IPA For Singers

rn
Y e I o,, 3 u c
G a Y U A AI
I
A manual for English and foreign language diction
JoanWall
''
-_",r'{..d" 4-+-
Hnternational
Frronetic fuphabet
for
Sfngers
A manual for English and Foreign Language Diction
Joan Wall
Pst... Inc
Dallas, Texas
Copyright 1989 PST... Inc.
rsBN 1-877761-50-8
AIt rlghts reserved. This book or any part thereof may not be reproduced in an1- fo;rn
whatsoevef with out written permission.
Printed in the United States of America
Copies of this book may be ordered by contacting:
Pst... Inc.
P.O. Box 8OO2O8H
Dallas, Texas 7538O-O2O8
Edited by Robert Caldwell

Cover design: Marti Dees
Graphic Artist: Ernie Ludwick
10
Second Printing
Table Of Contents
PART I: INTRODUCTION TO THE INTERNATTONAL PHONETTC ALPIIABET
Clnapter 1: Content and.Yalue of InternationalPhonetic Alphobet 7
What ue Phonetics? I
What is the International Phonetic Alphabet? 3
The Value of the IPA 3
Intended Use 7
Conclusion 7
Chapter 2: HelpJul Ilints onusing the IPA 8

Accent Marks for Syllabic Stress 9
Phonemes md Allophones I I
PhoneticTranscriptions Il
Conclusion I2
PART II: VOWELS

Chapter 3: Introduction to Voutels 73
Classification ofSpeech Sounds 13
Classification ofVowels l4
Chopter 4: The ForusardVowels 76

Introduction to Forward Vowels -16
Excrcise [i] as in bgst 20
Exercise [r] as in bit za
Exercise [e] as in chqotic 28
and [eI] as in bsit
Exercise [e] as in bgt 36
Exercise [c] as in bgt 42
Exercise [a] as in diphthongby fat) aa
Chapter 4 Worksheets 5O
Chapter 5: Back Vowels 52

Introduction to Back Vowels 52
PronuciationsofWords 53
Exercise [u] as in bqqt 56
Exercise [u] as in bpek 60
Exercise [o] as in pillow 64
and [ou] as in bgt
Exercise [c] as in awe 7O
Exercise [o] as ln fgther 74
Chapter 5 Worksheets 8O
Chapter 6: CentrolVousels 83
Introduction to Central Vowels 83
Stressing and Unstressing 83
Stress in Foreign Languages 85
Description of the Central Vowels 85
The uhsounds [a] md [a] so
The drsounds [r] and [a] 86
The r-less frsounds [s] ana [e] 87
Singing with the dr Sounds 88
Summary 89
Exercise [A] as inbud 90
Exercise schwa [s] as in gppeal 94
Exercise [S] as in bg 9S
Exercise [a] as in butfer IOO
Exercise [s] as in blrd Io2
Chapter 6 Worksheets lO6
Claapter 7: Diphthongs 7O8
Introduction to Diphthongs IO8
Exerclse [ar] as tn h1g]r I rO
Exercise [au] as in hqse I 14
Exerclse [cr] as tr bgy lls
Exercise [iu] as in abyse 722
Chapter 7 Worksheets 126
PART TII: CONSONANTS

Clnapter 8.' Consononts 728
Introduction to Consonmts 128
Classification ofConsonants 128
Common Problems in Articulations I3-l
Chapter 9: Stop-Plosiue Consonants 739

Exercise [p] ana [b] 1s4
Exercise [t] ana [d] 138
Exercise [k] ma [g] 142
Chapter 9 Worksheet 146
Chapter IO: l\Iosal Consononts 747

Exercise [m] 148
Exercise [n] 152
Exercise h], ttr. ng consonant 156
Chapter 1O Worksheet l6O
Chapter 77: fricatiue Consonants 767

Exercise [fl ma [v] 162
Exercise [0] and [0], tf,e thconsonants 166
Exercise [s] ma [z] 17o
Exercise U]
-a [a], the shmd zh consonants I74
Exercise [h] 17s
Chapter ll Worksheet I8O
Chopter 72: The Lateral Consoncnt 781.

Exerctse [l] 182
Chapter 73: Glides 787

Exercise [r] Ba
Exercise [j] the yco.=onant 192
Exercise [hw] and [w], the pconsonmts .196
Chapter 13 Worksheet 2OO
Chapter 74: The Combination Consononfs 2Ol

Exercise[f] as in qhill 2O2
*d [€] tringmr
Chaptcr14'rlbrksheet ffi
PART TV: ADDITIONAL IPA SYMBOIS FOR ITALIAN, FRENCH, A]\iD

GERITIAN
Chapter 75: IPA Symbots..for lta,lian, french, o,nd Germo;n 2O7
Phonemes and Allophones in Foreign La,rguage 207
Mixed Vowels ly, u, g, al zOA
The French NasalVowels [8, d, 5, G) zlz
The Italian and French enyalltl Zla
The Italian rlyalll zta
The French Glide F{] 2I7
The German ch [x] and lq) zls
The Germm Diphthongs [ae, ao, rO] 22o
The Glottal Stop 221
APPENDUT
Answer Sheets to Exerci.ses 223

rHSffi%T,+
AND VALUE
THE OF.
INTERNATIONAL
PHONETIC ALPIIABET
I['hat are Phonetics?
The study of phonetics is the study of speech sounds. Or,

more precisely, it is the study of the symbols which represent speech
sounds. A phonetic alphabet is an alphabet in which a single sound
is represented by a single symbol. The International Phonetic
Alphabet, or IPA, is such an alphabet.
A quick look at the roman alphabet of English will show

that it is certainly not a phonetic alphabet, that sound and spelling
are often not the same.
For example, the sound of ee may have seven different

spellings:
be Cat beet recglve people bdg.f Phoenix.
A single symbol may stand for many sounds. For

example, look at the different sounds that can come from the
ninth letter of the alphabet, i :
ah-ihin might ee in liter
th in mttt sh in nation.
I
IPA for Singers
A sa€le letter may not have a sound at all, such as the p

xt pneunomta. Still other letters represent more than one sound, as
in the word mx where the letter x has two sounds: ks. T\ryo words
may also be spelled differently, but pronounced alike: peace and
piEce.
Americans are sometimes unaware of the sounds of their

own language and often confuse the letters of the alphabet with the
sounds of the language. For instance, when asked how many vowel
sounds are in English, they will likely answer five vowels-meaning
the five letters of the alphabet, a-e-i-o-u. Yet, in English there are
A pwe oouel sound consists oJ actually ttuentg-twovowel sounds, sixteen pure vowel sounds and six
onlg one dlstinct wwel sound; a diphthongs! The list below shows all twenty-two vowel sounds and
diphthong is adtstinct uowel how each sound has its own unique IPA symbol.
unitmade up of ti:opure wwel.
sounds.
Figure 1: The IPA sgmbols jor Elglish uourels.
IPA Symbols ln General Amerlcan Dlalect
Pure Voutels
Forward Vowels: trl beet
tr1 bit
lel chootic (pure [e] seldom used)
lel bet
lal bcd
lal brtght ah (used mostly in diphthongs)
Back Vowels: lul boot

lu] book
lol obey (pure [o] seldom used)
lcI sau,
lol alt
Central Vowels: [,r] up (stessedult)
lel crbout (unstresseduh schwa)
lsl herd (stressed, r- colored uowel)
lsl herd tnot r-colored)
ta] butter {uns tressed, r cobred uouseU
-
Diphthongs
lerl bait
lq{ boot
larl btte
laul orrch
lcrl boa
Uul use
2
Chapter 1
\lrhat is the International Phonetic Alphabet?
The Irrternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is a true pho-

netic alphabet in which one q4mbol stands for one sound. And \ rith
remarkably few modifications, today this alphabet remains as it was
when established by the International Phonetic Association in 1886.
Many of the IPA symbols are the same as the letters in our
roman alphabet, which makes the IPA easy to learn. In fact, sixteen
of the English letters are identical to the symbols of the IPA. This
leaves only nine new consonant symbols and sixteen pure vowel
symbols to be learned.
IPA q.rnbols are recognized by their enclosure in brackets.

For example, the symbol for the sound of b as in the word boy is [b];
the symbol for the vowel sound of ee as in bee is [i]; and the syrnbol
for t as in teo is [t]. Therefore, the symbols representing the word
beetare [bit].
The process of using only one s5rmbol per sound promotes

easy and accurate communication about speech sounds. Because
the IPA is a universal alphabet, IPA symbols are used to transcribe
words in foreign languages, such as Italian, French, German,
Spanish or Latin. This symbol consistency in multiple languages is
very helpful to singers who are required to sing in languages other
than their own.
The Value of the IPA
The study of the International Phonetic Alphabet is valu-

able to singers for several reasons.
English andJoreign longuage diction books and. d.ictionaries

use IPA to communicate pronunciotions.
Foreign language diction texts used in music departments

of universities, for example, use IPA as a common language to
communicate pronunciation rules. Being able to read the IPA allows
the student to take better advantage of these beneficial Italian,
French, and German diction texts.
Phonetic Readings o:[ Songs and Arias by Coffin, Erro]le,

Singer and Delattre, a reference work used frequently in diction
courses and in private voice studios, contains transcriptions of
3
IPA for Singers
Italian, German, and French art songs and arias. This book is a
dependable source for correct pronunciations of words in foreign
language songs, but it requires the singer to have good facility with
the IPA.
Figrtre 2: Sample of IPA transaiption in Phonetic Readings Ef Songs and Ariqs.
schubert Der tfanderer

der vandarar
Ich korure vour Gebirge her,
rg karne farr gabrrga heir,
es danpft das Ea1, es braust das lleer.
es darpft das to:I, es broost das me:r.
Several contemporary foreign language dictionaries, such

as The Bantam New College French and English Dictionarv. include
IPA transcriptions of words. Precise pronunciations are communi-
cated to the reader.
A significant reference work for English pronunciations is

A Pronouncing Dictionarv of Amerieau English by Kenyon and Knott.
Its IPA transcriptions of words clariff the standard pronunciations of
English words in General American diction as well as in regional
dialects. This dictionary answers questions about English pronuncia-
tions in a more definitive way than the sometimes confusing old
stand-by, Webster's Dictionary.
Figure 3: Sample oJ IPA transcrtptions in A Pronowtcittg Dictionary gf Amerban

EnglisPu
B
B,b lelbrbi l2l B's, Bs, poss B's biz Bacheller @feb, tetfla; ES Jctr
baa bc:, be:, bo: lJ sg baaes, pl n bazs -z bachelor rbcaftb, hcfla; ES -la(r
l-ed -d l-ing -rp Bachman rbel-aa, lbol- (Gez lbormon)
Baalrbeal, bel bacillary tb*alpn, rberrrl-
babbitt, B- rbebt l-ed -rd baciilus bahfil l-li -ler
babblerbebl ld -d l-tingtbcblr6, -btg back bcl l-ed -t l-ache -,eL
babe beb backbit€ rbel,bart l-bit -,bt l-bitten -lbrtg
Babel lbebl, rbebl backbooe rbckrbon, -,bon ld -d
Bab el Mandeb lbcb,ellmeadeb, lbob,cl- backfue n lbsk,[err; ES -,Iera1r
lmon- backfire a tbcl,fer, -tlarr; ES -ara1r; l-d -d
baboo, babu lbobu backgarDmon lbel,€emen, lbellgemon
Current uocal pedagogg texts and. wco,l research studies use

IPA sgrmlols.
Today's vocal pedagosr texts and vocal research studies

generously use IPA symbols, as the samples on the next page
indicate. IPA knowledge supports the singer who wishes to stay
abreast ofthe latest vocal research and pedagogical ideas.
4
Chapter I
Figure 4: ExamplesfromThe Stnrcfitre gf Slul.ging. bg
RichordMillen
(more closed) (more closed)
til ul
/ \
[,] /\ lul
Front Vowels Back Vowels
lal
lel lol
t^l
['] cl
lol
(more open) (more open)
Figure I l. l. Vowel Modification (aggitlstamcn to) Chafi Figtre 6: ExampleJromThe *ience g[the
Singirto Voice bg Johan Surrdberg.
Figure 5: Somplefrom theNATS Bulletin.

