚ ([waan)
/¶wan/ w∑n˚ (5ja˙) /5ja˙/ ya«˚ ([waa˙) /¶wa˙/ w∑«˘
11.1.13. And with />/: ([fiÖÖ) /¶fiˇ/ ˜`˚ (5fihÖ) /5fihˇ/ >i˚ (•ßÖ) /•ßÖ/ ´ì˚ (7⁄Ö) /6>ˇ/
rí÷ (5kx⁄) /5kX>/ ger˚ ([pxx⁄) /¶pX>/ b‘nr˚ (•h≈⁄) /•hX˙>/ hé«r˚ ([naa⁄) /¶na>/ n∑r˚
(7pa⁄) /6pa>/ bànr˚ (5qÅ⁄) /5qa˙>/ za«r÷ (5hwa⁄) /5hwa>/ huar˚ (7mja⁄) /6mja>/
miànr÷ and (•pha⁄) /•pha>/ páir˚ (7Âh¥x⁄) /6qh¥X>/ qúr˚ (7ßwx⁄) /6ßwX>/ ´úr˚
(7qhx⁄) /6qhX>/ cír˚ ([qxx⁄) /¶qX>/ z`r˚ (5kwa⁄) /5kwa>/ guanr˚ (5kw≈⁄) /5kwX˙>/
go«r˚ (5swxn&n¥x⁄) /5swXnn¥X>/ sunnür˚ (•¿i&fwx⁄) /•sifwX>/ xìfur˚ (^fiÖ•ljx⁄) /5fiˇ-
•ljX>/ ˜iliùr˚ (•Âjx⁄) /•qjX>/ jiér˚ (^ha2pa[thwxx⁄) /5hapa¶thwX>/ habatu`r˚ (7tu˙-
œÂj≈⁄) /6tu˙qjX˙>/ dò«ji«r˚ (7jx⁄) /6jX>/ yínr˚ ([sxx⁄) /¶sX>/ s`r˚ (5hx⁄) /5hX>/ heir˚
(5thja⁄) /5thja>/ tianr˚ (•mja⁄) /•mja>/ miáor˚ (7qhwx⁄) /6qhwX>/ cuòr˚ (•thwx⁄)
/•thwX>/ tóur˚ (^ßam5phwx⁄, -n5p-) /5ßan5phwX>/ ánpor˘
For diphthongs, we have: (5f™i) /5fei/ fei˚ (5tw™i) /5twei/ dui˚ ([öaa™) /¶ae/ ∑i˚
(7wa™) /6wae/ wài˚ ([öaaø) /¶ao/ ∑o˚ ([haaø) /¶hao/ h∑o˚ (•jaø) /•jao/ yáo˚ (5öøu) /5ou/
Ou˚ ([møøu) /¶mou/ mœu˚ (5tjøu) /5tjou/ diu˘
11.1.14. In a type of çinternationalÇ pronunciation, even vowel reductions are

not so necessary; thus (fairly safely) we have: (7ti3ti) /6titi/ dídi˚ (5kwa~&¿i, -n&¿i)
/5kwansi/ guanxi˚ (7¿jaœÂy) /6sjaqy/ xiàqu÷ and (7jiœsM) /6jisM/ yísi˚ (7⁄xNœßÖ, -nœßÖ)
/6>Xnßˇ/ rèní˚ (5ßu&fu) /5ßufu/ úfu˚ ([Âj™™^Âj™) /¶qjeqje/ ji‘jie˚ (7öa™œ⁄xn) /6ae>Xn/
àiren˚ (7m™iœm™i) /6meimei/ mèimei.
In addition: (5kx&kx) /5kXkX/ gege˚ (çti˙^fix) /¶ti˙fiX/ d`«˜e˚ (5¿jaN&ßx˙, -n&ßx˙)
/5sjanßX˙/ xiané«˚ (7Âj™œmø) /6qjemo/ jièmo˚ (çnwa˙^hwø, çnwan-) /¶nwanhwo/
nu∑nhuo˚ (7¥u˙œtøu) /6¥u˙tou/ yò«tou˚ (•phx˙&jøu) /•phX˙jou/ pé«you÷ also (7pa-
œpa) /6papa/ bàba˚ (5ma&ma) /5mama/ mama˚ (ç¿i^hwan) /¶sihwan/ x`huan˚ (7tha™-
œtha™) /6thaethae/ tàitai÷ and (çwaN^ßa˙, -n^ßa˙) /¶wanßa˙/ w∑ná«˚ (5fiÖ&taø) /5fiˇ-
tao/ ˜idao˘
û 11.8. çInternational Mandarin ChineseÇ vowels.
/i[n/˙]/ ([òj]i[n/˙]) /M/ (M)
/y[n]/ ([ò¥]y, [ò¥]yn) /u/ ([òw]u), /[j]u˙/ ([j]u˙)
/je/ (j™), /¥e/ (¥™), /[w]ei/ ([w]™i) /X/ (x), /[w]Xn/ ([w]xn), /[w]X˙/ ([w]x˙)
/[w]o/ ([w]ø), /[j]ou/ ([j]øu)
/[j/¥/w]a[n/˙], [w]ae, [j]ao/
([j/¥/w]a[n/˙], [w]a™, [j]aø)
Consonants
11.2.0. ˛e consonant system of (Mandarin) Chinese has some interesting pe-

culiarities, as we will see, including some alternative possibilities of phonemic anal-
ysis. ˛e most important one regards the choice on the phonemic status of (Â,
Âh, ¿); in fact, pinyin has chosen their ço‚cialÇ acknowledgement –as j˚ q˚ x– to
the detriment of vowels, which are rendered as i˚ u˚ after (Â, Âh, ¿), with the fol-
lowing values: /i, y÷ j, ¥/. On the contrary, it would have been su‚cient to system-
atically use ï˚ ü (instead of fluctuating between yu˚ ju˚ qu˚ xu and nü˚ lü] – that is
always yü˚ jü˚ qü˚ xü˚ nü˚ lü (all the more so because with nü˚ lü both a dieresis and
tone-accents must be used). Besides, zï˚ cï˚ sï˚ (fiM, fihM, ßM) would have been use-
ful as well, by producing even greater coherence (which is always useful). Conse-
quently, also ˜ï˚ >ï˚ ´ï˚ rï ought to have been used (instead of the pinyin o‚cial
˜i˚ >i˚ í˚ ri]˚ with the value of (fiÖ, fihÖ, ßÖ, ⁄Ö).
At this point, having seen the vowel phonemic inventory (which we have estab-
lished, Ô § 11.1.1-5), it is obvious that our analysis prefers to consider (Â, Âh, ¿)
as the result of the assimilation of /q, qh, s/ in contact with /i, y÷ j, ¥/. All this, of
course, is irrespective of morphological considerations, which are lexically derived,
since they are not at all absolute (rather, they are quite capricious indeed). ˛us,
even for native speakers, the o‚cial choices have only limited (or seeming) advan-
tages; therefore, we are convinced that the possibility of considering (Â, Âh, ¿) as
realizations of /k, kh, h/ is much less preferable – even though sequences like */ki,
khi, hi, ky, khy, hy/ do not occur, which would allow to speak of complementary
11. chinese 357
distribution. Phonology, in order to be useful, must be explicit and not at all eso-
teric (although this would not be wrong diachronically).
In the table of û 11.9, which gives the consonantal articulations of Mandarin
Chinese, to save space, we show as /05/ (whereas here we use ç/0[h]/Ç = /0, 0h/)
the consonants which are distinct phonemically. In fact, simple consonants oppose
çaspirationÇ sequences (Ô Stops, § 11.2.2, and Stopstrictives, § 11.2.3).
Instead, û 1.9-15 show the orograms, grouped by manners of articulation, of
all the contoids given in the chapters of this handbook for the 12 languages dealt
with, including secondary, occasional, or regional variants.
û 11.9. Table of Chinese consonants.
palatal (* prepalat.)
postpalatal rounded
labiodental round.
bilabial rounded
bilabialized pre-
velar rounded
postalveolar
labiodental
laryngeal
alveolar
bilabial
palatal
uvular
dental
velar
ö m ([) (M) (n) n (N) (~)* (˙) ,
F p5 (b) ((5 {) t5 (d) k5 (g) (ö)
Ô q5 (Q) fi5 (") (Â5 ©)
ƒ f (v) (5 ç) (·)
_ s (z) ß (Ω) (¿ B)
ß ⁄ j|(ã) ¥|(%) (∆) w|(j) (˜) h
‹ l
/˙/ (,), />/ (⁄), /h/ (·, h, ˜, ∆)
Nasals
11.2.1.1. ˛ere are three nasal phonemes, /m, n, ˙/ (m, [÷ M, n, N, ~, ˙÷ ,) m˚

n˚ «˘ In syllable-final position only /n, ˙/ occur; and the latter always maintains
its uvular articulation ((,)) even before any consonants. Instead, /n/ regularly as-
similates (except in very slow and accurate pronunciation), even if assimilation is
only partial for /nj, n¥, nw/ (~j, ~¥, ˙w) (instead of *(Nj, N¥/”¥, ˙w) which are
theoretical). However, let us notice the reduced forms of wœmen and tamen, which
become monosyllabic, with /mò/ (Ô § 11.3.1.2). ˛e tendency of /nò/ to assimila-
tion is so strong that we can find cases such as: (¿ÒÂj™5˜j‘n2lX&ma31, -j‘l2lX-) /•qje-
5hwXnlXma?/ Jié hun le ma? Mandarin has /n/ (~) + /i, y÷ j, ¥/ (although Pekinese
presents instead (n), which can be used fairly safely). On the other hand, we need
not use a more specific symbol, ((˙)), before dentals /t, th, q, qh, s/. On the contra-
ry, it is useful to choose ([) in /mo/ (which could be rendered as /mwo/ ([ø[x]),
whereas /mou/ is (møU), by dissimilation). Syllable- and word-final nasals always
have an inaudible release, even before a pause: ((næ, ,æ)). (˛is is quite normal for
other oriental languages such as Cantonese, ˛ai, Cambodian, cetnamese,
Tagalog, Malay, and Indonesian – even for final voiceless stops, which Mandarin
has lost.)
11.2.1.2. Here are some examples: (5mAÖ) /5mao/ mao˚ (5[ø) /5mo/ mo˚
([nAAÖ) /¶nao/ n∑o˚ (4p·Én) /•phXn/ pén˚ (4p·x,) /•phX˙/ pé«÷ (œ˜Ëc7ö$[*|]) /¶hXn6X/
h‘n è˚ (ÒÂ·¥Än[t·ii) /•qh¥an¶thi/ quánt`˚ (œÂIc[qAAÖ) /¶qin¶qao/ j`nz∑o˚ (0twÅn-
7ljEc) /6twan6ljan/ duànliàn˚ (Ò⁄Ém4mIn) /•>Xn•min/ rénmìn˚ (Òlw‘m5pÅn) /•lwXn-
5pan/ lùnban˚ (0k·aü[faa) /6khan¶fa/ kànf∑˚ (^pjE~4Âi) /5pjan•qi/ bianjì˚ (0ÂI∫[fiÎÎ)
/6qin¶fiˇ/ jín˜`˚ (0p·ÅÊ4Â¥™) /6phan•q¥e/ pànjué˚ (œpjEÊ4¥y) /¶pjan•¥y/ bi∑nyù˚
(ÒkÅ∫[⁄ÅÅc) /¶kan¶>an/ g∑nr∑n˚ (ÒpI˙[kwÅÅc) /5pin¶kwan/ bingu∑n˚ (0ÂjE˙7wA¥)
/6qjan6wa˙/ jiànwà«˚ (ÒljE,5˜wÅn) /•ljan5hwan/ liánhuan˘
©th /˙/: (Òji7lu Òp·¤,5öÅn) /•ji6lu •phi˙5an/ yìlú pì«'an˚ (^fx,7mjEc) /5fX˙6mjan/
fe«miàn˚ (œk·U¥7pu) /¶khu˙6pu/ kœ«bú˚ (0la,7f™I) /6la˙6fei/ là«fèi˚ (^fx,[tii) /5fX˙-
¶ti/ fe«d`˚ (œk·U¥7¿i) /¶khu˙6si/ kœ«xí˚ (Òp·¤,4¥y) /•phi˙•¥y/ pì«yù˚ (^ßx,7⁄Î) /5ßX˙-
6>ˇ/ é«rí˚ (^fx,7ßÅc) /5fX˙6ßan/ fe«´àn˚ (Òp·¤,[kwøø, -[kwø*|) /•phi˙¶kwo/ pì«-
guœ˘
In an çinternational-likeÇ pronunciation, it is su‚cient to use (˙), instead of (,),
and also (n) before /i, y÷ j, ¥/ (and, possibly, before other consonants too]˘
Stops
11.2.2.1. We have three voiceless phonemes, /p, t, k/, which occur as either
plain, /0/, or in çaspirationÇ sequences, /0h/, with distinctive values. Before see-
ing some examples, we have to explain the nature and consistency of both voice-
lessness and çaspirationÇ.
In fact, except in slow (or very accurate) speech, /pé, té, ké/, are realized as (p,
t, k) only in fully stressed syllables (or after pauses), whereas in half-stressed sylla-
bles they are (Ê, ∂, â) or, in unstressed syllables, even (b, d, g). On the other hand
–in a parallel way– /phé, thé, khé/, in fully stressed syllables (or after pauses), are
sequences of voiceless stops and a laryngeal constrictive (decidedly çstrongÇ, (p·,
t·, k·) (however, it is possible to find a semi-constrictive as well, ((0Ö)), which is
weaker). In half-stressed syllables, we have sequences with a laryngeal approximant,
(ph, th, kh); whereas, in unstressed syllables, we can even find plain voiceless stops,
(p, t, k). We choose to adopt this kind of normalized transcription (although os-
cillations are frequent indeed, including sequences with a voiceless laryngeal semi-
-approximant, ((0h))).
A degree of distinctivity between çaspirationÇ and çnon-aspirationÇ, however, is
guaranteed. In fact, we have: /0h/ ('=·, &=h, ’=), /0/ ('=, &Ò, ’Ê), with strong and
weak extremes meeting, as (=). Although they coincide phonetically, they remain
distinct functionally, from a phonemic point of view. Before /o/ (not /ou/, by dis-
similation) we find ((), which sounds rather di‡erent from the common (p) of
other languages.
11.2.2.2. Let us now see the following examples: (5pIn) /5pin/ bin˚ (4(ø) /•po/
bo˚ (7(·ø) /6pho/ pò˚ (4tj™) /•tje/ dié˚ (4k·wÙI) /•khwei/ kuì˚ (^p·¤,5p·a,) /5phi˙-
5pha˙/ pi«pa«˚ (0t·jAÖ[wuu) /6thjao¶wu/ tiàowà˚ (5k·x,) /5khX˙/ ke«÷ (7paœÊa|,
7pa3bå) /6papa/ bàba˚ (7tiœ∂i|, 7ti3dI) /6titi/ dídi˚ (5kX&âX|, 5kX2gÈ) /5kXkX/ gege˚ (7ßÎ-
11. chinese 359
œphÅË|, 7ßÎ3påË) /6ßˇphae/ ´ípai˚ (4p·u&thAÖ|, 4p·u2t√Ö) /•phuthao/ pùtao˚ (4p·u2t√Ö-

[ÂjÕÕU÷ -2t∑-) /•phuthao¶qjou/ pùtaojià˚ (7q·œœkh$|, -3kÈ) /6qhMkhX/ cíke˘
As we have seen (§ 11.0.2 “ § 11.2.1), there is also a laryngeal stop, which is im-
portant though not phonemic (with some less advisable alternative variants, (y, H,
r, «)). It is useful to adequately maintain the articulatory identity of final conso-
nants (/n, ˙, >/) before initial vowels.
Stop-strictives
11.2.3. As far as this manner (of articulation) is concerned, in our analysis (with
the same normalized characteristics of voicing and çaspirationÇ as for Chinese
stops) we have /q, qh/ ('q, &ë, ’Q÷ 'q·, &qh, ’q) z˚ c˚ in addition to ('Â, &¸, ’©÷ 'Â·,
&Âh, ’Â) j˚ q˚ before /i, y÷ j, ¥/ (Ô § 11.2.0), and /fi, fih/ ('fi, &2, ’"÷ 'fi·, &fih, ’fi) ˜˚
>˘
Here are some examples (expressly chosen with final syllables without tonemes):
(5qÅÉ) /5qae/ zai˚ (7q·wÅc) /6qhwan/ cuàn˚ (5Ây) /5qy/ ju˚ (4Â·¥U,÷ 4Â·jU,)
/•q¥u˙/ qió«˚ (7fi™I) /6fiei/ ˜èi˚ (4fi·Ö) /•fiˇ/ >ì÷ (4pi&ëM|, 4pi2Qû) /•piqM/ bìzi˚
(4¥Yn&qhÅÉ|, 4¥Yn2qåÉ÷ 4jYn-) /•¥ynqhae/ yùncai˚ (7tjEÊœ¸i|, 7tjEÊ2©¤) /6tjanqi/ diàn-
ji˚ (5t·jE~&Âhi|, 5t·jE~Â¤) /5thjanqhi/ tianqi˚ (4q·ÅÉ&2Ö|, 4q·ÅÉ2"Ö) /•qhaefiˇ/ cái-
˜i˚ (4p·™I&fihÉn|, 4p·™I2fiÈn) /•pheifihXn/ péi>en˘
Constrictives
11.2.4. ˛ere are three constrictive phonemes. Again they are all phonemically
voiceless, but with the usual voicings which depend on syllable-strength attenua-
tion. ˛us we have: /f/ ('f, &Ñ, ’v) f, /s/ ('s, &Ω, ’z) s and ('¿, &ñ, ’B) x, /ß/ ('ß, &Ë, ’Ω) ´\
(4fu) /•fu/ fù˚ (4ma&ÑÅn|, 4mavån) /•mafan/ máfan˚ (7swÙI÷ 7sw¤i) /6swei/ suí˚ (5fx,&Ωu|,
5fx,2zû) /5fX˙su/ fe«su˚ (4¿¥™&ñi|, 4¿¥™2B¤) /•s¥esi/ xuéxi˚ (5ßu) /5ßu/ ú˚ (4lja,&ËÖ|,
4lja,2ΩÖ) /•lja˙ßˇ/ liá«í˘ Before /o/ (not /ou/) we find (5) (as happens for other la-
bial phonemes): (45ø{x}) /•fo/ fó˘ ˛erefore, we could even pose /fwo/ instead of /fo/
(but /fou/ (føU), by dissimilation).
Approximants
11.2.5.1. Chinese has five approximant phonemes in our analysis. ˛e first is

postalveolar, />/ (⁄): (4⁄Én) /•>Xn/ rén˚ (4⁄w‘c) /•>wXn/ rún˚ (4öX⁄) /•X>/ ér˚ ([ßÎÎ) /¶ßˇ/
´`˘ (British English />/ (>) is laterally contracted and has a certain amount of lip
rounding, thus is di‡erent – Ô English ('>a;Ö) /'<aO/ row çdisputeÇ and Chinese
(7⁄AÖ) /'>ao/ rào çcoilÇ.)
Besides, we have: /j/ (j, ’ã), /¥/ (¥, ’%), /w/ (w, ’j), with çattenuatedÇ variants in
weak syllables, that is unstressed, because with çzeroÇ toneme (provided it is not
before a pause), respectively: semi-palatal (ã), semi-postpalatal rounded (%), and se-
mi-velar rounded (j): (5ja,) /5ja˙/ ya«˚ (4tj™) /•tje/ dié˚ (5Âj™) /5qje/ jie˚ (çli^ÊjEn|,
çli1bãEn, -1bãÉn) /¶lipjan/ l`bian÷ ([¥yy) /¶¥y/ yà˚ (7Â·¥™) /6qh¥e/ què˚ (7tiœñ¥U¥|, 7ti-
3B%U¥) /6tis¥u˙/ díxio«÷ (4wA,) /•wa˙/ wá«˚ (5˜wÙI÷ 5˜w¤i) /5hwei/ hui˚ (çt·AÖ-
^lw‘n|, çt·AÖ1ljÈn) /¶thaolwXn/ t∑olun˘
≈nally, we find /h/ ('˜é, &∆é, ’hé) (in addition to ('0·, &0h, ’0`), already seen for
stops and stop-constrictives): ([ÃAÖ) /¶hao/ h∑o˚ (5öÉ˙&∆AÖ|, 5öÉn2h√Ö) /5Xnhao/ en-
hao˘ In theory, we could have two di‡erent phonemes in the inventory of conso-
nants: ç/x, h/Ç, with ç/x/Ç = ('˜é, &∆é, ’hé); but it is better to have only one, with
the taxophones already seen (which are di‡erent although auditorily quite simi-
lar, but with a phone of contact, (h)). Traditionally, the Chinese prefer to consid-
er initial consonants in a unitary way, with ç/05/Ç di‡erent from /0/, intraphone-
mically; but this choice does not present any real advantage from an interphone-
mic point of view, which is interested in several languages of the world – quite the
contrary!
£International Mandarin∞ consonants
11.2.5.2. In a kind of international pronunciation (as for vowels, Ô § 11.1.12-

14), it is su‚cient to always use the basic forms, independently of stress: (j, ¥, w),
even for (ã, %, j), and (h) for /h/, without variations, also in /0h/ (0h) (against /0/
(0)), and again without creaky voice: (5ja˙) /5ja˙/ ya«˚ (çli^pjan) /¶lipjan/ l`bian÷
([¥yy) /¶¥y/ yà˚ (7tiœ¿¥u˙) /6tis¥u˙/ díxio«÷ (4wa˙) /•wa˙/ wá«˚ (5hw™i) /5hwei/
hui˚ (çthaÖ^lwxn) /¶thaolwXn/ t∑olun˘ However, it is important to be able to hear
di‡erent realizations, in order to understand spoken Chinese (better). Obviously,
to achieve a more genuine pronunciation, it would be decidedly better to appro-
priately acquire and use all the characteristics we describe.
Laterals
11.2.6. For the last manner (of articulation) necessary for Mandarin, we find
just one phoneme, /l/ (l) (which remains unchanged even before /i, y÷ j, ¥/): (4lÅÉ)
/•lae/ lái˚ (4lU,) /•lu˙/ ló«˚ ([ljEEc) /¶ljan/ li∑n˚ (7ly) /6ly/ lÇ˘
Structures
11.3.0. We will deal, in particular, with the typical tones (tonemes as distinctive
elements), including a çzeroÇ ton(em)e and their combinatory variants (taxotones),
in addition to degrees of stress, and finally intonation, which overlaps tone charac-
teristics, by changing them further (as we will see).
A typical Mandarin Chinese pronunciation shows a particular kind of voice
with a paraphonic setting with raised larynx §Æ@, not only for wemen. Other Chi-
nese languages, instead, use a normal (or modal) laryngeal setting, or else one with
11. chinese 361
a lowered larynx. ˛ese paraphonic di‡erences can be a good cue in identifying

the origins of Chinese people, even when they speak English or other foreign lan-
guages.
Taxophonics
11.3.1.1. As regards possible reductions, especially in weak syllables, we have

already illustrated those of vowel and consonant timbres, in particular, in § 11.1.9-
11 and û 11.6-7, and here and there in § 11.2.0-6.
We would like to underline here that in fast speech, in a preintoneme, two oth-
er types of reduction are possible, which can make Chinese less easy to understand.
˛us it is important at least to know their mechanisms. Should foreign learners
want to apply them in an appropriate manner, naturalness would certainly be im-
proved.
˛erefore, obviously not in an intoneme again, after di‡erent consonants from
sonants (¤ after /p[h], t[h], k[h]÷ q[h], fi[h]÷ f, s, ß, h/), and with tone 4 (above all
when it is complete, /6/ (7), see below), close vowels, /i, y, M, u/ (i, I, ¤÷ y, Y÷ M÷ u,
U), can be devoiced, (î, Ù, î÷ ÿ, Î÷ ¯÷ ¨, Û). We will show this fact only here (and
just for partial devoicing): (0p·î4⁄u) /6phi•>u/ pírù˚ (0p¨[faa) /6pu¶fa/ búf∑˚ (0t·î5ßÉn)
/6thi5ßXn/ tíén˚ (0t¨[k·øøU) /6tu¶khou/ dúkœu˚ (0Âÿ4t·wÅn) /6qy•thwan/ jútuán˚
(0k·¨[fi·aa) /6khu¶fiha/ kú>∑˚ (0k¨7k·$) /6ku6khX/ gúkè˚ (0q·¯5Âi) /6qhM5qi/ cíji˚
(0q¯[muu) /6qM¶mu/ zímà˚ (0fi·¨7fÅc) /6fihu6fan/ >úfàn˚ (0Âî,7qwø) /6qi˙6qwo/
jí«zuò˚ (0f¨7pu) /6fu6pu/ fúbú˚ (0¿ÙÊ[jaa¥) /6sin¶ja˙/ xíny∑«˚ (0¿ÿ[Â·yy) /6sy¶qhy/
xúqà˚ (0ß¨4fu) /6ßu•fu/ ´úfù˚ (0˜¨7fiAÖ) /6hu6fiao/ hú˜ào˘
Besides, in syllables with çzeroÇ tones, but not in an intoneme, approximant re-
alizations are possible: (¸, ã), for /s/ (s, z÷ ¿, B), and (⁄) for /ß/ (ß, Ω), but also for
(q[h], Q÷ Â[h], ©) and (fi[h], "): (7kAÖœzœ|, 7kAÖ3¸Œ, -3¸^) /6kaosu/ gàosu˚ (5p™I&QM|,
5p™I2¸û, -2¸¢) /5peiqM/ beizi˚ (4q·øU&QøU|, 4q·øU2¸û, -2¸¢) /•qhouqhou/ cóucou˚
(5tU,&Bi|, 5tU,2ã¤, -2ã¢) /5tu˙si/ do«xi˚ (çjaa¥^©¤,|, çjaa¥1ã¤,, -1ã¢,) /¶ja˙qi˙/ y∑«ji«˚
(5fi·u&Ây|, 5fi·u2ã¤, -2ã¢) /5fihuqhy/ >uqu˚ (5fiÖ&ΩÖ|, 5fiÖ2⁄Ö) /5fiˇßˇ/ ˜ií˚ (5pa,&"u|,
5pa,2⁄û, -2⁄¢) /5pa˙fiu/ ba«˜u˚ (5Â·¤,&fiu|, 5Â·¤,2⁄û, -2⁄¢) /5qhi˙fihu/ qi«>u˘
11.3.1.2. As we have said, Chinese words are formed by initial and final ele-
ments. However, their combinations have some limitations; in fact, among all the-
oretical possibilities, only 55% are actually used, for slightly over 400 typical sylla-
bles (which are regularly indicated in teaching textbooks, with some oscillations
for the less frequent ones). Here we will report only the most remarkable character-
istics.
(öX⁄) /X>/ er occurs with no initial; /f/ has a fairly limited distribution: it does
not occur before /i, j÷ y, ¥÷ w/ and some other phonemes; whereas, only in loan-
words /v/ is found (which is thus a xenophoneme added to the (v) taxophone of
/f/). Besides, (Â[h], ¿) (with other variants already seen) are taxophones of /q[h],
s/, which only occur before /i, j÷ y, ¥/, and are spelled j˚ q˚ x˘ Equally, /M/ only oc-
curs after /q[h], s/; and /ˇ/ after /fi[h], ß, >/÷ /o/, only after /m, p[h], f, w/ (and in
some particular forms after /j, l/ or with a çzeroÇ segment); and /y/, only after /j,
¥÷ l/, /n/ (~), or after /q[h], s/ (Â[h], ¿).
≈nally, we would like to add that /m, p[h], f/ do not occur before /X, M, w÷ y,
¥÷ >÷ [j]u˙/ or some other segments; neither do /fi[h], ß/ occur before /i, j÷ y, ¥/ (or
some others), nor /k[h], h/ before /i, j÷ y, ¥/ or /o, wX˙/. ˛ere are some other more
specific limitations; but this is the spirit of Mandarin phonotactics – /n, ˙/ are the
only, very frequent, syllable-final consonants (besides, />/, which is extremely rare).
˛ere are some remarkable reductions of words such as the following (which are
quite normal, except in intonemes or in formal speech): (4ßXm, 4ßXõ, 4ßX2mÈ, 4ßX-
2mX) /•ßXnmX/ ´énme˚ ([q$$C, çq$1õ, çq$1mÈ, çq$1mX) /¶qXnmX/ z‘nme˚ ([wøøC,
çwøøõ, çwø1mÈn, -1mÉn) /¶womXn/ wœmen˚ (5t·am, 5t·aõ, 5t·amÈn, -mÉn) /5tha-
mXn/ tamen˘ Contrary to some other Chinese languages, in Mandarin there is a
somewhat exceptional occurrence of /m/ in final position, as indeed that of (õ),
which we find in : (4õ) /•Xm/ µ çreally?/what??Ç, (7≠) /6Xm/ û çyes/I understandÇ.
Stress
11.3.2.1. At the end of the previous section, as well as in § 11.1.9-11, we saw a