--f--
Uan/Feb 1985 Je!fteg Fcrite)
3.0
t]-
Vowels need modification in the upper registers
especially in order to achieve head voice. The [i] should
become [y] (the umlaut ii); [e] becomes [a]; [a] becomes
mixed with Ir ] and [u] ; [o] becomes mixed u'ith [u] and 25
[u] . These modifications help to maintain the speaking
(lower) formant in the tone as the pitch raises; as the
formants present become higher and higher, tone tends F 2 .0
to become shrill, screechy and pinched in u'omen and IJ
yelly and strident in men.
o
o 5
f
g
o
.0
Figure 7: SamptefromThe Ouertones gfBelCantobg Berton o
Colfin. E
o
5
v t
H tr
o
(,
o
o 0
024681.01.2
v HV First formant frequency (kHz)
ut,
3o otL tr IL,
3t e'|;' e' .a
32 0^f y' !^)'o Yt

33 2" v4 )" u'v \/
3tl 4'' I
.J_
a" 0'
35 1J. l,
VL
36 T
t1
or ts o'
5
IPA for Singers
IPA otfers apositiue i4fluenee on the deoelopment oJthe

singing tone.
The old masters of votce teaching have said: Chi sa ben

respirare e sillabare, so:prrr ben cantare, meaning if you breathe and
articulate well, you will sing well. The concept of building a singing
technic upon the clear and easy articulation of speech sounds is
certainly not new. Traditionally, singers have spent considerable time
rehearsing accurate vowel production, articulation and diction to
develop a desirable tonal quality.
Precise vowel enunciation, along with good breath

management, forms the primary foundation for the control of good
tonal production and enables a singer to sing with sonority, beauty,
flexibility and expressiveness. And, of course, distinct articulation
enhances communication of lyrics and artistic shaping of musical
phrases.
This text proposes that by anchoring speech sounds to

specific phonetic symbols, concepts of articulation and tonal
production are strengthened. As a single sound is attached or
anchored to a single symbol, the memory of that sound and its
physical method of production becomes more accuratti'aiid SECutre.
This has been found true, not only with beginning singers, but even
with advanced university students, who discover their singing
improves after learning IPA in diction courses. They hear the vowels
better. They can respond more quickly to sugg;estions about tone
color. Resonance lmproves.
The use oJIPe results in more precise communication about

speech sounds a nd. pronunciatiotts.
As sounds become associated with a specific visual

symbol, communication between teacher and student (or author and
reader) can become more precise. A teacher can write the symbol as
it is spoken. Flash cards or posters can also assist communication
and learning. When students see the symbol as well as hear the
sound, they can more clearly understand the difference between
confusing sounds; for example, the vowel sounds in such words as
pur [ptn] and pen[pen] or marra [men] and merry [men].
6
Chapter 1
Intended Use
The International Phonetic Alohabet fgl Sinoers is intended

to be used as a text for language diction and vocal pedagogr courses,
as supplementary materlal in the private studio or wtth choirs, and
by any individual who wishes to learn or brush-up on IPA. This
workbook is a training manual written specfically for singers to
learn the symbols, sounds and transcriptions of the basic IPA
Each chapter contains descriptive comments about

individual language sounds, how they are physically produced, their
major characteristics, and common problems. The exercises gutde
accurate artieulation and develop the ability to write and read IPA
transcriptions of English words. In addition, there are exercises that
use IPA transcriptions of nonsense words to build slcill for reading
IPA transcriptions of foreign languages. There ls a special section
devoted to additional lPA symbols for Italian, French and German.
The symbols are presented progressively. Only symbols

which have been studied previously are used in subsequent chap-
ters. It is important to use the material in the order presented.
A word of caution: people in different parts of the United

States pronounce words and individual speech sounds differently.
Therefore, if you are studying this material outside of class, find
someone knowledgeable in IPA who can clariS the sounds of each
symbol. A teacher is always the best guide. Once secure in the
sounds of the qlmbols, an individual can study the basic IPA from
this manual and gain skills in reading and transcribing the IPA.
Conclusion
Speech sounds form the basis of vocal technic and art.

Knowledge of IPA helps the si::ger use foreign language dictton texts,
English and foreign language dictionaries, pedagogy texts, and
research studies. By anchoring symbol and sound, the IPA offers a
positive, controlling inlluence on the development of the singing tone.
Communication between teacher and student is enhanced and,
finally, the few symbols of IPA are easy to learn.
7
IPA for Singers
CIIAPTER 2
HELPFUL HINTS
FOR USING
THE IPA
This chapter will offer a few helpful hints and definiUons so

you can learn the International Phonetic Alphabet more easily.
Brackets: IPA symbols are placed in brackets and are called symbols
to distinguish them from the letters of the Engltsh alphabet.
[t] is an IPA symbol.
Letters and s5rmbols: The letters of the alphabet of a language arq
referred to as orthographic letters, which distinguishes them from
IPA symbols.
t is an orthographic letter.
till is an orthographic spellhg.
[t] is an IPA qpbol.

[Ul] is an IPA spelling or transcription.
Names of symbols: An IPA symbol ls normally referred to by its
sound. There are a few symbols which have special names and these
wfll be noted in the appropriate chapter.
The symbol [i] is called by its sound ee.
rhe [t] is called by tts sound t.
Transcrlblng: Writing a word ln IPA symbols ls called spelling or
transcribing the word. When writing in IPA symbols, be sure to
transcribe the sounds within a word and not the orthographic
letters. Some common pitfalls to avoid are listed below. Do not be
concerned at this point that you cannot read the IPA symbols given
in these examples. Just let yourself become familiar with the
principles being described.
8
Chapter 2
Silent letters: Do not transcribe silent letters into IPA.
lotous is [nou], without the k.

psalmis [som], without the p or I.
Double letters: Transcribe only what your hear. Double letters do

not sound different from single letters, so transcribe the single sound
with a single IPA symbol.
bell is [bel], with only one I.
mess is [mes], with only one s.
Capltal letters: IPA symbols remain the same whether or not the
orthographic word being transcribed is capitalized.
Francis would be ['frrn sIs].
Bobwould be [bob].
Punctuatlon: Do not use apostrophe marks in IPA.
Pete's is [pits]
school's is [skulz]
Penmanshlp: Take care in writing the s5rmbols. Several IPA symbols
look similar and can be easily confused if written carelessly.
scluta Ia ] can look like ah [a-].
th[Z ] canlooklike irrIa].
"h
tJ I can look like capital S.
Write [1. ] with a looped stroke. Without a loop,
handwritten I I ] tends to look like the vertical line of the symbol for
apause t I I.
Accent Marks for Syllabic Stress
Stressing individual syllables is one of the major elements

that gives language its rhythm and flow. It is achieved by changing
the loudness, duration, pitch, and vowel choice of the syllable. Stress
must be carefully observed for language to be easily understood and
words correctly pronounced. In English there are primary, secondary
and unstressed syllables.
In IPA, small marks are used to show where the stress falls
within the word. The mark which indicates the primary stress is
placed above and before the syllable. In the following words, the
underlined syllable is the one with primary stress.
Iggson would transcribe as ['ri zen].

discuss would transcribe as [dls 'kas].
I
IPA for Singers
In some two-syllable words, there is equal primary stress.

lundmadewould be ['hand 'merd].
bookcasewould be ['buk 'keIs].
Words which have two or more syllables often include a
syllable with secondary stress. The secondary stress ts indicated with
the accent mark below the line and before the syllable. In the
following words, the underlined syllables are the ones with secondary
stress.
starcasewould be ['ster ,kets].
Jootballwould be ['fut ,bcl].

Unstressed syllables do not need an accent mark.
Unstressing in English is indicated by the weakening of the sound of
the vowel to a more neutral sound such as uh [e] or another
shortened vowel. In the following words, the underlined syllables are
unstressed.
d!fferwould transcribe as ['dl fer].

aloudwould transcribe as [e 'laud].
potsonwould transcribe as ['pcI zen]
One-syllable words do not need accent marks.
uroodwould be [wud].
tur.would be [tm].
Here is a simple trick that can make reading stress in
words easier for the beginning IPA student. Create a nonsense word
which captures only the accented rhythm of the word. For instance,
in the word about the second syllable has the strongest stress, so
you might say da-DUM. You can say the rhythm of any word by
indicating the primary stress with a louder sound, such as da-DUM,
DUM-dee, or dee-DUM-dee, without being concerned about the
pronunciation of the word. In the word ['ou pen] you would say
DUM-dee because the first syllable has the primary stress. Try this
in the following examples. Read aloud and indicate on the stress in
these words.
[ken'dakt] dee-DUM
[,kon'kerv] dee-DUM
['sta ft] DUM-dee
[m'fcr mel] dee-DUM-dee
[,or'fi kjo ,lert] dee-DUM-dee-dah
10
Chapter 2
Phonemes and Allophones
A phoneme [fou ,nim] is a siqgle language sound that is A phonene i.s anirtdiuidusl
represented by a single symbol, and is the smallest speech unit in language sourtd and an
allophone is ang slight
IPA. The phoneme [t], for example, indicates a sound of the t in the uqrlstion wtthtn that same
word team. sound.
Within each phoneme, however, there may be slight
variations of the pronunciation even though the identity of the
particular sound is still maintained. For example, the [t] m the word
team is produced with the tip of the tongue placed more forward in
the mouth than when saying the [t] in the word urart. Yet, tn both
cases the identity of the sound is maintained, allowing it to be easily
recognizable as [t], even though the sound of each [t] is slightly
different. These slight variations in the pronunciations of the same
sound are called allophones ['a le ,founz]. Foreign languages
include many such variations and stngers will learn these allophones
when they study the language.
Phonetic Transcriptions
When reading IPA transcriptions from different sources,

you will discover that authors rarely agree completely on IPA
spellings. Each author can use the IPA to suit any number of
individual purposes to accurately depict the general dialect, or a
-
specific regional dialect, or some other distinctive use. This author,
for example, has transcribed words specifically to help the singer. For Stresstng and unstressing will
-example, be jnlg di:scussed inChapter 6
the pronunciation of stressed fi, Isl and unstressea r?r [a]
' requires the retraction of the tongue, which is not conduclve to vocal
. freedom on sustained singing tones. So, instead, this author
transcrib." ,1. sounds as [sr] and [ar], which is much more
conducive to singing. This is further dlscussed in Chapter 6: The
Central Vowels.
Another special consideration for singers is the spelling of
syllabic consonants, which occurs in words fike lrttle, bottte, or able.
In these words, the le is heard as a syllabized or vowelized t. The I
actually becomes a syllable and is sustained as a vowel. However, on
long sustained notes, the syllabic t [!] cannot produce a substantial
t1
IPA for Singers
smging tone. Therefore, singers sing the word lrttle as lit-uttl ['L tel].
So the IPA transcription of le in this text is [el], though in most
speech IPA texts tt is spelled with a dot underneath: [!]
little ['L tol]