few words with çweakÇ syllables too, ¤ without either a toneme or a strong stress
(at most they had a secondary stress on posttonic syllables). We will see below that
weak syllables may also occur before the last one, and that generally even gram-
memes (or grammatical particles) are weak.
On the contrary, in most Mandarin words all syllables bear one of the four
marked tonemes (Ô § 11.3.3.1-3). Among these, two-syllable words have the follow-
ing stress pattern (&I'I): (^fiÖ4¥Än) /5fiˇ•¥an/ ˜iyuán˚ (ÒljE~7¿i) /•ljan6si/ liánxí˚ (^˜™I-
[pÅÅc) /5hei¶pan/ heib∑n˚ (0ÂjAÖ5ßÖ) /6qjao5ßˇ/ jiàoí˘
Chinese writing has separate characters (çideogramsÇ), but without separation
between words, phrases, and sentences, except for punctuation (which also in-
cludes a çmini-commaÇ (˝) that is used to separate words in a list, but it is used less
and less). In trisyllables, without any weak syllables, we have the pattern ('I&I'I):
(5jPU0[ø[kÅÅc) /5jou6mo¶kan/ youmòg∑n˚ (•fx,0⁄ËÊ5Âi) /•fX,6>Xn5qi/ fé«rènji˚
(ç˜wø^fihX7fiÅc) /¶hwo5fihX6fian/ huœ>e˜àn˘
‹en Chinese words reach four or five syllables, lexical compounding coincides
with syntactical composition. In fact, the various components are simply juxta-
posed. However, there is a way to manage to show lexicalization better, within sen-
tences.
As a matter of fact, if –for instance– we separately have (0qœ[muu) /6qM¶mu/ zí-
mà çletter, graphemeÇ, (^p·I~5jIn) /5phin5jin/ pinyin çsyllabificationÇ, when we put
the two words together, we obtain (5p·I~^jIn 0ëœ[muu) /5phin5jin 6qM¶mu/ pin-
yin zímà çromanization, transliteration, alphabetic writing (to show pronuncia-
tion)Ç, instead of a çsimplerÇ –but more artificial– (^p·I~5jIn 0ëœ[muu); consider
also (6ti0∂i0∂AÖ7tAÖ) /6ti6ti6tao6tao/ dídídàodào˘
11. chinese 363
11.3.2.2. In sentences, however (as will be seen from the text in § 11.4.2.2 as
well), there are frequent oscillations with regard to actual stresses on di‡erent sylla-
bles, both for rhythmic reasons and prominence interplay, and even for communi-
cative purposes, even when they are not çdistinctiveÇ. ˛us, for instance, /5ßa˙¶kan-
¶fiu6ji¶fiX/ á«g∑n˜àyí˜‘ can have two frequent realizations, (5ßa,œâÅ∫çfiu0ji-
[fi$$, 5ßa,œâÅ∫œ2u7jiœ2$); equally, even forms such as the following often oscillate:
(0ji[tjEEc, 7jiœ∂jEc) /6ji¶tjan/ yídi∑n˚ (0(ø4f™I, 7(ø&Ñ™I) /6po•fei/ pòféi˚ (^qM7wÙI, 5qM-
0wÙI) /5qM6wei/ ziwèi˚ (0¿Iü[fuu, 7¿IüœÑu) /6sin•fu/ xínfù˚ (^ÂIn5t·jEn, 5ÂIn^thjEn)
/5qin5thjan/ jìntian˚ (0öÅË[lii, 7öÅËœli) /6ae¶li/ àil`˚ (^kÅm5p™I, 5kÅm^Ê™I) /5kan5pei/
ganbei!
All this can happen both in intonemes and preintonemes. And, what is more,
even opposite cases are frequent, that is syllables with çzeroÇ tone which bear a
strong stress, verging on mid pitch (again independently of any intoneme): (4p·x,-
&jPU, &p·x,'jPU) /•phX˙jou/ pé«you˚ (7tÅ∫œËÎ, 0∂Å∫'ßÖ) /6tanßˇ/ dàní˚ (4ßÖ&∆øU, &ßÖ-
'˜øU) /•ßÖhou/ ´ìhou˘ In addition, even forms bearing a tone (even written) are
weakened, as happens to the grammemes and locatives in the following examples:
(5fiwø0Ëa¥, -&Ëa,) /5fiwo 6ßa˙/ ˜uo ´à«˚ (6ti0ñja, -&ñja) /6ti 6sja/ dí xià˚ (5wuœli, 5wu-
&li) /5wu ¶li/ wu l`˚ (4t·¤,œli, -&li) /•thi˙ ¶li/ tì« l`˘
Tones
11.3.3.1. ˛e most remarkable aspect of the various Chinese languages (and one
of the most serious problems for foreigners) resides in the use of çtonesÇ. In fact, in
languages such as Mandarin, a di‡erent pitch on a syllable is able to make its mean-
ing change completely. ˛erefore, we have to speak of tonemes for distinctive ele-
ments of a phonemic system, and of tones for their actual realizations, including
taxotones, ¤ combinatory variants, as can be seen from the examples given below.
In order to draw attention to their importance, and not to confuse concepts and
words, let us choose the example of ([mÅÅË) /¶mae/ m∑i çto buyÇ and (7mÅË) /6mae/
mài çto sellÇ. We now add some classical examples (giving some of the most fre-
quent meanings, among the possible ones, since transliterations may unify di‡er-
ent words {as phonic transcriptions do too}, represented by di‡erent characters,
or çideogramsÇ): (5ma) /5ma/ ma çmotherÇ, (4ma) /•ma/ má çhempÇ, ([maa) /¶ma/
m∑ çhorseÇ, (7ma) /6ma/ mà çscold, curseÇ˘
As some transcriptions have already shown, tonemes 3 and 4 are realized with
creaky (or laryngealized) voice, when their çlowÇ taxophones occur: ([), (ç) and (7)
(with secondary stress, (0)), but not when the çhighÇ ones occur: (•) and (6). To-
nemes 1 and 2, which are çhighÇ, (5), (4), always have normal voice quality.
A prudential warning is necessary about some diagrams which appeared in cer-
tain publications, not only in çtourist-likeÇ books, since they are too often com-
pletely wrong – so they are of no help at all to unfortunate readers…
Mandarin is relatively simple, in comparison with other Chinese languages, al-
so as far as taxotones are concerned. In fact, Mandarin has only four marked to-
nemes, traditionally indicated and listed as 1 (5) /5/ >1≥ o\ (5ji) /5ji/ yi÷ 2 (4) /•/ >Q≥ ó\
(4wu) /•wu/ wù÷ 3 ([) /¶/ >5≥ œ\ ([¿¥™™) /¶s¥e/ xu‘÷ 4 (7) /6/ >Z≥ ò\ (7Â·ja¥) /6qja˙/ qià«˘
û 11.10 shows –for the four tonemes– the four basic tones, in addition to three
taxotones, which are as important phonetically (or rather çtoneticallyÇ): in addi-
tion to ç3=2 (¤ 3+3 = 3+2)Ç (•) /¶/ >5≥ œ (¤ a toneme 3 –occurring before another
3– which becomes almost a tone 2 {although it is generally –but falsely– identified
with an actual tone 2}), we have a çhalf 3Ç, (ç) /¶/ >5≥ œ (¤ a 3 before one of the oth-
er three), and a çhalf 4Ç, (6) /6/ >Z≥ ò (¤ a 4 before another 4). As can be seen, from
both tonograms and phonetic transcriptions which will follow, the last two are ac-
tually realized as the first half of their full forms.
In a kind of çinternationalÇ pronunciation, toneme 2 can be realized as (•) (in-
stead of (4) ((-1))), as the o‚cial taxotone of /¶/ followed by another /¶/. ˛e pitch
characteristics of the other ton(em)es ought to be very similar to the o‚cial ones,
even for the çzeroÇ toneme, as we have done in our transcriptions (although for
the latter, somehow, a realization of mid pitch {and weak stress} could be su‚cient,
(2), again in this type of çinternationalÇ pronunciation).
û 11.10. Mandarin tonemes and tones.
1 /5/ (5) >1≥ 2 /•/ (4) >Q≥ 3 /¶/ ([) >5≥ 3‘ /¶/ (ç) >5≥ 3“ /¶/ (•) >5≥ 4 /6/ (7) >Z≥ 4‘ /6/ (6) >Z≥
11.3.3.2. Obviously, although at first all this might seem to be a useless compli-
cation, in actual fact, it is a real facilitation for contextual realizations. As a mat-
ter of fact, it is a simplification, from a tonetic point of view, which is visible on-
ly thanks to accurate phonetic (or rather phonotonetic) transcriptions, whereas
phonemic (¤ phonotonemic) transcriptions, as well as graphemic renderings, do
not change at all, since their entity, their essence, remains the same.
As can be seen from the following examples, and –above all– from û 11.11, the
allotones (¤ taxophones) of tonemes 3 and 4 present a simplification, by assimila-
tion.
û 11.11. Fundamental taxotones.
/¶ 5/ = (– 5)
/¶ •/ = (– 4)
/¶ ¶/ = (Ò [)
/¶ 6/ = (– 7)
/6 6/ = (0 7)
11. chinese 365
In fact, toneme 3, ([) = (ç), /¶/ >5≥˚ shortens (even as its segmental duration does),
when it occurs before tonemes which are di‡erent from itself: (œ˜wø5fi·X) /¶hwo-
5fihX/ huœ>e˚ (œt*¥4¥y) /¶tX˙•¥y/ d‘«yù˚ (œk·AÖ7ßÎ) /¶khao6ßˇ/ k∑o´í÷ on the other
hand, when it occurs before itself, /¶ ¶/ >5 5≥˚ it has the taxotone (•): (ÒßøU[pjAAÖ)
/¶ßou¶pjao/ ´œubi∑o˘
Even in this case, it is right to keep its tonemic and graphemic representation
unchanged, since, should we modify them, they would lead us to think of di‡er-
ent structures, not only from a phonic point of view, but also lexically and, then,
semantically.
Toneme 4 resorts to a (halved) taxotone before itself: (0fa,7Âja) /6fa˙6qja/ fà«-
jià˘ Tonemes 1 and 2 do not have any variants; and, although the taxotone of 3 (+
3) is tonetically (more) similar to toneme 2, it nevertheless remains a taxotone of
toneme 3 (except in the çinternationalÇ accent {which is a simplification}).
û 11.12. Taxotones of particular tonemic sequences.
/5 • 5/ = /5 5 5/ (5 — 5)
/5 • •/ = /5 5 •/ (5 — 4)
/5 • ¶/ = /5 5 ¶/ (5 — [)
/5 • 6/ = /5 5 6/ (5 — 7)
û 11.13. Taxotones of other tonemic sequences.
/• • 5/ = /• 5 5/ (4 — 5)
/• • •/ = /• 5 •/ (4 — 4)
/• • ¶/ = /• 5 ¶/ (4 — [)
/• • 6/ = /• 5 6/ (4 — 63)
û 11.14. Further taxotones of tonemic sequences.
/5¶ ¶/ = (5 Ò [) = (5 — [)
/•¶ ¶/ = (4 Ò[) = (4 — [)
/¶ ¶ ¶/ = (• Ò[) = (• — [)
11.3.3.3. As far as sequences of three tonemes are concerned, there are some
di‡erences (and they must be indicated and applied too) in comparison with tone-
mic (and graphemic) representations. û 11.12 shows what happens to sequences
of /5 •/ followed by one of the other four tonemes: (5tU,^nÅM5fx,) /5tu˙•nan5fX˙/
do«nán-fe«˚ (5sÅ~^~jE~4Âi) /5san•njan•qi/ sannián-jì˚ (5¿jEN^⁄É~[Âjaa¥) /5sjan•>Xn-
¶qja˙/ xianrén-ji∑«˚ (5¿i^∆U,7ßÎ) /5si•hu˙6ßˇ/ xihó«´í.
û 11.13 shows sequences of /• •/ followed by one of the other four tonemes:
(4m™I^laM5fa,) /•mei•lan5fa˙/ Méi Lánfa«˚ (4˜ÅÉ^m™I4lÅÉ) /•hae•mei•lae/ hái méi
lái˚ (4wÅ~^Âh¥Än[tUU¥) /•wan•qh¥an¶tu˙/ wánquán dœ«˚ (4¿Y~^ja,7ÂjEc) /•syn-
•ja˙6qjan/ xùnyá«-jiàn˘
≈nally, û 11.14 shows the behavior of the sequence /¶ ¶/ preceded by one of the
first three tonemes: (5sÅ~^jEn[Âj<<Y) /5san¶jan¶qjX˙>/ Sany∑n Ji‘«r˚ (4˜ÅN^Ëu-
[pjAAÖ) /•han¶ßu¶pjao/ hán´àbi∑o˚ (•wø^j™[jÕÕU) /¶wo¶je¶jou/ wœ y‘ yœu˘
11.3.3.4. In addition, there is a çzero toneÇ, which is realized in four di‡erent

ways (that are representable, however, with only three signs), according to the pre-
vious toneme. It is much simpler to refer to û 11.15, which shows that a çzero
toneÇ has mid pitch after tonemes 1 and 2, although –strictly speaking– after to-
neme 1 pitch is [lower] mid, whereas it is [upper-central] mid after toneme 2: (5pi-
&(hø) /5pipho/ bipo˚ (4pi&Âhi) /•piqhi/ bìqi˘ After a toneme 3, the unmarked to-
neme is [lower] high; whereas, it is [lower-central] low, after a toneme 4: (çpi^Ña,)
/¶pifa˙/ b`fa«˚ (7piœ∆wÙI) /6pihwei/ bíhui˘
As we have said, three symbols are necessary (and su‚cient), since –as we will
see shortly– intonation slightly modifies and compresses what we are explaining
here, which refers to an çidealÇ pronunciation – and is used in isolated forms, out-
side actual communicative contexts.
‹en two unmarked tonemes occur after a marked one, their pitch is as shown
in the tonograms of û 11.16: (5k·ÅÉ2lÅÉœl$) /5khaelaelX/ kailaile˚ (4na2lÅÉœl$) /•na-
laelX/ nálaile˚ (çqøU1lÅÉ^lX) /¶qoulaelX/ zœulaile˚ (7sU¥3lÅËœl$) /6su˙laelX/ sò«laile˘
Lastly, û 11.17 shows how a çzeroÇ toneme behaves when it occurs between
marked tonemes (by observing its tonetic logic as a gradual transition): (5t·jE~1©i-
7wÙI) /5thjanqi6wei/ Tianjiwèi˚ (4ã,1"øU7ßÎ) /•ha˙fiou6ßˇ/ Há«õu´í˚ (çli2hU,-
5fia,) /¶lihu˙5fia˙/ L`ho«ã«˚ (çlja,2gX4⁄Én) /¶lja˙kX•>Xn/ li∑«ge rén˚ (6k·Ån2dX-
7ÂjEc) /6khantX6qjan/ kàn-de-jiàn˘
û 11.15. Contextual pitches of a çzeroÇ tone in bisyllables.
/5 ”/ (5 &) /• ”/ (4 &) /¶ ”/ (ç —) /6 ”/ (7 –)
û 11.16. Contextual pitches of two çzeroÇ tones in trisyllables.
/5 ” ”/ (5 2 –) /• ” ”/ (4 2 –) /¶ ” ”/ (ç 1 —) /6 ” ”/ (7 3 –)
11. chinese 367
û 11.17. Contextual pitches of an internal çzeroÇ tone in trisyllables.
/5 ” 6/ (5 1 7) /• ” 6/ (4 1 7) /¶ ” 5/ (ç 2 5) /¶ ” •/ (ç 2 4) /¶ ” •/ (ç 2 7)
11.3.3.5. To conclude about tones, we must indicate some syntactic-lexical vari-

ations, which have to be memorized as they are. We are talking about three num-
bers: (5ji) /5ji/ yi çoneÇ, (5Â·i) /5qhi/ qi çsevenÇ, (5pa) /5pa/ ba çeightÇ, and the nega-
tion (7pu) /6pu/ bú çno, notÇ. ˛e three numbers are realized with a tone (6) before
one of the first three tonemes (/5, •, ¶/): (6ji, 6Â·i, 6pa), but with tone (•) before a 4
(/6/): (•ji, •Â·i, •pa) (but now even (5Â·i) is acceptable). Also /6pu/, before a 4, be-
comes (•): (•pu). Besides, (5ji) /5ji/ yi becomes (4) /•/, even before a zero toneme,
which derives from (7) /6/, as in (4ji&âX) /•jikX/ yìge.
Intonation
11.3.4.1. Although Chinese is a tone language, ¤ with relevant and distinctive

syllable pitch, it uses intonation too, as non-tone languages do. Obviously, in this
case, things are more complicated, since the basic tonemes with the taxotones we
have seen (Ô § 11.3.3.1-5) are slightly modified by intonation, which superimpos-
es on tones. In fact, it makes them change according to the typical movements of
the intonemes.
û 11.18 shows the preintonemes and intonemes of Mandarin, with their charac-
teristics. ˛e preintonemes force the pitch of every single tone to be canalized in-
to the shapes indicated (which, in a more sophisticated than really necessary no-
tation, could even be indicated with some small rings, as we will see shortly). A
normal preintoneme is compressed (/ / ( ), ((” ))), an interrogative one is raised (/¿ /
(¿ ), ((» ))), whereas an imperative one is falling (/¡ / (¡ ), ((»’ ))); finally, an emphatic
preintoneme is extended, non-compressed, (/˚ / (˚ ), ((ˇ ))).
û 11.18 also shows the modifications undergone by the intonemes: the conclu-
sive is falling (/./ (13)), the interrogative is rising (/?/ (31)), the continuative one is
compressed (/,/ (2)), whereas the suspensive is extended (/2/ (^)).
û 11.18. Mandarin preintonemes and intonemes.
/ / ( ) ((” )) /./ (13)
/¿ / (¿ ) ((» )) /?/ (31)
/¡ / (¡ ) ((»’ )) /÷/ (^)
/˚ /(˚ ) ((ˇ )) /,/ (2)

11.3.4.2. Besides çisolatedÇ tones (typical of separate words {as examples are}
and of a suspensive intoneme, and of an emphatic preintoneme as well, which are
given in black), û 11.19 also shows the taxotones (given in grey) of the four
marked tonemes, as they are modified when they are realized in conclusive (/./ (13)),
interrogative (/?/ (31)), and continuative (/,/ (2)) intonemes. It is obvious that the to-
netic notation used is –necessarily– just an indication of the deformation under-
gone by actual tones. Of course, in non-tonal languages, the use of tonetic sym-
bols is –automatically– much more precise, since it is free from any phonemic val-
ue applied to lexical pitch.
In addition, û 11.20 shows in grey all the allotones occurring in the four prein-
tonemes. ˛e four marked in black, in the emphatic preintoneme, correspond to
the four çisolatedÇ tones. ˛ey are also useful for comparisons, which must be
done very carefully, in order to appropriately memorize and master them in actu-
al sentences (at first as a simple identification step, then as active drills as well).
Undoubtedly, they require a good deal of commitment and constancy. But any
e‡ort will certainly be rewarded. Of course, paraphonics further modifies things
depending on attititudes, feelings, Â.
11.3.4.3. Lastly, we will see three examples to start an accurate analysis of into-
nation which is always in an indissoluble relation with tones. Given the complex-
ity of this enterprise, we will use the same basic sentence, with the same tonemes.
Of course, other tonal combinations are to be experimented as well, on the basis
of the examples provided:
/./: (5t·a0ËÎ 4ji2gX Ò∆X7ßÅc2dX 5ku&~ja,13) /5thaßˇ •jikX •hX6ßantX 5kunja˙./ Ta ´í yìge
hé´àn de gunia«.
/?/: (¿5t·a0ËÎ 4ji2gX Ò∆X7ßÅc2dX 5ku&~ja,2ma31) /¿5thaßˇ •jikX •hX6ßantX 5kunja˙ma?/
Ta ´í yìge hé´àn de gunia« ma?
/÷/: (5t·a0ËÎ 4ji2gX Ò∆X7ßÅc2dX 5ku&~ja,^ 7tÅ∫3ΩÎ çwø1bu 7öÅËœtha13) /5thaßˇ •jikX •hX6ßan-
tX 5kunja˙÷ 6tanßˇ ¶wopu 6aetha./ Ta ´í yìge hé´àn de gunia«, dàní wœ bù ài ta.
û 11.19. ˛e four tonemes combined with the four intonemes.
the 4 tones with /./ (13)
the 4 tones with /?/ (31)
the 4 tones with /,/ (2)
the 4 tones with /÷/ (^)

11. chinese 369
û 11.20. ˛e seven allotones combined with the four preintonemes.
//()
/¿/ (¿ )
/¡/ (¡ )
/˚/ (˚ )
Text
11.4.0. ˛e story †e North Wind and the Sun follows, given in four di‡erent
çnormalizedÇ versions. We start with the (neutral) Chinese pronunciation of (neu-
is given in § 2.5.2.0). ˛e Chinese translation follows, in its neutral and çinterna-
tionalÇ versions.
Please, note the creaky vowels before pauses (¤ with creaky phonation type, or
laryngealization, (ü); whereas in Mandarin creaky voice is in relation with low
tones, also for the voiced consonants belonging to the same syllable coda). ˛ese
creaky vowels confer great çauthenticityÇ, together with a (paraphonic) postdorsal
setting, that is with a slight but permanent –or frequent– raising of the dorsum
towards the velum together with the raising of the larynx §# Æ@.
tion of Chinese, by neutral British speakers, fluent in Chinese (after prolonged
en first.
Speakers of American English could prepare their own version both of the Chi-
nese pronunciation of English and of their pronunciation of Chinese, as an excel-
Chinese pronunciation (of English)
11.4.1. §Æ #@ (2tX'n∏s 'jin2 2Xn2∂X'san2 2jX2∂is'phju2ti, 'jiÂæ 2jXs2∂Xs'thl∏˙2â$13| 'jÄn

2öX'thlÄV2lX2 'kh™Im 2X'l∏,2 ì'lÄpæ 2öin2öX'j∏m 'khløUkæ13œ| 2∂™IX'âli∂æ2\ 2∂Ä2∂X'jan 2˜u'fXs
2sXk'¿i∂i∂2 2öin'm™I2ki, 2∂X'thlÄV2lX2 'th™Ikæ 2˜is'khløUkæ 'ö∏f^| &¿ãu2Êi2kXn'¿i2∂X∂æ 2sX"thl∏˙-
2gX 2∂Xn2∂i'a2∂$13||
'∂Än2 2∂X'n∏s 'jin2 'Êlu2 2˜Xs'ãX∂æ2 2öX2¿i'khu∂æ13| 2ÊX2∂X'[∏ 2˜i'Êlu^| 2∂X'[∏ 'khløUs2li2
&∂i2∂X'thlÄV2l$2\ '5øU∂æ 2˜is'khløUkæ öX'lA∏n2∂iC13| ì2öXn2Xtæ'las2œ\ 2∂X'n∏s 'jin2 'â™I 'Vapæ 2∂iX-
'thÉCpæ13|| ì'∂Än2œ 2∂X'san '¿ã∏n 'öA∏tæ13 ì'j∏m2li13œ| 2öXn2öi'mi∂iÈ2tli2\ ˚2∂X'thÄV2lX 'thukæ 'ö∏f3 3
˚2˜is'khløUkæ13|| ì2öXn'søU2œ 2∂X'n∏s 'jin2 2jXs2X'blÅÄ¸æ 2tX2kXM'fÉs2| 2∂X2∂X'san13 2jXs2∂Xs-
'thl∏˙2âX13 ì2öX2∂X'thu13œ||
¿&∂i2¸ju'lÅÄkæ31 ¿2∂Xs'th∏li2| ¿2¸ju'j∏n 2tX'˜iX2litæ 2öX'âÉc31|||)
Mandarin text
11.4.2. Yœu yí huì b‘ife« gen tàiyá« ˜è«zàinar ˜e«lún ´éide b‘ní dà,
úo˜e úo˜e láile yìge zœudàorde, éná« >uan˜e yìjiàn hòu páozi. Tamen
li∑ jiú á«lia« h∑o le úo, è´éi né« xian jiào ˜ège zœudàorde b∑ tade páozi tuo-
le xiàlai a, jiú suàn ´éide b‘ní dà¶.
H∑o, b‘ife« jiú ´`qi dà jín lái j`ngua j`ngua, k‘´í ta guade yuè líhai, nèige rén
b∑ páozi guœde yuè j`n; dào mòli∑or b‘ife« méile fázi, ˜`h∑o jiú suànle. Yíhu`r tài-
yá« jiú >ulái rèrerde yì ´ài, nèi zœudàorde m∑´à« jiú b∑ páozi tuole xiàlai. Suœ-
y` b‘ife« bú né« bú >é«rèn dàod` háií tàiyá« b` ta b‘ní dà.
N` x`huan ˜è ´œu érge ma? Wœmen zài >à« yì biàn ma?
Neutral Mandarin Chinese pronunciation
11.4.3. §Æ #@ (ìœjÕU7jiœ∆wÙI^œ| œÊ™I5fx,2 2gÉn7t·ÅË&ja,2\ 6fix,&ëÅÉ3nåY ^2x,7lw‘c13|

4ß™I2dX çpË∫1ΩÖ 7ta13|| ì5ßwø2"X^ßwø2"X2œ| 4lÅÉ2lX &ãi2gXœëøU7tåY3d$13|| 5ßÉN&Ëa,2 5fi·wÅN-
2"X2 4ji0¸jE¥ 7˜øU 4p·AÖ2Qû13|| 5t·am [ljaa2\ 0¸jÕU5ßa,2lja, çÃÖ1lX 5ßwøx2|| ^4ß™I &nx,-
5¿jE~0¸jAÖ2\ 7fi$3g$œëøU7tåY3d$2| œpa5t·a2dX 4p·AÖ2Qû2| 5t·wø2lX 7¿ja3lÅËœa2|| 0¸jPU-
7swÅ∫2 4ß™I2dX çpË∫1ΩÖ 7ta13Œ||
[ÃAÖ^|| œp™I5fx,2 0¸jÕUçßÎ1©i 7ta2 7ÂIc&lÅÉ2 œ¸I©5kwa2 œ¸I©5kwa13|| çk·$1ΩÖ5t·a^||
5kwa2dX 7¥™ 7li3hÅË2 0n™I3g$4⁄Én^|| [paa2| 4p·AÖ2Qû2 çkwø1dX 0¥™[ÂIIc13|| 7tAÖ 0[ø[ljååY^||
œp™I5fx, 4m™I2lX 4fa2Qû13|| 4fiÖœ∆AAÖ2 0ÂjÕU7swÅc3l$13|| 0ji[˜w$$Y^|| 7t·ÅËœja, 0¸jÕU-
5fi·u&lÅÉ2|| 0⁄$5⁄X⁄2dX Òji7ßÅË13|| nÈ¤œëøU7tåY3d$2|| œma7ßa¥2 0ÂjÕU[paa 4p·AÖ2Qû2 5t·wø-
2lX 7¿ja3lÅË13|| ì•swøœji2œ| œp™I5fx,2|| 0pu4nx,0Êu Òfihx,7⁄Ëc^|| ì7tAÖœ∂ii2œ 4˜ÅÉΩÖ 7t·ÅË&ja,2|
œpi5t·a2 çpË∫1ΩÖ 7ta13||
¿Ò~iç¿i^∆wÅN 7fi$œßøU œö$Y5kX2ma31|| ¿œwøC7qÅË2 ¿7fi·a¥ Òji7pjEC3ma31|||)
11. chinese 371
£International∞ Mandarin Chinese pronunciation
11.4.4. (ìçjøu0ji4hw™i^œ| œp™i5fx˙2 kxn0tha™4ja˙2\ 0fix˙7qa™3na⁄ ^fix˙7lwxn13| 4ß™i2tx

çpxN1ßÖ 7ta13|| ì5ßwø2fix 5ßwø2fix2œ| 4la™2lx 4ji2kx œqøu7ta⁄3tx13|| 5ßxN&ßa˙2 5fihwaN2fix2 Òji-
7Âjan 7høu 4phaø2qM13|| 5tham[xn] [ljaa2\ 0Âjøu5ßa˙2lja˙ çhaø1lx 5ßwø2|| ^4ß™i &nx˙5¿ja~
7Âjaø2\ 7fiX3kX œqøu7ta⁄3tx2| œpa5tha2tx 4phaø2qM2| 5thwø2lx 7¿ja3la™œa2|| 0Âjøu7swaN2
4ß™i2tx çpxN1ßÖ 7ta13Œ||
[haaø^|| œp™i5fx˙2 0ÂjøuçßÖ1Âi 7ta2 0Âin4la™ œÂi˙5kwa2 œÂi˙5kwa13|| çkhx1ßÖ5tha^||
5kwa2tx 7¥™ 7li3ha™2 7n™i3kx 4⁄xn^|| [paa2| 4phaø2qM2 çkwø1tx 0¥™[Âiin13|| 7taø 0mø[ljaa⁄^||
œp™i5fx˙2 4m™i2lx 4fa2qM13|| ÒfiÖ[haaø2 0Âjøu7swan3lx13|| 0ji[hwxx⁄^|| 0tha™4ja˙ 7Âjøu-
^fihu4la™2|| 0⁄x5⁄x⁄2tx Òji7ßa™13|| n™iœqøu7ta⁄3tx2|| œma7ßa˙2 0Âjøu[paa 4phaø2qM2 5thwø2lx
7¿ja3la™13|| ìÒswø[jii2œ| œp™i5fx˙2|| 7pu&nx˙7pu Òfihx˙7⁄xn^|| ì0taø[tii2œ 4ha™ßÖ 0tha™4ja˙2|
œpi5tha2 çpxN1ßÖ 7ta13||
¿•ni œ¿i5hwaN 0fix[ßøøu œöx⁄5kx2ma31|| ¿œwø2m[xn]7qa™2 ¿7fiha˙ Òji7pjam3ma31|||)
English pronunciation of Chinese
11.4.5. (ìj‘¨'jI;i&hw™I32œ| b™I'få˙:2 gûn'ThaÙ&jå˙:2\ 5chå˙&tsaÙnÈ &Gå˙l¯'‘:n3 3| 5S™IDÈ

'ph™‘~ZÈ 'ThA:3 3|| ìS¯'‘¨GÈs¯&‘¨Gå2œ| 5laÙlÈ &jIigûts‘¨'ThA;Då3 3|| 'S‘;n&Så˙:2 c¯'A;~GÈ2 5jIi-
Gi&™˙ 'h‘;¨ 'phaÖts¨3 3|| 5ThA:m li'A:2\ G‘¨5Så˙li&å˙ 'haÖlÈ S¯'ø:2|| ^5S™;I nå˙Si'™nGi&aÖ2\
'c‘;gû ts‘¨'ThA;Då2| phA;5ThA;DÈ 'phaÖts¨2| Th¯5‘¨lÈ Si'A;laÙå2|| Gi&‘¨s¯'πn2 'S™IDÈ
'ph™‘~SÈ 'ThA:3 3Œ||
'ha;Ö32|| b™I'få˙:2 Gi‘¨'S‘;Gi 'ThA:2 'ch¤n&laÙ2 &G¤˙k¯'A: &G¤˙k¯'A:3 3|| 5kh‘;ZÈ 'ThA:32||
kh¯5A;DÈ 'j™;I 'lIi&haÙ2 &n™Igû'>‘:n32|| 'phA:2| 'phaÖts¨2 'khw‘¨DÈ j™I'ch¤n:3 3|| 5Tha;Ö &m‘¨-
li'A:32|| b™I5få˙ 'm™IlÈ 'fA;ts¨3 3|| 'ch‘:&haÖ2 ci&‘¨'swπnlå3 3|| &jIi'hw‘:32|| 5Tha;Ù&jå˙ Gi&‘¨-
'ch¯ulaÙ2|| >È'>‘;DÈ &jIi'Sa;Ù3 3|| &n™Its‘¨'thA;Då2|| mA;'Så˙:2 ci‘¨5phA: 'phaÖts¨2 5Thwø;lÈ Si-
'A;laÙ3 3|| ì'swø;jIi2œ| b™I5få˙:2|| &ph¯u5nå˙&ph¯u chå˙'>‘:n32|| ì'ThaÖDi2œ 5haÙZÈ 'Tha;Ù&jå˙2|
phIi'ThA:2 5ph‘;~ZÈ 'ThA:3 3||
¿nIi5SIi&hwπn 'ch‘;S‘¨ û'kh‘;må21|| ¿&w‘¨m'tsa;Ù2 ¿5chå˙ &jIipi'™nmå21|||)
A short appendix
11.4.6. (6ta0ëM7pAÖ) /6ta6qM6pao/ dàzíbào˚ (5kU,&Ñu) /5ku˙fu/ go«fu (çkung

fuÇ, Ô § 11.1.9 for (-2vû)), (0Â·i5kU,) /6qhi5ku˙/ qígo«˚ (7tAÖ) /6tao/ dào˚ (4Âj™-
ÒÂh¥Än7tAÖ) /•qje•qh¥an6tao/ jiéquándào (çjeet kune doÇ), (5t·ÅÉÒ¸i4Â·¥Än)
/6thae•qi•qh¥an/ tàijìquán˚ (5pa0âwa[fiaa¥) /5pa6kwa¶fia˙/ baguà˜∑«˘
Besides: (^fiU,4kwø[x]) /5fiu˙•kwo/ ô«guó çChinaÇ˚ (œp™I5Â¤,) /¶pei5qi˙/ B‘i-
ji«, (5t·jEn^öÅm4mÉ˙ ÒâwA¥[fi·aa¥) /5thjan5an•mXn ¶kwa˙¶fiha˙/ Tian'anmén
Gu∑«>∑«˚ (0sœ5fi·wÅn) /6sM5fihwan/ Sí>uan˚ (Òt·ÅÉ5wÅn) /•thae5wan/ Tái-
wan˚ (œkwA¥5tU,) /¶kwa˙5tu˙/ Gu∑«do« çCantonÇ˚ (0ßa¥[˜ÅÅË) /6ßa˙¶hae/ Øà«-

h∑i˘
More: (4mAÖ^ëX5tU,) /•mao•qX5tu˙/ Máo Zédo«˚ (4¥ÄN0⁄ÉN7fiAÖ) /•¥an6>Xn-
6fiao/ Yuán Rèn ˆào (traditionally: Yuen Ren ≥ao ]˚ (5fiøU ^öÉn4lÅÉ) /5fiou 5Xn-
•lae/ ôu Enlái˚ (7t*¥ œñjAÖ4p·¤,) /6tX˙ ¶sjao•phi˙/ Dè« Xi∑opì«˚ (ÒlIm5pjAÖ) /•lin
5pjao/ Lìn Biao˚ (•ljPU œËAÖ4Â·i) /•ljou ¶ßao•qhi/ Liù Ø∑oqì˘
Lastly: (5sÅnœli4t·w‘n, -4t·wX⁄) /5san¶li•thwXn, -•twX>/ Sanl`tùn(r)˚ (0ku5kU,) /6ku-
5ku˙/ Gúgo«˚ (Òfi·a,4fi·x,) /•fiha˙•fihX˙/ ≥á«>é«˚ (4jiÒ∆X4¥Än) /•ji•hX•¥an/
Yìhéyuán˚ (5fia, 0ji4[øU) /5fia˙ 6ji•mou/ â« Yímóu˚ (œkU¥7li) /¶ku˙6li/ Gœ« Lí˚
(^öøU5fiøU) /5ou5fiou/ Ouõu çEuropeÇ, (Òlw‘n5tw‘n) /•lwXn5twXn/ Lùndun çLon-
donÇ, (—j¤,4kwø[x]) /5ji˙•kwo/ Yi«guó çEnglandÇ, (5suÒâX4lÅn) /5su•kX•lan/ Sugélán
çScotlandÇ, (6ji0∂a7li) /6ji6ta6li/ Yídàlí çItalyÇ, (Òlø[maa) /•lo¶ma/ Lóm∑ çRomeÇ, (5wÙI-
^~i5sM) /5wei•ni5sM/ Weinìsi çVeniceÇ, (7p™I—∂wø5fÉn) /6pei5two5fXn/ Bèiduofen
çBeethovenÇ.
12. Japanese
12.0.1. We provide the modern neutral pronunciation of Japanese, based on

that of Tokyo. Our transliteration avoids diacritics for vowels, by indicating long
vowels as ii˚ ee˚ aa˚ oo˚ uu (instead of i˚ e˚ a˚ o˚ u˚ or î˚ ê˚ â˚ ô˚ û]˘ As far as conso-
nants are concerned, we prefer the most widely used system (by Japanese authors
too: the Hepburn system, with the exception –methodologically considerable– of
the choice to use n even before m˚ p˚ b˚ instead of m]. ˛us, the phonemic tran-
scription has the task of indicating the systemic structuration; whereas the phonet-
ic transcription, of course, aims at precision, without which everything would be
approximate and –frankly– useless.
˛erefore, we have: (qM) /tM/ _u˚ (FM) /hM/ fu˚ (¿i) /si/ í˚ (¿jå) /sja/ á˚
(¿jø) /sjo/ ó˚ (¿jM) /sjM/ ú˚ (Âi) /ti/ >i˚ (Âªå) /tja/ >a˚ (Âªø) /tjo/ >o˚ (ÂªM)
/tjM/ >u˚ (©i, Bi) /zi/ ji˚ (©jå, Bjå) /zja/ ja˚ (©jø, Bjø) /zjo/ jo˚ (©jM, BjM) /zjM/
ju˚ (QM, zM) /zM/ zu˘ But we prefer to use a more çlogicalÇ c> (ÂÂ[ª]) /tt[j]/
(which is less eurocentric than t>]˚ and n (with n' + V or y] (P, õ, ó, «, ô) /ô/ (that
some systematically render with â˚ thus resolving in a çgraphonemicÇ way the
slight problem of n'˚ before V and y˚ and also that of m˚ before m˚ p˚ b]˘ In addi-
tion, we have (˙) /˙/, that we render with g˚ which can alternate with (g) /g/, as
we will see below, Ô § 12.2.1.1-2 (others use ä˚ to compensate for the absence of
any transcriptions).
Length is distinctive both for vowels and consonants. We will mark it by dou-
bling the phonemic and graphemic symbols – /kappoo/ and kappoo˚ respectively.
In our phonetic transcriptions, for contoid lengthening it is necessary to add (:):
(3kåp'p:øø) (but, as can be seen and heard, after the second element).
12.0.2. In Japanese, even the pitch of the di‡erent morae is distinctive. ˛ey
form syllables, words, phrases, and sentences. ˛e example just seen shows that
pitch is not marked in spelling, that is in the transliteration, as well as in normal
hiragana writing – (3âi'må2˙åœnå, 3âi'må3˙åœnå÷ 3âi'må2˙å&nå) /hiRaù˙aùna÷ -naå (which is
added to characters, çideogramsÇ, that were taken from Chinese).
Normally, this does not happen in the other type of writing, katakana (3kÄ'tå-
3kåœnå, 3kÄ'tå2kåœnå) /kataùkaùna/, which is generally used in teaching and scientific
textbooks, in order to çhintÇ at the pronunciation of onomatopeic terms and re-
cent loanwords (more recent than the Chinese ones, which adapted to Japanese),
or for stylistic reasons.
Instead, in phonotonemic transcriptions, we indicate with Å the point after
which the voice goes from a mid pitch to a low one. We call this akusento (Ô §
12.3.2.1), by using the term taken from English [accent]˚ in order to indicate this
particular pitch phenomenon. As a matter of fact, it is not properly a stress ele-
ment, since, in actual fact –as we will see– both pitch patterns and segmental con-
sistency –or syllabic çweightÇ– determine stress, Ô § 12.3.2.5-14. Indeed, these

points may even be more than just one, as can be seen from the two previous ex-
amples. However, these points have to be interpreted as possible variants, in a par-
adigmatic opposition, which is typical of phonemes, that manifest themselves on
the syntagmatic axis, as is typical of words in sentences. ˛is means that one must
be çchosenÇ, excluding all the others.
On the contrary, phonotonetic transcriptions more concretely show the pitch
of every syllable in a word, or rhythm group, since there are precise patterns for
neutral Japanese (as we will see in detail later on, § 12.3.2.2), even if with variants.
As a matter of fact, for the word hiragana we find as many as three possibilities (al-
though the last is less favorite and older), as we have just seen, and as many as two
for katakana˘ ‹ile, for a word like katana˚ there is just one possible neutral
toneme: (3kÄ'tå2nå) /katanaå (/kataùna/ is only regional).
We prefer to use ( ) Å (instead of a more popular –in Japan– but less satisfacto-
ry (^ Œ) /Œ/), since the marked pitch is low, whereas the unmarked one is mid, not
high (as a more traditional notation would lead to think, being based more on a
tonemic rather than a tonetic criterion, which considers çhighÇ what is çnon-lowÇ).
Vowels
12.1.1. Japanese has only five vowels, which can be distinctively short or long
(or rather doubled, being realized almost as monotimbric diphthongs), and they can
combine into di‡erent kinds of sequences (as happens in a slow pronunciation of
Spanish in Saavedra or La Habana (ßaa'B™;ƒRa, laa'Ba;na). However, too often
Japanese pronunciation is hastily çdescribedÇ as having the vowels of Spanish and
the consonants of English. We will see that this is not the case at all.
û 12.1 shows the actual articulations of the five vowels: (i, ™, å, ø, M÷ ii, ™™, aa,
øø, MM) /i, e, a, o, M÷ ii, ee, aa, oo, MM/ i˚ e˚ a˚ o˚ u÷ ii˚ ee˚ aa˚ oo˚ uu˘ Since çlongÇ
vowels are phonemic sequences (and phonetic geminations), the marker of (short)
/a/ (å) is grey, seeing that it is articulated as a less open vocoid (even in stressed syl-
lables). ˛e most problematic Japanese vowel –of course for non-native speakers–
is (M) /M/ u˚ which lacks the typical lip rounding of (u) so widespread in many
languages. Besides, it is articulated with the tongue dorsum in a fronter position
than (u) in most languages; in fact, it is back-central, not simply back.
Mostly, the younger generations articulate /M/ in a further front position, as
high central –with partial or full rounding, (˚) or (%), respectively– but we always
notate (M), since those are youth characteristics which generally change into (M),
sooner or later. ˛is peculiarity continues in relative time, without really chang-
ing the structure. Obviously, real non-neutral pronunciations are a di‡erent thing.
Let us now see some examples for each phoneme: (3i'™) /ieå ie˚ (Çáiô2køø) /giô-
koo/ ginkoo˚ (3så'6i3¿ii) /sabisiùi/ sabiíi÷ (Ç™i2™P) /eieô/ eien˚ ('™3˙åø) /eù˙ao/ egao˚
(3kå'må2t™) /kaRate/ karate÷ (Çåi) /aùi/ ai÷ (çQå¿2¿:i) /zassi/ zasí˚ (3må'tø) /mato/ ma-
to÷ ('n™3kø) /neùko/ neko˚ (3ø'©i3mM) /okiùRM/ okiru˚ (3ø'tø2kø) /otokoå otoko÷ (3sM'mi)
/sMmiå sumi˚ (2åçkM3må) /aùkMma/ akuma˚ (3mM'¿i) /mMsiå muí.
12. japanese 375
12.1.2. For monomorphemic ei and ou (but the latter is generally transliterat-

ed as oo] it is normal to have /ee, oo/ (™™, øø): (3s™PÇs™™) /seôseùe/ sensei˚ (3sM'i™™)
/sMiee/ suiei˚ (Ç™™2©ªøø) /eekjoo/ eikyoo÷ (Çøø3¿jMM) /oùosjMM/ ooúu÷ (Çøø2gøP)
/oogoô/ oogon˚ (Çøø2™P) /ooeô/ ooen˘
Instead, for heteromorphemic ei and ou it is normal to have /ei, oM/ (™i, øM):
(Çk™i2tø) /keito/ keito˚ (Çs™i) /seùi/ sei˚ (3å2måÇsøM) /aRasoùM/ arasou˚ (ÇsøM) /soM/ sou˘
û 12.1. Japanese vowels.
/i/ (i), /ii/ (ii) /M/ (M), /MM/ (MM)
/e/ (™), /ee/ (™™) /o/ (ø), /oo/ (øø)
/a/ (å)
/aa/ (aa)
12.1.3. Besides, neutral Japanese has the peculiarity of presenting vowel devoic-
ing. Indeed, there are two partially di‡erent degrees.
˛e first type is complete, and produces voiceless vocoids, that is with no vibra-
tion of the vocal folds, as also happens with consonants, such as (voiceless) (s) /s/
in comparison with (voiced) (z) /z/. More appropriately, these voiceless vowels are
lenis too (or lenited), ¤ only the arytenoids are open, as for (h). ˛is concerns (i,
¨) between voiceless consonants, or between a voiceless consonant and a pause,
when in low-pitched syllables (but occasionally even in non-low-pitch ones, how-
ever never on çaccentedÇ morae, after which pitch becomes low), and never in in-
terrogative post-intonemes (which shows a raising of the basic pitch): (3©i'¿i) /kisiå
kií˚ (3k¨2Âi'6i2mM) /kMtibiRM/ ku>ibiru˚ (3hå'nå2¿i) /hanasiå hanaí˚ (3âi'tø3q¨)
/hitoùtM/ hito_u.
˛e second type, or degree, of devoicing is half-voicing, which concerns the oth-
er three vowels, but acts less systematically. In fact, we find (Ä, ), especially in the
first syllable of words, when followed by syllables containing the same vowel (more
rarely /e/ (É) is devoiced too): (3kÄ'tå2nå) /katanaå katana˚ (3t'kø2mø) /tokoRo/ toko-
ro÷ (3kÉ'så2nåi) /kesanai/ kesanai˘
˛e second type again applies, instead, to all vowels before a pause, either short
or long, preceded by any consonant. Obviously, /i, M/ become (i, ¨), when they
are in the condition of total devoicing, in the context (=é|). ˛erefore, before a
pause, the last vocoid is (î, É, Ä, , ¯) (even in diphthongs). It is important to state
that this type of devoicing is syntagmatic, which means that we have one vocoid
–not two– which begins as voiced and ends as voiceless. So the first part is voiced,
whereas the second one is voiceless: ((é‚)) – and this is hinted at by the pause con-
text, even if the actual pause is short. Examples relating to this phenomenon can
be found in the passage of the Text section, § 12.4. In simpler terms, we could say
that the auditory e‡ect is almost that of a very short (h), ((éh)) or a semiapproxi-
mant ((éh)).
For emphasis, strictly speaking (or for other paraphonic implications connect-
ed with states of mind), often an actual (éh|) sequence may be heard: (˚Çsøø3d™3s¨-
œkåh2) /˚soùodesMka,/ Soo desu ka?!
Consonants
12.2.0. As we have already said, it is currently thought that Japanese consonants

are pronounced as those of English. We have to correct this false information,
which is further reinforced by the widespread use of >˚ j˚ ´˚ f˚ _ in transliteration
(as we do ourselves, for the sake of simplicity). In fact, >˚ j˚ ´ stand for (Âª÷ ©j,
Bj÷ ¿j), with no absorption at all of (j) /j/; besides, f is not (f), but (F). ≈nally, there
is («), that –as we will see– is an intense (çsyllabicÇ) provelar semi-nasal: (P) /ô/.
˛e table of û 12.2 gives the consonantal articulations of Japanese which are
necessary for an adequate pronunciation of this language.
Instead, û 1.9-15 show the orograms –grouped by manners of articulation– of
all contoids treated in the chapters of this handbook (including secondary, occa-
sional, and regional variants), which are needed for the 12 languages dealt with.
˛is exposition renders the necessary comparisons among di‡erent languages
more useful.
û 12.2. Table of Japanese consonants.
bilabialized
prepalatal
postpalatal
prepalatal
laryngeal
provelar
alveolar
bilabial
palatal
dental
velar
ö m (n) n (~) (N) « ˙

F p b t d (© á) k g (ö)
Ô (q Q) (Â ©) {(w)}
ƒ (6)
_ s z (¿ B)
ß (F) (â) j µ {(∆)} h {(H)}
‹ /r/ m|(¬)
Nasals
12.2.1.1. At the beginning of syllables, Japanese has three possible nasal pho-
nemes: /m/ (m) m (bilabial), /n/ (n) n (alveolar; realized, however, as prepalatal,
(~), before /i, j/, by assimilation): (3~i'mø2nø) /nimono/ nimono˚ and /˙/ (˙) g (ve-
lar): (3å'˙å3k¨) /a˙aùkM/ agaku.
But we must add at once that, within words, /˙/ (˙) g (which is sometimes tran-
sliterated as ä) can be systematic only in the most neutral type of pronunciation,
after /é, ô/. In fact, nowadays the oscillation between /g ˙ ˙/ (g ˙ Ÿ ˙ ˙) is very
widespread, but with much fluctuation among people and words. However, no
native speaker systematically has only (g) /g/. In (sentence, phrase, lexeme, or
grammeme) initial position, (g) /g/ occurs, even for speakers who possess (˙) /˙/;
12. japanese 377
for (enclitic) ga we normally find (˙å) /˙a/; for ga (conjunction) we have (gå), but
(˙å) is possible too, even after a pause.
Again, there is (g) /g/ –above all– in loanwords, in onomatopeic expressions, in
Chinese reduplicate words, and after certain proclitics (which are obviously het-
erorganic): ('ái3˙å) /giù˙a/ giga˚ (Çáiô3˙å) /giùô˙a/ ginga; (3mi'ái) /migi/ migi˚ (3må'gM-
2mø) /magMRo/ maguro˚ (3møôÇg™P) /moôgeùô/ mongen˚ (3må'gø) /magoå mago˘
12.2.1.2. An even bigger phonic problem regarding nasals arises from a fourth
Japanese nasal phoneme, ¤ çmoraic nÇ, /ô/ (sometimes transliterated as â]˚ which
always occurs in a syllable coda and has a prevailing articulation as semi-provelar
(¤ provelar semi-nasal, with no actual contact between the dorsum and the ve-
lum). It is phonetically more energetic, ¤ intense (P).
It occurs in three positions: (1) before continuous consonants (¤ those produced
with an incomplete occlusion of the oral cavity), that is /s, z÷ j, µ÷ h/ (s ˙ ¿, z ˙ B÷
j, µ÷ h ˙ F ˙ â), (2) before a vowel (which is heterosyllabic, of course), and (3) in
final position before a pause (or, again, before continuous consonants, or vowels)\
(3™P'såP) /eôsaô/ ensan˚ (Çhå«2¿jå) /haôsja/ haná˚ (ÇMN2jM) /MôjM/ un'yu˚ (ÇkåP-
2µå) /kaôµa/ kanwa˚ (3s™™ÇsåP3âi) /seesaùôhi/ seisanhi˚ (Çs™P3âjå3k¨) /seùôhjakM/ sen-
hyaku˚ (3gø's™P3F¨) /goseùôhM/ gosenfu˚ (ÇtåP3i) /taùôi/ tan'i˘
However, by assimilation, /ô/ has other realizations too. In fact, it is articulated
as a homorganic nasal (to a following consonant and is always intense): (1) (õ, ó÷
›, ô), before the correspondent stops /p, b÷ t, d/ (p, b÷ t, d) and /k, g/ (k, ©÷ g, á):
(Çsåõ3pø) /saùôpo/ sanpo˚ (Ç¿iõ2bMP) /siôbMô/ ínbun˚ (ÇMó2t™P) /Môteô/ unten˚
(Çt™N3©i) ((-3£i)) /teùôki/ tenki˚ (Çtåô3kå) /taùôka/ tanka÷ and (2) (ó, «) before dental
or bilabialized prepalatal stopstrictive taxophones of /t, z/ (q, Q) and (Â, ©):
(3båóÇQåi) /baôzaùi/ banzai˚ (Ç™«2Âªøø) /eôtjoo/ en>oo˚ (Ç~i«2©iP) /niôziô/ nin-
jin÷ and, naturally, (ô) before the frequent stop(semi){con}strictive variant, (wå,
˜å), of /ka/ (kå) ka\ (Çtåô3wå, -3˜å) /taùôka/ tanka.
In addition, we have (3) (õ, ó, «, ô) before nasals, /m, n, ˙/ (m n g) and again
(ó) before r /R/ (¬), ™: (ÇMõ3m™™) /Mùômee/ unmei˚ (3åóÇnåi) /aônaùi/ annai˚ (Ç~i«-
2~i2k¨) /niônikM/ ninniku˚ (Çåô2˙åi, -3˙åi) /aô˙ai, aôù-/ angai˚ and (3åó'¬å2k[¨]3¿i)
/aôRakMùsi/ anrakuí˘
Stops
12.2.2.1. Japanese has three (voicing) diphonic pairs for stops: the voiceless are
/p, t, k/ (p, t, k) (as already seen, often /k/ is (w, ˜) + /a{a}/; occasionally /t/ be-
comes (th) + /a{a}, o{o}/; and often /p/ is (ph), in the context between /ô/ and /i{i},
a{a}/): (3kåõ'påi, 3wå-, 3˜å-, -'phåi) /kaôpai/ kanpai˚ ('tå3kø÷ 'thå-) /taùko/ tako˚ (3©ip-
'p:M) /kippM/ kippu˚ (3µå'tå÷ -'thå) /µataå wata˚ (Çk™õ3pøø) /keùôpoo/ kenpoo
(word-initial /p/ only occurs in loanwords and onomatopeic forms). In emphatic
speech, there is more çaspirationÇ.
˛e greatest çoddityÇ regards /t/ (t) which, by assimilation, before /i, j/ (i, j) is
realized as a bilabialized prepalatal stopstrictive (Â) (transliterated as >˚ even if /j/
(j) remains; but it is important to note that lip rounding is reduced, by assimila-
tion to /i, j/, but the phone remains di‡erent from (⁄)): (3Âi'Âi) /titiå >i>i˚
(ÇÂªåó2tø) /tjaôto/ >anto˘ In addition –and even more çstrangelyÇ– /t/ (t), before
/M/ (M) is realized as a dental stopstrictive (q) (transliterated _): (3qM'Ni) ((-∞i))
/tM˙i/ _ugi˘
Let us observe, once and for all, that the çpalatalÇ realizations of /k, g, ˙/, ¤ (©,
á, N), are instead çpostpalatalÇ, or retracted palatal, and can be represented better
with çspecialÇ symbols, ((£, 8, ∞)). ˛ey may safely be used (although, more often,
(©, á, N) are used), after stating that they are realized in the rear part of their artic-
ulatory space, we define çpostpalatalÇ, which in any case remains distinct from the
çprevelarÇ articulation, (´, Ò, ”), typical of most languages before front vowels and
(j), as in English (('´hI;i, '>™ÒjÈlå)) {Am. Engl. (('<™ÒjÈl≥))} (('s¤”¤˙)) /'kIi, '<EgjÈlÈ≤, 'sI˙-
I˙/ key˚ regular˚ singing.
˛us, we have: ((3£ip'p:M, 3mi'8i, 3qM'∞i)) /kippM, migi, tM˙i/ kippu˚ migi˚ _ugi˚
or (3©ip'p:M, 3mi'ái, 3qM'Ni), provided (Ni) remains di‡erent from (~i) (therefore,
/ni/ (~i) should not be rendered as if it were ç(Ni), as we find in quite a few publica-
tions).
12.2.2.2. For /b/ (b) b˚ the variant (6) is more common (¤ a voiced bilabial con-
strictive), which occurs after vowels, especially in non-slow and non-formal pro-
nunciation; less frequently the corresponding approximant, (B), is used: (3sM'6™-
3mM) /sMbeùRM/ suberu˚ (Çbåi2kåi) /baikai/ baikai˚ (Ç©jMõ3bi) /zjMùôbi/ junbi˘
˛e phoneme /d/ (d) d poses no problems, except that genuine Japanese words
never have *di, *dyV and *du˚ substituted by ji˚ /zi/ (©i, Bi) jV˚ /zjé/ (©jé, Bjé)
and zu˚ /zM/ (QM, zM): (Çdåi3BiP÷ -3©iP) /daùiziô/ daijin˚ (3©jM'zM÷ -'QM) /zjMzMå
juzu˘ Its normal distribution, non-emphatic and non-slow, is (éB[j]÷ |©[j], «©[j]).
Also /g/ (g) g poses no problems, apart from a complementary (or alternative)
distribution with /˙/ (˙) [g˚ which sometimes is transliterated as ä˚ as already said):
('gø3gå3k¨) /goùgakM/ gogaku˘
Word-initial vowels, both at the beginning or in the middle of phrases and sen-
tences, are generally preceded by (ö), especially for emphasis or to separate vowels
of adjoining words.
˛is fact will be indicated prevailingly in connected transcriptions, such as those
in § 12.4. In addition, especially (but not only) in women's pronunciation, short
utterance-final vowels, mostly with a suspensive intoneme, can be followed by (ö[æ])
(¤ with or without {an audible} release) as an alternative pronunciation instead of
a possible more çnormalÇ partial devoicing of the last vocoid: ('[ö]ø3kÉ|, '[ö]ø3k™[ö]|)
/oùke/ oke˚ (3[ö]å'sM|, 3[ö]å'sM[ö]|) /asMå asu˘ In the passage in § 12.4.2.3, a couple of
cases are indicated.
Constrictives
12.2.3. Japanese has a pair of grooved dental constrictives /s, z/ (s, z) s˚ z˘ ˛e

voiceless one, /s/ (s) s˚ is realized as prepalatal round (¿) (with reduced rounding,
12. japanese 379
by coarticulation) before i˚ /i/ (i) (transliterated as ´) and before yV˚ /jé/ (jé) (tran-
sliterated as ´V˚ although /j/ (j) does not disappear at all): (3¿jå'¿iP) /sjasiô/ á-
ín˘
˛e corresponding voiced sound, /z/ z˚ is (éz) (slow — careful: (éQ)) and (|Q,
óQ). Hence, it is realized as a dental constrictive, between vowels, either in words
or sentences, either in normal or fast speech. However, after a pause or /ô/, it is re-
alized as a stopstrictive: (3kå'z™) /kaze/ kaze (slow — careful: (3kå'Q™)), (3QM'åP)
/zMaô/ zuan˚ (Çs™ó3Qø) /seùôzo/ senzo˘
In addition, we find /z/, before i˚ /i/ (i) (transliterated as j˚ instead of z] and be-
fore yV˚ /jé/ (jé) (transliterated as jV˚ although /j/ (j) remains), which is realized as
prepalatal rounded (again, with reduced rounding) (éBi, éBjé) (slow — careful:
(é©i, é©jé)) and (|©i, |©jé÷ «©i, «©jé): ('FM3Bi) /hMùzi/ fuji˚ (3©i't™P) /ziteô/
jiten˚ (Çkå«2©i) /kaôzi/ kanji˘
Approximants
12.2.4.1. Japanese has three approximants. ˛e first, /j/ (j) y˚ is (voiced) palatal:
(3så2jø'nå3må, -2må, 3så2jøø'nå3må) /sajonaùRa, -Ra, sajoonaùRa/ sayonara (-yoo-)˚ (3jå2¿i'©i,
3jå¿:'©i) /jasikiå yaíki˚ (3mi'å2kø) /mijako/ miyako˚ (Çjøø2©ªMM) /jookjMM/ yoo-
kyuu˚ (Ç¿jMM3¿i) /sjMùMsi/ úuí˘
As can be seen from the examples, it remains unchanged in word-initial posi-
tion /òjé/ (òjé), whereas it is realized as a phonetic çzeroÇ, (`), when preceded by
i˚ /i/: /ijé/ = (ié). In non-slow speech, the same is possible for /ejé/ = (™é), or (™ãé);
thus we will mark (™ãé) (by using a palatal semi-approximant symbol): (3h™'ãå) /he-
jaå heya.
After the voiceless stop phonemes /pjé, tjé, kjé/, /j/ is devoiced, (ª): (pª, Âª, ©ª);
but it remains (j) after other consonants (even if voiceless, /s, h/ (¿, â) s˚ h]˚ and
without being absorbed by /t, s, z, h/: (Âª, ¿j, Bj, ©j, âj) (in spite of translitera-
tions such as >, ´, j). Sequences such as *yi, *ye do not occur.
12.2.4.2. ˛e second Japanese approximant, /µ/ (µ) w (which occurs in the

syllable wa), is (voiced) provelar di‡ering from (w), which is velar rounded; it has
the same relationship with /M/ (M) u as happens in English between /w/ and /Uu,
U, u/ – (w), (¯u/Uu, ¨, ¯) (('w¤n:, 'khw¤k, 'Th¯;u/-U;u, 'Th¨k, Th¯'IiT) win, quick, two,
took, to eat): (3µå'tå2¿i) /µatasi/ wataí˚ (3kå'µå) /kaµa/ kawa˚ (3M'µå2så) /Mµa-
sa/ uwasa˚ (Çd™P2µå) /deôµa/ denwa˘
˛e third approximant, /h/ (h) h˚ is voiceless laryngeal; however, in fast pronun-
ciation (h) can become voiced, (H), after vowels. But the most remarkable fact is
that, by assimilation, /hM/ is (FM) (a voiceless bilabial approximant, transliterat-
ed as fu]˚ and that in /hi, hjé/ (âi, âjé) we have a voiceless palatal approximant.
In addition, a voiceless velar approximant, (∆), is very frequent for /ha{a}/: (3hå-
'høP, 3∆å'HøP) /hahoô/ hahon˚ (3hå'h™P, 3∆å'H™P) /haheô/ hahen˚ (3F¨Çkøø) /hM-
koùo/ fukoo˚ (3âi'˙™) /hi˙e/ hige˚ (3âjå'kM) /hjakMå hyaku˘
£TrillsÇ
12.2.5. Japanese has one phoneme of the çtrillÇ type, which is similar to Spanish
r /R/ (R), as in interpretar˚ /inteRpRe'taR/ (in&teRpRe'taR). A realization like this could
be su‚cient for a fairly good pronunciation of Japanese, all the more so because
that is indeed one of the possible realizations. However, it is better to learn the
two most typical articulations given shortly (which are alveolar again), and use
them instead of (R).
˛e first taxophone of /R/ r is (m), lateral flap (or lateralized flap – Ô û 10.13 in
NPT/HPh, besides û 1.14.2-3 in this handbook), which occurs after vowels (even
within sentences): (3kå'µå2må) /kaµaRa/ kawara˚ (3™'mi) /eRiå eri (the same phone al-
so occurs in American English before (≥), ™ ('b™m≥) /'bEùÈ≤/ better]˘ A non-lateralized
flap is possible too, ([): (3kå'µå2[å) /kaµaRa/ kawara˚ (3™'[i) /eRiå eri (which is the
main American phone, in all contexts without (≥), ™ ('b™[i) /'bEùi/ Betty]˘ In Japa-
nese it is better to use (m), although ([, R) are possible too.
˛e second taxophone of /R/ r is (¬), lateral tap (or tapped lateral, û 1.15.3),
which occurs after /ô/ (even within sentences) or after pauses: (Çb™ó2¬i) /beùôRi/ ben-
ri˚ (3¬M'i2Bi, -2©i) /RMizi/ ruiji˚ (3¬™2©i'¿i, -©:'¿i) /Rekisi/ rekií˚ (Ç¬øó3¬i) /RoùôRi/ ronri˘
For the sake of simplicity, we could say that the di‡erence between the two reali-
zations consists in di‡erent degrees of lateralization. In fact, (m) is less lateralized,
as lateralization is an added, or secondary, component (let us say 1ˇ’); whereas, for
(¬) lateralization is prevailing, or primary (let us say 2ˇ’).
Occasionally, lateral realizations can be heard as well, (l) (which is still alveo-
lar), and postalveolar ones (of various manners of articulation – respectively: flap,
tap, stop, flapped lateral, lateral: (®, e, Ã, », $). Obviously, these phones need not
be actively acquired – it is su‚cient to be simply able to recognize them.
£Palatalization∞
12.2.6.1. Before /i, j/, the phonemes /n, ˙÷ t, k, g÷ s÷ z÷ h/ have peculiar but neces-
sary realizations: (~i, Ni) /ni, ˙i/ ni, gi÷ (Âi, ©i, ái) /ti, ki, gi/ >i, ki˚ gi÷ (¿i÷ Bi, |©i,
«©i÷ âi) /si÷ zi÷ hi/ í÷ ji÷ hi\ (Ç~i«2©jMM) /niôzjMM/ ninjuu˚ (3kå'Ni2mM) /ka˙iRM/
kagiru÷ (3Âi'™) /tieù/ >ie˚ (3©i'™2mM) /kieRM/ kieru˚ (3ái'µå2k¨) /giµåkM/ giwaku÷ (3¿i-
'må) /simåå íma÷ (3å'Bi) /azi/ aji˚ (3©i'mi) /zimiå jimi˚ ('må3âi) /maùhi/ mahi˘
In addition, we find: (~j, Nj) /nj, ˙j/ ny, gy÷ (Âª, ©ª, áj) /tj, kj, gj/ >, ky˚ gy÷ (¿j÷
Bj, |©j, «©j÷ âj) /sj÷ zj÷ hj/ ´÷ j÷ hy\ (Ç~jMM2˙å2k¨) /njMM˙akM/ nyuugaku˚ (ÇåN-
2Njå) /aô˙ja/ angya÷ (ÇÂªMM3Âªø) /tjMùMtjo/ >uu>o˚ (3©ªMMÇ©ªMM3¿jå) /kjMM-
kjMùMsja/ kyuukyuuá˚ (ÇájMM2~jMM) /gjMMnjMM/ gyuunyuu÷ (3¿i«Ç~jMM3s™™)
/siônjMùMsee/ ínnyuusei÷ (ÇkåN2jMM) /kaôjMM/ kan'yuu˚ (3©iÇdøø3¿jå) /zidoùos-
ja/ jidooá˚ (3âjå'kM) /hjakMå hyaku˘
Again, we must remember that, for /k, g, ˙/ + /i, j/, the actual articulation is
çpostpalatalÇ ((£, 8, ∞)) (rather than fully palatal, (©, á, N)), and that (j) remains.
12.2.6.2. All other consonants have no çpalatalizationÇ (although certain lin-

guists and phonologists state the contrary, because they carry theorism to an ex-
12. japanese 381
cess). So, we regularly have: (émi, |¬i, ó¬i) /Ri/ ri÷ (mi, pi) /mi, pi/ mi, pi÷ (bi, 6i)
/bi/ bi. ˛us: (3ø26i'™2mM) /obieRM/ obieru˚ (3mi'nø2mi) /minoRi/ minori˚ (3¬i'sø2k¨) /Ri-
sokM/ risoku˚ (Ç¿ió3¬i) /siùôRi/ ínri˚ (Ç™õ2pi2q¨) /eôpitM/ enpi_u˘
In addition, /0jé/ (0jé) CyV, ChV\ (mj, |¬j, ó¬j) /Rj/ ry÷ (mj, pª) /mj, pj/ my˚ py÷
(bj, 6j) /bj/ by: (Ç™ó3¬jø) /eùôRjo/ enryo˚ (Ç¬jMM) /RjMùM/ ryuu˚ (3¬øp'p:ªå2k¨) /Roppja-
kM/ roppyaku˚ (Çbjøø) /bjoùo/ byoo˚ (ÇbMõ2mjå2k¨) /bMômjakM/ bunmyaku˚
(3QåiÇmjøø) /zaiRjoùo/ zairyoo˘
£Gairaigo∞ – loanwords
12.2.7. As in any language, even in Japanese, loanwords (of which about 10,000
are of English origin) require some adaptation to the syllable structure (which is
based on morae in Japanese) and new phonemic combinations for new sounds.
For these typical adaptations, let us consider two examples: (2kMçmå36M) /kMùRa-
bM/ çclubÇ˚ (3s[¨]tøÇmåi3©[i]) /sMtoRaùiki/ ç(workers') strikeÇ˚ (3s[¨]tøÇmåi3k[¨]) /sM-
toRaùikM/ ç(baseball) strikeÇ. It is clear how the Japanese syllabic structure changes
original monosyllables, with consonant clusters, into actual polysyllables.
Among new combinations, in the traditional phonotactics (which is quite rigid
and with a fairly limited number of possibilities), the most common are: (Çpaa3ti)
/paùat-i/ çpartyÇ˚ (3di'm™3k[¨]3taa) /d-iReùkMtaa/ çdirectorÇ˚ (ÇÂ[ª]™«3©i) /tjeùôzi/
çchangeÇ˚ (Ç©[j]™t3t:ø) /djeùtto/ çjetÇ˚ ('¿[j]™3F[¨]) /sjeùhM/ çchefÇ˚ (3FM'i2mM2mM,
-3mM3mM, 'âi-, 'Fµi-, 'Fi-) /hMiRMmM, h[M]iùRMmM/ çfilmÇ˚ (Ç¿iõ3Fø3~ii) /siùôhMo-
nii/ çsymphonyÇ˚ (3kåóÇqøø3n™) /kaôtMoùone/ çcanzoneÇ.
Some examples clearly show that, besides placing some phones into new combi-
nations, certain sequences are slightly çdenipponizedÇ (as the possible dropping,
in these words but not in genuine ones, of (j) after prepalatal {rounded} articula-
tions), becoming slightly more çinternationalÇ.
Structures
12.3.0. In particular, we will deal with Japanese akusento, which is determined

by pitch (even if it does not lack a stress component), and with intonation, which
is superimposed to akusento, slightly changing it.
A typical Japanese pronunciation shows a particular kind of voice with a para-
phonic setting with lowered larynx §æ@, especially for men.
Taxophonics
12.3.1.1. ˛e basic things have already been said. In fact, we have seen devoiced
vocoids (Ô § 12.1.3), and the few taxophonic characteristics regarding Japanese
consonants.
Gemination
12.3.1.2. We must state that a çmoraÇ coincides with a light syllable, as the one
formed by a short vowel (/i, e, a, o, M/), or by /ô/, or else by the first element of a
geminate consonant (/é-0-0é/ (0-0:)).
A half-heavy syllable corresponds to a geminate vowel (/ii, ee, aa, oo, MM/) or a
diphthong, or to a short vowel + /ô/ (/éô/) or + the first element of a geminate con-
sonant (whose second element belongs to the following syllable, together with its
vowel).
Instead, a heavy syllable presents a geminate vowel (or diphthong) + /ô/ (/ééô/)
or + the first element of a geminate consonant: /éé0[-0é]/.
As we have seen from various previous examples, in Japanese, vowel length is dis-
tinctive, ¤ short and çlongÇ or rather geminate (or doubled) vowels: (sø) /so, soå
so (one mora), (Çsøø) /soo, soùo/ soo (two morae); ('tø3©i) /toùki/ toki, (Çtøø3©i) /toùo-
ki/ tooki. Even consonant length is distinctively present, as in (3©i't™) /kite/ (from ki-
ru /kiRM/ çto wearÇ) and /kiteå kite (from kuru /kMRM/ çto comeÇ), both with two
morae; (3©it't:™) /kitte[ù]/ (çstampÇ) and ('©it3t:™, 3©it't:™) /kiùtteå kitte (from kiru /ki-
ùRM/ çto cutÇ), both with three morae: /ki-t-te/; (3gå'kå) /gaka/ gaka çartistÇ, (3gåk-
'k:å) /gakka/ gakka çlessonÇ.
From a phonetic point of view, a doubled consonant consists of two morae: the
first one coincides with the first element of the gemination (even if it is actually
shorter, (t)), whereas the second one (which is decidedly longer, since actually
lengthened, (t:)) constitutes another mora together with the vowel that follows it:
(©it-t:™) (although here we have omitted the pitch features given above). In fact,
/sotto/ is (3søt't:ø) sotto çsoftlyÇ (while a similar Italian word sotto /'sotto/ çunderÇ
is ('sot:to) in an intoneme, or ('sotto) in a preintoneme). Let us observe well –and
listen even more carefully to– the di‡erence between (0:0) and (00:). Both for
Japanese /sotto/ or for Italian /'sotto/, however, we always have two phono-sylla-
bles, even if Japanese /sotto/ has three morae.
çMoraicÇ n is always postvocalic, but it can also be followed by a vowel (and it
is transliterated as Vn' V˚ in order to make people realize we are dealing with /éôé/
(éP-é), not with VnV /éné/ (é-né), and the same goes for Vn'yV /éôjé/ (éP-jé),
which is di‡erent from VnyV /énjé/ (é-~jé)): (Çt™ó3døø) /teùôdoo/ tendoo (Ô, a sim-
ilar Italian word, tendo /'tEndo/, or ('tEn:do) in an intoneme).
However, in Japanese, in addition to /éôé/ (éP-é) and /éné/ (é-né), as in (ÇåP3i)
/aùôi/ an'i˚ ('å3~i) /aùni/ ani, we can also have /éô˙é/ (éô-˙é) (which is the combina-
tion of /éô/ and /˙é/): (Ç™N2Ni) /eô˙i/ engi and /éôné/ (éó-né) too (combination
of /éô/ and /né/): (Çåó2nå) /aôna/ anna˚ (Çå«3~i) /aùôni/ anni (Ô Italian: /'anna, 'an-
ni/ ('an{:}na, 'an{:}ni) Anna, anni]˘ Let us add this –not useless– example: (ÇhøP3jå)
/hoùô-ja/ hon'ya˘
˛erefore, the structure of /ô/ (õ, ó, «, N, ô, P) (one mora) is di‡erent from the
geminate one /0-0é/ (two morae, or three including the first vowel: /é-0-0é/).
However, there is no di‡erence for the counting of morae.
12. japanese 383
Japanese £accent∞ – akusento
12.3.2.1. Both phonetic and phonemic transcriptions, as we have seen in the

previous section too, indicate that in Japanese akusento is actually a pitch accent.
We are not faced with real tones (and tonemes), as in Chinese or cetnamese
(languages where even gliding or compound movements on each syllable are pre-
vailing). On the contrary, in Japanese a pattern stretches over whole words, or
whole rhythm groups formed by one or more words and by their (strictly connect-
ed) enclitic functional syllables (grammatical particles).
˛e term akusento˚ (2å3k[¨]çs™ó3tø) /aùkMseôto/, indicates the point, ¤ the mo-
ra, after which pitch is lowered, that is the change from mid to low pitch. In our
transcriptions, this is marked by writing Å after the mora in question. Any other
morae before the akusento have mid pitch, except for the very first one, which is
low. If a word or rhythm group has no akusento, the first mora is low, whereas all
the successive ones are mid; thus without going back to low pitch, according to
the pattern that follows shortly (which is limited here to four morae).
12.3.2.2. Only in the following table (which relates to û 12.3), we will show a
tonemic (å) and a tonetic pattern (∫, where (3ø) indicates a low-pitched syllable,
with the vowel timbre of /o/; whereas (2ø) indicates mid pitch). We consider them
to be more useful and convenient, in order to describe and learn/teach. We add
pattern (©) that is most recommendable in transliterations which do not ignore a-
kusento, when no transcriptions are used.
According to the general principles of not explicitly writing unmarked prosod-
ic elements, in transcriptions, the notation (2) –for mid pitch– could or should be
left out. However, it is certainly more useful to show it, all the more so because in
actual examples it is much less obtrusive than in the table. In any case, in pattern
(∆) it has been left out.
For useful comparisons, we will add the most widespread patterns used in trans-
literations (∂, ™), and the one used in katakana moraic transcription (ƒ) with typic-
ally oriental graphic complexities. We also show a phonotonetic pattern turned
into a more çorthodoxÇ one (Ÿ), originating from pattern (™). To indicate any mo-
ra, here we use (ø), /o/, o˚ $ (the last one to çindicateÇ katakana, in ƒ):
å /oooo/ /ooooå /oooùo/ /ooùoo/ /oùooo/

∫ (3ø2ø2ø2ø) (3ø2ø2ø2ø) (3ø2ø2ø3ø) (3ø2ø3ø3ø) (2ø3ø3ø3ø)
© oooo oooò ooòo oòoo òooo
∂ oooo ooooŒ oooŒo ooŒoo oŒooo
™ oôoo oôooŒ oôoŒo oôŒoo ôŒooo
ƒ $999 $990 $90$ $0$$ 0$$$
Ÿ (øœøøø) (øœøøøì) (øœøøìø) (øœøìøø) (œøìøøø)
∆ (3øøøø) (3øøøø) (3øøø3ø) (3øø3ø3ø) (ø3ø3ø3ø)
û 12.3. Pitch-accent patterns.
/oooo/ /ooooå /oooùo/ /ooùoo/ /oùooo/