bottle ['bo tel]
Iiddle ['fi del]
settle ['se tal]
Conclusion
Remember, the most important value of IPA is that it

breaks down all the complex sounds of languages into individual
units, and attaches a symbol to each one. By naming and classi$ring
these isolated sounds, singers can more accurately thread together
the string of sounds they choose to sing. If there is a question about
the correct pronunciation, refer to a dictionary when doing the
exercises in this book.
Be sure to speak the words aloud. Linger over the sounds,
caress them, savour them, enJoy them. Feel the movements of your
tongue, lips and Jaw as you go from one sound to another. Listen
carefully to your pronunciation and articulation. These exercises will
provide the opportunity for you to become intimately aware of your
articulation. a must for singing diction.
t2
CIIAPTER 3
INTRODUCTION TO
vowErs
Classification of Speech Sounds
Every speech sound has distinctlve characteristics which

become the basis of language classification. The various sounds of
the IPA symbols are classified by the position and movements of the
articulators (the tongue, lips, jaw, and soft palate). See Flgure 8 to
familiarize yourself with the names of the parts of the oral cavity.
For the purpose of study and communication, lan-

guage sounds are grouped into two primary speech
classifications: vowels and consonants. Figure 8: The Oral Cauity and lts Arttculators
Cortsonants are speech sounds which have some

type of interference or intern:ption of the air stream
as it moves through the vocal tract (the throat, Nasal Cavity I{ard Palate
mouth, and nose). Consonants will be discussed
fully in Chapters 8-14. Soft Palate
Teeth
Vouels are speech sounds which are produced
without any major interruption of the air flow 3
4
through the vocal tract. In other words, the I
2 5
articulators do not touch. each other or cause any Tongue

obstruction in the air flow.
Jaw
Each time we move the tongue around in the L Tlp
mouth or change the position of the lips orJaw, we 2. Blade 4. Center
change the acoustic properties of the vocal tract. 3. FYont 5. Back
The slight differences in the resonance frequencies
of the vocal tract produce the sounds we identiS as
vowels.
13
IPA for Singers
Figure 9: Diogram oJ tongue positlons for certain uowels.
1
u
J
a
Classification of Vowels
A vowel is called a pure vowel when its sound can be

sustained without movement of the articulators or any change in the
quality of sound until the air flow ceases. In English, there are
sixteen pure vowel sounds. Vowels wfll be presented fully in Chapters
4 through 7.
A dtphthong is a vowel unit made up of two pure vowels
with the acoustic result being perceived as a single distinguishable
unit. In English there are six dlphthongs. Diphthongs are fully
discussed in Chapter 7.
Vowels are further grouped into classifications determined
by the positioning of the tongue, lips and jaw. These include
1) forward, back and central vowels, 2) close, mid or open vowels,
and 3) rounded or unrounded vowels.
For all vowels, the tongue remains the
and aw Figure
9too the positions of the tongue for vowels.
L4
Chapter 3
Figure 1 O : The Vowel Diagram
Forward
Close Central
Back Tte shape of the Vou:el Diagram

inFigure 70 can also be seenin
u Figure 9 bg obseruing the dark
Line connecting the dots which
U repre sent the high p otnt oJ the
Mid 33 arch ofthe tongtrc Jor each
uowel.
& c
Open a
o
The spacial relationship of vowels to each other can be

expiained by means of a diagram such as the one in Figure tO. Its
approximate present form came from Daniel Jones of University
College, London, and is known as the Vowel Diagram. It was
developed by superimposing X-ray images of the position of the
tongue when articulating various vowels. The Vowel Diagram, Figure
1O, indicates the position of the high point of the tongue durin$ the
articulation of each vowel.
On the Vowel Diagram, the terms Jortoard, central and
back refer to whether the arch of the tongue is forward, central or
back in the mouth. Close, mrd and openrefer to the width of the the
space between the tongue and the roof of the mouth. The closer the
tongue to the roof, the more close the vowel. The more open the
space and more dropped the jaw, the more open the vowel.
The terms rounding and unrounding refer to the position of
the lips. Most back vowels use rounded lips, while forward vowels are
produced with unrounded lips.
In Figures 9 and lO, ee [i] can be seen to be a close,

Jorusard vowel, which means that the high point of the arch of the
tongue is close to the roof of the mouth and forward in the mouth.
On the other hand, 6' [u] is considered a high back vowel because
the arch of the tongue is high and back in the mouth. Note that for
& [u] the lips are rounded. Ah [o] is a lout bock vowel because the
tongue is low in the mouth.
15
IPA for Singers
CITAPTER 4
F'ORUTARD VOWELS
Introduction to Fonrrard Vowels
The teethridge is also colled the The forward vowels are those produced with the arch of the
tongue;flonr.rard in the mout]r, near the teeth ridge or hard palate. For
ond the palate may be
sofi.
each forward vowel, the tip of the tongue touches the back of the
calledthe oelurn. bottom front teeth. The lips are in a neutral position, neither spread
nor rounded. The soft palate is raised, closing off the nasal passage.
The forward vowels of English are:
[i] as in best.
[r] as in bit.
[et] as in bait.
[e] as in bst.
[a] as in bst.
[a] as in Bqston (as spoken by New Englanders)
qnd in speech, vowels are d

are c the arch of the
tongue in the mouth. One difference might be noted.
In singing, the jaw is often lower than in speech. When the jaw
lowers, the tongue needs to move more forward in the mouth to
maintain the vowel integrity.
Another difference between speech and singing which

sometimes occurs, involves the position of the soft palate. In speech,
the soft palate is raised, closing the passageway to the nose, on all
sounds except m, n, and ng. It singing, however, the position of the
16
Chapter 4
soft palate is debated among pedagogues. Some teachers believe the

soft palate should be raised at all times. Other teachers believe it
should be raised some times and lowered at others. In the following
descripttons of vowels, the position of the soft palate follows the
speech position. The teacher or student may adJust the position as
desired for singing.
A. Plrc.ctice the sounds oJ theseforword. uoutels.
Read aloud the following words.
til tr] Contrasttlue sorutds of the

uarious forw ard rnweb. Become
beet bit familiar withthe IPA sgmbol
meet mitt which repre sents each sotutd.
geese give
keen king
deed did
team tin
tII [e]
bmetimes the wordget [get] ls
bit bet mispronounced git [grt]. Bqome
give get qt are oJthe srbtle differerrces
mid met tn sound between eachJorward
pin pen uowel.
bin Ben
tin ten
trl [e] [a]

bit bet bat
pin pen pan
sin send sand
mere merry marry
tin ten tan
Dphtlwngat [et] rs conststentlg
til trl [e] [a] used tn American English in
place of pwe [e] (see Clwpter 4
beet bit bet bat Exercises)
seat sit set sat
heed hid head had
til trl [er] [e] [e]

beet bit bait bet bat
meet mitt mate met mat
Dean din dane den Dan
L7
IPA for Singers
Whisper the following list of vowels several times.
Whisper ee til masil

tiI Whisper rlt trI
@s
(as rn bIt)
Whisper ay led (as inbait)
Whisper eh leI @s naeg
Whisper ii' lal (as rt Asfl
As you whisper, keep your throat and jaw as relaxed as

possible and be careful not to use a guttural attack. The tip of your
tongue should be gently touching the back of the bottom teeth for
each vowel sound.
trI
Whisper the list of vowels again. Notice that several
I changes will occur in the size and shape of your mouth as you
proceed down the list from [i] to [a]. First, your jaw progressively
lowers and the space between the tongue and palate becomes more
open as you read from [i] to [a]. For [i] the space between the
tongue and palate is quite small, no larger than the point of a pencil.
For [a] your jaw is dropped to a lower position and the space
between the tongue and the palate is more open.
lel
You might find it helpful to look in a mirror and see the
I
changes take place. The positions of the tongue, Jaw and lips during
the production of each of the forward vowels are also illustrated in
the diagrams on the left.
Also notice that for [i r er e], the side edges of the tongue
have lateral contact with the upper molars. For the fifth vowel [a],
the Jaw is dropped considerably and the tongue may or may not be
touching the back upper molars, depending upon your personal
leI articulation habits. For a more resonant singing tone, it is often
helpful to sing [a] without lateral contact of the tongue with the side
molars.
lal
I
18
Chapter 4
Transfer the ease and clarity of the whispered vowels into

speech.
After whlspering ee [i] several times, then speak ee [i] several

times on a pitch in your normal speaking range. Do not
change the vowel sound nor the physical shape of the vowel
when transferring from whispering to speaking. Maintain a
relaxed Jaw and throat. Repeat the same process for each
vowel.
Whisper ti i il, speak ti i il (as in beet)

Whisper [l t l], speak [t t t] (as in bft).
Whisper [et eI eI], speak [et et eI] (as in bait)
Whisper [e e e], speak [e e e] (as in bet).
Whisper le a al, speak [a a a] (as in bat).
In the IPA, there is a sixth forward vowel, t}:re bright ahfal,

which is rarely used in its pure form tn Engtish. In our language [a]
occurs primarily in the New England dialect (as in pahk the catv for
pork tle car ) or in diphthongs (as in the word by [baI]). The pure
bt'lght ah [a], however, is generously used in foreign languages. This
sound will be fully discussed in Chapter 4 Exercises.
19
I
IPA for Singers
Exercises The fonrard vowel [i] as in beet
o
I
Description
Tongue
The high point of the tongue is forward in the mouth, close to the
teeth ridge, which makes [i] a close, forward vowel. The tip of the
tongue touches the back of the bottom front teeth. The sides of
the tongue laterally touch the inside of the upper molars.
Jaw
Relaxed.
Ltps
Gently parted, unrounded.
Soft Palate
Raised, closing off the nasal passageway.
Common Problems
The substitution of [i] for [l] as ln keeng for kurg

Drawing the lips back into a smile. Although [i] can be produced
this way, it is not necessary. All that is necessary to produce the
clear [i] is the ralsed forward position of the tongue.
When [l] fotlows [i] in the same syllable, there is sometimes a
tendency to add uh [e]. FeeI becomesJee-uttl [fial].
20
Chapter 4
A. Practice the [i]sound.
Read aloud these sounds.
lbil tas inbe*, [bi], [bi], [bi], [bi] Mang oJ tle IPA sgnt&,ob Jor
consonants and the letters of ttue
inwd, [pi , [pi], [pi], [pi] Engltsh alphabet are exactlg the
lpil tas same. For instance, tlv IPA
sgmbl [b] and tte orthqraphic
libl, [ip], [ib], tipl letter b bothrepresent the sqme
sound. Thi:s urill be tnrc oJ all
tte ansonants ulhich are used
Read aloud these English words using [i]. inuowel etcercises.
lbitl, [bid], [bim]. [biz]

Caution: Be sure to pronounce these words with
the [i] sound as in beet and not [r] as in btt
tbit] = beet
tbidl = bead
[bim] = beam
[biz] = bees
Read aloud these nonsense words using [i].

lidl. [im], [ig], tifl
Read aloud these pairs of words.