(3øøøø) (3øøøø) (3øøø3ø) (3øø3ø3ø) (ø3ø3ø3ø)
12.3.2.3. In type-å tonetic transcriptions, the first instance (/oooo/) di‡ers from
the second (/ooooå), because for the latter we also indicate the succeeding lower-
ing (which –for obvious reasons– is absent in type-∫ transcriptions). Indeed, it is
not objectively present in actual reality, when no words follow (as we will see short-
ly). In type-© transliterations, the accent could even be acute [ó]˚ but the grave one
is to be preferred since it can show actual movements better – in fact, the pitch
falls from mid to low.
Type-∂ and type-™ transliterations reflect the first ones in a more abstract way:
tonemic and tonetic (å, ∫); even the katakana transliteration –or çtranscriptionÇ–
(ƒ) shows the same characteristic, but in a more abstract way in comparison with
real transcriptions (å, ∫, Ÿ).
We do not use transcriptions of the type /oŒooo/ (^øŒøøø), which some use
though (on the wake of type ∂ and type-™ transliterations), because if syllables/mo-
rae were really pronounced in a high pitch, instead of the mid one, the result
would not be at all convincing. Let us add that in certain textbooks it is possible
to find both types ∂ and ™ with katakana, and type ƒ with transcriptions.
As far as the indication or pitch variants is concerned, as we have done in §
12.0.2, for hiragana ((3âi'må2˙åœnå, 3âi'må3˙åœnå÷ 3âi'må2˙å&nå) /hiRaù˙aùna÷ -naå) and ka-
takana ((3kÄ'tå3kåœnå, 3kÄ'tå2kåœnå) /kataùkaùna/), the most important thing is to in-
dicate them (unless there are usage di‡erences). Our phonotonetic transcription
also shows their (wider or narrower) di‡usion and recommendability (which is to
be interpreted gradually – from the first onwards).
On the other hand, in a pronouncing dictionary, which would be worth publish-
ing (using a transliteration, followed by the o‚cial writing and, of course, by an
IPA transcription, certainly a phonemic one), preferences could and should be
shown, by indicating /hiRa˙aùna, hiRaù˙ana, hiRa˙anaå and /kataùkana, katakaùna/,
obviously in a shortened form: /hiRa˙aùna, -Raù-÷ -naå and /kataùkana, -kaù-/. Of
course, in an introduction, the precise phonetic and tonetic characteristics would
be fully treated, with accurate transcriptions, and with all the necessary voco-
grams, orograms, and tonograms, Â.
12.3.2.4. A short –mono-moraic– syllable may have two pitch possibilities: /ne/
ne çsound, toneÇ (absence of akusento), /neå ne çrootÇ (presence of akusento), but
tonetically they are both çnon-lowÇ (¤ said in a mid pitch: ('n™); the same goes for
/ki/ ki çspiritÇ, /kiå ki çtreeÇ, ('©i), and /ha/ ha çleaveÇ, /haå ha çtoothÇ, ('hå).
In the case of two morae, we can have (Çsøø) /soùo/ soo çmonkÇ, (Çsøø) /soo/ soo
çvilla, innÇ, which are monosyllables realized right as (Çsøø), with half-low pitch –
but slightly falling or rising, respectively, since they combine mid and low, or low
and mid, pitch (Ô û 12.4).
12. japanese 385
In unstressed bimoraic syllables, we find (3) (which is low, but raised up to the
border with the mid band, as can be seen from the figure, in comparison with the
low pitch of (ç)), as in: (3s™PÇs™™) /seôseùe/ sensei˚ (Çkøø3âii) /koohiùi/ koohii.
For two syllables formed by adding –to a monomoraic monosyllable– particles
such as (˙å, µå) /˙a, µa/ ga˚ wa˚ which are akusento-less (since their pitch depends
on what precedes, even if {when pronounced metalinguistically in isolation} they
are obviously ('˙å, 'µå) /˙a, µa/), we obtain respectively: (3n™'˙å) /ne˙a/ ne ga and
('n™3˙å) /neù˙a/ ne ga, (3©i'˙å) /ki˙a/ ki ga and ('©i3˙å) /kiù˙a/ ne ga, (3hå'˙å) /ha˙a/ ha
ga and ('hå3µå) /haùµa/ ha wa.
It is fundamental not to believe that Japanese has two çtonemesÇ – low and mid.
As a matter of fact, akusento is not at all a kind of actual pitch height (as it is not
stress either). On the contrary, it is a pitch fall. It is a sort of çcatatonic pointÇ, af-
ter which the pitch falls, passing to the low band, as the examples clearly show.
But above all, akusento is either present or absent. In English, (the position of)
stress is phonemic; whereas it is not so in Japanese. Besides, in English, pitch de-
pends only on intonation (and paraphonics); whereas, in Japanese, pitch is phone-
mic and fundamental.
˛is language has mid pitch until an akusento comes, after which the pitch be-
comes low. If no akusento occurs, the pitch remains mid. On the contrary, stress
in Japanese is not phonemic and depends on a complex interplay of various fac-
tors, such as the presence or absence of akusento, where it is placed, and the sylla-
ble structures of the rhythm group.
Naturally, the tonograms su‚ciently highlight that, in a rhythm group (or in
an isolated word), the first mora is low and contrasts with the second one, which
is mid; provided that (as we have already seen) the first mora is not followed by an
akusento, in which case it is mid and what follows is low.
Again with two morae, we also have ('hå3nå) /haùna/ hana çedgeÇ, (3hå'nå) /hanaå
hana çflowerÇ, (3hå'nå) /hana/ hana çnoseÇ (all bisyllabic), as for the monosyllabic
examples with a particle seen above.
As soon as we add a particle, the e‡ect of akusento is immediately clear: (3n™'µå)
/neµa/ ne wa çsound, toneÇ, ('n™3µå) /neùµa/ ne wa çrootÇ, ('hå3nå3˙å) /haùna˙a/
hana ga çedgeÇ, (3hå'nå3˙å) /hanaù˙a/ hana ga çflowerÇ, (3hå'nå2˙å) /hana˙a/ hana ga
çnoseÇ; and so on.
û 12.4. Movements in syllables with morae of di‡erent pitch.
£ Ç /éé, éô/ =
≥ (Çéé, ÇéP), (3éé, 3éP)
£ Ç /éùé, éùô/ =
Stress in Japanese
12.3.2.5. Although stress is not distinctive in Japanese, nevertheless it has a fun-

damental phonetic function. On the other hand, when acculturated native speak-
ers talk about Japanese accent, they surely mean pitch accent –akusento– which is
distinctive. However, in an automatic way, even non-acculturated natives –inevi-
tably– use di‡erent degrees of stress for the various syllables which form sentences.
Since stress is not distinctive, it can oscillate and shift in sentences, phrases, and
rhythm groups. ˛is can also depend on communicative, pragmatic, paraphonic,
and emotional factors. It can even change according to which monosyllables are
added.
However, we will give some indications about the phenomenon of stress, since
we believe it is impossible to continue ignoring it; although this is exactly what
still happens. Let us now proceed in order and start from monosyllables, by reflect-
ing on the fact that bimoraic words, as the following, are actually monosyllables
(in spite of contrary confused indications): (Çii) /iùi/ ii˚ (ÇåM) /aùM/ au˚ (Çbåi) /baùi/
bai˚ (Çkø™) /koùe/ koe˚ (Ç©ªøø) /kjoùo/ kyoo˚ (ÇbMP) /bMùô/ bun˚ (Çøøi) /ooùi/ ooi˚
(Çbaai) /baai/ baai˚ (Çbjøø2iP) /bjooiô/ byooin (this last example has four morae,
but not four syllables, rather only one! – Ô English ('g‘¨¤˙, 'gø¨¤˙) /'gOUI˙/ going).
In these examples, a stressed syllable is always half-low, but it is slightly falling
(since it derives from the combination of mid and low pitch, within the same sylla-
ble), except in the last two examples, where it is slightly rising instead (since it de-
rives from the combination of low and mid pitch, tautosyllabically – Ô û 12.4).
12.3.2.6. True problems begin with bisyllables, though. In fact, there are di‡er-
ences between (3å'm™) /ame/ ame çcandyÇ, ('å3m™) /aùme/ ame çrainÇ, and (3n™'mM)
/neRM/ neru çto sleepÇ, ('n™3mM) /neùRM/ neru çflannelÇ. Bisyllables of two morae,
that is with two light syllables, are stressed on the second syllable, unless akusento
follows the first one, which is then stressed: (3k'kø) /koko/ koko˚ (3å'Bi) /azi/ aji˚
(3M'™) /Me/ ue˚ (3i'M) /iM/ iu˚ (3ø'i) /oi/ oi and (3ø'tø) /otoå oto˚ (3å'¿i) /asiå aí˚
(3mM'må) /mMRaå mura˚ (3qM'Ni) /tM˙iå _ugi˚ (3¿i'ø) /sioå ío˚ (3i'™) /ieå ie˘ How-
ever, we have: ('dø3m™) /doùRe/ dore˚ ('å3©i) /aùki/ aki˚ ('qM3må) /tMùma/ _uma˚ Â.
˛ree-mora bisyllables are stressed on the heaviest syllables (¤ with more morae
than others), although there are some oscillations that we will indicate. It is impor-
tant to accurately observe akusento di‡erences (which are pitch di‡erences), in
phonemic transcriptions, since sometimes they are the only actual di‡erences (but
û 12.4 must be carefully considered): (3ø'møi) /omoi/ omoi˚ (3øÇmøi) /omoùi/ omoi˚
(3kå'søø) /kasoo/ kasoo˚ (3kåÇsøø) /kasoùo/ kasoo˚ (3i'måi) /iRai/ irai˚ (2içmåi) /iùRai/ irai˚
(3å'øi) /aoi/ aoi˚ (3åÇøi) /aoùi/ aoi˚ (3¿i'åi) /siai/ íai˚ (3©i'nøø) /kinoo/ kinoo˚ (3jø't™™)
/jotee/ yotei˚ (2âiç˙åi) /hiù˙ai/ higai (but ('©i3Njøø) /kiù˙joo/ kigyoo]˚ (2kMçmøø) /kM-
ùRoo/ kuroo˚ (2båçm™™) /baùRee/ baree˘
More: (3©iÇkåi) /kikaùi/ kikai˚ (3¿iÇk™P) /sikeùô/ íken˚ (2içk™P) /iùkeô/ iken˚ (3i'k™P)
/ikeô/ iken˚ (2gøçz™P) /goùzeô/ gozen˚ (2QMç6øP) /zMùboô/ zubon˚ (Çkøø2Bi) /koozi/
kooji˚ (Çkøø3Bi) /koùozi/ kooji˚ (Ç™N2Ni) /eô˙i/ engi˚ (Çåi2då) /aida/ aida˚ (Çhåi3mM)
/haùiRM/ hairu˚ (Ç©ªøø3tø) /kjoùoto/ Kyooto˚ (Çkåi2Ni) /kai˙iå kaigi˚ (Çdåi3k¨) /daùi-
12. japanese 387
kM/ daiku˚ (Çb™ó3¬i) /beùôRi/ benri˚ (Çmió2nå) /miôna/ minna˚ (3miq'q:M) /miqqMå
mit_u˚ (3åk'k:å) /akka/ akka (but: ('åk3k:å) /aùkka/ akka˚ ('¬™¿3¿:jå) /Reùssja/ resá˚
where pitch prevails on other factors).
Generally, in four-mora bisyllables, stress falls on the first syllables, unless it is a
light one (¤ with just one mora) or there is an akusento after the second one (or if
the first is only çhalf-heavyÇ, ¤ checked by (=˘=:)): (Ç©jMM26jøø) /zjMMbjoo/ juu-
byoo˚ (Ç©jMM36jøø) /zjMùMbjoo/ juubyoo˚ (Çhøø2køø) /hookoo/ hookoo˚ (Ç©jMM-
3døø) /zjMùMdoo/ juudoo˚ (Çkøø2Bjøø) /koozjoo/ koojoo˚ (3køøÇBjøø) /koozjoùo/ koo-
joo˚ (3tåiÇFMM) /taihMùM/ taifuu˘
More: (Çk™ó2tøø) /keôtoo/ kentoo˚ (3k™óÇtøø) /keôtoùo/ kentoo˚ (Çs™ó2tøø) /seô-
too/ sentoo˚ (Çs™ó3tøø) /seùôtoo/ sentoo˚ (3s™PÇs™™) /seôseùe/ sensei˚ (Ç©iP2™P) /kiôeô/
kin'en˚ (ÇjMM26iP) /jMMbiô/ yuubin˚ (3gåk'k:øø) /gakkoo/ gakkoo˚ (3tø©'©:ªMM) /tok-
kjMM/ tokkyuu (but: (ÇbøÂ3Â:ªåP) /boùttjaô/ boc>an]˚ (3™'©iiP) /ekiiô/ ekiin˚ (3¿ip-
'p:åi, 3¿i-) /sippai/ íppai˚ (Çtøø2©ªøø) /tookjoo/ Tookyoo˘
12.3.2.7. ˛ree-mora trisyllables are stressed on their second syllable, unless it

contains a devoiced vowel, which makes stress shift forwards (if an akusento is
there) or backwards: (3©i'mø2nø) /kimono/ kimono˚ (3jM'6i2µå) /jMbiµa/ yubiwa˚
(3Âi'kå2må) /tikaRaå >ikara˚ (3F¨'tå2mi) /hMtaRi/ futari˚ (2åçmå3¿i) /aùRasi/ araí˘
Besides: (3kå'™2mi) /kaeRiå kaeri˚ (3kå'™2mM) /kaeRM/ kaeru˚ (3kå'™3mM) /kaeùRM/ kaeru
(but (Çkå™3mM) /kaùeRM/ kaeru), (2tåçø3mM) /taùoRM/ taoru˚ (3M'™2©i) /Meki/ ueki˚ (3¿i-
'kå2kM) /sikakMå íkaku÷ (2kåçzø3k¨) /kaùzokM/ kazoku (with this pitch pattern,
and especially with non-devoiced /i, M/ in the last but one syllable, it is also possi-
ble to have: ('dø3Âi3må) /doùtiRa/ do>ira˚ ('d™3˙M3Âi) /deù˙Mti/ degu>i]÷ ('k™3¿i3©i)
/keùsiki/ keíki˚ ('i3k¨3qM) /iùkMtM/ iku_u˚ ('pø3s¨3tø) /poùsMto/ posuto˚ (3µå2F¨-
'kM) /µahMkM/ wafuku˚ (3å2¿i'tå) /asitaå aíta˚ (3jå2k¨'¿jø) /jakMsjo/ yakuó˘
Four-mora trisyllables are stressed on the first syllable, unless it is a light one:
(Çkåi2mø2nø) /kaimono/ kaimono˚ (Çøø2så2kå) /oosaka/ Oosaka˚ (Çsaa36i3s¨) /saùabi-
sM/ saabisu˚ (Ç¿jøø2Bi3©i, -2Bi2©i) /sjooziùkiå óojiki˚ (Çt™õ2pM2må) /teôpMRa/ tenpu-
ra˚ (ÇQ™ô3kø3k¨) /zeùôkokM/ zenkoku˚ (2¿içmøø3tø) /siùRooto/ írooto˚ (3bM'qM2zøø)
/bMtMzoo/ butuzoo˚ (3s™'©i2~iP) /sekiniô/ sekinin˚ (2åçkå3ÂªåP) /aùkatjaô/ aka>an˚
(3må'™M2mi) /maeMRi/ maeuri˚ (3ø'i2µåi) /oiµai/ oiwai˚ (3M'™2©iå) /Mekija/ uekiya˘
More: (3sM'i2s™P) /sMiseô/ suisen (but: (3øø'å3m™) /ooaùme/ ooame˚ (3¬øø'må3Bi)
/Roomaùzi/ roomaji˚ (3kåP'˙ø3F¨) /kaô˙oùhM/ kangofu˚ (3¬øø'sø3k¨, -'sø2kM) /Roosoù-
kMå roosoku˚ (3©jMM'˙å2qM) /zjMM˙atMå juuga_u˚ where the akusento prevails).
Regularly, also: (3~i'høP2˙ø) /nihoô˙o/ Nihongo˚ (3på'Âiô2kø) /patiôko/ pa>inko˘
In compounds, usually we find a seemingly irregular pattern, such as: (3båõ'm™2¿i)
/baômesi/ banmeí˚ (3gåi'kø2kM) /gaikokM/ gaikoku˚ (3jMM'då2Âi) /jMMdati/ yuu-
da>i˚ (3håi'zå2må) /haizaRa/ haizara˘
12.3.2.8. Four-mora quadrisyllables tend to be stressed on the second syllable

from the beginning: (3kå'mi2då&må) /kamidama/ kamidama˚ (3nå'˙å2˙M2q¨, -&qM)
/na˙a˙MtM/ nagagu_u˚ (3nø'mi2mø&nø) /noRimono/ norimono˚ (3bM'tå2~i&kM, -ik¨)
/bMtanikM/ butaniku˚ (3så'kå2nå&jå) /sakanaja/ sakanaya˚ (3¿i'åµå&s™) /siaµase/ ía-
wase˚ (3å'm™2mi&kå) /ameRika/ Amerika˚ (3M'mi2©i&m™) /MRikiRe/ urikire˚ (3tø'mø2då&Âi)
/tomodati/ tomoda>i˚ (3M'k™2q¨2k™, -2qM&k™) /MketMke/ uke_uke˚ (3Âi'kå3¿i3qM,

-iœqM) /tikaùsitM/ >ikaí_u˚ (3øô'˙å2k¨3kåi, -2kMœkåi) /oô˙akMùkai/ ongakukai˘
More: (3kM'då3møœnø) /kMdaùmono/ kudamono˚ (3tå'6M3kMœmø) /tabMùkMRo/ ta-
bukuro˚ (3kå'nå2zMœÂi) /kanazMùti/ kanazuti˚ (3âi'mø2¿i&må) /hiRosima/ Hiroíma˚
(3hå'nå2¿i2t™, -i&t™) /hanasiteå hanaíte˚ (3tå'nø2¿i&mi) /tanosimi/ tanoími˚ (3kå'n™-
2mø&Âi) /kanemotiå kanemo>i˚ (3i'n™2mM&mi) /inemMRiå inemuri˚ (2©i't™P2¿jå&jå)
/ziteôsjaja/ jitenáya˚ (3høP's™2©i3Âi) /hoôsekiùti/ honseki>i˘
However, stress generally falls on the last but one syllable, when it is a heavy
one, or is followed by an akusento, or when the second one contains a devoiced
vowel. Mainly, this also happens with final -_u˚ -ri or in obvious compounds: (œå-
2så'n™36øø) /asaneùboo/ asaneboo˚ (œgåi2kø'kM3BiP, -3©iP) /gaikokMùziô/ gaikokujin˚
(œå2mMÇ6åi3tø) /aRMbaùito/ arubaito˚ (œg™2qMÇjøø36i) /getMjoùobi/ ge_uyoobi˚ (œmø-
2kMÇjøø36i) /mokMjoùobi/ mokuyoobi˚ (&bi3mMçdiô3˙M) /biùRMdiô˙M/ birudingu˚
(œ~i2µå'kaa3m™) /niµakaaùme/ niwakaame˚ (œÂªø2køÇm™™3tø) /tjokoReùeto/ >okoree-
to˚ (œÂªMM2˙ø'kM2˙ø) /tjMM˙okM˙o/ >uugokugo (but (3gåi'kø2kM&˙ø) /gaikokM-
˙o/ gaikokugo]˘
In addition: (3ø2F¨'kM2mø, œø2FM-) /ohMkMRo/ ofukuro˚ (3jå2k¨'sø2kM, œjå2kM-)
/jakMsokM/ yakusoku˚ (3kå2©i'kå2tå, œkå2©i-, -3tå) /kakikataù, -ùta/ kakikata˚ (3jø2q¨'kå-
2dø, œjø2qM-) /jotMkado/ yo_ukado˚ (œtø2¿i'ø2mi) /tosijoRiå toíyori˚ (œkå2mi'nå2mi, -3mi)
/kaminaùRiå kaminari˚ (œså2måi'˙™2qM, -2q¨) /saRai˙etM/ saraige_u˚ (œhå2Âi'˙å2qM)
/hati˙atMå hatiga_u˚ (œ¿i2Âi'˙å2qM, œ¿i-) /siti˙atMå ítiga_u˚ (œ©jMM2~i'˙å2qM)
/zjMMni˙atMå juuniga_u˚ (œå2så'm™2¿i) /asamesi/ asameí˚ (œi2mM'm™2¿i) /iRMmesi/
irumeí˚ (œøó2nåçnø3kø) /oônaùnoko/ onnanoko˚ (œd™N2©iÇgåi3¿jå, -Ç˙åi-) /deôkigai-
sja, -˙ai-/ denkigaiá˚ (œâi2©i'då2¿i, 3âi-) /hikidasi/ hikidaí˚ (œkå2¿i'då2¿i) /kasidasi/
kaídaí˚ (œhå2tå'mi2Âi) /hatamiti/ hatami>i˘
12.3.2.9. In five-syllable words, which are generally not simple words, stress de-
cidedly tends to fall on the last but one syllable, except for particular compound-
ing or devoicing: (3kå&tå2zM'k™3mM) /katazMkeùRM/ katazukeru˚ (3i&nå26içkå3mi) /inabiù-
kaRi/ inabikari˚ (3ø&tø2køçnø3kø) /otokoùnoko/ otokonoko˚ (3n™&Bi2måçµå3¿i) /nezi-
maùµasi/ nejimawaí˚ (3jå&må2nøç6ø3mi) /jamanoùboRi/ yamanobori˚ (3ø&kM2mi'mø-
2nø) /okMRimono/ okurimono˚ (3ø&©ªå2kM'så2må, œø2©ªå2k¨-) /okjakMsama/ okyaku-
sama˚ (3ø&t™3qMçdåi3såP) /oteùtMdaisaô/ ote_udaisan˚ (3å&m™2mi'kå3BiP, -3©iP) /ameRi-
ka ùziô/ amerikajin˘
More: (3s™ó&tå2kM'mø2nø) /seôtakMmono/ sentakumono˚ (3i&Âi2~i'Âi2BjMM) /iti-
nitizjMM/ i>ini>ijuu˚ (œd™N2©i2s¨'tøø36M) /deôkisMtooùbM/ denki-sutoobu˚
(œÂªMM2˙ø2kMÇmjøø3mi) /tjMM˙okMRjoùoRi/ >uugokuryoori˚ (œkøø2då«Ç©jMM3tå-
3k¨) /koodaôzjMùMtakM/ koodan-juutaku˚ (œdåõ2bøø's™3qM36i, çdåõ2bøø 's-) /daô-
booseùtMbi/ danboo-se_ubi˚ (œø2må'µå2mi&såP) /omaùµaRisaô/ omawarisan˚ (3~jMM-
&˙å2kM2¿iÇk™P) /njMM˙akMsikeùô/ nyuugaku-íken˚ (œmå2ÂiÇåi2¿i3qM, -i3q¨) /ma-
tiaùisitM/ ma>iaií_u˘
12.3.2.10. In verbs in -ru generally stress is on the preceding syllable and akusen-
to immediately after it: (œø26ø'™3mM) /oboeùRM/ oboeru˚ (œkåô2˙å'™3mM) /kaô˙aeùRM/
kangaeru˚ (œå2qM'må3mM) /atMmaùRM/ a_umaru˚ (œ¿i2må'6™3mM) /siRabeùRM/ íraberu˚
12. japanese 389
(œkø2¿i2kå'k™3mM) /kosikakeùRM/ koíkakeru÷ but (3å'må2µå3s¨) /aRaµaùsM/ arawasu˚

(3Âi'kå2zå3k¨) /tikazaùkM/ >ikazaku˘
Usually, adjectives are stressed on the last, or last but one, syllable: (3å&tå2tåÇkåi)
/atatakaùi/ atatakai˚ (œmM2¿iåÇqMi) /mMsiatMùi/ muía_ui˚ (3jå&kå2måÇ¿ii) /jaka-
masiùi/ yakamaíi˚ (3å'6M2nåi) /abMnai/ abunai˚ (Çøi2¿ii) /oisii/ oiíi˚ (Ç©ii2møi)
/kiiRoi/ kiiroi˚ (3å'kå2mMi) /akaRMi/ akarui˚ (3qM'm™2tåi) /tMmetai/ _umetai÷ but
there are even cases like: (3mM'zM2kå&¿ii) /mMzMkasii/ muzukaíi˚ (3å'tå2måœ¿ii) /a-
taRasiùi/ ataraíi˚ (3ø'mø2¿iœmøi) /omosiRoùi/ omoíroi˚ (3mM'¿iå2qMi) /mMsiatMùi/
muía_ui˚ (3m™ó'døø2k¨œsåi) /meôdookMsaùi/ mendookusai˘
In iterated forms stress and akusento belong to the first syllable: ('mM3zMœmM-
3zM) /mMùzMmMzM/ muzumuzu˚ ('µå3zåœµå3zå) /µaùzaµaza/ wazawaza˘ ≈nally,
here are some akusento-less forms: (3så'µåRM, 3qM'˙åRM, M'k™RM) /saµaRM, tM˙a-
RM, MkeRM/ sawaru˚ _ugaru˚ ukeru˘
12.3.2.11. Since there are no real rules for akusento and stress in compounds,
especially for less long ones, we just give some examples, to rouse reflection (also
on the paramount importance that a real pronouncing dictionary would have {by
using IPA} for akusento˚ stress, segments, devoicing, Â): (3FMjM'˙™3¿[i]3©i) /hMjM-
˙eùsiki/ huyugeíki˚ from (3FM'jM) /hMjMå huyu˚ ('k™3¿[i]3©i) /keùsiki/ keíki˘
Other examples: (3jM&~jMM2kM'då3mø3nø) /jMnjMMkMdaùmono/ yunyuukuda-
mono˚ from (3jM'~jMM) /jMnjMM/ yunyuu˚ (3kM'då3mø3nø) /kMdaùmono/ kudamo-
no÷ and more: (œjMM2jå2k™'zø3må) /jMMjakezoùRa/ yuuyakezora˚ from (ÇjMM2jå2k™)
/jMMjake/ yuuyake˚ ('sø3må) /soùRa/ sora÷ (3så&tø2˙øçkø3mø) /sato˙oùkoRo/ satogokoro˚
from (3så'tø) /sato/ sato˚ (3k'kø3mø) /kokoùRo/ kokoro.
Furthermore: (3~i'˙M3mM3må) /ni˙MùRMma/ niguruma˚ from ('~i) /niå ni˚ (3kM-
'mM2må) /kMRMma/ kuruma÷ (3å'så3kå3z™) /asaùkaze/ asakase˚ from ('å3så) /aùsa/ asa˚
(3kå'z™) /kaze/ kaze÷ (3iP2s[¨]&tåó2tøÇkøø3âii) /iôsMtaôtokoùohii/ insutantokoohi˚
from (3iP2s[¨]Çtåó3tø) /iôsMtaùôto/ insutanto˚ (Çkøø3âii) /koohiùi/ koohi÷ (œgåi2kø'kM-
3BiP, -3©iP) /gaikokMùziô/ gaikokujin˚ from (Çgåi2kø2k¨) /gaikokM/ gaikoku˚
(Ç©iP) /ziùô/ jin÷ (œgåi2kø&kM2BióÇtøø3mø3k¨, -2©ió-) /gaikokMziôtoùoRokM/ gaiko-
kujin-tooroku˚ from (œgåi2kø'kM3BiP, -3©iP) /gaikokMùziô/ gaikokujin˚ (Çtøø2mø2k¨)
/tooRokM/ tooroku˘
12.3.2.12. In forming Japanese sentences, some modifications are introduced

regarding akusento (and somehow for rhythm-group stress too). Let us consider
the following examples, in order to see how they work, by carefully observing the
pitch of the syllables in the second rhythm group. In fact, normally, the rhythm
groups that are not separated by pauses, after a rhythm group with akusento, re-
main mid-pitched as the previous one. Here are some sentences: (3µå'tå2k¨2¿i&nø
2nå'må™) /µatakMsino namae/ watakuí no namae (in (3nå'må™) /namae/, na- be-
comes (2nå), by pitch assimilation to the preceeding syllable), ('bø3kMœnø 3s™Pçs™™)
/boùkMno seôseùe/ boku no sensei (in (3s™PÇs™™) /seôseùe/, -see becomes low), (3~i'hø«
'Âi3zM) /nihoô tiùzM/ Nihon >izu (without modifications).
More sentences: (2åçså36åP) /aùsa baô/ asa ban (from ('å3så) /aùsa/ and (ÇbåP) /baô/,
by unifying everything into one rhythm group and lowering ban]˚ (3jå'så2¿ii ÇhøP)
/jasasiùi hoùô/ yasaíi hon (without modifications), (Çii 3Biç6i3©i, 3©i-) /iùi zibiki/ ii
jibiki (from (3©i'6i2©i) /zibikiå, with lowering of -biki]˚ (3sM'zM3¿ii 3h™çãå) /sMzM¿iùi
hejaå suzuíi heya (in (3h™'ãå) /hejaå, -ya is lowered), (3s™PÇs™™œd™3s¨, -s:, -s) /seôseùe
desM/ sensei desu (with stress reduction on ('d™3s¨, -s:, -s) /deùsM/ and lowering of
de-]˘
More: (3tø't™2mø 2ø'mø2¿iœmøi çhøP) /totemo omosiRoùi hoùô/ totemo omoíroi
hon (from (3ø'mø2¿iœmøi), with raising of o- and lowering of hon]˚ (3âi'Bjøø2~i 2F¨-
&kM2zå'qM2nå 'møó2dåi) /hizjooni hMkMzatMna moôdai/ hijoo ni fukuza_una
mondai (with raising of fu- and mon-]˚ ('møt3t:ø 3jåçsMi çhøP) /moùtto jasMùi hoùô/
motto yasui hon (with lowering of -sui and hon]˚ (3ø'hå2jøø 2gø'zåi2må3s¨, -s:, -s) /o-
hajoo gozaimaùsM/ ohayoo gozaimasu (with raising of go-]˘
Some others: (3å'mi3˙å3tøø 3gøçzåi3s¨, -s:, -s) /aRiù˙atoo gozaimaùsM/ arigatoo gozai-
masu (with lowering of -zaima-\ everything is low, except -ri-]˚ (Çdøø3mø 3åçmi3˙å3tøø
3gøçzåi3må3s¨, -s:, -s) /doùomo aRiù˙atoo gozaimaùsM/ doomo arigatoo gozaimasu
(with lowering of -ri- and -zaima-\ everything is low, except doo-˚ which is half-low).
In addition: (çM2Âi 'kå2må '™3©i çmå3d™| 3å&mM2©i'må3s¨, -s:, -s) (in the case of fast
speech with no breaks: (çM2Âi 'kå2må '™3©i çmå3d™ 3åœmM3©içmå3s¨, -s:, -s); but, separate-
ly, word by word: (3M'Âi, 3kå'må, '™3©i, 'må3d™, 3å&mM©i'må3s¨, -s:, -s)} /Mti kaRa eùki maù-
de aRMki maùsM/ u>i kara eki made arukimasu (please, note the stress change in the
first rhythm groups, mainly due to /i/ devoicing).
Also: ('~i3Bi&kå3må\ Çså«3©i çmå3d™| 3©i'mM3¿jø3~i\ 3içmå3s¨, -s:, -s)÷ possibly with
fewer breaks, in less slow speech: ('~i3Biœkå3må çså«3©i çmå3d™| 3©i'mM3¿jø3~i 3içmå-
3s¨, -s:, -s). On the other hand, in separate rhythm groups, we have: ('~i3Bi, 3kå'må,
Çså«3©i, 'må3d™| 3©i'mM3¿jø3~i, 3i'må3s¨, -s:, -s) (with modifications on kara]˚ /niùzi
kaRa saùôzi maùde ziùmMsjoni imaùsM/ niji kara sanji made jimuó ni imasu÷ ('jø3Bi
3måçd™3~i\ 3k'kø2~i 2©i't™ 2kM2dåÇsåi) (slower: ('jø3Bi 3måçd™3~i\ 3kø'kø2~i\ 2©i't™ 2kM2då-
Çsåi); on the other hand, in separate rhythm groups, we have: ('jø3Bi, 3måçd™3~i, 3kø-
'kø~i, 3©i't™, 3kM2dåÇsåi), with stress modifications on made ni˚ in comparison with
made]˚ /joùzi maùdeni kokoni kite kMdasaùi/ yoji made ni koko ni kite kudasai˘
12.3.2.13. Here are further examples illustrating stress modifications, in form-

ing rhythm groups: (2måçd™3~i–µå) /maùdeniµa/ made ni wa˚ (3ø'©i2nå2µå) /okina-
µa/ Okinawa˚ but (3ø&©i2nå'µå2µå) /okinaµaµa/ Okinawa wa… Obviously, it is
not always easy to readily distinguish between the e‡ect of pitch prominence and
stress prominence. On the contrary, when mid pitch coincides with stress, promi-
nence is quite clear.
If all this combines with a fairly heavy syllable, prominence is even more evi-
dent. In any case, if several nearby syllables share the same characteristics, it be-
comes less easy to distinguish clearly.
However, pitch remains the most important element, being the distinctive one,
though undoubtedly stress has a considerable role. It is important to find an appro-
priate balance between the elements, although oscillations are quite possible and
normal, indeed.
In an example like (œtå26™'må3¿i3tåœkå31) /¿tabemaùsitaka?/ tabemaíta ka?˚ the low
pitch and secondary stress on the syllable ta- and the mid pitch and weak stress on
12. japanese 391
-be- may give a similar prominence e‡ect. But, of course, it is inferior to that of the
syllable -ma-˚ and decidedly inferior to that of ta˚ and even less so than in the sylla-
ble -í-˚ with devoicing up to the loss of syllabicity: (3¿i, 3¿:, 3¿).
In the case of loanwords, the interplay of pitch and stress (as well as of syllabic
weight and akusento placing) often undergoes some hierarchic reversal, by mov-
ing closer to the original (stress) pattern: (Çkøø3âii) /koohiùi/ koohii (çco‡eeÇ), (2hø-
çt™3mM) /hoùteRM/ hoteru (çhotelÇ).
12.3.2.14. Obviously, in current speech, some reduction phenomena occur in