Caution: Be careful not to drawl your words,
inserting uh [e] between [i] and []. ror
example, meal is tmil], not mee-uru [miel].
meat meal squeak squeal
- -
eat eel deem deal
- -
seize seal neat kneel
- -
wheat wheel heat heel
- -
2L
IPA for Singers
B. Transcrlbe these uords into lPAsymbols.
As gouread tlp IPA spelling oJ Speak each word aloud and then transcribe the sounds
these words aloud, be sure ta of the word into IPA symbols. Be sure that you
use the corectrtame oJthe transcribe the symbol for the sound that you hear, and
sgmboL lil is pronounced ee,
notlike tle prcnounl.
not the orthographic English letter that you are
accustomed to seeirg written. Each of these words uses
the [i] vowel.
1. me Lznil 12.neat
2. mean Lm i w] 13.knee
ListencareJullg to alltFe sounds 3. keys L,{q.izl 14.meat

of tle uords as Aouptonounce
them aloud. Notice tlwt piece 4. piece_lS.we
and peace are both pronowrced
[pis], andpecrs rs [piz]. Knee 5. peace 16. seed
hasasilentkandis
transcribed [ni]. 6. peas 17.leap
7. he 18. eve
8. feed-I9.be
9. beast 2o.peep-
lo.fleas 21.lea
ll.fleece 22.please
C. Transcribe these IPA sgmbols into English words.
1. titl -ent a. [sin]
2. [did] 7. tmi[
s. [kin] 8. [tim]
4. [hid] _e. tfti]
5. [tik] to. [krim]
22
Chapter 4
D. Ttansqihe th,es,e IPA symbols into orthographic spetlings.
These are nonsense words and you will have to be

ereative ln your spelling. For instanc., [,pi 'zit] migtrt
be spelled as peezeet
Rementber that accent marksJor

a primarA stressed sgllable are
aboue artdbeJore ttle stressd
syllable. ReJer to page 10
Chapter 2.
s. ['zi ,li] 7. ['ni ,pi]
4. [fim] _8. [,1i 'bi ,mi]
E. Vocalize using [i].
Give close attention to maintaining the integrity of the

vowel as you sing.
[hid] tre'a- [iv] eve [rid] read _

lbil te_ [siz] seas _ [bid] bead_
[slip] sleep [fliz] fleas_ [hip] heap_
[simd] -
seemed [pliz"l please_ [stip] steep_
[pik] peek_ tpi] pea _ [sin] scene_ [si] see

[kin] keen_ tkil key _ [nit] neat _ [ni] knee
lfitl feet- [fi] fee [wik] weak _ [wi] we
lhitl heat _ [hiI trce
[fit] feat [fi[] feel-

[kin] t<een_ [kil] keel_
[mit] meat [mil] meal
-
23
IPA for Singers
Exercises The fonrard vowel [r] as in bit
Description
Tongue
The high point of the tongue is forward in the mouth, close to the
teeth ridge, slightly lower than ee [i]. fne tip of the tongue
touches the back of the bottom teeth. The sides of the tongue
laterally touch the insides of the upper molars.
Jaw
Slightly lower for rh [l] tfran eelil.
Ltps
Unrounded, more open than eeli}.
Soft Palate
Common Problems
Some people tend to nasalize the rh [t] vowel when it precedes m,

n, and ng.
24
Chapter 4
A. Practice th'e ih [l] sound.
Read these sounds aloud.
lbrl (as hbit), [br], [br], [br], [br]

lptl tas inpick), [pr], [pr], [pr], [pr]
ttb], tryl, trbl, trpl
Read aloud to contrast the ee [i] and rtr [r] sounds.
[bi br] [pi pr] [bi br]

[rb ib] trp ipl trb ib]
Read aloud these English words using [i] and [t]
lbidl - [btd] [bit]- [brt]
lfit] - [frt] [biz] - ['br ,zr]

till - trll titl - trtl
Read aloud these nonsense words.
tigl - trsl lzil -lzrl

['i ,mi] - [\ ,mr] tdil - tdrl
Read aloud each following pair of words. Avoid nasality

in the second column where the [r] vowel precedes the
nasal consonants m, n, and ng.
[I] preceding [I] preceding

non-nasal consonants nasal consonants
mitten Minnie
differ dinner
rids rinse
tip tin
tift lint
mitt mint
wit winter
pit pinto
25
IPA for Singers
.|3. Transcdbe these usords into Pe symbols.
Speak each word aloud and then transcribe the sounds of

the word into IPA symbols. Be sure that you transcribe the
symbol for the sound you hear, and not the orthographic
letter that you are accustomed to seeing written. Each of
these words uses the [t] sound.
1. him Lhrr"J 6. hiq
Tle word utotruett. althortgh it 2. women_ 7, Lill

dresn't appear totwve anltj
sound, acfuaLg ltss twol
3. fin 8. flzz
['wr mrn].
4. mfll 9. dxl
Tlwtetter s is ofienpronourtced 5. kids lo. gigged-
z as in kids [sdz].
When tr anscrib ing the word

Billg ['br kl, be snre that Wudo
The following words use [i] and [t]. Transcrlbe into IPA
qrmbols.
rrot use the capttal letter B. A
capital letter des not hsue a
different sotnd fiom a lower 1.fleet_ 8. mid
case letter Tle sound oJbothb
andB ls [b]. 2.give- 9. Billy
How da Aoupronounce the g at
the end oJ words like Billy, lilg,
3.speak_ 10. lily
or hillg? &ne pople say hI
uhile others sag h]. Notice that 4. milk I l. receive_
this tert uses [r] Jor ttwfina|
unstressed y. 5. meek 12. believe_
Another unstressed E] occurs on 6. tlnt 13. hillv
tluefirst sgllable oJblieue and.
recefurc. Unstresslng ln our 7. sit 14. tease
larguage will be dlscussed in
Chapter 6.
C. T?anscribe th'e IPA sgmbols into English urords. Th,is exercise

uses both [i]and [t].
1. [hit] 5. flivl
z. [htt] 6. fltvl
s. [dip] z. [sip]
+. [drp] 8. [stp]
26
Chapter 4
D. Tronscribe the IPA sgmbols oJ thrse nonsense uords into

orthogr aphic spe I lings.
IJ gan haue di.lfrcl.tltg firding ttle

stress of a word, reJer to page
z. [fip] 5. [zlb] 1O Jor assistarrce.
s. ['i,kr] 6. [hr]
E, Vocalize using [i] and [r]. Ciue close attention to

maintafuting the integrifu oJ these ooutels as you sing.
Be aware of the vowel in each word. Know if it is [i] or [I]
tiI
trl
trl rl rI
thitl
-thrtl -tfitl -[frt]-
[sit] seat [srt] sit [hrz] his

[frn] fin [fit] feet [fil] feel
[rl] ill [ni] knee_ [kin] keen
[pit] peat- [ptn] pin- [nit] neat
[trz] tis [un] tin_ [frt] Iit _ [frn] fin

lhdl ta_ [hnt] tint _ [prt] pit _ [pm] pin
[srft] sift_ [srn] sin _ [brt] tit _ [brn] Uin
27
IPA for Singers
Exercises The pure vowel [e] as in ch.atotic

The diphthong [er] as in bo;it
Description
The mid, forward vowel [e], as in chaotic, is rarely used in its
pure form in American English, although it is occasionally found
in unstressed syllables.
In American English, the diphthong [et] is consistently used in
place of the pure [e] and may be considered an allophone of [e].
Tongue
For pure [e], the tip of the tongue touches the back of the bottom
teeth. The front of the tongue is raised and brought forward in
the mouth, elevated to a point close to the roof of the mouth but
lower than [t]. The sides of the tongue laterally touch the upper
side molars.
The diphthong [et] is created when the pure te] is released with
a quick upward movement of the tongue to [rI , thus creating the
diphthong.
Jaw
Slightly lower for [e] than for [r].
Lips
Unrounded.
Soft Palate
Raised, closing offthe nasal passageway.
28
Chapter 4
Common Problems
The substitution of diphthongal [er] for pure [e] in
loreign languages. In foreign languages, diphthongal
[el] must be avoided.
The lowering of the tongue to an eh [e] position, as in
bet, which creates a triphthong, a vowel with three
parts. Watt [welt] becomes [weert].
The insertion of uh [s] between [el] and [l], as when
the word sail sounds like say-uhl [ser el].
It may surprise many beginning singers that long d as in

came is pronounced as a diphthong by nearry every sptaker of
American English and that the pure [e] as tt chaottc is rarely used lny tlme tlere is a motsementoJ
tle tongue, lps, or jaw when
in English. To bring the diphthong [er] into your awareness, speak prdrrcing a wwel, a diphthorg
occu.rs,
the word aun aloud in slow motion while noticing what your tongue
does. Just before the m of atm, you should be a6le to feel the front
Diphfhonq is pronourrced
part of your tongue move forward and up from [e] to dii-trroni ['drf Ocn]
[r]. Ltsten to
the- v_owel change. This gliding tongue movement produces the
diphthong.
Native speakers of English so consistenily use diphthongal
[er] instead of pure [e] trrat many have difficulty distinguishing the
difference between the two sounds. They hear diphthongal
[er] as an
indivisible unit which they identifr as the pure vowel nead aloud
[e].
the following words slowly. Feel the gliding rrror"*..t or tne tongue
as it moves from [e] to [r] to produce the diphthong
[er].
g_im, cgme, bay, may, hgy, mgde, Kgte, blgme, flgme.
To isolate the pure [e] sound, try speaking the word hay
aloud in slow motion without moving the tongue to
[]. The word will
s_ound incomplete, strange, and unfamiliar to most Americans. If you
do not make a gliding movement with the tongue, you will be
producing a pure [e].
29
IPA for Singers
[et] in place of
Because most Americ:lns use dtphthongal
pure [e], many phoneticians conslder diphthongal [et] as an
alloptane of the phoneme [e]. The major reference book on American
pronunciation, f, Pronouncing Dicttonary g[ American English, by
Kenyon and Knott, and many other phonetic texts, choose to use the
phoneme [e] to represent the allophone [et].
TCId
This Kenyon and Knott
tame [term] [tem]

cake [kerk] [kek]
aim [em] [em]
' batt [bert] tbetl
There are two reasons why this manual uses the symbol
[et] instead of [e] in transcrlptions. First, the skillful pronunciation
of diphthongal [et] is crltlcal to styltstic singing in English. In
sustained melodies, words are prolonged and the diphthong is
slowed down. Stngers must make a choice about how to sing it. How
long should [e] be sustained? At what point does the tongue glide to
[I]? Shoutd the glide be quick or slow?
In bel canto or classical music, the pure [e] is sustained
as long as possible and the short qutck glide to the second vowel [t]
is put off until the very end. Popular music often approaches the
diphthong differently, slowlng down the gliding movement, giving
more duration to the second vowel [r], sometimes even changing it to
the more close ee [i]. See the following example:
6 4o
4
I ) rll
Classical singing: sing olrn le -----rml
Popular singing: sing aan le r ---------mI
or sing airn [er -----mI
or sing arrn lei -----mI
Secondly, while the English language uses diphthongal

[eI], Italian, French, German and other languages use only the pure
[e]. Singers who cannot isolate the pure [e] and unknowingly use
the diphthongal [et] mar their singing of these languages with a
heavy Arnerican accent. Conversely, forelgners who wtsh to speak or
sing English without an accent must learn to use the diphthongal
lerl.
A large part of singing arUstry is to have sufficient control
and flexibtlity to be able to make these arttculation differences in
diction.
30
Chapter 4
A. Practlce the dlphthong [er].
lberl [petl tber] [per]

letbl [erp] [erb] [erp]
Read aloud these paired words. In the second column of
words, avoid inserting uh [e] between [er] and [].
say sail
way wafl
ate ale
mate male
flake flail
skate scale
paid pale
Read aloud these English words using [er]
[terk] [me*] [dem] [e*]