Japanese too. Here we will consider some of the most çnormalÇ ones. ˛e particles
no and ni˚ in particular, are often reduced to /ô/: ('kM3mMó 'nå3må) /kMùRMno naùRa/
kuru no nara˚ (ç©i2miP 2M'Âi) /kimino Mtiå kimi no u>i˚ (Çg™›2©ió 'nå3mM) /geùôki-
ni naùRM/ genki ni naru˘ In the negative, forms with -r-V-nai˚ change /Ré/ into /ô/:
(3¿ió'nåi) /siRanai/ íranai˚ (3ø2kMó'nåi) /okMRenai/ okurenai˘ More frequently,
there can even be contractions such as: (2miçÂªåM) /miùte simaM/ mite ímau˚
(2jø«ç©jåM) /joùôde simaM/ yonde ímau˘
Intonation
12.3.3.1. ‹en actual Japanese sentences are pronounced, the pitch of their
single rhythm groups is partially modified by intonation (too), which is added
with its characteristics, according to the four types of intoneme.
û 12.5 shows the Japanese preintonemes and intonemes, with their characteris-
tics. Every preintoneme forces the pitch of its individual tones, by canalizing them
into the indicated shapes (which, in more sophisticated notations than necessary,
could even be marked with small rings, as we will see shortly). A normal preinto-
neme is compressed (/ / ( ), ((” ))), the interrogative is raised (/¿ / (¿ ), ((» ))), where-
as the imperative one is falling (/¡ / (¡ ), ((»’ ))); finally, an emphatic preintoneme is
non-compressed, (/˚ / (˚ ), ((ˇ ))).
Again in û 12.5 it is possible to see the modifications of the intonemes: the con-
clusive is falling (/./ (13)), the interrogative is rising (/?/ (31)), the suspensive is extend-
ed (/÷/ (^)), whereas the continuative intoneme is compressed (/,/ (2)).
û 12.6 shows the modifications undergone by light and heavy syllables (on two
morae of di‡erent pitch {Ô û 12.4}), when the four Japanese intonemes superim-
û 12.5. Japanese preintonemes and intonemes.
/ / ( ) ((” )) /./ (13)
/¿ / (¿ ) ((» )) /?/ (31)
/¡ / (¡ ) ((»’ )) /÷/ (^)
/˚ / (˚ ) ((ˇ )) /,/ (2)

pose on them. Mainly the last syllable of an intoneme undergoes these changes,
whether it be stressed (as in these examples) or unstressed. As can be seen, a conclu-
sive intoneme makes the last syllable lower and slightly falling; an interrogative
one makes it raise by giving it a clear rising movement. A suspensive intoneme
practically does not modify anything; whereas, a continuative one slightly com-
presses it towards the mid band.
Before moving to the illustrastive examples, let us observe that, in Japanese,
questions are made by adding the particle ka (kå) /ka/ at the end, and using an in-
terrogative intoneme with total questions, but a conclusive (or a continuative) one
with partial questions. ˛is is the most recommedable and common pattern. How-
ever, since ka is very recognizable, as an interrogative element, a simple conclusive
intoneme can be used, even with total questions, or an interrogative one even with
partial questions. Lastly, above all colloquially, ka need not necessarily be used, in
which case then an interrogative intoneme is necessary with total questions.
Lastly, here are three examples to illustrate the most recommendable use of
marked intonemes:
/./: (3µå&kå2mi2måÇs™óœd™3¿i3tå13) /µakaRimaseùô desita./ Wakarimasen desita.
/?/: (¿3µå&kå2mi'må3¿i3tå3kå31) /¿µakaRimaùsitaka?/ Wakarimasita ka?
/÷/: (3FM'jM çdåt3t:å 3k™çm™3døö^ 3i2©i'må3¿i3tå13) /hMjMù datta keRedo÷ ikimaùsita./ Fu-
yu datta keredo, ikimasita.
Typically, Japanese has a peculiar paraphonic setting, with lowered larynx §æ@,
mostly for men.
û 12.6. Pitch movements for light or heavy Japanese syllables, with the four intonemes.
/çé/ = (çé13) (çé31) (çé^) (çé2)
/'é/ = ('é13) ('é31) ('é^) ('é2)
/çéé/ = (Çéé13) (Çéé31) (Çéé^) (Çéé2)
/'éé/ = (Çéé13) (Çéé31) (Çéé^) (Çéé13)
Text
12.4.0. ˛e story †e North Wind and the Sun follows, given in four di‡erent
çnormalizedÇ versions. We start with the (neutral) Japanese pronunciation of (neu-
is given in § 2.5.2.0). ˛e Japanese translation follows, in its neutral phonotonet-
ic and phonotonemic versions, since it is important in this language to see its aku-
sento and the actual phonotonetic rendering, to make useful reflections.
tion of Japanese, by neutral British speakers, fluent in Japanese (after prolonged
12. japanese 393
en first.
Speakers of American English could prepare their own version both of the Japa-
nese pronunciation of English and of their pronunciation of Japanese, as an excel-
Japanese pronunciation (of English)
12.4.1. (3Qå'nøø2sM 'µió2dø2 3öåó2Qå'såP2 3µå2©i2s¨'pªMM2ÂiP 'µi2Âi 3µå2zå2s¨-

2t¯'mø˙2gÄ13| 'µ™P 3å2t¯'må26M2må2 'k™™2mM 'møP2 ì'må2p¨2t 3i2nå'µøø2mM 3k¨'møø2k¨13œ|
3Q™2öå2˙M'mii2d2\ 3Qå2t¯2zå'µåP 3FM'hå2mM2s¨2t 3så2k¨'¿ii2©i2dø2 3öiõ'm™™2©iP 3zå-
2t¯'må26M2må2 Çt™™2©i 2âi2zM2k¨'møø2k¨ 'öø2F¨^| '¿ªM2dø 36i2kåP'¿i2då2dø 3s¨2t¯'mø˙2gå
3zå«2©i'å2zÄ13||
ÇQ™ó2 3Qå'nøø2sM 'µió2dø2 36M'mMM2 3å2zM'haa2dø2 3å2Bi'kM2d13| Ç6åt2t:ø 3zå'møø
3âi26M'mM¯^| 3Qå'møø 3k¨'møø2sM2mi2 Ç©i2dø2zå2t¯'må26M2mÄ2\ Çhøø2mM2dø 3âi2zM2k¨-
'møø2k¨ 3å'måMó2©i2m¯13| ì3åó2då2t¯'maa2s¨2t2œ\ 3Qå'nøø2sM 'µió2dø2 Çg™™ '6åp2p:¯
2Biå't™õ2p¨2t13|| ìÇQ™ó2œ 3Qå'såP '¿ªøP 'åM2t13 ìÇµøø2mM2mî13œ| 3öå«2©i'mii2©jå2t¯2mî2\
˚3Qå2t¯'må26M2må çqM2k¯ 'ø2F¯13 ˚3âi2zM2k¨'møø2k¨13|| ì3öåó'søø2œ 3zå'nøø2sM 'µió2dø2
3µå2zå26M'måi2Bi2dø 3qM2kåP'h™2s¨2| 3Qå2tå'såó13 3µå2zå2s¨2t¯'mø˙2gå13 ì3å26å2zå'qM¯13œ||
¿–©i2BjM'måi2©i31 ¿3zå2s¨'tøø2mî2| ¿3©jM'µøó 3tå'âiå2mi 3qM'˙™P31|||)
Japanese text
12.4.2. Arutoki Kitakaze to Taiyoo ga >ikara-kurabe o ímaíta. Tabibito no

gaitoo o nugaseta hoo ga ka>i to yuu koto ni kimete, mazu Kitakaze kara hajime-
maíta. Kitakaze wa, èNani, hitomakuri ni íte miseyoo¶, to, hageíku fukitate-
maíta.
Suru to tabibito wa, Kitakaze ga fukeba fuku hodo gaitoo o íkkari to karada ni
kut_ukemaíta. Kondo wa Taiyoo no ban ni narimaíta. Taiyoo wa kumo no ai-
da kara yasaíi kao daíte, atatakana hikari o okurimaíta. Tabibito wa dandan
yoi kokoromo>i ni natte, ímai ni wa gaitoo o nugimaíta. Soko de Kitakaze no
make ni narimaíta.
Kono hanaí omoírokatta? Moo i>ido yomu?
Phonotonemic transcription
12.4.3. /aùRMtoki,| kitakazeto taùijoo˙a, tikaRakMùRabeo simaùsita.|| tabibitono

gaitooo,\ nM˙aùseta hoùo˙a,\ katiù tojMM, kotoùni kimete.|| maùzM,| kitakaze kaRa,
hazimemaùsita.|| kitakazeµa÷| ^naùni,| hitomaùkMRini site, misejoùo,Œ| to÷| ha˙eùsikM,
hMkitatemaùsita.||
sMRMto,\ tabibitoµa÷| kitakaze˙a hMkeùba,\ hMkMùhodo÷| gaitooo,\ sikkaùRito,\
kaRadani kMttMkemaùsita.|| koùôdoµa, taùijoono baùôni, naRimaùsita.|| taùijooµa,\
kMùmono aida kaRa. jasasii÷\ kaoo daùsite,| atataùkana hikaRiùo, okMRimaùsita.|| tabi-
bitoµa,| daôdaô "joùi,\ kokoRomotini naùtte.|| simainiùµa,\ gaitooo nM˙imaùsita.||
sokode÷\ kitakazeno,\ makeni naRimaùsita.||
¿kono hanasiù, ¿omosiùRokatta?| ¿moùo itidoù, ¿joùmM?|||/
Phonotonetic transcription
12.4.4. (2åçmM3tø3©i2| 3©i&tå2kå'z™2tø 2tåiçøø3˙å2 3Âi&kå2må'kM3må36™œø 3¿i'må3¿i3tÄ13|| 3tå'6i-

26i&tø2nø Çgåi2tø;2\ 3nM'˙å3s™3tå Çhøø3˙Ä2\ 3kå2Âiçtø3jMM2 3kø'tø3~i 3©i'm™2tÉ2|| 'må3z¯2|
3©i'tå2kå&z™ 2kå'må2 3hå&Bi2m™'må3¿i3tÄ13|| 3©i&tå2kå'z™2µÄ^| ^'nå3~î2| 3âi&tø2måçkM3mi3~i3¿i3t™2 3mi-
's™3ãø2Œ| 'tøö^|| 3hå'˙™3¿i3kM2 3F¨&©i2tå2t™'må3¿i3tÄ13||
3sM'mM2t2\ 3tå'6i26i&tø2µÄ^| 3©i&tå2kå'z™2˙å 2F¨'k™36Ä2\ 3F¨'kM3høœdøö^| Çgåi2tø;2\ 3¿ik-
2k:åçmi3t2\ 3kå'må2då&~i 3k¨q&q:M2k™'må2¿i3tÄ13|| Çkøó2dø2µå2 Çtåi3øø3nø Çbå«3~i2 3nå2mi'må-
3¿i3tÄ13| 2tåiçøø3µÄ2\ 2kMçmø3nø Çåi2då 2kå'må13 3jå'så2¿iî^\ 3kå'øø2 'då3¿i3tÉ2| 3å&tå2tåçkå3nå 3âi-
'kå2miœø2 3öø&kM2mi'må3¿i3tÄ13|| 3tå'6i26i&tø2µÄ2| Çdåó2dåP ∞jøî2\ 3k&kø2mø2mø'Âi2~i 'nåt3t:É13||
3¿i'måi2~i3µÄ2\ Çgåi2tø;ø 3nM2Ni'må3¿i3tÄ13|| 3s2kø'dÉ^\ 3©i&tå2kå2z™'n2\ 3må'k™2~i œnå2mi'må-
3¿i3tÄ13||
¿3kø'nø 2hå'nå2¿i2 ¿3ø&mø2¿i2møçkåt3t:Ä31| ¿Çmøø 3i2Âi'd2 ¿'jø3m¯31|||)
English pronunciation of Japanese
12.4.5. (È'>¯uTû&kIi1| &khIiTûkû5z™IT‘¨ taÙ'j‘¨˙gû2 cIi&kå>û5kh¨È>Èb™I&j‘¨ S¤'måS-

tå3 3|| ThÈ5bIib¤&T‘¨n‘¨ 'gaÙT‘¨2\ n¨˙5gåsÈTÈ 'h‘¨˙gå2\ &khåcÈ'Th‘¨j¯u2 kû5Th‘¨ni k¤-
'm™T™I2|| 'måz¯u2| k¤5Thåkûz™I kû'>A: hÈ&Z¤mÈ'måSTå3 3|| kh¤&Tåkû'z™wå32| ^'nA;ni2| h¤&T‘¨-
mû'kh¨È>¤n¤S&T™I2 m¤'s™I&j‘¨2Œ| 'Th‘;¨32|| hå˙'g™Sk¯u2 f¯u&k¤TåTÈ'måSTå3 3||
sÈ'>¯uT‘¨2\ ThÈ'bIib¤&T‘¨å32| kh¤&Tåkû5z™˙gû f¨'kh™bå2\ f¨'kh¯uhÈ&D‘¨32| 'gaÙT‘¨2\ S¤-
kû'>IiT‘¨2\ khû5>A;DÈ&nIi k¨&ts¯ukû'måSTå3 3|| 'khØnD‘¨È2 5ThaÙ‘¨n‘¨ 'bån-i2 &nA;>¤'måS-
Tå3 3| ThaÙ'j‘¨å2\ kû5m‘¨n‘¨ 'aÙDû kû'>A:3 3 jÈ'sA;SIi32\ khA;'‘;¨2 'DåST™I2| È&TåTû5khA;nû h¤-
'khå>i&‘¨2 û&k¨È>¤'måSTå3 3|| ThÈ'bIib¤&T‘¨å2| 5DånDå˙ 'jø;Ù2\ khû&kø;>‘¨mÈ5ch¤ini 'nåT-
™I3 3|| S¤'maÙn¤&wA;2\ 5gaÙT‘¨ &n¨˙g¤'måSTå3 3|| &s‘¨kû'D™;I32\ kh¤&Tåkûz™I'n‘;¨2\ mA;5kh™ni
&nå>¤'måSTå3 3||
¿khû'n‘;¨ hÈ'nåSi2 ¿‘¨&m‘¨S¤>û'khåTå21| ¿5m‘;¨ ¤c¤'D‘;¨2 ¿'j‘¨m¯u21|||)
13. Esperanto
13.0.1. Esperanto is a social fact and a living language. It is an easily accessible

language that can be mastered fairly well in a short time. It can be quite useful
both in cultural and working environments, including commerce and tourism.
In particular, Esperanto is an ideal language for science. For a real world circula-
tion, to know and allow all people in all nations to grasp any subject, avoiding the
problems and costs of having good translations done. Furthermore, it is extreme-
ly appropriate as a general basis for learning and teaching foreign languages with
all their historical complications, and even to reflect on the structures and func-
tioning of one's own national — native tongue.
Perhaps, the day is still a long way o‡ when peoples and governments can real-
ize that an international auxiliary language (¤ a second language for all mankind,
certainly not as a substitute for the present various languages) can have many ad-
vantages. All the more so because it is not merely a (rough) vehicular language,
but can also meet every-day needs in addition to technical and scientific demands
as well as general cultural ones. Its most evident advantage is that it is nobody's
mother tongue, but everybody's second language. Everyone has to study it, and
no-one need not do it only because all the others accept to çlearnÇ and use one par-
ticular native language. ©th a language which is a second one for all, nobody has
any more linguistic privileges that allow them to take advantage of others…
Esperanto is not so complicated to learn as other languages are. In fact, its gram-
mar is simple, logical, and regular; with no çcapriciousÇ exceptions so typical of
natural languages. Even lexically, there are no surprises such as child, do, say
/'caEıd, 'dUu, 'sEI/ and children, does, said /'cIıd<Èn, 'd√z, 'sEd/; nor has it semantic
ambiguities caused by polysemy. For this reason Esperanto would be incredibly
appropriate for the Internet. Its only drawback resides in its original orthography,
which uses six letters with particular diacritics that produce di‡erent combina-
tions from those of other languages: c˚ g (c, G), s˚ j (S, Z), h (x)˚ ¨ (w, u). Although
these letters allow to identify Esperanto immediately, they are nevertheless one of
the major limitations towards its circulation through the press and electronic me-
dia.
13.0.2. However, an important use of Esperanto for phonetic purposes consists

in utilizing it as an active drill to apply the phonetic method to a reality that pres-
ents fewer obstacles than any other language. As a matter of fact, even its pronunci-
ation is çregularÇ, without exceptions, and fairly natural, as we will see (although
it is an çartificialÇ language, ¤ a çplannedÇ language). Of course, this holds for its
spelling too; the real problem is constituted by certain specific graphemes (that
may have di‡erent values in other languages) and by its particular phones (since
the world's languages have their own phonic systems, with their own rules and par-
ticular realizations, which are not necessarily like those of Esperanto).

˛erefore, a serious study of Esperanto neutral pronunciation is an excellent
training in order to then learn the pronunciation of natural –or çethnicÇ– lan-
guages too.
However, the scanty attention devoted by school and society to the importance
of pronunciation leads even Esperantists to considerably çmistreatÇ the pronuncia-
tion of Esperanto itself (and that of their mother tongues as well). Actually, peo-
ple pronounce it their own way, depending on their personal pronunciation of
their own language. ˛erefore, in spite of the simple rules of Esperanto, they start
from their actual pronunciations, by rendering it with the phones and intonation
of their personal (and more or less regional) pronunciation, although they do not
realize it at all. However, this does not take anything away from the scientific val-
ue of our phonetic experiment. Contrary to what we have done for the other lan-
guages (unless we had to deal with minimal pairs which were useful to our explana-
tion), we will add the meaning of the examples provided, all the more so because
ambiguities are practically almost excluded. Instead, this is what can regularly hap-
pen with ethnic languages, for many words (for which it is always problematic and
risky to give glosses).
Vowels
13.1 Esperanto (¤ E-o] presents only the five most normal and natural vowel
phonemes (which are the most widespread in the various languages of the world):
(i, ™, a, ø, u) /i, e, a, o, u/ (Ô û 13.1). ˛e five E-o vowels are realized very much
like the five (stressed) vowels of Spanish, as in: ('iR, 'tR™s, 'maR, 'døs, 'tu) /'iR, 'tRes,
'maR, 'døs, 'tu/ ir˚ tres˚ mar˚ dos˚ tù. In the most international pronunciation of Es-
peranto, e˚ o always have the timbres (™, ø), both in stressed and unstressed sylla-
bles. Here are some examples: ('tRi˙ki, '™b-l™, 'ka;Ra, 'dø;mø, 'u;nu) /'trinki, 'eble, 'ka-
ra, 'domo, 'unu/ trinki˚ eble˚ kara˚ domo˚ unu çto drink, perhaps, dear, house, oneÇ.
˛e o‚cial Esperanto diphthongs are of the (éi, éu) /éi, éu/ type, and are repre-
sented with Vj˚ V¨, even though, of course, other vowel sequences occur, which
from a phonetic point of view are real diphthongs as well (Ô § 3.1.2-3, about Italian
diphthongs, and NPT/HPh: § 1.16 “ § 2.10-1), as, for instance, /eo, io/ in (&g™øgRa-
'fiø) /geogra'fio/ geografio çgeographyÇ. Given the nature of Esperanto orthogra-
phy, a more logical solution çVi, VuÇ was not available, because of its word-stress
assignment rule (as we will see in § 13.3.4).
/i/ (i) /u/ (u)

û 13.1.
Esperanto
vowels. /e/ (™) /o/ (ø)
/a/ (a)
13. esperanto 397
Consonants
13.2.0. û 13.2 shows the consonants of original, or traditional, Esperanto (in-

cluding the rarest two, (Z, x), which are marked with a postponed *. It would be
better to remove them in order to render the language more modern, more func-
tional, even simpler and more easily di‡used (Ô § 13.4.3-4). In fact, in natural lan-
guages a phonemic opposition between (Z, G) or (x, h) is certainly not frequent
nor preferred, unless they belong to complete and related series, or unless /x/ is
made decidedly more çenergeticÇ (than a simple velar constrictive), or even pro-
nounced as a trill).
In Arabic and in Tuscan, for instance, (Z, G) do not oppose. In German, (x, h)
are not free from problems or regional and social variations; however, they could
be considered to have complementary distribution…
û 1.9-15 show the orograms, grouped by manners of articulation, of all the con-
toids given in the chapters of this volume (even as secondary, occasional, or region-
al variants) for the 12 languages treated. ˛is exposition makes the necessary com-
parisons between di‡erent languages more immediate.
û 13.2. Table of Esperanto consonants.
postalveo-palatal
velar rounded
protruded
labiodental
prepalatal
laryngeal
alveolar
bilabial
palatal
dental
velar
ö m (M) (n) n (n) (~) (˙)

F pb t d k g
Ô q cG
ƒ f v
_ s z S Z* x*
ß j w h (H)
ó R|(r)
‹ (l) l (L)
Nasals
13.2.1. Esperanto has two nasal phonemes, /m, n/ (m, n): ('mø;nø, 'f™ndi) /'mo-
no, 'fendi/ mono˚ fendi çmoney, to splitÇ. ‹ile /m/ never assimilates: (™m'fa;zø,
&m™mkøn's™Rvø) /em'fazo, memkon'servo/ emfazo˚ memkonservo çemphasis, self-
conservationÇ, there are various possible assimilations for /n/ (M, ~, ˙), which ren-
der the pronunciation more fluent and natural: (iM'f™;Ra, 'ma~Gi, si~'jø;Rø, 'SRa˙-
kø) /in'fera, 'manGi, sin'joro, 'Sranko/ infera˚ mangi˚ sinjoro˚ sranko çinfernal, to
eat, gentleman, cupboardÇ (including (n, ~) ((˙, n)): ('s™ndi, 'ma~Gi) /'sendi,
'manGi/ sendi˚ mangi çto send, to eatÇ).
However, between lexemes (including prefixes) no assimilation takes place (on
the contrary, we also find secondary stresses, even on syllables contiguous to a
stressed one): (&kun'm™;ti, &kun'v™;ni, &s™n'pa;ga) /kun'meti, kun'veni, sen'paga/ kun-
meti˚ kunveni˚ senpaga çto combine, to meet, free/for nothingÇ.

Nevertheless, we have: (køm'pR™;ni, &siamman't™;løn) (with a rhythmic second-
ary stress) /kom'preni, siamman'telon/ kompreni˚ sian mantelon çto understand,
one's own mantle (accus.)Ç (Ô (si'a;mam man't™;løn) /si'aman man'telon/ siaman
mantelon ç(a) Siamese mantel (accus.)Ç).
In normal, current, relaxed pronunciation, the unstressed grammeme /-n/ >-n≥
(of the accusative case) regularly assimilates (whereas only in formal and solemn
pronunciation can we find (si'a;man man't™;løn) /si'aman man'telon/).
In spite of this, there is a general tendency to keep words separated, both under
the influence of ethnic languages, and because E-o is a çdi‡erentÇ language, not
yet adequately internalized (or free from any interference). ©thout such rules, in-
evitably everyone would use one's own most familiar structures – since, subjec-
tively, they are thought to be quite çnaturalÇ.
Stops
13.2.2. Esperanto has three diphonic pairs of stops: /p b, t d, k g/ (p b, t d, k

g). Of course, /t, d/ are dental (t, d), not alveolar as in English, since most lan-
guages have dental articulations. Besides, g is velar, with no exception, even before
i and e (where it becomes prevelar ((Ò)), and /k/ as well ((´)) as in: ('g¤fT, 'g™T) /'gIft,
'gEt/ gift˚ get}: (gi'gantø, &g™øgRa'fiø) /gi'ganto, geogra'fio/ giganto˚ geografio çgiant,
geographyÇ; ('p™nsi, ba'bi;li, 'tr™;ti, d™'qi;di, 'kRa;ki, 'ga;gø) /'pensi, ba'bili, 'treti,
de'qidi, 'kraki, 'gago/ pensi˚ babili˚ treti˚ decidi˚ kraki˚ gago çto think, to chat, to
tread, to decide, to clap/crack, gagÇ.
Stopstrictives
13.2.3. In addition, there are three stopstrictives: /q÷ c, G/ (the last two are a
diphonic pair): (q) c (as in German: ('hInq) /'hInq/ Hintz, not as in English:
('h¤nts) /'hInts/ hints); then, there are (c) c and its voiced counterpart, (G) g (as in
English: ('f™c, 'Gø;Ù) /'fEc, 'GOE/ fetch˚ joy).
˛ey always maintain the values we have seen, before any vowel or consonant:
('q™nt, 'pa;qø) /'qent, 'paqo/ cent˚ paco çhundred, peaceÇ, (c™'va;lø, f™'li;ca) /ce'va-
lo, fe'lica/ cevalo˚ felica çhorse, happyÇ, (GaR'd™;nø, 'pa;Gø) /Gar'deno, 'paGo/ gar-
deno˚ pago çgarden, page (of book)Ç. ˛e spelling dz represents a (rare) sequence,
(dz), not the voiced counterpart of c (which would be (Q), as in Italian ('QE:Ro)
/'QEro/ zero çzeroÇ]\ ('™dzø) /'edzo/ edzo çhusbandÇ.
Constrictives
13.2.4. ˛ere are three diphonic pairs of constrictives and a rare voiceless velar
one (which should be withdrawn from modern and future Esperanto, Ô § 13.4.3-
13. esperanto 399
4): /f, v÷ s, z÷ S, Z÷ x/ (f,v÷ s, z÷ S, Z÷ x). It is su‚cient to recall that s is always (s)

(voiceless, as in English: ('s¤ns) /'sIns/ since]˚ whereas z is always (z) (voiced, as in:
('z¤p) /'zIp/ zip]\ ('mu;zø, 'mu;sø, 'sli;pø) /'muzo, 'muso, 'slipo/ muzo˚ muso˚ slipo
çMuse, mouse, slip (of paper)Ç.
Besides, (S, Z) /S, Z/ s, j are as in English ('S¤p, 'v¤ZÈn) /'SIp, 'vIZÈn/ ship˚ vision: ('fi;-
Sø, ZuR'na;lø) /'fiSo, Zur'nalo/ fiso˚ jurnalo çfish, newspaperÇ.
˛e last Esperanto constrictive is the rarest (and practically useless, so it could
profitably be withdrawn, by merging into k or h˚ as has already happened for quite
a few forms). It is h (x), voiceless velar, as in (Austrian) German ('Êax) Bach: (mø-
'na;xø) /mo'naxo/ monaho çmonkÇ.
Approximants
13.2.5.1. Among the Esperanto approximants (which have a freer passage of

phono-expiratory air in comparison with constrictives, and a fairly reduced fric-
tion noise, which on the contrary is very strong in constrictives), we find the laryn-
geal /h/ (h) h. It can e‡ectively be pronounced as a voiced (H), instead of voiceless
(h), in order to become more di‡erent from the inconvenient and disadvantageous
(x) (but this requires particular phonic considerations). ˛e most important thing,
especially for Romance-language speakers, is not to completely neglect the pho-
neme /h/; in fact, ('hø;Rø) /'horo/ horo çhourÇ is quite di‡erent from ('ø;Rø) /'oro/
oro çgoldÇ. And it is also di‡erent from ('xø;Rø) /'xoro/ horo çchorusÇ (by now very
often wisely substituted by koruso (kø'Ru;sø)), and from ('kø;Rø) /'koro/ koro
çheartÇ, as well.
13.2.5.2. ˛e other two approximants, /j, w/ (j, w), are represented by j and ¨˚
and correspond to English ('j™s, 'w¤n:) /'jEs, 'wIn/ yes˚ win\ ('j™s, 'vø;jø, si~'jø;Rø,
'w™stø) /'jes, 'vojo, sin'joro, 'westo/ jes˚ vojo˚ sinjoro˚ ësto çyes, road, gentleman,
westÇ.
However, when j and ¨ are not followed by any vowels in the same word, they
are realized as the corresponding vowels /i, u/ (i, u) (and it is to be avoided for
spelling to lead people to think that, in such positions, they have to pronounce
what are actually normal and real vowels as consonants): ('tui, 'Raitøi, 'nau, 'laudi)
/'tui, 'raitoi, 'nau, 'laudi/ tuj˚ rajtoj˚ na¨˚ la¨di çimmediately, rights, nine, praiseÇ.
Apart from this last case of greater phonetic naturalness, i and u always need to be
distinguished from j and ¨ before vowels: (mi'™;lø) /mi'elo/ mielo çhoneyÇ, ('mj™;lø)
/'mjelo/ mjelo çspinal cordÇ, (fi'askø, &mani'™;Rø) /fi'asko, mani'ero/ fiasko˚ maniero
çfiasco, mannerÇ.
Let us also consider the following cases, for which (as will be seen in § 13.2.5.2)
j is forced to have two di‡erent values owing to the stress-assignment rule: ('pl™idø)
/'pleido/ plejdo çplaidÇ, but (pl™'ja;do) /ple'jado/ Plejado çPleiadÇ.
In lexical derivation, when ¨ is followed by a vowel, we have two possibilities,
/w, u/: ('na;wa, 'naua) /'nawa, 'naua/) naä çninthÇ; the same goes for (bal'da;wa,
-aua) /bal'dawa, -aua/) baldaä çpromptÇ, from ('baldau) /'baldau/) balda¨ çsoonÇ.
However, in compounding, we only have ¨ /u/: (lau'i;gi) /lau'igi/) laïgi çto adaptÇ.
All this must not be unduly modified by the di‡erent analogical extensions of the
various ethnic languages.
13.2.5.3. In addition, even for stressing, let us consider cases (that we present
here in advance) such as: ('j™s, 'jam) /'jes, 'jam/ jes˚ jam çyes, alreadyÇ and ('i™s, 'iam)
/'ies, 'iam/ ies˚ iam çsomeone's, onceÇ, and (sø'i;fi, 'søilø, ba'lau, 'baldau) /so'ifi, 'soi-
lo÷ ba'lau, 'baldau/ soifi˚ sojlo˚ balau!˚ balda¨ çto be thirsty, threshold, sweep!,
soonÇ. To write ¨ has always been a severe problem both for the press and typewrit-
ing (and today for computers, too, unless some special fonts have been installed).
˛e first o‚cial Esperanto publication by Zamenhof appeared in 1887. ˛e Inter-
national Phonetic Association was founded in 1886 and the first version of the In-
ternational Phonetic Alphabet [IPA] was produced in 1888. ˛ese coincidences ex-
plain why they were not aware of each other's existence. Today, however, the par-
allelism between (j, w) and j˚ w is quite evident and it spontaneously leads to the
substitution of ¨ with w˚ which would certainly be to the advantage of E-o itself.
It is neither weakness nor betrayal at all… It would just be common sense!
Trills
13.2.6. ˛ere is an alveolar tap, (R) (which, for emphasis, can oscillate with a
true trill (r), alveolar as well): ('Ra;nø, 'køRpø, 'tR™;) /'rano, 'korpo, 'tre/ rano˚ korpo˚
tre çfrog, body, very (much)Ç. Any other pronunciation of /r/ (although frequent,
because of the di‡erent national languages used by Esperanto speakers) is not neu-
tral.
Laterals
13.2.7. Lastly, we find a pure alveolar lateral, (l), with no particular nuances (so
it is di‡erent from the English {non-prevocalic} l sound as in ('w™ı:{Ω}) well(s)]\
('la;nø, mul't™;ga) /'lano, mul'tega/ lano˚ multega çwool, very veryÇ. Not even a
slight palatalization (ç(¬)Ç, perhaps before /i/) would be acceptable: ('li;gi) /'ligi/ li-
gi çto bindÇ˘ ˛e only normal assimilation occurs before dentals, (l) ((l)), and be-
fore postalveo-palatal protruded consonants, within lexemes or in unstressed gram-
memes, (¬) ((L)): ('alta, 'fa¬ci) /'alta, 'falci/ alta˚ falci çhigh, mowÇ.
Structures
13.3.0. In addition to the realization of its segments (¤ vowels and consonants,

as in the previous sections), an international language must be as free as possible
from microstructural peculiarities (¤ syllabification, assimilation, stress, rhythm,
and intonation) and without typical characteristics of any particular languages.
13. esperanto 401
˛erefore, it must have strict rules, which are coherent and systematic, yet clear
and simple, without concessions to any language, or to groups of languages.
Most of all, any peculiarities of one's mother tongue should be avoided. In fact,
if this is not done, in the end all Esperantists will speak their own çdialectÇ of Es-
peranto. As a matter of fact, this is what happens when people use E-o without con-
sidering its phonic aspect. ˛us what they obtain is quite close to the linguistic
Babel which E-o seeks to solve.
In neutral Esperanto pronunciation stressed vocoids are realized as half-long in
(either word-internal or word-final) unchecked syllables, when they occur in prom-
inent positions, ¤ in intonemes, as usually at the end of sentences: ('sa;na, 'a;) /'sa-
na, 'a/ sana˚ A çhealthy, (the letter) AÇ. In checked stressed syllables (either in word-
-internal or word-final position), Esperanto vocoids are always short: ('paRtø) /'par-
to/ parto çpartÇ. Besides, Esperanto diphthongs are always short, as in German
(while in English they are long when not followed by voiceless consonants or by
unstressed syllables, as in ('w™;I{Ω}, 'w™;I∂÷ 'w™IT, 'w™IDå/-D≥) /'wEI{z}, 'wEId÷ 'wEIt,
'wEIdÈ≤/ way(s)˚ wade÷ wait˚ waider]\ ('™uRø) /'euro/ e¨ro çEuroÇ, ('ti™) /'tie/ tie
çthereÇ.
Consonant clusters
13.3.1. Consonant sequences neither undergo voicing assimilation (except for

the place of articulation with n in lexeme-internal position or in unstressed gram-
memes), nor do they simplify. Everything must be pronounced according to the
values of each element: (&s™n'nø;ma, &mal'lø˙ga, &huf'f™;Rø, &dis'sølvø, &lip'ha;Røi, 'gli;-
ti, 'digna, d™s'q™ndi, 'kna;bø, 'kvin, 'li˙gvø) sennoma˚ mallonga˚ hu‡ero˚ dissolvo˚
lipharoj˚ gliti˚ digna˚ descendi˚ knabo˚ kvin˚ lingvo çanonymous, short, horseshoe
(èhoof-iron¶), disintegration, moustache (èlip-hair¶), to slide, dignified, to go down,
boy, five, languageÇ. E-o would have a more modern and international aspect, by
introducing the variants ('kwin, 'li˙gwø) (in place of (kv, gv)}, with a correspon-
ding spelling: kïn˚ lingö or, better still, at last: kwin˚ lingwo (and (p™Rs'va;di)
/pers'vadi/ persvadi çto persuadeÇ = (p™R'swa;di) /per'swadi/ persädi = perswadi).
˛e consonant assimilation of place of articulation, for /n/ + /0/, occurs in two
cases only: firstly, in lexeme-internal position: ('si˙ki) /'sinki/ sinki çto sinkÇ, as
(køm'pR™;ni) /kom'preni/ kompreni çto understandÇ implicitly shown, unlike (&kun-
'pR™;ni) /kun'preni/ kunpreni çto bringÇ, (&kun'm™;ti) /kun'meti/ kunmeti çto com-
bineÇ, (&s™n'pa;ga) /sen'paga/ senpaga çfree/for nothingÇ; secondly, in pragmatical-
ly unstressed grammemes: (miam'pla˙køn) /mian'plankon/ mian plankon çmy
floor (accus.)Ç. In (&siamman't™;løn) /sianman'telon/ sian mantelon çone's own
mantle (accus.)Ç, there is a rhythmic secondary stress. On the other hand, for em-
phasis, we have: (&mian'pla˙køn) (where the secondary stress is not rhythmic), or
even ('mian 'pla˙køn) /'mian 'plankon/ mian plankon.
Here we show that voiced and voiceless consonants do not influence each oth-
er in the least in neutral pronunciation (unlike in many ethnic languages): (™k'zis-
ti, &absø'lu;t™, &naz'tu;kø, &økd™k'du;) /ek'zisti, abso'lute, naz'tuko, okdek'du/ ekzisti˚
absolute˚ naztuko˚ okdek du çto exist, absolutely, handkerchief (çnose-kerchiefÇ),