Read aloud these nonsense words using [er]
[zerg] ['er ,vrt] [herk] [welm]

B. Practlce the pure [e].
Read aloud these English words using pure [e] in unstressed

syllables.
chgotic [ke 'o trk]
vacation [ve 'ker Jen]
Mondqy ['m,rn de]
ngtivity [ne 'tl ve tr]
fatality [fe'te le tl]
Read aloud these sounds using pure [e], not diphthongal
[el]. Do not permit your tongue to glide to [r].
lpel [pe] [be] [be]

ltel [te] [me] [me]
lel [e] [e] [e]
Read aloud these sounds to contrast pure [e] and
dtphthongal [eI].
lbe berl tbe berl [be ber]

lber be be berl [per pe pe per]
31
I IPA for Singers
f;
n
Read aloud these nonsense words using! pure

I
i [e].
i
['e ,me] [tes] [,le'ne] [,e'ti]

Read aloud these Italian words using pure [e].
venti [Ven ti] (tuentyl
chE [ke] (for because)
e lel (and
tre [tre] (trree)
Read aloud these German words using pure [e]
Ttw sgmbot [:] rratates tlwt a See lzetl Qakel

wwel sound. ts sustatnadpr a
lonoer duratian than one
lebt [le:pt] (from verb leben, to liue)
wtilwutthlz symbol [l]. ror er [e:r] (rre)
example, [efl q sustained Beet [be:t] (bed
bnger thcn [eJ.
Read aloud these French words usinglpure [e]
Ftench speakers and. singers
articulatb tfre [e] uowetiiththe 6ute le litl (ettte)
highpint oJthe torqtrc nearer et lel (and
the teethridoe than in Engllstu
To Americais, the [e] sounds 6t€ [e te] (summer)
almost like [11.?his ls an vider [vi de] (to empty)
exampb oJ an altophone o/[e].
C. Transcrlbe these words lnto IPA symbols.
Atl the words use [et].
1. bales Lbe,.lzT 9. bay

2. dale 1O. may
3. wait 11. Fay
4. weight 12. feign
5. ate 13. great
6. deign 14. grate
7. vall 15. grafl
8. fail 16. hail
32
Chapter 4
D. Transcrlbe these IPA symbols lnto Engltsh words. Each word

uses the [er] sound.
t. [kerp] 6. [per]
2. [merl] z. [ers]
s.[ger] 8. [vers]
a. [vem] 9. [serm]
5. [nerp] ro. [stert]
E. Transcrlbe these words lnto IPA s5rmbols.

The words lnclude [i r er].
1. seal 7. tld
2. reek 8. came
3. hay 9. kiss
4. Kate lO. see
5. teak 1 1. veal
6. tick 12. tail
F. Transcrlbe these IPA s5rmbols tnto Engllsh words. The words

contaln [i r er].
1.[lik] e. tdiml
2. [kk] to. [drm]
3. [erk] t t. [dert]
4.[mit] 12. [min]
5. [mtl 13. [mern]
6. [met] t+. [stid]
z. [prt] t5. [st*]
8. [perd] r6. [sterk]
33
IPA for Singers
G. Tranecrlbe the IPA symbols of these nonsense words lnto

orthographlc letters.
r. [Ik ,ner] 6. [BI'lid]

z. ['met di] z. [gretk]
3. [,fI'keI] 8. ['el ,stp I
+. ['vrt,fi] 9. ['at,met]
5. ['her ,ni] 10. ['ter ,ki]-
E. Vocallze on the forrard vowels [i], [I], and dlphthongal [et].
Give close attentlon to maintaining the integrity of these
vowels as you sing.
Stng these words whlch contain a diphthongal [eI].
Notice the movement of your tongue. Sustain the first part of
the diphthong [e] and then, onlg as gourelease the tane,
glide to the second vowel [t].
6
4
4() ) rll
aim [e---- rmI
may [me -+l
came[ke-- rml
bay [be --rl
-1_
tiI
trI
letl
tiI trI lerl tiI
lerl tiI trI lerl
llikl leek lhkl tictr llelkl lake

[rid] read lrtdl ria [retd] raid
[mit] meet [mtt] mitt [mert] mate
34
Chapter 4
I. Vocallze, clearly artlculatlng the pure [e] sounds.
Give close attention to maintaining the integrity of the vowel sounds as you sing. Do not use
diphtlangalletl.
lel lrl lel til

trl lel trl lel
lel til lel til
le
Italian che, tre, ven ti

[ke] ltrel [ven til
German See, er lebt Beet
fzel) lerl Ierpt] lberl
French e- te, vi der
le tel lvi del
35
IPA for Singers
Exercises The fonrard vowel [e] as ln bgt
Description
Tongue
For [e] the front of the tongue is arched, brought forward in the
mouth, and elevated to a point midway to the roof of the mouth,
lower than [et]. The tip touches the back of the bottom teeth. The
sides of the tongue touch the inside of the upper teeth.
Jaw
Slightly lower for [e] than for [el].
Ltps
Unrounded and more open for [e] ttran for [e].
Soft Palate
Common Pro-blems
The substitutlon of [I] for [e] as im gitfor geL

The substitution of [et] for [e] as in hard for head
The substitution of E [e] for [e] as in gas for guess.
The substitution of rir [S] for [e] as in Amuhnca for America.
The insertion of uh [e] between [e] and [l] as in u;ell (ueh-uh}.
36
Chapter 4
A. Practlce the [e] sound as ln bet.
tb€l [pe] tbel lpel

lepl [eb] [ep] lebl
Read aloud these words to clari$r the [e] sound

red
bed
desk
step
pest
left
death
check
Read aloud these word pairs to contrast [l] and [el.

tII [e]
bitl bell
pit pet
hid head
pin pen
tin ten
tint tent
lint lent
rinse rents
twin twenty
37
IPA for Singers
The substitution of [I] for [e] is a coutmon distortion which

tends to occur before t, m and n, such as git for get, timptfor tempt,
or pur for pen
Read aloud these paired words. Maintain [e] in both lists.
Do not use the [t] sound in words in the second list.
head hem
Ted ten, tenth
med men, meant
bed Ben
dead den, dent
ebb ember
Read aloud these paired words to contrast the [eI] and [e]
sounds.
lerl [e]
bait bet
mate met
sail sell
tail tell
taste test
gate get
mace mess
Pronouncing [et] is another common distortion of the

vowel sound [e], though in some words, it is considered an
acceptable variation. Avoid saying haid for head or laig for leg. Be
sure to use [e] in such words as egg, bed, measure, and pleasure.
Read aloud these paired words. Maintain [e] in both lists.
Do not use [eI] in the second list.
ledge leg
Ed egg
pet Peggy
tread treasure
pled pleasure
38
Chapter 4
Saying [a] as h bad in place of [e] is a third distortion

that is occasionally heard. The word yes, for example, may sound
something like yass, or guess like gas.
Read aloud these words to contrast [e] and [a] sounds.
lel [a]
yes yass
guess gas
Still another distortion is using fr [3] as in burr in place of

[e], as in pronounclng Americaas Amuh-nba.
Read aloud these words. Use [e], not the rir [{ sound (as
in burd.
very
American
where
library
Read aloud these nonsense words using [i t el e].

lhigl [hts] [herg] [hes]
['i ,ti] [1 ,tr] ['er ,ter] ['e ,te]
['li ,vi] ['h ,vr] ['ler ,ver] ['le ,ve]
[spiz] [sprz] [sperz] [spez]
B. Transcrlbe these words lnto IPA s5rmbols. All words use [e].
1. cent fse ntl 8. any

2. best 9.
3. kelp 1O. tempts
4. dents 1 1. blend
5. vet 12. bell
6. petty 13. met
7. penny 14. many
39
IPA for Singers
C. Transcrlbe these IPA symbols lnto Engltsh words.

Each word uses [e].
t. [sed] o. [end]
z. [fel] 7. [bled]
s. [help] e. [rnent]
Rememfur---copital letters qre +. [elf] g. [eft]
OOt ttSd, &r IPA transcriptions.
[bes] = gett. 5. [wed] to. [bes]
D. Transcrlbe these Engltsh words lnto IPA symbols. Thls

exerclse lncludes [i t el e].
1. mailed 11. felled

2. aimed 12. played
3. ebb 13. still
4. peak 14. sled
5. knell 15. knit
6. win 16. belt
7. wend 17. fade
8. way 18. fed
9. debt 19. fit
1O. date 2O. feet
E. Transcrlbe these IPA symbols lnto Engltsh words. These words

use [i I et e].
t. [gerp] 6. [der]
2. [mrU 7. [d€k]
3. [sis] s. [frst]
+. [verl] 9. [geIm]
5.[et] to. [step]
40
Chapter 4
F. Transcrlbe the IPA symbols of these nonsense words lnto

orthographlc spelllngs.
t. [,ge ti] a. ['ker ,ke]

z. ['wer ,be] 5. [fis]
3. [,le'ler] o. [,e'pet]
c. Vocallze ustng [i I eI e].

Pay close attention to malntaining the tntegrity of these
vowels as you sing.
til trI letl leI

til leI tiI leI
trI leI trI leI
lerl leI lerl leI
Ed egg led leg

pig peg till tell
bill bell tin ten
Min- nie many
4l
IPA for Singers
Exercises The fonpard vowel [a] as in bgt
Description
Tongue
The high point of the tongue ts forward in the mouth, slightly
lower than for [e]. fhe tip of the tongue touches the back of
the bottom teeth.The sides of the tongue may or may not
touch the upper back teeth depending upon the speaker's
personal articulation habit, but for fuller resonance in
sIxging, the sides of the tongue do not touch the upper back
teeth.
Because the space between the tongue and the roof of the
mouth is open, and the high point of the tongue is forward,
this vowel is called an open, forward vowel.
Jaw
Slightly lower for [a] than for [e].
Lips
Unrounded and more open than for [e].
Soft Palate
Raised, closing off the nasal passageway
Common Problems
The insertion of uft [e] after [e] before a ftnal consonant, as

h fifl-tljttfor hat.
Nasalizing [e] when it precedes m, n, or ng.
42
Chapter 4
A. Practlce the [a] sound as ln bat.
Read aloud these sounds and words.
lbal [pa] [ba] [pa]

lepl [ab] [ap] [eb]
lmadl [had] [blast] [drdl
Read aloud these words to contrast [e] and [e].

lel [a]
Ed add
pest past
men man
bed bad
said sad
then than
Read aloud these words to contrast [et] and [a].
lerl tel
aid add
cane can
plain plan
larne lamb
pain pan
Read aloud, being careful not to nasalize the vowel in the
second column. Both columns use [a].
sad Sam
cad can
mad man
dab damp
sag sang
hat hang
Read aloud these words, being careful not to tnsert uh [a]
between [a] and the final consonant. Man is not ma-uhn
[maen].
add man can
hat fan bad
Hal stamp trap
plaid cat hand 43
j
IPA for Singers
Read aloud these nonsense words using [i t eI a a].

lavl [*t] [bap] lzami [nert]
['i,di] [I dI] ['el ,get] ,ge] ['a ,ga]
['e
[,e'ma] ['ta,neI] ['ke ,mr] lmez) [ftk]

B. Transcrlbe lnto IPA s5rmbols. AII the words contatn [a].
Ttre ortttqroohic letter

sound of [ks].
x ho,s the 1. back I b:e *.] 9. lass
2. cat 1O. adds
3. dab lI. have
Inthe wordlannb, theb is 4. bad 12. ham
silent.
5. axe 13. lamb
6. pad 14. can't
An wostrople is rlr,t wrtt|.r;n tn 7. ant 15. hack
IPA:ion't ts [kant].
8. rat 16. black
C. Transcrlbe these IPA symbols lnto Engltsh words. Each of

these words contalns the [a] sound.
I laktl 5. [tanz]
2 lhaml o. [pak]
3 lratl z. ltr,kj
4 lbrenl 8. [stamp]
D. Transcrlbe these words lnto IPA symbols. These words lnclude
[irerea].
1. lack 11. gas

2. leek 12. lick
3. say 13. let
4. get 14. tab
5. hat 15. gave
6. pet 16. class
7. fat 17. seat
8. mane 18. mere
9. Phoenix 19. rack
1O. lily 2O. wreck
44
Chapter 4
E. Transcrlbe these IPA symbols lnto Engltsh words.
1. ['tek sls o. [sand]

2. ['tak srz] z. [blest]
3. lpestl s. [blend]
4. lpastl e. [skil
5. llerkl to. [Lv]
F. Transcrlbethe IPA symbols of these nonsense words lnto

l. ['a,nk] 4. t,fi ul
2. [nerfl 5. [ba,br]
s. ['fa,ter] 6. [I ,z]
E. Vocalize, uslng the forward vowels [i I eI € @].
Maintain the integrity of each vowel as you slng.
tll trl lerl le] tel
back fact lag

sag can man
plan bland ham
seen sinned send sand

bean bane bend banned
Ed add pest past
sad Sam pat pan
45
IPA for Singers
The forward vowel [a], found in

Exercises English diphthongs [ar] and [at]
as in the words bg and ltouse.
I
Description
Tongue
The high point of the tongue lies lower in the mouth for brtght att
[a] ttran for [a] as in bat, but higher than for the back dsrk ah
[a] as ln Jather. The tongue tip rests behind the back of the
bottom teeth. The space between the tongue and the roof of the
mouth is the most open of the forward vowels.
Jaw
low position.
Ltps
Open and unrounded.
Soft Palate
Common Problems
The substitution of [a] for forward, bt'tght ah [a].

The substitution of back dork ah [s] for forward bright ah [a].
46
Chapter 4
Many Americans have difficulty identi$ring and isolating

the brtght ah [a] because, in General American English, it is almost
always part of a diphthong and seldom used in isolation. In foreign
languages, however, bright ah [a) is frequently used. Singers who
perform songs in foreign languages must be able to identt$ and
produce this vowel sound.
. One rather dependable way for Americans to isolate the
brtght ah [a] is to prolong the diphthongal sound [ar] as tn by, higlL
migltt, and hL Speak aloud the word Ht!, drawling it out ln slow
motion speech. It will sound like: halu....ilu Feel the movement of the
tongue as it changes from ah [a] to rh []. Listen to the first part of
the diphthong and you will hear the bright ah [a].
ThLe bright ah [a] sound exists in two English diphthongs:
[al] as in HiJ and [au] as in house. A second example can help you
identify [a]. Say the word tause in slow motion. Start with ha and
slowly move your lips to oo as Xr ooze. Again you can hear the bt'tght
ah [a] as the first part of the diphthong.
In addition to findi:rg the forward bright ah [a] in English
diphthongs [at] and [aI, it can also be found in the dialects of those
in New England who say pafllc tle calv for park the car or pronounce
Boston as ['ba sten].
Americans tend to substitute two other vowel sounds for
[a]. fne first substitution is using [a], as tn baL instead of bright ah
[a]. lt occurs when the speaker brings the tongue too far up and
forward in the mouth. The second substitution is dark ah [o], as in
Jather which occurs when the speaker brings the tongue too far back
and down. The back, dnrk ah [o] wiU be fully discussed in the next
chapter.
These sounds are very similar. Only the slightest
movements of the tongue create the difference among these three
sounds. The following exercises will help you isolate the forward
brtgltt ch [a] sound and differentiate it from the lower dork ah loj
and the higher, forward vowel [a].
47
IPA for Singers
A. Practlce the brtght ah [a] sound.
lbal [pa] [ba] lpal

lapl [ab] [ap] labl
Read these words wlth a Southern drawl and tdentiff the

sound of [a]. E;ach brighto,hlal will be underlined.
H3[ya dotn'? (How are you doint?)
whah, ah'm fahn! (why, I'm fine!)

Ah'm goin. (I'm going.)
Read these phrases with a New England dialect. Each

bt'tght ah lal is underlined.
Pahk the cabr (Park the car)
In the bahn (In the barn)
In the gghden (In the garden)
Read aloud these sounds to contrast [a] and forward

brlght ahfal. Drop your Jaw to a low position. Feel the
forward and upward movement of the tongue as you go
from [a] to [a].
lal - [a] [a] - [a] [a] - [a] [a] - [e]

Read aloud these sounds to practice [a], tfre forward
brightahlal and the back dark oh [o]. Drop your jaw to a
low position for all three vowels. Feel the movement of
your tongue as you go from one vowel to another. The
tongue is ir: its highest position for [a]. It moves slightly
down for [a] and agatn s[ght]y down for [o].
lal [a] lol

lal [a] lol
lal [a] lo]
,4
lal laI lel

laI loI laI
48
Chapter 4
B. Pronounce these French words uslng brfght ah [a].
l. glace lglasl (translates as lce-cream)
2. tard ltarl (late)
3. passer lpa sel (to pass)
4. par lparl (by, through)
C. Pronounce these German words uslng brlght at [a].
1. Tat ltatl (deed)
2. das ldasl (that)
3. Hast lhastl (hurry)
4. garlz lgantsl (all)
D. Pronounce these Itallan words uslng bright ah [a].
1. caraffa [ka'rafrfa] (decanter) Be_carefulto use bright ah

|al Jor tte Jinal sgllables oJ
2. bacca lbak:kaI (Lrertal these ltalian toords. Do not
trse uh [e].
3. bimba lbim bal (little girD
4. landa ['lan da] (moor)
'{.
49
IPA for Singers
Chapter 4 Worksheet
Transcribe these words tnto IPA symbols.

These words contain all the forward vowels.
1. betray 21. cranberry

2. casket 22. flat
3. believe 23. fled
4. creek 24.blaze
5. grand 25. flack
6. impale 26. still

7. case 27. grade
8. gave 28. pansy
9. hat 29. black
lO. fleeced 3O. galley
11. headed 31. gasp

12. flabby 32. kelp
13. heat 33. pegged
14. crack 34. knack
I5. impel 35. key
16. steam 36. pin

17. tape 37. waft
18. impressive 38. rip
19. palate 39. lareaded
20. ta:d 44. malze
50
Chapter 4
Chapter 4 Worksheet
Transcribe these IPA symbols into English words.
t. ['ser knd] tt. [,pri 'sid]

z. ['ma hs] r2. ['ma ht]
s. ['perl ,fers] t3. ['pri frks]
+. ['ri ,ler] t+. [reft]
5. ['pen ,srv] 15. [sprer]
o. [u'[aps] t6. [snak]

z. [pnnt] tz. ['retn dr]
8. [n 'zrst] t8. [sper]
s. ['sen tn] to. [skert]
io. [pakt] 20. [tv]
51
#
IPA for Singers
CIIAPTER 5
BACKVOWELS
lntroduction to Back Vowels
Those vowels which are articulated with the high point of

the tongue in the back of the mouth are called the back urcrlels. Each
back vowel is produced with the tip of the tongue touching the back
of the bottom front teeth and a raised soft palate, closing off the
nasal passage. Four of the five back vowels are produced with
rounded lips. The back vowels of Engltsh are:
e [u] as in bsql
66 [u] as in bssk.
oh [ou] as tn bggt
aur [c] as tn bosgtu.
ah [o] as in !gx, or Jst]vx
52
Chapter 5
Pronunciations of Words
The standards for pronunciations are determined by the

pronunclations of leading Amerlcan speakers: national news
commentators, actors, educators, civic leaders and social leaders.
This speech is referred to as General American dialect.
In addition to General American dialect, there are regional
dialects. Large geographtcal regions have their own standard
pronunciatlons derived from the educated public in that region. The
result ts a lack of national consistency in the pronunclatlons of
words, especially words with back vowels. For example, the first
vowel in the words horrid,, lu,ater or ofice may be pronounced either
au., [c] or ah [o] depending upon the geographical baclrground of
the speaker.
horrtd ['hc nd] or ['ho nd]
water ['wc ta] or ['wo ta]
office ['c fis] or ['s frs]
A Pronouncing Dictionary q[ American English by Kenyon
and Knott* ls an excellent source for pronunctations. This dictionary
gives the IPA transcriptions of words as spoken in General American
dialect and also lists other standard pronunciations from regional
dialects, such as Eastern, Southern. or Southwestern.
If your pronunciations do not agree with the ones
suggested in this text, refer to A Pronouncing Dictionary of American
English to determine whether you are using a standard or non-
standard pronunciation. You can then determine for yourself
whether it would be appropriate to change your pronunciations. The
General American dialect is a good choice for classical slnging.
'{ Pronouncing Dictionary o:[American English, Kenyon and Knott,

C.& G. Merrlam Co., Publishers, Springfleld, Mass. Ol lOl
53
IPA for Singers
Practlce the soruds of the back vowels.
Read aloud these similar words to contrast the sounds of

the back vowels.
Contrast the somds oJtle

uqrlotts bock wwels. Bmme
luI luI lq{ lcI laI
Jamtltar wlthtlle IPA sgtnbol boot book boat bought box
whtch represents each sowrd..
pool pull pole Paul pot
Be espectallg carcJri to use
suffrclent rowldino of the ltos coo cook coat caught cot
/dlul [u] [or.l] i"klcl.' Sior:x soot sown saw sot
Fbr [ol tle llps are opert and.
tstrounded.
roux rook wrote wrought rot
Diphthongat [an] tt loot look loan law lot
conslstentlg used lrr
Ame&qt English tn place oJ
pure [o] (see Chaptq 5
Eterctses). In addition to the five back vowels listed above, there is
another sound, referred to as short o [D], which can be heard when
speakers with a British accent say the words not, got, lot, Iost. A
standard allophone of both atu [c] and ah [o], ttre short o [o] occurs
in Eastern dialect and occasionally in some other regional dialects.
As you read the llsts of back vowels, try to isolate the pure sounds of
aur [c] and ah [o] indicated by these words. The allophone [o] and
its relation to singing will be discussed on page 71.
Whisper the following list of vowels several times.