eighty-twoÇ.
13.3.2. Some Esperantists strive to follow çto the letterÇ the indications that Za-
menhof (1962•, the inventor of E-o) used to give enthusiastic people in answer to
their questions and doubts. However, it is to be understood that, when he stressed
the point that çeach letter must be pronounced clearly separated from the neigh-
boring onesÇ, his sole aim was to make people avoid overly marked ethnic pronun-
ciations. Surely, he had no clear intention to lead them to reflect on the Esperanto
phonic structure, which is certainly neither based on avant-garde theories nor ex-
pressed in strict phonetic terms (least of all phonemic ones!).
Here are some examples of di‡erent current ethnic pronunciations (even by ex-
pert and fluent Esperantists): (™u'Rø;pø) E¨ropo *(°'˜∏pP, j¨È'>‘¨p‘¨)÷ ('laudi) la¨-
di *('l∏_i, 'lø;DIi, 'lAÈdi, 'laodi, 'ıOudi)÷ ('pa~-jø) panjo *('pa;No, 'phπni‘¨)÷ ('lø˙g™)
longe *('lØ˙, 'lO˙¢, 'lA˙™I)÷ ('vøRtø) vorto *('vO‰to, 'vø;T‘U, 'fø<to, 'v∏ÆtP)÷ ('sta;Ri) stari
*('Sta:ºi, 'sT™‘>i, 'stØORi)÷ (la't™mpø) la tempo *(ı√'tEm:b‘, l√'thEmp{h}P)÷ (in't™nsa)
intensa *(in'dEn:Qa, ì'tÕ:sa, in't™nså)÷ (la'pa;qø) la paco *(la'Faq:qP, la'baqqso, lÅ-
'pÅt†o)÷ (mi'Gø;jas) mi gojas *(miG'GOj:jasse, mi'Z∏:jasse)÷ (™b'l™;qø) ebleco *(eb-
'b]™q:qø, ji'b¬™;qå)÷ (la'ku;bø) la kubo *(la'guubbo, la'h¯:BP)÷ (li'b™;lo) libelo *(ıib-
'bE;™ı‘, li'B™;lo)÷ ('kRu;cø) kruco *('kru:So, k'Rju;Cx)÷ ('pa;Si) pasi *('paS:Si, 'paaßi)÷ (mi-
'p™;tas) mi petas *(mi'bE;Edas:, mi'phe:t{h}as)÷ ('j™s) yes *('á™ß, 'jÄEÀ).
Paying excessive attention to spelling can lead people to uselessly force them-
selves to always unnaturally realize the grapheme n as (n), in every possible con-
text, only because the way it is written seems to require such an articulation. On
the contrary, other –even more evident– di‡erences which elude control are un-
consciously produced, like those we have just seen.
However, the fact of writing n before all consonants except p˚ b certainly does
not mean that (n) has illogically to be maintained, against (mp, mb). It is quite
the contrary, even if it has been expressed in a rather rudimentary way. Indeed, all
languages having a homorganic /ö/ to a following consonant (¤ with (mp, Mf,
~c, Ná, ˙k) Â) show this fact by using the only other unitary grapheme which is
a phoneme as well: m /m/. Otherwise, they would even write np and nb, as is done
by serious orthographies of heterorganic dialects (like, in general, those of north-
ern Italy).
Ending with some Esperanto examples, we have: ('kømbi, køm'pR™;ni) /'kombi,
kom'preni/ kombi˚ kompreni çto comb, to understandÇ, (køM'v™;ni, køM'f™;si)
/kon'veni, kon'fesi/ konveni˚ konfesi çto be suitable, to confessÇ, (køn'du;ki, 'køn-
tRau) /kon'duki, 'kontrau/ konduki˚ kontra¨ çto drive, againstÇ, (kø~'c™Rtø) /kon-
'certo/ koncerto çconcertoÇ, (kø˙'gR™;sø, kø˙'ka;va) /kon'greso, kon'kava/ kongreso˚
konkava çcongress, concaveÇ.
But (&kunm™'t™b-la, &kun&pRøduk'ta;dø, &kun&bata'lantø) /kunme'tebla, kunpro-
duk'tado, kunbata'lanto/ kunmetebla˚ kunproduktado, kunbatalanto çcombinable,
coproduction, comrade in armsÇ; in fact, they belong to di‡erent lexemes, because
they are compounds.
13. esperanto 403
Syllabification
13.3.3. ˛e neutral Esperanto phonic syllabification, within a word, regularly

occurs between two consonants: ('R™s-ti, 'lib-Rø, '™b-l™, 'sig-nø, si~'jø;Rø, ™d'zi;nø)
/'resti, 'libro, 'eble, 'signo, sin'joro, ed'zino/ resti˚ libro˚ eble˚ signo˚ sinjoro˚ edzino
çto remain, book, perhaps, sign, gentleman, wifeÇ.
Instead, at lexeme-boundaries, the sequences are maintained intact: (mi'blø;vis)
/mi'blovis/ mi blovis çI blewÇ, (mi'sqias) /mi'sqias/ mi scias çI knowÇ, (lian&taw™n-
'i;Ris, -au™n'-) /liantawen'iris, -auen'-/ li antaëniris çhe came alongÇ, (&Sisa'lu;tis23 'an-
tau øl&føR'i;Ri23) /Sisa'lutis. 'antau olfor'iri./ si salutis anta¨ ol foriri çshe greeted be-
fore leavingÇ. ‹en the formation of words is respected, the meaning is more easi-
ly understood. In other words, if something is correctly understood, this means
that its formation has been analyzed well. For instance: (&vøRt'a;Rø) /vort'aro/ vorta-
ro çdictionary = word [vort-) collection [ar-]Ç.
As can be seen, a stressed syllable maintains the lexemes (or stems) separated,
whereas the grammemes do not. As a matter of fact, we do not have *(&vøRt'aR-ø)
*/vort'ar-o/. It should be obvious, however, that the transcription we have shown
does not allude at all to excessive pronunciations such as *(&vøRt'öaRöø). Naturally,
as a more çTeutonicÇ way of pronouncing it like *(&vøRt'öa;Rø) would not respect the
internationality of this language, neither would a more çRomanceÇ pronunciation
like *(&vøR'ta;Rø). ˛e correct solution, for all nations, is to follow a middle course,
thus: (&vøRt'a;Rø) (otherwise the structures of some particular languages prevail,
since all speakers are led to believe that the most familiar solutions for them are
the most çcorrectÇ ones, as happens for regional or foreign accents).
©th clusters of several consonants, words are syllabified according to the crite-
ria of natural phonetics: ('™ks-t™R, ™ks'qi;ti, ™s'tRa;do) /'ekster, eks'qiti, es'trado/ eks-
ter˚ eksciti˚ estrado çoutside, to excite, platformÇ.
In lexical compounding, neutral pronunciation separates the lexemes, but not
the desinential grammemes (which are then resyllabified into more natural struc-
tures, even by modifying word boundaries): fervojisto˚ malantaë˚ bankroti (&f™R-
vø'jistø, &mal-an'ta;w™, -au™, &ba˙k'Rø;ti) /fervo'jisto, malan'tawe, -aue, bank'roti/
çrailwayman, backwards, to go bankruptÇ (without introducing –here too– sharp
separations as the laryngeal stop, (ö): *(&f™R-vøö'jistø, -voi'öis-÷ &malöan'taöw™, -auö™)}.
Word stress
13.3.4. In Esperanto, there is no stress exception, contrary to most ethnic lan-

guages: it invariably falls on the last vowel but one of each (non-monosyllabic)
word, even if this may cause seemingly çstrangeÇ or çcuriousÇ di‡erences for simi-
lar forms in various languages: fra¨lo ('fRaulø) çbachelorÇ, praulo (&pRa'u;lø) çances-
torÇ, balda¨ ('baldau) çsoonÇ; balai (ba'lai) çto sweepÇ, soifi (so'i;fi) çto be thirstyÇ,
sojlo ('søilø) çthresholdÇ; masino (ma'Si;nø) çmachineÇ, muziko (mu'zi;ko) çmusicÇ,
tragedio (&tRag™'diø) çtragedyÇ, sukero (su'k™;Rø) çsugarÇ, logika (lø'gi;ka) çlogicÇ, em-
fazo (™m'fa;zø) çemphasisÇ, stacio (sta'qiø) çstationÇ, jam ('jam) çalreadyÇ, iam
('iam) çonceÇ, sabato (sa'ba;tø) çSaturdayÇ, oceano (&øq™'a;nø) çoceanÇ.

Instead, talking about the last syllable, for word-stress assignment, is extremely
inaccurate. In fact, completely di‡erent and contrasting criteria are still followed
upon the actual judgment and nature of syllables. ˛ese are too often considered
only from a graphic, grammatical, and metrical point of view, which is incredibly
subjective and variable depending on languages, when not totally absurd.
Sentence stress
13.3.5. Let us now give some thought to the stressing of utterances. As it would
be absurd in ethnic languages to stress every single word appearing in a sentence,
such is the case even in E-o, whose grammemes (¤ grammatical words, lacking a
real semantic value) are completely unstressed, unless they are voluntarily empha-
sized for some particular reasons.
A sentence like Mi estas la amiko de via frato çI'm your brother's friendÇ would
certainly not be *('mi; 'ö™stas 'la; öa'mi;kø 'd™; 'via 'fRa;tø), which would –rightly–
make people hate E-o as something unbearable! (On the other hand, even for for-
eign languages, it is not rare to hear such things, but this depends on incomplete
learning, as well as on widespread ignorance of phonetics and its advantages.) A
more appropriate rendition of the example given would be: (mi&™stasl{a}a'mi;kø
&d™via'fRa;tø).
As can be seen from previous transcriptions, even in compounds, we find di‡er-
ent stress-degrees in their components, depending on their semantic relevance.
However, the main stress of compounds falls on the stem vowel of the last element.
Quite evidently, a slow and strained delivery, with too many stresses on gram-
memes as well, in addition to the inevitably high frequency of the (sole) auxiliary
verb esti˚ can before long become a real nightmare if estas˚ estis˚ estos… are always
stressed in a rather mechanical way.
˛erefore, accurate speakers carefully avoid falling into this nasty habit. In fact,
they will destress, even completely, the forms of esti˚ by introducing the stylistic
refinement of using instead the allomorphs with 'st-: (&mistas&ci'ti™, &listøsf™'li;ca)
/mistasci'tie, listosfe'lica/ Mi 'stas ci tie˚ Li 'stos felica çI'm hereÇ, çhe'll be happyÇ
(either only when pronouncing or when writing as well – by providing a consider-
able visual-mnemonic help). Even the phrase (tiø'™stas) /tio'estas/ tio estas çthat isÇ,
when it is not emphasized, surely gains by becoming (&tiøstas…) /'tiostas/ tio 'stas.
Obviously, it is quite the contrary for: (¿&cu'™sti2| ¿&au"n™; '™sti23) /¿cu'esti,| ¿au"ne 'es-
ti./ Cu esti, a¨ ne esti? çTo be, or not to be?Ç.
Unfortunately, this use is not generally followed, since the backward-looking
ideas that characterize most language teaching (starting from one's own language)
do not manage to clearly separate the graphic level (which is secondary) from the
phonic one (which is primary). All this leads people to believe that reduced forms
are a signal of corrupted and slovenly language. ˛is is the case of (&aÙSDÈÑ'ThÖ¨ı-
DÈm, -ø¨-), which is quite normal for I should have told them˚ while –on the con-
trary– something like *(5a;Ù S¨fl&hπv'ThÖ¨ıd&∑™m, -ø¨-) would be quite unusual in-
13. esperanto 405
deed. As a matter of fact, (&aÙSDÈÑ'ThÖ¨ıDÈm, -ø¨-) is exactly what is uttered by

competent people, when they do not speak too slowly and are free from any spell-
ing blackmail; since it is very important to be able not to confuse real language
with current writing, because real language is, first of all, pronunciation (which is
above all not çembalmedÇ).
13.3.6. Returning to our first example, we will have the following realization:
(&mistasla'mi;kø d™&via'fRa;tø), which is possible to write as: Mi 'stas l'amiko de via
frato. ˛e elision of la is o‚cial, although it is often erroneously limited to poet-
ry.
Likewise, personal pronouns, which frequently appear at the end of sentences,
do not need to be always and mechanically stressed. On the contrary, only for em-
phasis or contrast may they have a strong stress, otherwise they are destressed and
enclitic (although written as separated forms, as in English, but not in many oth-
er languages); other monosyllabic particles behave in the same way: (Si'vi;dis&lin) /Si-
'vidislin/ si vidis lin çshe saw himÇ, ('da˙kønal&vi) /'dankonalvi/ dankon al vi
çthank youÇ, ('tiø&ci) /'tioci/ tio ci çthisÇ, (¿'cu;&n™21) /¿'cune?/ cu ne? çisn't it?, aren't
you?, doesn't he?, haven't they?Ç…
It is worthwhile comparing the following cases: (Si'vi;dis 'lin) /Si'vidis 'lin/ si vidis
lin çshe saw himÇ, ('da˙køn al'vi;) /'dankon al'vi/ dankon al vi çthank you!Ç, (&tiø-
'ci;) /tio'ci/ tio ci çthis hereÇ, (¿&cu'n™;21) /¿cu'ne?/ cu ne? çisn't that so?Ç.
˛e case of ju (mal)pli…, des (mal)pli… is very interesting for stressing: ('ju; &pli-
vipa'Rø;las2 2 'd™s &malpli&mikøm'pR™;nas23) /'ju plivipa'rolas÷ 'des malplimikom'pre-
nas./ ju pli vi parolas, des malpli mi komprenas çthe more you speak, the less I un-
derstandÇ, ('ju; &pli'mult™2 2 'd™s &pli'bø;n™23) /'ju pli'multe÷ 'des pli'bone/ ju pli multe˚
des pli bone çthe more, the betterÇ.
Intonation
13.3.7. û 13.3 shows the preintonemes and intonemes of neutral E-o (free from
any influence from ethnic languages), so we will see only three fundamental ex-
amples:
/./: (&ili'øft™ køn'sultas &l{a}™sp™'RantaM &vøRt'a;Røn23) /ili'ofte kon'sultas l{a}espe-
û 13.3. Esperanto preintonemes and intonemes.
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3)
/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /?/ (2 ' 2 1)
/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /÷/ (2 ' 2 2)
/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /,/ (2 ' 2)

'rantan vort'aron./ Ili ofte konsultas la esperantan vortaron ç˛ey often consult the
Esperanto dictionaryÇ.
/?/: (¿&cu&ili'øft™ køn'sultas &l{a}™sp™'RantaM &vøRt'a;Røn21) /¿cuili'ofte kon'sultas
l{a}espe'rantan vort'aron./ Cu ili ofte konsultas la esperantan vortaron? çDo they of-
ten consult the Esperanto dictionary?Ç.
/÷/: (&ili'øft™ køn'sultas &l{a}™sp™'RantaM &vøRt'a;Røn2 2| &s™d'tu;t™ &s™n'fRukt™23) /ili'ofte
kon'sultas l{a}espe'rantan vort'aron÷| sed'tute sen'frukte./ Ili ofte konsultas la esper-
antan vortaron, sed tute senfrukte ç˛ey often consult the Esperanto dictionary,
but that's of no use.Ç
13.3.8. Besides being used in total questions, cu occurs in indirect questions

too, with a subordinate function: (&min™'sqias &culi'v™;nøs) /mine'sqias culi'venos/
mi ne scias, cu li venos çI don't know whether he will comeÇ. Cu is also used in dis-
junctive clauses with a coordinate function: cu li, cu si çeither he or sheÇ. In these
cases –where, by the way, no final question mark is written– it is obvious that no
(rising) interrogative intonation has to be used. ˛us, the choice of an intoneme
becomes important, decisive, and not at all redundant or useless. On the other
hand, in colloquial and expressive usage sometimes it is possible to omit an inter-
rogative cu: (¿li'døRmas21) /¿li'dormas?/ li dormas? ç(is he) sleeping?Ç, (¿'v™;R™21) /¿'ve-
re?/ vere? çreally?Ç. ˛erefore, it is fundamental to use an interrogative intonation.
(In cases such as these, in all ethnic languages of the world, colloquially, it is possi-
ble to omit initial or final particles.)
In partial questions, instead (with\ ('kiu, 'kiui, 'kiø, 'kia, 'ki™s, 'kial, 'kiam, 'ki™,
'ki™l, 'kiøm) /'kiu, kiui, 'kio, 'kia, 'kies, 'kial, 'kiam, 'kie, 'kiel, 'kiom/ kiu, and kiuj,
çwhoÇ (and a plural çwhoÇ), kio çwhatÇ, kia çwhat kind (of)Ç, kies çwhoseÇ, kial
çwhyÇ, kiam çwhenÇ, kie çwhereÇ, kiel çhowÇ, kiom çhow muchÇ), the most natu-
ral intoneme to use is conclusive (falling, (2 ' 23)), but combined with a regular inter-
rogative preintoneme (tendentially rising): (¿'kial &ili'øft™ køn'sultas &l{a}™sp™'Ran-
taM &vøR'ta;Røn23) /¿'kial ili'ofte kon'sultas l{a}espe'rantan vort'aron./ Kial ili ofte kon-
sultas la esperantan vortaron? ç‹y do they often consult the Esperanto diction-
ary?Ç.
In the case of commands or orders, an imperative preintoneme is used, where
the falling movement of the conclusive intoneme is brought forward, although in
a rather limited way (as happens for the interrogative one, which however moves
in an opposite direction): (¡'øft™ køn'sultu &l{a}™sp™'RantaM &vøR'ta;Røn23) /¡'ofte kon-
'sultu l{a}espe'rantan vort'aron./ Ofte konsultu la esperantan vortaron! çConsult the
Esperanto dictionary often!Ç.
Spelling and internationality
13.4.1. A consideration about E-o spelling, in the third millennium, is inevita-

ble with regards to the six letters çwith a hatÇ {(ca&p™l'i;tai li't™;Røi) /capel'itai li'te-
roi/ capelitaj literoj]. In fact, the time is ripe for definitely admitting that they are
the major obstacle to the printing and di‡usion of Esperanto publications, as we
13. esperanto 407
have already said (§ 13.0.1). Besides, before Unicode, computers needed special
fonts to be installed, or particular programs to create new characters or to modi-
fy existing ones in order to use them, and they are still necessary for the many
things which are not yet part of Unicode.
But even in this way, these six letters are still a problem for orthographic correc-
tion or alphabetical arrangement. Besides, few normal typewriters could combine
4, and only for small letters; to say nothing of T, for ¨, too often replaced by 5, or Z,
or Q, or 4: à, ú˚ ù˚ û (unless one studies hard to become… a magician).
˛e problem could be overcome by simply modifying not the language (!), nor
its phonemic system (!), but merely its spelling, although for many people this
seems to mean –instead– to çalterÇ the very essence of E-o itself (whereas this is
normal for natural languages)! ˛us some evolution and structural simplification
would be quite logical, as in natural languages. ˛e way has already been indicat-
ed by Zamenhof himself, although it should be followed with rigorous criteria.
On the other hand, we find an appealing and reassuring parallelism with the In-
ternational Phonetic Alphabet, which consists in the use (already suggested by var-
ious scholars) of w˚ x˚ instead of ¨˚ h˘ Even for c˚ g˚ j˚ s, Zamenhof himself was
aware of the anti-modernism inherent in these signs, and suggested that –if there
were typographical di‚culties (which is not merely hypothetical)– they could be
substituted with ch˚ gh˚ jh˚ sh˚ hh˚ u (for h˚ ¨].
As usual, it is hard to manage to separate the prevailing graphic level from the
underrated phonic level. But it is even more di‚cult to separate personal
emotionality from linguistic objectivity.
13.4.2. Apart from the obvious inappropriateness of confusing ¨ and u (espe-

cially seeing that w was clearly available!), even in the other cases –since in E-o com-
pounding is the rule– it ought to have been quite clear that forms like the follow-
ing were not just a possibility: (&mus'ha;Rø, &paq'hu;lø) /mus'haro, paq'hulo/ mus-
haro˚ pachulo ça hair of a mouse, a hull of peaceÇ, which must not be confused with
(&muS'a;Rø, pa'cu;lø) /mu'Saro, pa'culo/ musaro˚ paculo ça horde of flies, patchouliÇ.
On the other hand, the forced use of digraphs (with a second Roman letter)
should not be with h˚ as we have seen, but with another letter having no value in
E-o, one which is not already used, but is common and normal.
˛erefore, given that these sounds have a strong palatal component, added to
their main articulation (which is lamino-postalveolar), the letter that will function
as a diacritic has to be y\ agyo˚ ajyo˚ kacyo˚ kasyo. In fact, by itself it has no value,
except possibly when writing foreign family names, in addition to other character-
istics which may lead to an appropriate identification of the language.
It is nothing but a diacritic, without ambiguities; certainly it is no longer above
the letters, but immediately after them; and this is their advantage-disadvantage
of having no more technological limitations for the press and international com-
munications by any possible means based on the Roman alphabet, with no further
complications. On the Internet, often the çdiacritic-letterÇ is x˚ seemingly more
by a visual-mnemonic influence (in fact, the lower part of x can recall 4˚ and the
higher one, T; all the more so because x is quite rare in many languages), rather
than for useful phonic and graphic considerations.

Lastly, c (q), which has a di‡erent IPA value, would remain such, as in many
Slavic languages.
Esperanto £26∞
13.4.3. Certainly, the most modern solution –and most useful to E-o itself–
would be to move on to Esperanto ç26Ç, (&™sp™'Rantø &dud™k's™s), which uses only
the twenty-six letters of the Roman alphabet, by renouncing –with more gains
than losses– the two rarest and less useful sounds: (x, Z) /x, Z/ h˚ j. ˛us the phone-
mic inventory will be simplified, by removing the source of some main problems,
when we consider the di‡erent phonemic systems of the various languages of the
world: it is not always easy to distinguish (h, x÷ G, Z) (as few languages systemati-
cally do).
Obviously, it is not su‚cient to delete. It is necessary to merge the forms con-
taining these two signs (and sounds) with words having more similar sounds. ˛is
means: (x) = (k÷ h), (Z) = (G÷ j). It is already a common practice to e‡ect the for-
mer substitution: (x) = (k), as for kaoso˚ kemio˚ jakto çchaos, chemistry, yachtÇ; al-
so the change (Z) = (G) has already been recorded: jazo = gazo çjazzÇ. ˛is same ap-
plication needs only to be generalized. ‹en similar words containing (k, G) al-
ready exist, (h, j) will (have to) be used; otherwise, the shape of the new words
which would coincide will be slightly changed; or else they will have to be substi-
tuted, if necessary.
In the case of horo çchorusÇ, since we already have horo çhourÇ and koro çheartÇ,
the new form koruso has been added in order to finally replace it. For holero çchol-
eraÇ, since kolero çangerÇ is already there, the solutions can be: holero or kolro
(ç26Ç). In a series of oppositions like justa çjust, fairÇ and gusta çright, exactÇ, we
may insert juro çlawÇ, juro = guro çvowÇ, jako çjacketÇ, jako = gako çjackÇ as well.
As far as jeto çjetÇ, geto çjettyÇ, jeto çthrowÇ are concerned, if this last one becomes
('G™;tø) yeto (ç26Ç), the second example can safely become (G™'t™ø) yeteo (ç26Ç),
approaching the related form (mø'l™ø) moleo çmoleÇ.
A really concrete case is ajo çthingÇ (and the corresponding su‚x aj˚ with an
analogous meaning, which is very widely used) and ago çageÇ. Here, so as not to
risk overlapping with the exclamation aj! çow!, ouch!Ç, from which in E-o it is cer-
tainly possible to derive ajo ça cry of painÇ, and without thinking of changing a
whole series of words already formed with aj (and some more in the future), it
would be convenient –and unproblematic– to change ('a;Zø) into ('a;Gø) [ajo =
ago = ayo ç26Ç), and ('a;Gø) into ('aiGø) [ago = ajgo = ajyo ç26Ç) or probably, bet-
ter still, into ('™iGø) [ago = ejgo = ejyo ç26Ç).
13.4.4. Once the number of (distinctive) sounds has appropriately decreased to

twenty-six, we have to decide how to pair the sounds with the çnew lettersÇ, as we
have already shown in brackets. ˛e advantage of not having to worry about the
diacritics will certainly help to overcome some initial perplexities (leaving aside
13. esperanto 409
any consideration about the çperversionÇ of the language, since they are not at all
natural, nor necessary).
Obviously, as seen above, ¨ would become w (w), ('na;wa, 'naua) [naä = nawa
ç26Ç), çninthÇ; however g would become y (G), without causing much ado, given
that even in Spanish, in many contexts and variants, for y we find a very similar
pronunciation, ('pa;Gø) [pago = payo ç26Ç) çpage (of book)Ç. In addition, c would
become q (c), and here again we find similar pronunciations in Chinese and Al-
banian, (c™'va;lø) [cevalo = qevalo ç26Ç) çhorseÇ. (On the other hand, does Espe-
ranto not want to be the second language for çallÇ peoples?) ≈nally, x (having no
further need to indicate (x) or to function as a diacritic) would be used for (S),
which has a similar sound in Portuguese, Catalan, Basque, Chinese, Maltese, and
Sicilian (besides in Old Spanish), ('fi;Sø) [fiso = fixo ç26Ç) çfishÇ.
It would be a matter of becoming accustomed to the value of the new letters;
after all only for Slavists is c for (q) actually familiar, ('q™;lø) celo çaimÇ. For in-
stance, is not h a real çnothingÇ for most Romance-language speakers: ('ha;vi) havi
çto haveÇ (and consequently a real problem)?
˛ose who defend the preservation of (Z, x), because they are useful to render
some personal and place names of certain languages (with similar but not identi-
cal sounds), should also worry about all the other sounds that E-o does not man-
age to render (which are many more)… ˛e exchange of j and y (with the value of
j /G/ and y /j/), although more in tune with a widespread English-like graphemic
tradition, would push E-o away from both IPA usage and from the orthography of
many languages.
Text
13.5.0. ˛e story †e North Wind and the Sun follows, given in a number of
çnormalizedÇ accents, mostly as useful introductory examples of the phonetic meth-
od of natural phonetics. As always, first there is the version which gives the typical
Esperanto pronunciation of English. ˛en follows the actual Esperanto text, show-
ing neutral E-o pronunciation.
Esperanto pronunciation (of English)
13.5.1. (z™'nøRs 'wind2 andz™'san2 w™Rdis'pju;ti˙ 'wic wøzz™'stRø˙g™R23| 'w™n ™'tRav-

l™R2 'k™m a'lø˙2 ì'Rapt in™'wøm 'kløuk23œ| z™a'gRid2\ zatz™'wan hu'f™Rst sak'si;did2 im'm™;-
ki˙ z™'tRavl™R2 't™k iz'kløuk 'øf2 2| &Subbikøn'si;d™Rd "stRø˙g™R &zanzi'a;zå23||
'z™n2 z™'nøRs 'wind2 'blu;2 az'haRd2 azhi'kud23| &batz™'møR hi'blu;2 2| z™'møR 'kløusli2
&didz™'tRavl™R2\ 'føld hiz'kløuk a'Raøndhim23| ì&andat'last2œ\ z™'nøRs 'wind2 'g™v 'ap zia-
't™mpt23|| ì'z™n2œ z™'san 'Søn 'aøt23 ì'wøRmli23œ| &andi'mi;diatli2\ ˚z™'tRavl™R 'tuk 'øf23 ˚hiz'k-
løuk23|| ìand'søu2œ z™'nøRs 'wind2 wøzø'bla™G{d} tukøM'f™s2| &zatz™'san23 wøzz™'stRø˙-
g™R23 ì&øvz™'tu;23œ||
¿&didju'la™k21 ¿z™'stø;Ri2| ¿dju'wønt tu'hi;Rit a'g™n21|||)
Esperanto text
13.5.2. Iam, la norda vento kaj la suno disputis, car ciu el la du asertis esti pli for-
ta ol la alia. En tiu momento, ili ekvidis vojaganton, kiu antaëniris volvite en sia
mantelo. La du disputantoj, do, decidis, ke konsideratos pli forta tiu el la du kiu suk-
cesos igi la vojaganton forpreni sian mantelon.
La norda vento ekblovis tre forte; sed, ju pli gi blovis, des pli la vojaganto mallozigis
sian mantelon, kaj, finfine, la kompatinda vento devis rezigni. Tiam, la suno montri-
gis en la cielo, kaj, mallonge poste, la vojaganto, al kiu estis varme, forprenis la mante-
lon. Tiel, la norda vento devis agnoski, ke la suno estas pli forta el la du.
Cu vi satis la historion? Cu ni ripetu gin?
Esperanto pronunciation
13.5.3. ('iam2 la'nøRda 'v™ntø2 &kaila'su;nø2| dis'pu;tis23 'caR2 ìciu &™lla'du;2 a's™Rtis23
&™sti&pli'føRta2 &øll[a]a'lia23œ| ™n&tiumø'm™ntø2 2| &ili&™k'vi;dis23 &vøja'Gantøn23 &kiuan&taw™n-
'i;Ris23 vøl'vit™ ™n&siaman't™;lø23|| la'du &dispu'tantøi2 ì'dø;2œ d™'qi;dis23 &k™køn&sid™'Ra;tøs2
&pli'føRta2 2|| &tiu™lla'du;2| &kiusuk'q™;søs2 &igila&vøja'Gantøn2 2| &føR'pR™ni &siamman't™;-
løn23||
la'nøRda 'v™ntø2 2| &™k'bløvis &tR™'føRt™23| 's™d2 'ju; &pliGi'blø;vis2 2| 'd™s2 &plila&vøja'Gan-
tø2 &mallø'zigis &siamman't™;løn23| &kaifiM'fi;n™2| la&kømpa'tinda 'v™ntø2| &d™visR™'zig-
ni23|| 'tiam2| la'sunø møn'tRi;Gis2 &™nlaci'™;lø23| &kaimal'lø˙g™ 'pøst™2 2| la&vøja'Gantø2 ìal-
&kiu[™]stis'vaRm™2 2œ ˚&føR'pR™;nis23 ˚&laman't™;løn23|| 'ti™l2| la'nøRda 'v™ntø2 ˚&d™vis-ag'nøs-
ki23 &k™la'su;nø2 ˚&™stas&pli'føRta23 ì&™lla'du;23œ||
¿&cuvi'Sa;tis21 ¿la&histø'Riøn2| ¿&cuniRi'p™;tu&Gin21|||)
Foreign pronunciations of Esperanto
13.5.4. We add 13 foreign accents (¤ {British and American} English, Italian,

French, German, Spanish, {Brazilian and Lusitanian} Portuguese, Russian, Arabic,
Hindi, Chinese, and Japanese. In the Italian version of this book 11 regional ac-
cents are also given, which are omitted in this English adaptation (¤ Turinese,
Genoese, Milanese, Venetian, Bolognese, ∫orentine, Roman, Neapolitan, Barese,
Palermitan, Cagliaritan).
Speakers of other languages could prepare their own versions. ˛e author would
be happy to receive their transcriptions and recordings, both in case of help
–should they need it– and to make their contribution known to others (possibly
in our website on canIPA Natural Phonetics – Ô § 0.12).
13. esperanto 411
British pronunciation
13.5.5. ('IiÈm2 lÈ5nø;Då 'v™nT‘¨2 &khaÙlÈ's¯un‘¨2| D¤'sp¯uT¤s3 3 'chA:2 ì5chIi¯ ™ılÈ-

'D¯;u2 È's™‘T¤s3 3 &™sTi&phlIi'fø;T√2 &ø;ılåÈ'lIiå3 3|œ ™n&ThIi¯mÈ'm™nT‘¨32| &Iili™k'vIiD¤s23 &vøÙÈ-
'GA;nTØ˙3 3 5khIi¯ ån&Tåw™n'¤È>¤s3 3 vØı5vIiT™I ™n&sIiÈmmÈn'Th™l‘¨3 3|| lÈ5D¯u &D¤spÈ-
'ThA;nTøÙ2 ì'Dø:2œ D¤'tsIiD¤s3 3 kh™I&khØns¤DÈ'>A;TØs2 &phlIi'fø;Tå32|| &ThIi¯™ılÈ'D¯;u2| &khIi¯-
s¨k'ts™sØs2 5Iigi &låvøÙÈ'GA;nTØn32| fø;5ph<™ni &sIiÈmmÈn'Th™lØn3 3||
lÈ5nø;Då 'v™nT‘¨‘32| ™k5bl‘¨v¤s &˛h>™I'fø;T™I3 3| 's™;fl2 'j¯;u &phlIiGIi'bl‘¨v¤s32| 'D™s2
&phlIilÈvøÙÈ'GA;nT‘¨2 &mA;ıl‘¨5zIig¤s &sIiÈmmÈn'Th™lØn3 3| &khaÙf¤M'fIin™I2| lû&khØm-
pÈ'ThIinDå 'vEnT‘¨2| &D™v¤s>¤'zIigni3 3|| 'ThIiÈm2| lÈ5s¯;un‘¨ mØN'˛h>IiG¤s2 &™nlÈci'™l‘¨3 3|
&khaÙmåı5lØ˙g™I 'phØsT™I32| lÈ&vøÙÈ'GA;nT‘¨2 ìåı&khIi¯5™sT¤s 'vA;m™I32œ ˚fø;'ph>™n¤s3 3 ˚&lå-
mÈn'Th™lØn3 3|| 'ThIi™ı2| lÈ5nø;Då 'v™nT‘¨2 ˚&D™v¤sûg'nØski3 3 &kh™IlÈ's¯un‘¨2 ˚&™sTÈs&phlIi-
'fø;Tå3 3 ì&™ılÈ'D¯;u3 3œ||
¿&ch¯uvi'SA;T¤s21 ¿lÈ&h¤sTÈ'>IiÈn2| ¿ch¯&nIi>¤'ph™T¯&GIin21|||)
American pronunciation
13.5.6. ('IiÈm2 lÈ'nø;<D√ 'v™n[[]ø¨2 &khaÙlÈ'sUunø¨2| DÈ'spUu[¤s23 'chA:<2 ì'chIi¯ ™ılÈ-