Whisper 6 [u] (as in boot]
Whisper d6 [u] (as in book)

Whisper oh [ott] (as in boat)
Whisper awlcl (as in tuugh[
Whisper ah [o] (as in..ifothed
54
Chapter 5
lul
As you whisper the list of vowels, notice that several
changes will occur in the size and shape of 5rour mouth as you
proceed down the list from [u] to [o]. YourJaw lowers progressively
and your lips open. Your lips have the greatest rounding for [u]. On
I
[u] ttre lips relax slightly, but remain rounded. nor [o] and [c] the
lips again become more rounded. Flnally, as you whisper [o], your
lips becorne unrounded and yourjaw is in its lowest position.
You might find it helpful to look in a mirror as you whisper lul
these vowels. Notice that the tip of the tongue touches the back of
the bottom front teeth for all back vowels while the other changes are
taking place. The positions of the tongue, jaw and lips dur'rng the
production of each of the back vowels are also illustrated in the
diagrams on the right.
I
Transfer the ease and clarity of the whispered
vowels into speech.
lol
After whispering oo [u] several times, then speak
oo [u] on a pitch in your normal speaking ra4ge.
Do not change the vowel sound nor the physical
shape of the vowel when transferring from
whispering to speaking. Maintain a relaxed Jaw
I
and throat. Repeat the same process for each
vowel.
whisper [u u u] speak [u u u] (as in bootl lcI

whisper [u u u] speak [u u u] (as in book)
whisper
whisper
[ou q.l ou]
[c c c]
speak
speak
[ou ou ou] (as in boa0
[c c c] (as itbough|
I
whisper [o o q] speak [q o o] (as in.father)
lql
I
55
J
IPA for Singers
Exercises The back vowel [u] as in boot
Description
Tongue
The high point of the tongue is in the back of the mouth close to
the soft palate. The tip of the tongue touches the back of the
bottom front teeth.
Jaw
Relaxed, slightly lowered.
Lips
Very rounded.
Soft Palate
Common Problems
Insufficient lip rounding. This ts a maJor problem with beginning

slngers. The [u] requlres the most rounded lips of all back
vowels.
The tnsertion of uh [e] between e [u] and [U, saying coo-uhl

[kuel] for cool.
56
Chapter 5
.d Practlce the [u] sound.
lbul [pul lbul lpul

lupl lubl lupl lubl
Read aloud these English words using [u].

ltuU [but] [kup] [sun]
[mun] [tun] [spun] [krun]
Read aloud these paired words. Do not insert uh [e]
between [u] and [l] tn the words in the second column.
who who'll
too tool
goof ghoul
stoop stool
pooch pool
kook cool
droop drool
food fool
spoon spool
roost rule
Read aloud these nonsense words using [u]

ltukl [fufl [vuz] [zuk]
57
J
IPA for Singers
B. Transcrlbe these words lnto IPA s5rmbols: Each word contalns

the [u] vowel.
1. boost Ibr*st 9. two

2. crude lO. group
3. soup 1 1. proof
4. cuckoo 12. fruit
5. Luke 13. noon
6. spoon 14. rude
7. blue 15. cool
8. too 16. prune
C. Transcrlbe these IPA symbols lnto Engllsh words.
t. [bun] o. [kluz]
z. [tum] z. [pul]
3. [uz] a. [brud]
+. [fud] e. [slu]
s.[drup] to. [mud]
D. Transcrlbe these IPA symbols of nonsense words lnto

t. ['ter ,ku] 4. ['me ,nup]
2. [plud] 5. ['lu ,vt]
3. [,vi'tum] 6. [,nr'ku]
58
Chapter 5
E. Voeallze uslng the [u] vowel. Be sure to use sufflclent

roundlng of your ltps. Thls vowel requlres the most llp roundtng
of all back vowels.
two tool rude ru1e

bloom you noon doom
spoon move food fool
too tool who

drew drool ooze
crew croon moon
59
IPA for Singers
Exercises The back vowel [u] as in book
Description
Tongue
The high potnt of the tongue ts in the back of the mouth close to
the soft palate. The tip of the tongue touches the back of the
bottom front teeth.
Jaw
Slighfly lower for [u] than for [u].
Llps
Rounded, but more lax than [u].
Soft Palate
Raised, closirsg off the nasal passageway
Common Problems
The substitution of [u] as in boot for [u]as in book.
The substttution of uh [a] for d6 [u].
The insertion of uh [e] or th [t] between [u] and a following

consonant. For enample, pronouncing the word put as [puet] or
lprtl.
60
Chapter 5
A. Practlce the [u] sound.
Read aloud these paired words contalning & [u] and

d6 [u] to claris the sound of [u].
lul lul
pool pull
fool full
cooed could
stoop stood
Luke look
boost bush
goo good
who'd hood
wooed wood
Read aloud these paired words to contrast the sound of d6

[u] and uh [,r].
lul [,r]
book buck Manu Americans are not aware
of tltelUl sound intheir
hood hud lanouaoe orrd often subs I rl ute
othbr riwels; uir [a] or& [u].
took tuck
look luck
put putt
tbul tpul tbul lptl

tupl [ub] trrpl lubl
Read aloud tlese English words using [u].

lwutl [hufl [bruk] [gud]
Read aloud these nonsense words using [u].

[lud] [wut] [U,pet] [plud]
61
IPA for Singers
B. Transcrlbe these words lnto IPA symbols. Each word uses

the [u] vowel.
1. bull I bv4] 6. took

2. put 7. hook
3. could 8. book
4. wolf 9. hood
5. foot 1O. wool
C. Transcrlbe these words lnto IPA symbols. These words

contaln [u] and [u] vowels.
1. flew 6. Luke
2. full 7. look
3. stool 8. wooed
4. stood 9. wood
5. boom 1O. mood
D. Transcrlbe these IPA symbols uslng [u] and [u] tnto

Engltsh words.
t. [pruv] 5. [puU
z. [kuk] 6. [tuts]
3. [sun] z. [buk]
4.[bu[ 8. [gruv]
E. Transcrlbe these IPA symbols of nonsense words lnto

r. [uus] 3. tlupl
2. [bund] q.lwzl
62
Chapter 5
F. Vocallze uslng [u] and [u] vowels.
[ful] fool [tuI] ruu

[kud] cooed tkt d] could
lhudl who'd [hud] hood
[wulfl wolf [huk] hook [stud] stood

lbull ruu [wul] wool [fut] foot
63
IPA for Singers
The pure back vowel [o] as in pillout

Exercises and the diphthong [ou] as in boat
Description
The pure [o] vowel as in pillous is rarely used in American

English, although it may occasionally be found in unstressed
syllables.
In American English diphthongal [ou] is consistently used in
place of pure [o] and may be considered an allophone of [o].
Tongue
For pure [o], ttre back of the tongue is elevated toward the mid-
back roof of the mouth, but less raised than for [u]. rne tip of the
tongue touches the bottom front teeth.
For diphthongal [or.l], as the pure [o] is released there is a
greater rounding of the lips and a quick upward movement of the
back of the tongue for the glide [u], thus creating the diphthong.
Jaw
Slightly lower for [o] than for [u].
Lips
Rounded.
Soft Palate
64
Chapter 5
Common Problems
Insufficlent lip rounding.
The substitution of diphthongal [ou] ln foreign languages for pure [o]
The lnsertion of uh [e] after [u] when followed by a consonant,

partlcularly [n] and fll. eonebecomes bo-ufn [bou en].
Pulling the hfgh point of the tongue too far toward the center of the
mouth with the result that [qil sounds almost llke uh [rr]. the word
comb sounds something like come.
In Chapter 4, there was a discussion of the diphthong [er]. fire same

principles apply to [ou].
To bring the production of the diphthong [orr] into your awareness,

speak the word hoe aloud i:e slow motion to notice the movement of your ltps
and tongue. You should be able to tell that your lips become more rounded as
the sound progresses from [o] to [u]. The back of the tongue also moves
upward from [o]. You may be less conscious of thls movement, because it is so
slight. It is easily seen ln X-ray images.
Native speakers of English so conslstently use diphthongal [ou]
instead of pure [o] tfrat many have difficulty distinguishing the difference
between the two sounds. Ttrey hear diphthongal [ou] as an indivisible unit
which they ldentify as the pure vowel [o]. nead aloud these words. Feel the lip
rounding and the gltding movement of the tongue whtch occurs from [o] to [u]
to produce the diphthong [ou].
cgde, known, hqme, whqle, ng, nqse, nqte.
To tsolate the pure [o] sound try speaking the word hoe in slow
motion uttlautmoving the lips or tongue. The word will sound incomplete and
strange to an American. Without the gliding movement, you will produce a
pure [o].
Because of the consistent use of diphthongal [ou] in place of pure

[o] by most Americans, many phoneticians consider [ou] as an attoptwre of
the phoneme [o]. Kenyon and Knott in A Pronouncing Dictlonarv of American
English, for instance, choose to use the symbol [o] to represent [an].
Thistert Kenyon and Knott
home [houm] [hom]
boat [bout] tbotl
taupe [toup] [top]
bone [boun] [bon]
65
I
:
IPA for Singers
Thts manual, The IPA for Singers, uses the symbol [otl]
Irstead of [o] in transcrlbtng words for two reasons. First, foreign
languages use [o] and do not use diphthongal [ou]. Singers must learn
to differentiate between the two sounds. Secondly, in English, the way a
stnger handles the diphthong is important for stylistic singing.
Just like the diphthong [eI], when s,ngtng [ott] in bel canto or
classlcal muslc, the pure [o] ts sustained until the sound ls released. At
that moment a qutck, short gltde to [u] is made. Popular music often
approaches the diphthong differently, lengthening the gliding
movement, giving more duration to the second vowel [u].
4
6 4() I ) i
In classical music stng the word go lgo uI
sing the word home lho uml
In popular music you may sing go lgou I
you may sing home lhou ml
.{. Practlce the dtphthongat [ou] sound.
Read aloud these sounds
tboul [pq{ tboul lpottl

loubl [oup] loubl loupl
[ou]. eay attention to the

Read aloud these words contair:ing
sound of the diphthong [qr] being sure to use adequate lip
rounding.
hoe dough
row door
know sew
oh tote
toe own
Read aloud these words to contrast [ou] and uh [,r]
[ou] [,r]
comb come
mode mud
known none
66 goal gull
Chapter 5
Read aloud these paired words to avoid the insertion of

uh [s] between [ou] and final consonant. Both lists use
the vowel [ou].
Joe Joan
blow blown
show shown
foe phone
woe won't
boat bowl
go goal
show shoal
Read aloud these nonsense words using [ou].
[kouz] [mouk] [goup]

B. Practlce these pure [o] sounds.
Read aloud these sounds
lpol [bo] [po] lbol

ltol [do] [to] ldol
lol [o] [o] loI
English words occasionally use pure [o] in unstressed

syllables. Read aloud these words.
obey [o'beI]
pillow ['pl lo]
hollow ['ho 1o]
potato [pe 'ter to]
proceed [pro 'sid]
Read aloud these sounds to contrast the pronunciation of
pure [o] and diphthongal [or.l].
[bou pou] [bou pon] [bo po] [bo po]

[bou bo bo bo bou]
[pou po po po pou]
Read aloud these nonsense words using pure [o]
['to ,to] [ov] [zod] [sog]

Read aloud these French words using pure [o].
a. beau [bo] (beautiful)

b. r6le [rol] (role)
c. galop [ga lo] (gatlop)
d. haut [o] (high)
ot
IPA for Singers
Read aloud these German words using pure [o].

a. Boot [bo:t] (boat)
b. Sohn [zoln] (son)
c. wo [vo:] (where)
d. Mond [mo:nt] (moon)
Read aloud these Italian words usin$ pure [o].

a. morale [mo 'ra le] (morale)
b. fonte ['fon te] (fountain)
c. bocca ['bok:ka] (mouth)
d. odorose [o do 'ro ze] (fragrant)
c. Transcrlbe these Engltsh words tnto IPA symbols. All words

use [w].
1. goes ovzT 6. foe

2. own 7. moat
3. comb 8. goat
4.lone 9. load
5. node 1O. float
D. Transcrlbe these IPA symbols lnto Engltsh words. Each of

these words uses [ou].
1. [nouz] +. [moud]
z. [souks] 5. ['moust lt]
3. [mould] _ o. [boust]
E. Transcrlbe these words lnto IPA s5rmbols. These words contain