'DU;u2 È's™<T¤s23 &™sTi&phlIi'fø;<T√2 &O;ıl√È'lIi√23|œ ™n&ThIi¯mÈ6m™n[[]ø¨2 2| &Iili™k'vIiD¤s23 &vøÙÈ-
'GA;n[[]ø¨˙23 'khIi¯ √n&T√w™n'I;<¤s23 vO;ı'vIi[™I ™n&sIiÈmÈn'Th™lø¨23|| lÈ'DUu &D¤spÈ'ThA;n-
[[]øÙ2 ì'DO:2œ DÈ'tsIiD¤s23 kh™I&khO;ns¤DÈ'<A;Tø¨s2 &phlIi6fø;<T√2 2|| &ThIi¯™ılÈ'DU;u2| &khIi¯s¨k-
'ts™sø¨s2 'Iigi &l√vøÙÈ6GA;n[[]ø¨n2 2| fø;<'ph<™ni &sIiÈmmÈn'Th™lø¨n23||
lÈ'nø;<D√ 6v™n[[]ø¨2 2| ™k'blø¨v¤s &Th<™I'fø;<T™I23| 's™;fl2 'j¯u &phlIiGIi6blø¨v¤s2 2| 'D™s2
&phlIilÈvøÙÈ'GA;n[[]ø¨2 &mA;ılø¨'zIig¤s &sIiÈmmÈn'Th™lø¨n23| &khaÙf¤M'fIin™I2| lû-
&khO;mpÈ'ThIinD√ 'v™n[[]ø¨2| &D™v¤s<È'zIigni23|| 'ThIiÈm2| lÈ'sUunø¨ mO;n'Th<IiG¤s2 &™n-
lÈci'™lø¨23| &khaÙm√ı'lO;˙g™I 6phO;sT™I2 2| lÈ&vøÙÈ'GA;n[[]ø¨2 ì√ı&khIi¯'™sT¤s 6vA;<m™I2 2œ
˚fø;<'ph<™n¤s23 ˚&l√mÈn'Th™lø¨n23|| 'ThIi™ı2| lÈ'nø;<D√ 'v™n[[]ø¨2 ˚&D™v¤sûg'nO;ski23 &kh™IlÈ-
'sUunø¨2 ˚&™sTÈs&phlIi'fø;<T√23 ì&™ılÈ'DU;u23œ||
¿&chUuvi•SA;[¤s21 ¿lÈ&h¤sTÈ'<IiÈn2| ¿ch¯&nIi<È•ph™[¯&GIin21|||)
Italian pronunciation
13.5.7. ('i;am2 la'nOrda 'vEn:to2 &kaila'su:nø2| dis'pu:tis23 'ca:r2 ì'ciu ella'du2 a'sEr:tis23
&™stipli[f]'fOr:ta2 &øllaa'li;a23|œ en&tiumo5men:tø12| &iliek'vi:diz23 &voja'Gan:to˙23 kiu&antawe-
'ni:Riz23 vol'vi:te en&siaman'tE:lo23|| la'du[d] dispu'tantoi2 ì'dO[d]2œ deq'qi:dis23 &kekkon&si-
de'ra:tos2 pli[f]5fOr:ta12|| &tiuella'du2| &kiusuk'qE:sos2 'i;gi la&voja5Gan:ton12| foR'prE;ni
&siamman'tE:lon23||
la'nOrda 5vEn:to12| ek'blO;vis tR™'fOr:te23| 'sEd:2 'ju[p] pli[G]Gi5blO:vis12| 'dEs:2 pli[l]la&vo-
ja'Gan:to2 &mallo'zi;gis &siamman'tE:lon23| &kaifiM'fi:n™2| la&kompa'tinda 'vEn:to2| &d™viz-

Re'zig:ni23|| 'ti;am2| la'su;no mon'tri:Gis2 &enla'cE:lo23| &kaimal'lO˙ge 5pOs:te12| la&voja'Gan:-
to2 ìal&kiu'Estis 5var:me12œ ˚foR'prE:niz23 ˚&laman'tE:lon23| 'ti™l2| la'nOrda 'vEn:to2 ˚&d™vi-sag-
'nOs:ki23 &ke[l]la'su:nø2 ˚&™staspli[f]'fOr:ta23 ì&ella'du23œ||
¿&cu[v]viS'Sa:tis21 ¿la&isto'ri;øn2| ¿cu[n]&niRi'pE:tu21 ¿'Gin:2|||)
French pronunciation
13.5.8. ('iÅm2 lÅ'n∏˜dÅ 'vìntP2 &©ÅilÅ's¯nP2| _isçp¯+is3 3 [T]'SÅ:˜2 ì[T]'Si¯ ™llÅ'd¯2 ÅçsEÆ-
+is3 3 &™s+ipúi'f∏ÆtÅ2 &ÖllÅ;çliÅ3 3|œ 3n&+i¯mÖ5mìntP1 1| &ili™©çvi_is3 3 &vÖ,ÅçZÕntÚn3 3 &©i¯ÕntÅ-
°eçni˜is3 3 vÖl'vite 3n&siÅmÕnçtElP3 3|| lÅ'd¯ &_isp¯'tÕntPi2 ‘'dP2’ d™[t]çsi_is3 3 &©ekÚn&side-
'˜ÅtPs2 &púi5f∏ÆtÅ1 1|| &+i¯™llÅ'd¯2| &©i¯s¯k'sEsPs2 &iáilÅvÖ,Å5ZÕntÚn1 1| fÖÆ'püeni &siÕmÕnçtE-
lÚn3 3||
lÅ'n∏˜dÅ 5vìntP1 1| ™k'bl∏vis tü™çf∏Æte3 3| 'sEd2 ',¯ &púi[D]Zi5bl∏vis1 1| 'dEs2 &púilÅ&vÖ,Å'ZÕn-
tP2 &mÅllO'ziáis &siÕmÕnçtElÚn3 3| &©Åifin'fine2| lÅ&kÚ≈pÅ+indÅ 'vìntP2| &devisºeçzigni3 3||
'+iÅm2| lÅ's¯nP mÚn'tüi[D]Zis2 &3nlÅ[T]çS¿elP3 3| &©ÅimÅl'lÚNáe 5p∏ste1 1| lÅ&vÖ,ÅçZÕntP2 ‘Åú-
&©i¯'Es+is 5vÅ˜me1 1’ ˚fÖÆçpüenis3 3 ˚&lÅmÕnçtElÚn3 3|| '+i™l2| lÅ'n∏˜dÅ 'vìntP2 ˚&devi-sÅgçn∏s-
©i3 3 &©elÅ's¯nP2 ˚&™stÅs&púiçf∏ÆtÅ3 3 ì&™llÅ'd¯3 3œ||
¿&[T]S¯vi•SÅ+is1 1 ¿lÅ&istÖ'ºiÚn2| ¿&[T]S¯&ni˜i•pet¯1 1 ¿'[D]Zin2|||)
German pronunciation
13.5.9. ('öi:am2 la'nO‰da 'fEnto2 &khaela'zu:no2| ∂I'spu:tIs3 3 'cha:‰2 ì'chi:u &ö™lla'du:2

öa'zE‰tIs3 3 &ö™sti&phli'fO‰ta2 &öøllaöa'li:a3 3|œ ö™n&thi:umo5mEnto1 1| &öiliö™k'Ñi:dIs3 3 &fo,at'Ëan-
tøn3 3 &khi;uöan&tao™n'öi:ºIs3 3 føl'vi:t¢ ö™n&ziaman'the:lo3 3|| la'du: &dIspu'thantOY2 ‘'do:2’
de'qhi:dIs3 3 &khekøn&zidÈ'ºa:tøs2 &phli;5fO‰ta1 1|| &thi;uö™lla'du:2| &khi;uzUk'qhe:zøs2 'öi:gi
la&fo,at5Ëantøn1 1| fø‰'phºe:ni &ziamman'the:løn3 3||
la'nO‰da 5fEnto1 1| ö™k'Êlo:vIs &thºe;'fO‰t¢3 3| 'zEt2 ',u: &phli;tËi5blo:vIs1 1| '∂™s2 &phli;la&fo-
,at'Ëanto2 &mallo'zi:gIs &Ωiamman'the:løn3 3| &khaefIM'fi:n¢2| la&khømpa'thInda 'fEnto2|
&∂evIsºe'zIgni3 3|| 'thi:am2| la'zu:no møn'thºi:tËIs2 &ö™nlaci'öe:lo3 3| &khaemal'lO˙g¢ 5phOs-
t¢1 1| la&fo,at'Ëanto2 ‘öal&khi;u'öEstIs 5Ña‰m¢1 1’ ˚fø‰'phºe:nIs3 3 ˚&laman'the:løn3 3|| 'thi:™l2| la-
'nO‰da 'fEnto2 ˚&devIsöak'nOski3 3 &khela'zu:no2 ˚&ö™stas&phli;'fO‰ta3 3 ì&ö™lla'du:3 3œ||
¿&chu;vi'Sa:tIs1 1 ¿la&hIsto'ºi:øn2| ¿chu&ni;ºi'phe:tu&tËIn1 1|||)
Spanish pronunciation
13.5.10. ('ian2 la'nøRƒa 'B™nto2 &kaila'ßu;no2| diß'pu;tiß3 3 'CaR2 ì'Ciu e{l}la'ƒu2 a'ß™Rtiß3 3
&™ßti&pli'føRta2 &ø{l}la'lia3 3œ| en&tiumo'm™nto1 1| &ilieŸ'Bi;ƒifi3 3 &Bo,a',anton3 3 &kiuantawe'ni;-
13. esperanto 413
Rifi3 3 Bol'Bi;te en&ßiaman't™;lo3 3|| la'ƒu &ƒißpu'tantoi2 ì'ƒø2œ ƒe[t]'†i;ƒiß3 3 &kekon&ßiƒe'Ra;toß2

&pli'føRta1 1|| &tiue{l}la'ƒu2| &kiußu◊'†™;ßoß2 &iŸila&Bo,a',anton1 1| føR'pR™;ni &ßiaNman't™;lon3 3||
la'nøRƒa 'B™nto1 1| eŸ'Blø;Biß &tR™'føRte3 3| 'ß™ƒ2 '›u &pli,i'Blø;Biß1 1| 'd™ß2 &plila&Bo,a',anto2
&ma{l}lo'ßi;Ÿi{ß}2 &ßia{N}man't™;lon3 3| &kaifiM'fi;ne2| la&kompa'tinda 'B™nto2| &d™BiRr:e'ßiŸ-
ni3 3|| 'tian2| la'ßuno mon'tRi;,iß2 &enla'Cj™;lo3 3| &kaimal'lø˙ge 'pøßte1 1| la&Bo,a',anto2 ìal&kiu-
'™ßtifi'BaRme1 1œ ˚foR'pR™;niß3 3 ˚&laman't™;lon3 3|| 'tiel2| la'nøRƒa 'B™nto2 ˚&ƒ™BißaŸ'nøßki3 3 &ke-
la'ßu;no2 ˚&™ßtaß&pli'føRta3 3 ì&e{l}la'ƒu3 3œ||
¿&CuBiçßa;tiß21 ¿la&ißto'Rion2| ¿Cu&niRr:içp™;tu21 ¿',in2|||)
Brazilian pronunciation
13.5.11. ('iAn2 ]AçnO˜då 'v™ntu2 &kai]å'su;nu2| ‚isçpu;Cis3 3 'ëa˜2 ìçëiu e{∞}]å'du2 açsE˜-
Cis3 3 &™sCi&p]i'fO˜tå2 &o{∞}]åç]iå3 3œ| e~&CiumÚçm™nt¨2 2| &i]ie©içvi;‚is3 3 &voãaçòAntÚn3 3
&©iuAn&tajeçni;Ris3 3 vo∞çviCi e«&siAmAnçte;]Ú«3 3|| ]åçdu &‚ispu'tAntji2 ì'dO2œ ‚içsi;‚is3 3
&©ekÚ«&side'Ra;tus2 &p]içfO˜tå2 2|| &Ciue{∞}]å'du2| &©iusu©i'sE;sus2 'iái ]a&voãaçòAntÚ«3 3| fo˜-
çpR™;ni &siAmAnçte;]Ú«3 3||
]AçnO˜då çv™nt¨2 2| &e©içb]Ovis &tR™çfO˜Ci3 3| 'sE‚i2 'ãu &p]iòiçb]O;vis2 2| 'dEs2 &p]i]a&voãa-
çòAntu2 &mA{∞}]oçziái{s} &siAmAnçte;]Ú«3 3| &kaifi«'fi;ni2| ]å&kÚmpaçCindå 'v™nt¨2| &de-
vi{s}˜eçzigni3 3|| 'CiA«2| ]åçsunu mÚn'tRi;òis2 &en]åçëje;]u3 3| &kaimA{∞}ç]9Nái çpOsCi2 2| ]å-
&voãaçòAntu2 ìA∞&©iuçEsCiz çva˜mi2 2œ ˚fo˜çpR™;nis3 3 ˚&]AmAnçte;]Ú«3 3|| 'Ci™∞2| ]AçnO˜då
'v™ntu2 ˚&d™vizaáiçnOs©i3 3 &©e]å'su;nu2 ˚&™stås&p]içfO˜tå3 3 ì&e{∞}]åçdu3 3œ||
¿&ëuvi¶ëa;Cis12 ¿&]åisto'RiÚ«2| ¿ëu&ni˜i¶pe;tu12 ¿'òi«2|||)
Lusitanian pronunciation
13.5.12. ('i4n2 ]‘'nORƒ‘ 'v™nt[u]2 &kai]‘'su;nu2| d¢SÇpu;t?S3 3 'SaÍ2 ì'Siu e{ı}]‘'ƒu2 ‘ÇsEÍtNs3 3
&™StN&p]i'fOÍta2 &o{ı}]aÇ]i‘3 3œ| en&tiumu'm™ntu2 2| &i]i¢kÇvi;ƒ˙S3 3 &voã‘ÇZAntÚn3 3 &kiuAnt‘j¢Çni;-
RÛS3 3 voı'vit¢ e”&si4m4nÇte;]Ú«3 3|| ]‘'ƒu &ƒÛSpu'tAntji2 ì'ƒO2œ ƒ¢Çsi;ƒÛS3 3 kNkÚ”&siƒ¢'Ra;tuS2 &p]i-
'fOÍt‘2 2|| &tiue{ı}]‘'ƒu2| &kiusuk'sE;sus2 'iŸi ]‘&voã‘ÇZ4ntÚ«3 3| fuÍ'pRE;ni &si4m4nÇte;]Ú«3 3||
]‘'nORƒ‘ 'v™ntu2 2| ek'b]OvÛS &tR™ÇfOÍt˙3 3| 'sEƒ2 'ãu &p]iZÛ'b]O;vÛS2 2| 'dES2 &p]i]‘&voã‘ÇZAntu2
&mA{ı}]u'ziŸÛ{S} &si4m4nÇte;]Ú«3 3| &kaifi«'fi;n[˙]2| ]‘&kÚ≈p‘'tind‘ 'v™nt[u]2| &devÛ{Z}º¢ÇziŸ-
ni3 3|| 'ti4«| ]‘'sunu mÚn'tRi;ZÛS2 &en]‘ÇSje;]u3 3| &kaimA{ı}']9˙g¢ 'pOSt[˙]2 2| ]‘&voã‘ÇZAnt[u]2
ìAı&kiu'EStÛZ ÇvaRm¢2 2œ ˚fuÍÇpRE;nÛS3 3 ˚&]‘m4nÇte;]Ú«3 3|| 'ti™ı2| ]‘'nORƒ‘ 'v™nt[u]2 ˚&ƒ™viz‘Ÿ-
ÇnOSki3 3 &ki]‘'su;nu2 ˚&™St‘S&p]i ÇfOÍt‘3 3 ì&e{ı}]‘Çƒu3 3œ||
¿&Suvi'Sa;tÛS21 ¿&]aiStu'RiÚ«2| ¿Su&niºi'pe;tu21 ¿'Zi«2|||)
Russian pronunciation
13.5.13. ('ixm2 ıåçnjøRdx 'v™ntx2 &kaIıå'sju;nx2| ÁIsçpju⁄Is3 3 'CãaR2 ìçCiuã™ııå-

'dju;2 åçÀ™Í⁄Is3 3 &™À⁄i&p¬I'fjøÍtx2 &jøııåç¬ixœ3 3| ãI8&⁄iumåçm™ntx2 2| &i¬ii©çvi;ÁIs3 3 &vjøãå-
çÁantxn3 3 &©IuxntxF¢ç~i;çIs3 3 våıçvi;⁄i ãi8&Àixmånç⁄™;ıx3 3|| ıåçdju &ÁIspu'tFantxi2
ì'djø;2œ ÁIçqF…;Áis3 3 &©Ikx8&ÀiÁI'RFa;txs2 &p¬IçfjøÍtx2 2|| &⁄iu™ııå'dju;2| &©Iusuk'qF™;sxs2 çi;áI
ıx&vjøãåçÁantxn2 2| fåÍçpçe;~i &Àixmån'⁄™;ıxn3 3||
ıåçnjøRdx çv™ntx2 2| ¢kçbıjø;vIs &tR™çfjøÍ⁄I3 3| 'À™t2 'ju; &p¬iÁIbçıjø;vIs2 2| 'Á™s2 &p¬Iıx-
&vjøãåçÁantx2 &maııåçzi;áiÀ &Àixmmån'⁄™;ıxn3 3| &kaifIm'fi;~I2| ıx&kx≈påç⁄indx 'v™ntx2|
&ÁevIsçiç=ig~I3 3|| '⁄ixm2| ıåçsju;nx mxn'tçi;Áis2 &ãInıåçCã™;ıx3 3| &kåimåıçıjøNáI çpjøs-
⁄I2 2| ıx&vjøãåçÁantx2 ìåı&©Iuçã™s⁄Is çvFaRmI2 2œ ˚fåÍçpçe;~Is3 3 ˚&ıxmån'⁄™;ıxn3 3|| '⁄i™ı2| ıå-
çnjøRdx 'v™ntx2 ˚&ÁevIsågçnjøs©i3 3 &©Iıå'sju;nx2 ˚&ã™stxs&p¬IçfjøÍtx3 3 ì&ã™ııå'dju;3 3œ||
¿&C¯vi5ëëa;⁄Is12 ˚ıx&âIstx'çixn2| ¿C¯&~içI5p™;tu&ÁIn12|||)
Arabic pronunciation
13.5.14. ('öi;åm2 lå'nø5då 'v™ntU2 &kailå'su:nU2| dIs'pu:tIs23 'Sa52 ì'SiUöIllå'du:2 öå's™5tIs23

&ö™stI&blI'fø5tå2 &øllåöå'li;å23œ| öIn&tiUmU'm™ntU2 2| &ili&Ik'vi:dIs23 &vøjå'ZantUn23 &kiUöåntåwI-
'ni:RIs23 vUl'vi:tI In&siåmån't™lU23|| lå'du &dIspU'tantUI2 ì'dø2œ dIt'si:dIs23 &kIkUn&sIdI'Ra:tUs2
&pli'fø5tå2 2|| &tiUöIllå'du:2| &kiUsUk's™sUs2 'öi:gI lå&vøjå'ZantUn2 2| fUR'b5™ni &siåmmån't™lU23||
lå'nø5då 'v™ntU2 2| Ik'bløvIs &tR™'fø5tI3 3| 's™d2 'ju; &bliZIb'løvIs2 2| 'd™s2 &plilå&vøjå'ZantU2
&mallU'zi:gIs &siåmmån't™lUn23| &kaifIM'fi:nI2| lå&kUmbå'tIndå 'v™ntU2| &d™vIsRIgnI23||
'ti;åm2| lå'su:nU mUn't5i:gIs2 &Inlå'Sj™lU23| &kaimål'lø˙gI 'bøstI2 2| lå&vøjå'ZantU2 ìål&kiU'™stIs
'va5mI2 2œ ˚&fUR'b5™nIs23 ˚&låmån't™lUn23|| 'ti™l2| lå'nø5då 'v™ntU2 ˚&d™vIs-åg'nøskI23 &kIlå'su;-
nU2 ˚&™stås&bli'fø5tå2 ì&öIllå'du:23œ||
¿&SuvI'Sa:tIs21 ¿lå&hIstU'5iUn2| ¿SU&nIRI'p™tU&ZIn21|||)
Hindi pronunciation
13.5.15. ('iiAm2 lÈçn∏øÍÃÈ '6Ä™N&˛o2 &kåilÈ'suu&no2| ÃIsçpuu–˛Is3 3 'CåÍ2 ìçCiiu &ellÈ'Ãuu2

ÈçsÄ™Í–˛Is3 3 &es˛i&plI'å∏øÍ&˛È2 &ollaçliiÈ3 3|œ eN&˛iiumoçmÄ™N&˛o2 2Ú| &iliekç6ii–ÃIs3 3 &6oãÈç‚åN-
–˛on3 3 &kiiuAN˛È6eçnii–RIs3 3 6olç6iite en&siiÈmåNç˛Ä™–lo3 3|| lÈçÃuu &ÃIspu'˛åN&˛oi2 ì'Ã∏ø2œ
Ãetçsii–Ã¤s3 3 &kekon&siÃe'Raa&˛os2 &pliçå∏øÍ&˛È2 2Ú|| &˛iiuellÈ'Ãuu2| &kiiusUk'sÄ™&sos2 çiigi lÈ&6o-
ãÈç‚åN&˛on2 2Ú| åoÍçpReeni &siiAmmåNç˛Ä™–lon3 3||
lÈçn∏øÍÃÈ ç6Ä™N&˛o2 2Ú| egçbl∏ø6Is &˛Reçå∏øÍ–˛e3 3| 'sÄ™d2 'juu &pli‚ibçl∏ø&6Is2 2Ú| 'Ãees2
&plilÈ&6oãÈ'‚åN&˛o2 &målloçsiigIs &siiAmmåNç˛Ä™–lon3 3| &kåiåIM'åii&ne2| lÈ&kompÈç˛INÃÈ
'6Ä™N&˛o2| &Ãe6IsReçsIg–ni3 3|| '˛iiAm2| lÈçsuuno moN'˛Rii&‚Is2 &enlÈçCjee–lo3 3| &kåimålçl∏9˙-
13. esperanto 415
ge çp∏øß&˛e2 2Ú| lÈ&6oãÈ'‚åN&˛o2 ìål&kiiuçeß˛i ç6aaÍ&me2 2Úœ ˚åoÍçpRee–nIs3 3 ˚&låmåNç˛Ä™-

–lon3 3|| '˛iiel2| lÈçn∏øÍÃÈ '6Ä™N&˛o2 ÷&Ãe6Is-ågçn∏øs–ki3 3 &kelÈ'suu&no2 ˚&eß˛ås&pliçå∏øÍ–˛È3 3
ì&ellÈçÃuu3 3œ||
˚&Cuu6i'ëaa&˛Is21Ú ¿lÈ&HIß˛o'RiiÚn2| ¿Cu&niRi'pee&˛u21Ú ¿'‚In2|||)
Chinese pronunciation
13.5.16. ('öiam2 2la'nø;2da 'vÉn2∂ø2 &kaÉ2la'su2nø2| 2dIs'phu2∂Is13 'Âhja;2 ì'Âhiu &öÉ;2la-

'tu2 2öa'sÉ;2∂Is13 &öÉs2ti&pli'5ø;2∂a2 &öø;2la'lia13œ| 2öÉn&tiu2[ø'm™n2∂ø^| &öi2li&öÉ2kM'vi2dIs13 &çø2ja-
'Âjan2∂U,13 &kiu2öÅn2∂a2w‘n'öi2lIs13 2çø;'vi2∂É 2öÉ~&¿ia2man'thÉ2lø13|| 2la'tu &∂Is2Êu'than2∂øI2
ì'tø2œ 2dÉ'Âhi2dIs13 &kÉ2âU,&¿i2dÉ'la2∂øs2 &pli'5ø;2∂a^|| &tiu&öÉ;2la'tu2| &kiu2su2kM'qÉ2søs2 'i2gi 2la-
&çø2ja'Âjan2∂U¥^| 25ø;'phlÉ2~i &¿ian2man'thÉ2lU¥13||
2la'nø;2da 'vÉn2∂ø^| &öÉ2kM'plø2vIs &tlÉ'5ø;2∂Ë13| 'sÉ2∂M 'ju &pli2©i'plø2vIs^| 'tÉs2 &pli2la&çø-
2ja'Âjan2∂ø2 &ma;2lø'¿i2gIs &¿ian2man'thÉ2lU¥13| &kaÉ2fIn'fi2nË2| 2la&køm2pa'thIn2∂a 'vÉn2∂ø2|
&∂É2vIs2lÉ'¿Ig2ni13|| 'thiaC2| 2la'su2nø 2[øn'thli2©is2 &öÉn2la2ÂhjÉ2lø13| &kaÉ2ma;'lø˙2gÉ
'(høs2∂Ë^| 2la&çøja'Âjan2∂ø2 ìöa;&kiu'öÉs2tIs 'va;2mÉ^œ ˚5ø;'phlÉ2~Is13 ˚&la2man'thÉ2lU¥13||
'thiËë2| 2la'nø;2da 'vÉn2∂ø2 ˚&∂É2vIs2öag'nøs2ki13 &kÉ2la'su2nø2 ˚&™s2tas&pli'5ø;2∂a13 ì&öÉ;2la'tu2œ||
¿&Âju2vi'¿ja2∂Is31 ¿2la&hIs2tø'liU¥2| ¿2¸ju&~i2li'phÉ2∂u&¸Ic31|||)
Japanese pronunciation
13.5.17. ('öia2m¨2 2ma'nø2mM2da '6™ó2tø2 &kai2ma'sM2nø2| 3©i2s¨'pM2Âi2s¨ 'Âªa2mM2

ì'ÂªM &ö™2m¨2ma'QM2 2öa's™2mM2Âi2s¨13 &ö™2s¨2Âi2p¨&mi'Fø2m¨2ta2 &öø2m¨2ma'mia13œ| 3ö™«&ÂiM-
2mø'm™ó2tø^| –öi2mi&ö™2©i'6i2©i2s¨13 &6ø2ja'©jaó2tøP13 &©iM2öaó2ta2µ™P'öi:2mi2s¨13 26ø2mM'6i-
2t™ 2ö™P&¿ia2maó't™2mø13 2¬a'dM 2©i2s¨2pM'taó2tøi2 ì'dø2œ 2de'qµi2©i2s¨13 &k™2køP&¿i2d™'ma-
2tø2s¨2 2pM&mi'Fø2m¨2ta13|| –ÂiM2ö™2m¨2ma'QM2| &©iM2s¨2k¨'qµ™2sø2s¨2 &öi2ái 2ma&6ø2ja-
'©jaó2tøP^| –Fø2mM'p¨2m™2~i &¿iaõ2maó't™2møP13||
3¬a'nø2mM2da '6™ó2tø^| –ö™2k¨2bM'mø26i2s¨ &t¨2m™'Fø2m¨2t™13| çs™2Q¨2 'jM: 2p¨&mi2Bi2b¨-
'mø26i2s¨^| çd™2s¨2 2p¨&mi2ma&6ø2ja'©jaó2tø2 &ma2mM2mø'Bi2ái2s¨ &¿iaõ2maó't™2møP13| &kai2âiP-
'âi2n™2| 3¬a&køõ2pa'Âió2da '6™ó2tø2| &d™26i2s¨2m™'BiP2~i13|| çÂia2m¨2| 3¬a'sM2nø &møó2t'mi2-
©i2 &ö™ó2¬a'Âª™2mø13| &kai2ma2m¨'møô2g™ 'pø2s¨2t™^| 3¬a&6ø2ja'©jaó2tø2 ì&öa2m¨&©iM'ö™2s¨2Âi-
2s¨ '6a2m¨2m™^œ ˚&Fø2mM2p¨'m™2~i2s¨13 ˚&ma2maó't™2møP13|| çÂi™2mM2| 3¬a'nø2mM2da '6™ó2tø2
˚&d™26i2s¨2öa2˙¨'nø2s¨2©i13 &k™2ma'sM2nø2 ˚&ö™2s¨2ta2sM2p¨&mi'Fø2m¨2ta13 ì&ö™2m¨2ma'QM13œ||
¿–ÂªM26i'¿ja2Âi2s¨31 ¿2ma&âi2s¨2tø'miøP2| ¿3ÂªM&~i2mi'p™2qM&BiP31|||)
From L. Canepari (2005) A Handbook of Pronunciation, Lincom Europa.
Utilizable bibliography
˛e utilizable bibliography is presented in separate chapters.
Prelude (é 1)
bouquiaux, l. “ cloarec-heiss, f. “ thomas, j. m. c. (1976) Initiation à la phonétique˘ Paris:

puf/orstom (a vinyl record with recorded text, to be used alone or in reference to thomas
“ bouquiaux “ cloarec-heiss {§ 3}; expanded IPA).
canepari, l. (1983) Phonetic Notation _ La notazione fonetica˘ Venezia: Cafoscarina (with 2 en-
closed audiocassettes; almost canIPA).
– (1985) L'intonazione. Linguistica e paralinguistica˘ Napoli: Liguori (almost canIPA).
– (2000) Introduzione alla fonetica˘ Torino: Einaudi (expanded IPA).
– (2004 {amended “ modified reprint} – 2003) Manuale di fonetica˘ Fonetica "naturale&: arti-
colatoria, uditiva, funzionale. München: Lincom Europa (canIPA).
– (2005) A Handbook of Phonetics: èNatutal¶ phonetics – articulatory, auditory, and function-
al˘ München: Lincom Europa (English version of the çMaFÇ, canIPA).
– (2006) Avviamento alla fonetica˘ Torino: Einaudi (canIPA).
catford, j. c. (1977) Fundamental Problems in Phonetics˘ Edinburgh: E. Univ. Press (IPA).
– (1988) A Practical Introduction to Phonetics˘ Oxford: Clarendon Press (guided drills to de-
velop phonetic kinesthesia, to be performed accurately, step by step; however, the 2001 e-
dition should be avoided because of too many technical problems during its unsuccesful
updating; IPA).
chapman, w. h. et alii (1988’) Introduction to Practical Phonetics˘ Horsleys Green: Summer
Institute of Linguistics (substantially IPA).
costamagna, l. (2000) Insegnare e imparare la fonetica. Torino: Paravia (with an enclosed au-
diocassette; canIPA]˘
delattre, p. et alii (1951) vwljùl s¿tetik l d@ f§rmãt e vwljùl klrdinll˚ in çLe Maître Phonéti-
queÇ, 96:30-5 as all MPh contributions, fully transcribed in IPA.
haudricourt, a. g. “ thomas, j. m. c. (1976) La notation des langues. Phonétique et phonolo-
gie˘ Paris: Inst. Géographique National (with 2 enclosed vinyl records; IPA).
hyman, l. m. (1975) Phonology: theory and Analysis˘ New York: Holt, Rinehart “ ©nston
(non-IPA).
jones, d. (1956) Cardinal Vowels˘ London: Linguaphone Inst. 2 {78 rpm} records with book-
let; now downloadable; IPA.
– (1967’) †e Phoneme: its Nature and Use˘ Cambridge: He‡er (IPA).
ladefoged, p. “ maddieson, i. (1996) †e Sounds of the World's Languages˘ Oxford: Blackwell
with stated instrumental rigor, but uses also other poeple's works, by accepting them too
peacefully, or drawing di‡erent interpretations; 16 Macintosh diskettes for HyperCard were
in partial correspondence with parts of this book; IPA.
laver, j. (1980) †e Phonetic Description of Voice Quality˘ Cambridge: C. Univ. Press (with a
non-enclosed audiocassette; IPA).
– (1994) Principles of Phonetics˘ Cambridge: C. Univ. Press (one may be doubtful whether to
indicate it or not, because it tries to use the few symbols and various awkward diacritics of
o‚cial IPA, in transcriptions which are always prosodically deficient, whereas in two pages
{arranged in three: 558-60} it tries to give çaccurateÇ descriptions, which only reveal the
method's heaviness and complexity, with results that cannot be suggested and çlanguagesÇ
which are unrecognizable even to native speakers, when one tries to reproduce them as rep-
resented; oƒIPA).
malmberg, b. (1974) Manuel de phonétique générale˘ Paris: Picard (IPA).
o'connor, j. d. (1973) Phonetics˘ Harmondsworth: Penguin (IPA).
schubiger, m. (1977) Einführung in die Phonetik˚ Berlin: De Gruyter (IPA).
smalley, w. a. (1964”) Manual of Articulatory Phonetics˘ Terrytown (~¥): Practical
Anthropology (with 33 non-enclosed {18 cm, 19 cm/s} reels, lasting 32 hours; non-IPA).
thomas, j. m. c. “ bouquiaux, l. “ cloarec-heiss, f. (1976) Initiation à la phonétique˘ Paris:
puf (completed by the vinyl record of bouquiaux “ cloarec-heiss “ thomas; expanded
IPA).
trubeckoj, n. s. (1939) Grundzüge der Phonologie˘ Göttingen: Vandenhoeck “ Ruprecht –
(1969) Principles of Phonology˘ Berkeley: Univ. of California Press (non-IPA and sometimes
mixed, so that some symbols can have {very} di‡erent values).
westermann, d. “ ward, i. c. (1990 {1930/31»}) Practical Phonetics for Students of African
Languages˘ London/New York: Kegan Paul International in association with the Interna-
tional African Institute (IPA).
English (é 2)
American English Pronunciation Program (1999) New York: Living Language/Random House
(graphemic booklet, but with 6 audiocassettes).
Australian Learners Dictionary (1997) Sydney: National Centre for English Language Teaching
and Research (gives the distributions of Australian pronunciation; IPA).
BBC Pronouncing Dictionary of British Names (1983”, 1971») Oxford: O. Univ. Press (British
pronunciation; also IPA).
canepari, l. (in progr.) English Pronunciation*. München: Lincom Europa (with 2 neutral and
2 mediatic pronunciations {¤ American and British}, in addition to the international one
and 5 further neutral pronunciations, together with several native regional accents from all
over the world and several broad foreign accents, too; canIPA]˘
dauer, r. m. (1993) Accurate English˘ Englewoods Cli‡s: Regents/Prentice Hall (American pro-
nunciation; with 4 audiocassettes; almost IPA).
Gage Canadian Dictionary (2000) Gage Educational Publishing Company: Vancouver (gives
Canadian pronunciation; IPA).
gimson, a. c. “ cruttenden, a. (2001•) An Introduction to the Pronunciation of English˘
London: Arnold (now: çcruttenden, a. <Gimson's Pronunciation of English≤Ç (!); still the
most recommendable for British pronunciation, although it has not reached the declared
–and hoped for– updating of symbols and conceptions, and in spite of some electronic lit-
tle bungles in the latest two editions; IPA).
gimson, a. c. “ ramsaran, s.m. (1982) An English Pronunciation Companion˘ Oxford: O.
Univ. Press (British English; with an audiocassette; IPA).
jones, d. (1960Ô, 1918») An Outline of English Phonetics˘ Cambridge: He‡er (British pronun-
ciation; meanwhile, pronunciation has changed and symbols have been improved, but it is
still worthwhile reading, rather than many more recent books; IPA).
jones, d. (2003»•, 1917») English Pronouncing Dictionary˘ Cambridge: C. Univ. Press (as the
previous edition, the present one, edited by P. Roach “ J. Hartman “ J. Setter, in addition
to British pronunciation, gives the American one; but it has lost much of the original spir-
utilizable bibliography 415
it, by standardizing the transcriptions {Ô Jones “ Gimson “ Ramsaran}; there is also a ver-
sion with a ©∂, which allows one to listen to the pronunciations and to search for homo-
phones by typing in a transcription; IPA). (˛e former version of the Cambridge Advanced
Learner's Dictionary˚ for American pronunciation {assigned to Hartman and to a çcleverÇ
editorial sta‡} had monstrosities like blaster with /sÿ/, that is ç/sù/Ç!)
jones, d. “ gimson, a. c. “ ramsaran, s. (1988»[) English Pronouncing Dictionary˘ London:
Dent (British; now pronunciation has changed a bit, but it is still worthwhile consulting
evenly, to have a taste of all the nuances indicated and to be able to enter the spirit of the
language; IPA).
kenyon, j. s. (1950»Ò, 1924») American Pronunciation˘ George Wahr: Ann Arbor (American
English; meanwhile, pronunciation has changed, but it is still worthwhile seeing; there is
also an çaugmentedÇ edition by others, but with no real additions, 1994»”; IPA).
– “ knott, t. a. (1953) A Pronouncing Dictionary of American English˘ Springfield, µåßß.:
Merriam (American pronunciation; meanwhile, certain pronunciations have changed, but
it is still worthwhile consulting; IPA {while, incredibly –in the 3rd millennium– mostly in
America, non-IPA dictionaries are still being published!}).
Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners (2002) Oxford: Macmillan Education
(strangely, this dictionary çcreated in Britain and the usaÇ only gives British pronunciation
and with only tiny detail; however, it is useful for the –British– stressing of lexical colloca-
tions; IPA).
Macquarie Dictionary, †e (1997’) Sydney: ˛e Macquarie Library (encyclopedic, gives
Australian pronunciation; IPA).
Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (2003»») Springfield, Mass.: Merriam-Webster
(American pronunciation; interesting for its frequent phonetic variants, although it shows
absurd çsecondary stressesÇ, since they are marked for almost every non-attenuated V÷ unfor-
tunately non-IPA).
Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English (2000•) Oxford: O. Univ. Press
(British pronunciation with only major American di‡erences; it shows cases of çmarkedÇ
stresses for certain lexical collocations; IPA).
Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English – Encyclopedic Edition (1992) Oxford:
O. Univ. Press (British pronunciation with only major American di‡erences; it shows cas-
es of çmarkedÇ stresses for certain lexical collocations; IPA).
quaggiato, m. e. (1997/98) Fonetica inglese neutra e del Sud. Univ. of Venice, graduation the-
sis guided by L. Canepari (canIPA]˘
ragazzini, g. (1995’) Dizionario inglese {–italiano e italiano–inglese}. Bologna: Zanichelli
(British pronunciation with only major American di‡erences; its transcriptions have been
revised by L. Canepari and A. Venturi but çreducedÇ by the editorial sta‡, however it pres-
ents the innovation of /E/ instead of /e/ and very many çreduced formsÇ, more than in pro-
nunciation dictionaries, although less than in this HPr÷ IPA).
Random House Dictionary of the English Language (†e)˚ Unabridged (1987”) New York:
Random House (American; reliable for secondary stresses; but non-IPA).
Random House Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (1997”) New York: Random House (American;
reliable for secondary stresses; but non-IPA).
roach, p. (2000’) English Phonetics and Phonology. Cambridge: C. Univ. Press (British pro-
nunciation; with 2 audiocassettes; IPA).
santipolo, m. (1997/98) A Socio-phonetic Description of Some Varieties of South-eastern British
English. Univ. of Venice, graduation thesis guided by L. Canepari (canIPA]˘
turrin, n. (1996/97) †e Accents of Northern England. Univ. of Venice, graduation thesis guid-
ed by L. Canepari (canIPA]˘
upton, c. “ kretzschmar, w. a. jr. “ konopka, r. (2001) †e Oxford Dictionary of Pronunci-
ation for Current English˘ Oxford: O. Univ. Press (although it is the latest to be projected,
it lags behind its predecessors. In addition, it is exactly the opposite to the very convenient
diaphonemic and interphonemic transcriptions – as a matter of fact, besides uselessly repeat-
ing also çidenticalÇ forms, in addition to those with slightly di‡erent phonetic renderings,
for every variant given it repeats the whole transcription {and not continuing the line, but
starting a new paragraph}, instead of indicating –more clearly– the sole di‡erences {failing
then to give the fundamental immediacy}. Besides, it uses di‡erent criteria and symbols for
the two accents {¤ British and American}, leading the reader to think there are di‡erences
even where actually there are none, as for instance also for secondary-stress markings after
primary stresses, which are indicated in the American but not in the British pronunciation,
for forms which are instead absolutely identical such as teacake˘ ˛erefore, considering the
great amount of blank space and its many useless transcriptions, it uses twice the number
of pages actually needed: for instance, for the article a˚ it uses 10 lines {ten!} to give –in sub-
stance– ça /'EI, È/Ç; besides, it mixes up neutral pronunciations and others which are not (yet)
neutral, for ex. dune with British variant identical to June, ç/dZu:n/Ç, or latter shown, in the
American pronunciation, exactly like ladder, ç/'lπdÈr/Ç, not even as a variant; çmixedÇ IPA]˘
Webster's New Encyclopedic Dictionary (1993) New York: Black Dog “ Leventhal (American
pronunciation; it marks destressable monosyllables; non-IPA).
wells, j. c. (1982) Accents of English˘ Cambridge: CUP (3 vols.; extensive survey however
mainly based on available written sources; IPA).
wells, j. c. (2000”) Longman Pronunciation Dictionary˘ Harlow: Longman (British “ Ameri-
can pronunciations; together with çJones»•Ç it provides a reliable survey, especially for Brit-
ish English; for American English, /Ø:/ has been removed while it was present in the first e-
dition {1990}, although it could be more useful than /πr/, which is still there, whereas /o:r/
has become /oUr/, which is more çeconomicalÇ, but far less appropriate; IPA).
Italian (é 3)
bonazzi, i. (1989) Dizione e qualità espressiva della voce˘ Torino: Centro Maier (with 6 very
short audiocassettes; traditional pronunciation; hypodiacritical spelling).
camilli, a. “ fiorelli, p. (1965) Pronuncia e grafia dell'italiano. ≈renze: Sansoni (simplified
ì).
canepari, l. (1970) Ùtæljæn præn≠nsÙeÙxn˚ in çLe Maître PhonétiqueÇ, 133:6-8 (as all MPh con-
tributions, fully transcribed in IPA].
– (1986’) Italiano standard e pronunce regionali˘ Padova: ©¬™¨π (with 2 enclosed audiocassettes,
the second one is about regional pronunciation; almost canIPA]˘
– (2000 {amended “ modified reprint} – 1999») Dizionario di pronuncia italiana. Bologna:
Zanichelli (60,000 forms with transcription and pronunciation variants, which correspond
at least to 180,000 actual words; pronunciations given: modern neutral, traditional neutral,
acceptable, tolerated, slovenly, intentional and lofty; canIPA]˘
– (2004 {amended “ modified reprint} – 1999”) Manuale di pronuncia italiana˘ Bologna: Za-
nichelli (with 2 enclosed audiocassettes; it introduces modern neutral pronunciation, in ad-
dition to the traditional one, besides other types, including 22 regional koinés; canIPA]˘
costamagna, l. (1996) Pronunciare l'italiano˘ Manuale di pronuncia italiana per stranieri. Pe-
rugia: Guerra (with 4 audiocassettes and a ©∂; canIPA]˘
fiorelli, p. (1965) Córso di pronùnzia italiana˘ Padova: Radar (with 14 vinyl records; tradition-
al pronunciation; hypodiacritical spelling]˘
migliorini, b. “ tagliavini, c. “ fiorelli, p. (1981”) Dizionario d'Ortografia e di Pronunzia.
Torino: ™®¤ (still with I and J mixed together; it also contains family and place names; 1st
ed. 1969 with a vinyl record; non-IPA).
muljaCiÇ, Z. (1972) Fonologia della lingua italiana˘ Bologna: Il Mulino (traditional pronuncia-
tion; IPA]˘
tagliavini, c. (1965) La corretta pronuncia italiana˘ Bologna: Capitol (with 26 vinyl records;
traditional pronunciation; hypodiacritical spelling]˘
Unfortunately, in the Journal of the International Phonetic Association (2004, 117-21), an im-
plausible çdescriptionÇ of Italian was published (showing incredibly mixed and contrasting
features for a native speaker, independently from some queer transcriptions), which simul-
taneously presents both northern, central “ southern Italian characteristics and even a num-
ber of foreign ones. ˛e text wording itself of †e North Wind and the Sun is a çnewÇ tran-
slation from English, for instance with il vento del nord çthe North WindÇ instead of la tra-
montana. An answer was given that four Italian çscholarsÇ had approved it for publication.
˛e only recording used for the transcription is partially better (as one can immediately
hear), being somehow less çpossessedÇ than the çtranscriptionÇ provided in the paper.
French (é 4)
armstrong, l. e. (1932) †e Phonetics of French˘ London: Bell (reprinted many times; in spite
of its years, although pronunciation has slightly changed, it still remains good; IPA).
boch, r. (1995’) Dizionario francese {–italiano e italiano–francese}. Bologna: Zanichelli (its
transcriptions have been revised by L. Canepari but çreducedÇ by the editorial sta‡, how-
ever it presents the innovation of çneutralÇ /Õ, Ú/ instead of the old and outdated /˙, Ó/; IPA]˘
canepari, l. (in prog.) French Pronunciation* (with 4 national neutral pronunciations, besides
a mediatic and an international one, together with several native regional accents from
Europe and Canada, and some broad foreign accents, too; canIPA˘ Perhaps also as Les pronon-
ciations du français).
capelle, g. (1968) Le rythme et l'intonation de la phrase française˘ Paris: Didier (a vinyl record
and booklet, with no notation).
carton, f. (1979”) Introduction à la phonétique du français˘ Paris: Bordas (almost IPA).
coveney, a. (2001) †e Sounds of Contemporary French˘ Exeter: Elm Bank Publications (not
too reliable for things di‡erent from French, reported from controversial written sources;
IPA).
gleissner, h. (1964) Französische Aussprache˘ Leipzig: Verlag Enzyklopädie (a vinyl record and
booklet; IPA]˘
kaneman-pougatch, m. “ pedoya-guimbretière, e. (1989) Plaisir des sons˘ Paris: Alliance
Française/Hatier/Didier (with 4 audiocassettes; with no explicit intonation; IPA]˘
lerond, a. (1980) Dictionnaire de la prononciation˘ Paris: Larousse (inconveniently separates
common and proper names into two sections; IPA with some additional symbols).
malmberg, b. (1976[) Phonétique française˘ Malmö: Läromedel (IPA]˘
tranel, b. (1987) †e Sounds of French˘ Cambridge: C. Univ. Press (with an audiocassette;
IPA]˘
walker, d. c. (1984) †e Pronunciation of Canadian French˘ Ottawa: Univ. of O. Press; with-
out intonation; almost IPA]˘
warnant, l. (1987’, 1962/66») Dictionnaire de la prononciation française˘ Paris/Gembloux:
Duculot (previous editions had an enclosed vinyl record and a less çblank-pageÇ format; in-
conveniently separates common and proper names into two sections; IPA]˘
– (1996) Orthographe et prononciation en français˘ Gembloux: Duculot (derived from the pre-
ceding title, gives the 12,000 words which are not pronounced according to their orthogra-
phy; but does not give any proper names, which are often more problematical; IPA]˘
German (é 5)
Aussprachewörterbuch (2000[, 1962») Mannheim: Bibliographisches Institut “ F. A. Brockhaus

AG (çthe dudenÇ; also gives Chistian, family, and place names for various languages with
their original pronunciation; IPA˚ with /a, a:/, but /r/, however, now at last accepts /r/-çvo-
calizationÇ even after short V˚ although it continues to transcribe only /r/).
barberis, p. “ sarnow, a. (2000) Phonetik lehren und lernen˘ Beiheft Italien˘ Torino: Paravia
(with 3 audiocassettes; IPA]˘
bithell, j. (1952) German Pronunciation and Phonology˘ London: Methuen (IPA]˘
canepari, l. (in prog.) German Pronunciation*. München: Lincom Europa (with 4 national
neutral pronunciations, together with several native regional accents and some broad for-
eign accents, too; canIPA˘ Perhaps also as Die Aussprachen des Deutschen)˘
Dizionario Garzanti di tedesco} (1994) Milano: Garzanti (the transcriptions have been planned
by L. Canepari, prepared by P. Paschke, but çreducedÇ by the editorial sta‡; however, it gives
many çreduced formsÇ (on p. 568), although less than those given in this HPr; anyway, it is
the first dictionary which unifies ç/é:å, éå, 0å/Ç –with ç/å/Ç just for the sake of çuniformityÇ
with other publications– instead of giving, in a more complex way, ç/é:å, éK, éå/Ç for /é:√,
é√, 0√/ or, as here, /é:K, éK, 0Ú/ (é:‰, é‰, 0…); IPA).
Gro•es Wörterbuch der deutschen Aussprache (1982) Leipzig: Bibliographisches Institut (çthe
gwdaÇ; IPA˚ but with /a, A:, r/, and /Y/ instead of /Y/, in the çstyleÇ of Soviet fonts).
kohler, k. j. (1977, 1995”) Einführung in die Phonetik des Deutschen˘ Berlin: Schmidt (IPA˚
but with strange choices for symbols, mitigated in the latest edition).
– (1994) Glottal Stops and Glottalization in German˚ in çPhoneticaÇ, ¬¤, 38-51 (IPA]˘
Österreichisches Wörterbuch (1998’) ©en: öbv Pädagogischer Verlag (non-IPA˚ but now at
least it gives a table of correspondences).
Siebs Deutsche Aussprache (1969»Ô) Berlin: De Gruyter (a handbook and a small pronouncing
dictionary; IPA˚ but with /A, A:/ and /r/).
stötzer, u. (1975) Deutsche Aussprache˘ Leipzig: Verlag Enzyklopädie (with 2 vinyl records;
IPA˚ but with ('a, a, 'A:, A, r), and /Y/ instead of /Y/, in the çstyleÇ of Soviet fonts, and also
//ü(:), ö(:), ä:, a:// for /y:, y, Y÷ °:, °, §÷ E:, a:/).
Spanish (é 6)
Unfortunately, no Spanish pronouncing dictionary exists yet! Even Antonio Quilis' meritorious
project of preparing one, with two neutral accents: Iberian and American (also with a ©∂ version,
with the possibility of recording one's voice and comparing it with the model provided) could not
be fulfilled…
canepari, l. (in prog.) Spanish Pronunciation*. München: Lincom Europa (with 6 or 7 na-
tional neutral pronunciations and an international one, together with several native regional
accents from Europe and America and some broad foreign accents, too; canIPA˘ Perhaps al-
so as Las pronunciaciones del español).
dalbor, j. b. (1980”) Spanish Pronunciation˘ Fort Worth: Holt, Rinehart and ©nston (Amer-
ican with Iberian indications; çnumericalÇ intonation with pitch levels; non-IPA]˘
Gran Diccionario de la lengua española (1985) Madrid: ßŸ™¬ (Iberian; the only dictionary with
generally reliable transcriptions for Iberian Spanish, in spite of many attempts to make them
not to appear so; almost IPA]˘
miotti, r. (1995-96) Descripción fono-tonética de las variedades regionales del español de América
y España˘ Univ. of Venice, graduation thesis guided by L. Canepari (Iberian and American,
with 12 regional koinés; canIPA]˘

– (1998) Descrizione fono-tonetica delle varietà regionali dello spagnolo d'America e di Spagna˚
in Annali di Ca' Foscari˚ 393-440 (derived from the thesis, but laid out according to phone-
mic elements; Iberian and American; canIPA]˘
navarro tomás, t. (1932[, 1918») Manual de pronunciación española˘ Madrid: Publicaciones
de la Revista de ≈lologìa Española (Iberian; still being reprinted; it remains the only relia-
ble work for Iberian Spanish, in spite of an excessive subphonemic and biased hyperdi‡eren-
tiation and a non-IPA alphabet]˘
rohwedder, e. (1969) Spanische Aussprache˘ Leipzig: Verlag Enzyklopädie (American; a vinyl
record and a booklet; non-IPA]˘
saussol, j. m. (1983) Fonologìa y fonética del español para italófonos˘ Padova: Liviana (Iberian;
with an audiocassette; semi-IPA]˘
Portuguese (é 7)
Unfortunately, no Portuguese pronouncing dictionary exists yet (and with metaphony).
canepari, l. (in prog.) Portuguese Pronunciation*. München: Lincom Europa (with {Brazilian
and Lusitanian} neutral pronunciations and an international one, together with several na-
tive regional accents from Europe, America and Africa and some broad foreign accents, too;
canIPA˘ Perhaps also as As pronùncias do português).
cristófaro silva, t. (2001”) Fonética e fonologia do português˘ São Paulo: Contexto (Brazilian;
with a ©∂; IPA]˘
cuesta, p. vázquez “ da luz, m. a. mendes (1971’) Gramática portuguesa˘ Madrid: Gredos
(Lusitanian with Brazilian indications; non-IPA]˘
Dicionário da lìngua portuguesa (1981) Porto: Porto Editora (Lusitanian; does not transcribe,
but indicates with italic letters in brackets occurrences of /'e, 'o/ [ê˚ ô]˚ cases of unstressed
ç/E, a, O/Ç [è˚ à, ò] –which is one of the uses of our /È, A, ì/– and consonant clusters˚ includ-
ing x).
Dicionário da lìngua portuguesa contemporânea (2001), Lisboa: Editorial Verbo (Lusitanian;
too much proudly presented as the publishing enterprise çof the beginning of the 21st cen-
tury and of the 3rd millenniumÇ, which began before the French Revolution and finally led
to this two-volume dictionary; it does indicate metaphony, however, giving only plurals
with di‡erent vowel timbres, and hiding them at the end of the entry, not showing them
immediately after the headword, together with the other transcriptions, which include fe-
minine forms; in addition, it puzzles a lot because –in the 3rd millennium– it displays such
things as ç/õ, g, $, R, ], l/Ç, instead of /…, g, S, K, ı, L/, and even ç/Ω, ó, ö, Z/Ç instead of /E, å,
O, Z/; semi-IPA).
gärtner, e. “ thomaz jayme, j. (1984) Portugiesische Aussprache˘ Leipzig: Verlag Enzyklopädie
(Brazilian; a vinyl record and booklet; almost IPA]˘
giangola, j. p. (2001) †e Pronunciation of Brazilian Portuguese˘ München: Lincom Europa
(without intonation; hybrid IPA with (y, w) for (jé,éi÷ wé, éu))˘
irmen, f. “ cortes kollert, a. m. (1995) Taschenwörterbuch _ Portugiesisch–Deutsch {Deutsch
–Portugiesisch}˘ Berlin: Langenscheidt (Lusitanian; indicates metaphonetic variations, but
not systematically; presents /e/ + /S, Z, N, L, j, i/, for (É), but ç(Ai)Ç, for (3I, ’’I) and for (Ai,
’4i); IPA]˘
mea, g. (2003”) Dicionário de Português–Italiano˘ Porto: Porto Editora (Lusitanian; in the pres-
ent çreprintÇ the transcriptions have been added {whereas earlier they were only present in
the reverse part}, which is phonemic even if between ( ), with (b, d, g) in every context; it
distinguishes (léı), but uses ç(!)Ç in place of (ı); in addition, it gives ç(éj, éw)Ç for (éi, éu),
and ç(–)Ç for (–ö), instead of /éö/; it indicates unstressed V which do not undergo reduc-
tion, but not always in a reliable way; metaphony is indicated if new separated entries are
present; IPA)˘
Pequeno dicionário {italiano–português} português–italiano (1993) São Paulo: Melhoramentos
(Paulista {pron. of São Paulo}; indicates some metaphonetic variations; IPA]˘
Pocket {English–Portuguese} Portuguese–English Dictionary (2001’) Glasgow: Collins (Carioca
{pron. of Rio de Janeiro}; indicates some metaphonetic variations; IPA]˘
tagliavini, c. (1938) Grammatica elementare della lingua portoghese˘ Heidelberg: Groos (Lu-
sitanian; çcanaÇ old-style IPA).
viana, a. r. gonçalves (1903) Portugais. Phonétique et phonologie _ Morphologie _ Textes˘ Leip-
zig: Teubner (Lusitanian; still the most reliable work, in spite of several inevitable misprints;
archaic IPA]˘
– (1912) Vocabulário Ortográfico e remissivo da lìngua portuguesa˘ Paris/Lisboa: Aillaud/Alves
(still the constant reference work of various authors and lexicographers for the even limit-
ed phonetic cues; current spelling with some additional diacritics. For the Portuguese or-
thography, it bases itself on a rather rational structuring, followed by several semi-reforms,
with qualities and failings {for foreigners, the latter would not be a problem any longer if
somebody were determined to prepare a Portuguese pronouncing dictionary, by taking ac-
count of the problems of metaphony and of Lusitanian peculiarities, which are completely
ignored by present-day o‚cial spelling, whereas that of the intermediate time was definite-
ly more careful}).
Russian (é 8)
Unfortunately, no IPA Russian pronouncing dictionary exists yet, with full transcriptions of the
di‡erent words (also avoiding archaic-Soviet morphonological –or orthographical– symbols,
mainly based on the Cyrillic alphabet).
ageenko, f. l. “ zarva, m. v. (1993) Clobapì ydapen$= pycckogo r‘vka. Mockba: Pycck$=

R‘vk (hypodiacritical spelling for stress and major exceptions, which indicates neither neu-
tralizations nor all assimilations, inconveniently separates common and proper names into
two sections, separately signed {in this edition}).
borunova, s. n. “ voroncova, v. l. “ es'kova, n. a. (1999’) Opfo<π$ueck$= clobapì pyc-
ckogo r‘vka. Mockba: Pycck$= r‘vk (hypodiacritical spelling for stress and major excep-
tions, which indicates neither neutralizations nor all assimilations, gives only common
words; many pages, but with too much blank space in the two columns).
boyanus, s. c. (1955) Russian Pronunciation $ Russian Phonetic Reader˘ London: Lund Hum-
phries [IPA]˘
comrie, b. “ stone, g. “ polinsky, m. (1996) †e Russian Language in the Twentieth Century˘
Oxford: Clarendon Press (archaic-Soviet IPA).
häusler, f. (1974) Russische Aussprache˘ Leipzig: Verlag Enzyklopädie (a vinyl record and book-
let; non-IPA]˘
jones, d. “ ward, d. (1969) †e Phonetics of Russian˘ Cambridge: C. Univ. Press [IPA; it re-
mains the best treatment on the subject, extended and up-to-date, in spite of its archaic-So-
viet phonological choices).
kalenCuk, m. l. “ kasatkina, r. f. (1997) Clobapì tpydnocte= pycckogo πpo$‘nowen$r.
Mockba: Pycck$= r‘vk (hypodiacritical spelling for stress and major exceptions, which indi-
cates neither neutralizations nor all assimilations).
kasatkin, l. “ krysin, l. “ Zivov, v. (1995) Il russo˘ ≈renze: La Nuova Italia (non-IPA˚ a kind
of phono-transliteration of archaic-Soviet derivation, which mixes and confuses the phonic

and graphic levels).
shapiro, m. (1968) Russian Phonetic Variants and Phonostylistics˘ Berkeley/Los Angeles: Univ.
of California Press [archaic-Sovietized IPA)˘
trofimov, m. v. “ jones, d. (1923) †e Pronunciation of Russian˘ Cambridge: C. Univ. Press
[IPA; the only one with a realistic phonic {pre-Sovietic} structuring, in spite of a pre-revolu-
tionary orthography and traditional pronunciation)˘
Arabic (é 9)
Unfortunately, no Arabic pronouncing dictionary exists yet, with full IPA transcriptions of the
di‡erent words.
al-ani, s. h. (1970) Arabic Phonology˘ ˛e Hague: Mouton (almost IPA).

canepari, l. (1983) Fonetica e tonetica araba˚ in Scritti linguistici in onore di Giovan Battista
Pellegrini˚ Pisa: Pacini, 1105-21 [çsacrificedÇ IPA for typographical limitations, and with a
photographed consonant table, but çcleaned upÇ by an extremely çcleverÇ editorial sta‡,
who cancelled ç'Ç and ç‘Ç, used for çöÇ and çHÇ!).
cantineau, j. (1960) Cours de phonétique arabe˘ Paris: Klincksieck (non-IPA).
gairdner, w. h. t. (1925) †e Phonetics of Arabic˘ Oxford: O. Univ. Press (without intonation;
IPA]˘
kästner, r. t. (1981) Phonetik und Phonologie des modernen Hocharabisch˘ Leipzig: Verlag En-
zyklopädie (without intonation; IPA]˘
krotkoff, g. (1976) Taschenwörterbuch _ Arabisch–Deutsch˘ Berlin: Langenscheidt (in spite of
its gaps and naïveties; almost IPA]˘
mitchell, t. f. (1972) Arabic Pronunciation˘ London: ∫∫© (a vinyl record and booklet; çtran-
sliterationÇ with upper-case letters for çemphatic consonantsÇ and with çàÇ for /H/; non-IPA).
– (1990) Pronouncing Arabic. 1. Oxford: Clarendon Press (çtransliterationÇ with upper-case let-
ters for çemphatic consonantsÇ and with çàÇ for /H/, ç?Ç for /ö/, ç@Ç for (a, A, å, Ø), in addi-
tion to inelegantly barred letters both horizontally and diagonally for constrictives; non-IPA,
neither ßåµπå, nor…).
nasr, r. t. (1967) †e Structure of Arabic˘ Beirut: Librairie du Liban (with some çnumericalÇ
intonation; semi-IPA]˘
Hindi (é 10)
Unfortunately, no [IPA] Hindi pronouncing dictionary exists yet˘
chaturvedi, m. “ tivari, b. n. (1975” D) A Practical Hindi-English Dictionary˘ Delhi: Nation-

al Publishing House (with transliteration using a: = /aa/, a = /A/, and CC also for /0˘/ + /w,
j, r, l/).
jones, w. e. (1971) Syllables and word-stress in Hindi˚ in çJournal of the International Phonetic
AssociationÇ 1:74-78 (IPA).
kachru, y. (1990) Hindi-Urdu˚ in b. comrie (D) †e Major Languages of South Asia, the Mid-
dle East and Africa˘ London: Routledge, 53-72 (mixed IPA]˘
matthews, w. k. (1954) fænetiks ænd fænolædËi æv hindi:, in çLe Maître PhonétiqueÇ 102:18-22
(as all MPh contributions, fully transcribed in IPA].
mcgregor, r. s. (1977”) Outline of Hindi Grammar˘ Delhi: Oxford Univ. Press (traditional di-
acritical transliteration].
mehrotra, r. c. (1965) Stress in Hindi˚ in çIndian LinguisticsÇ 26:96-105 (semi-IPA].

pandey, p. k. (1989) Word Accentuation in Hindi˚ in çLinguaÇ 77:37-73 (semi-IPA translitera-
tion].
ray, p. s. (1966) Hindi-Urdu Stress˚ in çIndian LinguisticsÇ 27:95-101.
rosini, s. (1979-80) Indagine sulla struttura fonetica e tonetica della lingua hindi˘ Univ. of Ven-
ice, graduation thesis guided by L. Canepari (traditional diacritical transliteration with IPA
indications).
shukla, s. (1999) Hindi Phonology˘ München: Lincom Europa (with semi-IPA transliteration,
without intonation).
(Mandarin) Chinese (é 11)
Unfortunately, no [IPA] Chinese pronouncing dictionary exists yet˘
chao, y. r. (1948) Mandarin Primer˘ Cambridge (µåßß.): Harvard Univ. Press (with vinyl rec-
ords; non-IPA, but with çtone-lettersÇ {now o‚cialized but trivialized by the çreformÇ of the
IPA}).
cheng, c-c. (1973) A Synchronic Phonology of Mandarin Chinese˘ ˛e Hague: Mouton (almost
IPA]˘
dow, f. d. m. (1972) An Introduction to the Pronunciation of Chinese˘ Edinburgh: E. Univ. Press
[IPA, but with not too reliable transcriptions).
– (1972”) An Outline of Mandarin Phonetics˘ Canberra: Australian National Univ. Press [IPA,
but with not too reliable transcriptions).
kratochvìl, p. (1968) †e Chinese Language Today˘ London: Hutchinson (çChinese/Karlgren-
izedÇ IPA: with çqÇ for (M), that is with a vocoid still considered as if it were the intense con-
toid (Ç); on the other hand, with the çvowel QÇ for the true intense contoid (Ö)]˘
norman, j. (1988) Chinese˘ Cambridge: C. Univ. Press [çSino-likeÇ IPA: with ç„, ÓÇ for (M, Ö)]˘
Practical Chinese Reader (1985) Beijing: ˛e Commercial Press (with audiocassettes; çChi-
nese/KarlgrenizedÇ IPA: with çqÇ for (M), that is with a vocoid still considered as if it were
the intense contoid (Ç); on the other hand, it has the çvowel QÇ for the true intense contoid
(Ö)]˘
qin, z. (1980) On Chinese Phonetics˘ Beijing: ˛e Commercial Press [çChinese/KarlgrenizedÇ
IPA: with çqÇ for (M), that is with a vocoid still consideres as if it were the intense contoid
(Ç); on the other hand, it has the çvowel QÇ for the true intense contoid (Ö)]˘
shan pao li, j. (1975) Introduction to the Chinese Language˘ Taipei: Ke Ji Publishing Co. [mod-
erately çSino-likeÇ IPA]˘
speSnev, n. a. (1980) Fonet$ka k$ta=ckogo r‘vka. Len$ngpad: *‘datelìctbo Len$ngpadc-
kogo Yn$bepc$teta (a very hybrid IPA]˘
Unfortunately, in the çJournal of the International Phonetic AssociationÇ itself Standrad Chi-
nese (Beijing) has appeared {2003, 109-112}, which is semi-Karlgrenized IPA, with both (M,
Ö) rendered as (≥), but described as (¡) and (Ö), including many more transcriptional queer
inaccuracies.
Japanese (é 12)
Unfortunately, no IPA Japanese pronouncing dictionary exists yet˘
akamatsu, ts. (1997) Japanese Phonetics˘ München: Lincom Europa [IPA]˘

fujito, y. “ nakano, e. “ seton, c. (1979) Japanese Pronunciation Guide˘ Tokyo: Bonjinsha
(with audiocassettes; transliteration, not transcription).
jorden, e. h. (1963) Beginning Japanese˘ New Haven: Yale Univ. Press (with tapes or audiocas-
settes; transliteration, not transcription).
kindaichi, h. “ akinaga, k. (2001) Shinmeikai Nihongo Akusento Jiten˘ Tokyo: Sanseido (non-
-IPA\ tonetic and diacritic katakana, with variants).
martin, s. e. (1990) Martin's Pocket Dictionary˘ Tuttle: Rutland (transliteration, not transcrip-
tion; indicates tonemic variants and /i, M/ devoicing).
New Japanese-English Dictionary (1974[) Tokyo: Kenkyusha (non-IPA˚ tonetic transliteration).
Nihongo Hatsuon Akusento Jiten (1966) Tokyo: Nihon Hoso Kyokai (non-IPA\ tonetic kataka-
na).
tsujimura, n. (1996) An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics˘ Oxford: Blackwell (semi-IPA]˘
vance, t. j. (1987) An Introduction to Japanese Phonology˘ Albany: State Univ. of New York
Press (semi-IPA]˘
Esperanto (é 13)
canepari, l. (1998”) Non c'è proprio niente da dire sulla pronuncia e la grafia dell'esperanto?˚ in
La linguistica, le lingue pianificate e l'Esperanto˚ a special issue of çL'EsperantoÇ 44-55
[canIPA]˘
cresswell, j. “ hartley, j. “ sullivan, l. h. (1987) Teach Yourself Esperanto˘ Sevenoaks:
Hodder “ Stoughton (with an audiocassette of çAnglo-EsperantoÇ; spelling).
kalocsay, k. “ waringhien, g. (1980[) Plena analiza gramatiko de esperanto˘ Rotterdam: ¨™å
(spelling).
wells, j. c. (1978) Lingvistikaj aspektoj de esperanto˘ Rotterdam: ©™∂/¨™å (spelling).
– (s. a.) Esperanto Pronunciation Disc˘ London: ∫™å (a vinyl record and leaflet; spelling).
zamenhof, l. l. (1962•) Lingvaj respondoj˘ Marmande: ™ƒ™ (spelling).

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Canepari (2005) A Handbook of Pronunciation – Lincom Europa

413 Utilizable bibliography

A synthesis of Phonetics “ Tonetics

å. breathing ∫. occlusion ©. voicelessness ∂. voicing

ÁÙËË ÁÁËË ËËË ËËÛ ÁÙËËË ÙËÛÁËÁ

ÁËËËË ËËËËËËËÁË ËËÁËËÁËËËÁË ÁËËËÈ ËÁÁÁÙ ÁËÁËËÁË

ÁÎË ÁÎË ÁÎË ÁÎË ÁËÁÙ ÁÎËÁÙ ÁËÁÁ ËÛÁÙ

ÁÙËËË ÎËËËË ËËËÁÎËÁ ÏËËËË ÏËÁÎËËÁ ÛËËÁÎËËÁ

ÁÁËË ÁÙËËÁÚÚÚ ÁÁËËËËÁÚÚÚ ÙËË ÎËËÁÁÚÚ ÁÚËÚ

ÁËËË ÁÙËËË ËËËË ËÈËËË ∏∏∏ ÁÙÁË

present or not, depending on vocal-fold vibrations during the productions of phones.

û 1.5. Vocoid classiﬁcation (with labiograms of high vocoids).

i Û … M [*] Y y % ¯ u high (å) Û˙…˙M

™ É ‘ x [¢] [π] # ê Ö ø lower-mid (∂) Y˙{%˙¯}

low (ƒ) y˙{%˙¯}˙u

nuances and di‡erences better.

û 1.8. Labiograms for the di‡erent vocoids.

û 1.9.2. Semi-nasal contoids.

û 1.11.1.∫. Grooved stop-strictive contoids.

c/g v/∆ ⁄/Á ˝

û 1.11.2. (Grooved and ﬂat) stop-semi-strictive contoids.

û 1.12.1.å. (∫at) constrictive contoids.

«/» X/5 x/ç ‹/¶

./÷ //\ S/q À/=

û 1.12.1.∫. Grooved constrictive contoids.

û 1.12.2. (Grooved and ﬂat) semi-constrictive contoids.

ƒ/√ ﬂ/∂ ∂/d À/ö

û 1.13.1. Approximant contoids.

û 1.13.2. Semi-approximant contoids.

û 1.13.3. Lateralized approximant contoids.

+ ù,§ semilateral approximants

û 1.14.1. Trill contoids.

û 1.14.2. Tap contoids.

û 1.14.3. ∫ap contoids.

û 1.15.1. (Bi)lateral contoids (and two semilateral (ù, ))).

û 1.15.2. Unilateral contoids. + +

û 1.15.3. Lateral tap contoids. + +

û 1.16.1. (Two perspectives of) consonant labiograms.

m˙p˙b [˙(˙{ M˙f˙v

w˙u ë˙ò˙C˙‚ j˙i

û 1.16.2. Further consonant labiograms (only front view).

û 1.16.3. Consonant orograms with di‡erent labial positions.

û 1.17. Consonant dorsograms and palatograms.

velarized alveolar rounded

postalveo-palatal (lowered tip)

postalveolariz. prevelar round.

û 1.22. ˛e four neutral intonemes of British English.

conclusive interrogative suspensive continuative

û 1.23. Two neutral preintonemes of British English.

low parenthesis: (ì œ) /ì œ/ mid parenthesis: (‘ ’) /‘ ’/ quotation: (^ Œ) /^ Œ/

û 1.25. ˛e four preintonemes for tone languages.

/¿ / (¿ ) ((» )) /˚ /(˚ ) ((ˇ ))

û 1.26. ˛e four basic ton(em)es of (Mandarin) Chinese.

1.2.1. ‹en it comes to analyzing the pronunciation of a language, for learn-

with all the imperfections that this inevitably implies).

1.2.5. ‹atever the phonemic transcription used, to go on to the phonetic one

1.2.6. It is important to keep in mind the di‡erence between phonemes, phones,

the inconsistency of these rules.

1.2.10. ˛erefore, it is certainly useful to have –right at the very beginning of

˛e contents of the HPr (“ of the HPh)

1.3.3. It is very important to attain greater precision in identifying and repre-

Observations on phonetic terminology