[u], [u], and [q.{.
1. cope 6. no
2. cool 7. noon
3. coat 8. nook
4. cook 9. whole
5. known 1O. scroll
t
68
Chapter 5
F. Transcribe these IPA symbols lnto Engltsh words. These words

use [u], [u], and [ou].
1. [kud] 6. [wud]
2.[oup] 7. [bn t]
3. [un] 8. [tut]
+. [stoun] g. [koust]
5. [uz] 10. [ful]
G. Transcrlbe these IPA symbols of nonsense words lnto
t. ['otr ,nu] +. ['zotr ,pou]

2. [,lu'pou] 5. ['lorr ,du]
3. [fong] o. [,mu'dotr]
H. Vocallze, artlculatlng the back vowels [u], [u] and [an] clearly
and easlly.
6 4o
4
l) t II
Slng: hope lho upI

cold lko uldl
bone lbo unI
luI
luI
lottl
luI luI loul luI
loul luI luI loul
[blou] blow [bloun] blown [soun] sown

[grou] grow [groun] grown [stoun] stone
[oufl oaf [flout] float [curl]
coal
[tou] toe [toun] tone [moun] moan
[ou] low [oun] loan [moul] mole
69
IPA for Singers
Exercises The back vowel [c] as 7n au)e
Description
Tongue
The back of the tongue is slightly raised toward the roof of the
mouth, but not as high as for [o]. The tip of the tongue touches
the back of the bottom front teeth.
Jaw
Lower for [c] than for [o].
Ltps
Rounded.
Soft Palate
Common Problems
Inadequate lowering of theJaw.
Inadequate lip rounding.
The substitution of oh [ou] for ato [c].
The substitution of ah [o] for aur [c].
The au; [c] sound confuses many students. They fail to

discriminate ants [c] from the sounds immediately above and
below on the vowel chart, the back vowels oh [ou] and ah [o].
rhe [c] vowel is ill-formed because of inadequate lip rounding or
70 Jaw lowering and results in unclear production of the sound.
Chapter 5
To further complicate the matter, some English words have

more than one acceptable pronunciation. Depending on the dialect befng
used, words such as horrid, otfice, urash, or forest may be correctly
pronounced vdth atu [c], ah [o] or with an allophone of au; [c], called the
short o [o].
The short o [o] is a sound heard i:r a British accent, ln words

like got, rot,lot, and odd Tlrpical spellings of the Brttish shorto [o] are o
followed by a single consonant tn a monosyllable, as in not, and by two or
more consonants, as in doll or sorrorr. The short o [o] can be found on the
Vowel Dtagram between au., [c] and ah [s]. See Figure 11.
'The short o is not universally used in
[o]
America. The maJority of American speakers use aut, [c]
or ah[o] for these words. For this reason, short o [o] ts Flgure 1 1: Vowel Diagram, sfrr.wrul.g tle
considered an allophone of both aur [c] and ah [o]. ptacenentoJshort o [D].
A maJor characteristic of short o [o] is its

short duration. Speak these words as if you have a Forward
British accent and notlce how very brief the vowel CIose
sound is: not, got, lot, and odd. In singing, as vowel Central
sounds are elongated for melodic purposes, the short o
Back
[o] loses lts characteristic shortness and tends to
change to aur [c] or oh [o]. For this reason, this text
does not use short o in transcriptions.
Mid
It is advisable for the teacher to pronounce
the word aloud, particularly for testing purposes, so
the students can reliably transcribe that pronunclation
into IPA symbols. To depend upon a student's personal c
dialect would make it dtfftcult for a teacher to know D
Open
whether a mistaken IPA spelling is the result of mis- o
learning or of an alternate pronunciation choice.
Standard pronunciations can be researched
in A Pronouncing Dictionary of American English. The
choices in this text follow the General American dialect.
,{. Practlce the [c] sound.
lpcl [pc] tbcl tbcl

lcbl [cb] [cp] [cp]
Read aloud these words, all of which use [c]. Be sure to adequatelg drop
Aour J aw and rortrtd gour lps.
4thors, yAgning, causlng, chAlk, distrggght, cqst, grchid, all, lnsuffrctentlp roundtrq is a
gwed, wrqng. mqjor Jatling oJ begirtning
singers.
7L
IPA for Singers
Read aloud these words to contrast [ou] ' [c], and ah [o] '
Each of these pronunciatlons is considered standard'
toul tcl [o]
coat caught cot
tote taught tot

wrote wrought rot
ode awed odd
pose pause pa's
most moss ma's
Read aloud these words. The standard pronunciations are

given for each word. What is your pronunciation habit?
au [c] ah [o]
Syllables splled tlith w-a-r
are sometimes oronol.nced wa.r lwcrl
usithorw [cI aria sometimes warn
urtth ah fol.
[wcrn]
warp lwcrpl
wart [wcrt]
warrant [wc rent] [wo ront]
Warren [wc ran] [wo ren]
warrior [wc n er] [wo n er]
warantee ['wc ren 'ti] ['wc ron 'ti]
Read aloud these nonsense words using [u u ou c]'

ltupl tnryl [tous] [tcz]
llufl [lufl [louz] tlckl
B. Transcrlbe these words lnto IPA symbols. Use [c] for each of
these words.
1. saw L s3l 6. horn

2. vault 7. bought
3. cough 8. call
4. sought 9. taught
5. ball 1O. stall
C. Transcrlbe the IPA symbols lnto Engltsh.
All the words use [c].
t. [1c] 5. [rc ]
z.lpczl 6. ['kc fin]-
3. [tck] z. [b fIs]
72 +.[ct] 8. [sclt]
Chapter 5
D. Transcrlbe these words lnto IPA s5rmbols. Thls exerclse

lncludes [u u ou c].
1. crook 6. loose
2. fault 7. roam
3. spoon 8. wall
4. gnaw 9. sew
5. flow 1O. flaw
E. Transcrlbe the IPA s5rmbols lnto Engltsh words. Thls exerclse
lncludes [u u ou c].
t. [houm] o. [brcd]
z. [up] z. [groun]
s. [cft] s. [rud]
a. [luk] g. [bul]
5. [tcl] to. [oufl
F. Transcrlbe these IPA s5rmbols of nonsense words lnto
t. [pcm] 4. [,ver'notr]
2. [,rc 'gun] 5. ['stotr ,lotr]
3. ['lc ,mi] 6. ['le ,porr]_
G. Vocallze uslng back vowels. Malntaln vowel lntegrlty as you
slng.
lul [u] lql] lcl

lcl loul lul luI
loul
lcl
[kcz] cause [kct] caught [kcst] cost

[wcr] war Iswcrm] swarrn [kwcrt] quart
[fcn] fawn [cn] tawn [cd] laud Th"Ul is srlent inwatk
and.talk.
[crd] lor0 [wck] walk [tck] tatt
73
IPA for Singers
Exercises The back vowel [o] as in ah or Jgther
Description
Tongue
The body of the tongue ls in a low position for this open back
vowel. The tip of ttre tongue touches the back of the bottom teeth.
Jaw
Relaxed and dropped to its lowest position.
Ltps
Open, oval position, neither rounded nor spread horizontally into
a smile.
Soft Palate
Common Problems
Insufficient lowering of the jaw.
Spreading the lips, as in a grin.
Retracting the body of the tongue. Bunching up the tongue by
pulling the tip back into the center of the mouth.
The substitution of bright oh [a] for [o].
The substitution of [c] for [a].
ants
The substitution of uh [a] for [o].

The substitution of d [a] for [o].
The substitutlon of the allophone slart o [o] for [o]. the use of
this variant ts acceptable providing it does not impair clarity.
74
Chapter 5
There are two tmportant arHculation cautions for the vowel

ah [o]. One is to avoid retracting the body of the tongue or pulling
the tip of the tongue back away from the back of the bottom front
teeth. When the tongue is bunched up tn the center of the mouth,
the ah [o] vowel becomes distorted.
The other caution is to keep the Jaw adequately relaxed
and lowered. Many speakers and singers hold their teeth too close
together, almost ln a clenched posltion. Because of long-standing
contrary habits, some students will feel that they are excessively
opening the mouth when they produce [o] with a sufficiently
droppedJaw.
The tight tongue and Jaw are conditions that adversely
affect the enunciation clarity of oh [o]. Unfortunately, when singers
seek a clearer understanding of the ah [a] sound, they discover that
It is more difficult to find a key word which has a consistent
pronunciation for ah [a] than for any other English vowel. Even the
word Jather which is commonly used ln diction texts. has differir:g
pronunclatlons. For many people the exclamation AhI becomes a
good guide.
A. fo;ctice the [o] sound.
lbol [po] [bo] [po]

lobl [op] [ob] [op] Be careJul r:r:i_t to ryasalizell,ln
lmol [mo] [mo] [mo] tle sg\able [mo] .
Read aloud these words containing ah [o].
ah gption
gbstinate colgssal
sdd prgmpt
yscht Jsct
tAxic apposite
bOx cObbler
squash blonde
gminous mgb
Jqb exen
75
IPA for Singers
Read aloud these words whtch use both [a] and [c].
Some of the following words are pronounced in more than
one way. The IPA transcriptions beside the words indicate
their standard pronunciations. Read across the page, say-
ing the words with both of their optional pronunciations.
Do you use ah [o] or au, [c] for these words in your nor-
mal dialect?
lo] lcI
horrid ['ho rrd] ['hc rrd]
office ['o fis] ['c fis]
doll ldoll ldcll
sorTow ['so ro] ['sc ro]
wash lwoJI lwcJl
coffee ['ko fi] ['kc fi]
If you find that there are inconsistencies in your pronunci-
ations in the preceding list, you might want to check A Pronouncing
Dictionarv of American English to be sure that vou are usino stan-
dard pronunciations. If you heard a variation from the oh [o] and
au: fcl pronunciations suggested above, it may be that you are using
the alternate allophone called the short o [ol, which was discussed
previously in the exercise for oru [c].
Read aloud the following words using the General

American ah [o] on each word.The substitution of the
forward bright ofr [a] for the back afr [A] occurs
frequently ln words in standard New England dialect, but
it is preferable to use General American speech for
classical shging.
farm lforml
barn tboml
car tkorl
calm lkoml
alms [omz]
park tporkl
76
Chapter 5
Read these words aloud. Read across the page to contrast

the sounds of oh [o], aur [c] and oh [a.l]. Clartff each
sound by being precise inyour arUculaUon.
Caution: Many speakers mts-articulate the open

[o] bV closing and rounding which results in the
vowel [c] or even the more close [ou]. rnis
distortion occurs I: words where a is followed by
an r. Be careful that the word star does not
become store, and that heart does not become
horL
lo] lcI lq{

ah awe owe
star stall stone
far for four
Don dawn dote
box bought boat
car cough coat
top taught tote
lard lord load
ardor order odor
stark stork stoke
Read aloud these sounds. Start with a fully dropped,

relaxed Jaw for ah [o]. neel the movements of the lips, Jaw
and tongue as you go from one sound to the next.
[ocq.lco]
[ocq.lco]
[oculco]
Read aloud these words to contrast [g] and uh [l]. ee
sure to lower your Jaw suffictently, so that you do not
substitute uh [,r] for [o].
lol [,r]
rot rut
balm bum
fond fund
shock shuck
lock luck
psalm some
77
IPA for Singers
Some people brlng the tongue lnto a position which is too

forward and raised when saytng [o]. This results in a sound some-
thing like E [a] (as rn bat). The word stop begtns to sound like stap
[stap]. Clarify the difference in articulation between the two open
vowels [O] and [a] by alternately saying the two vowels. Feel the up
and down movement of the tongue as you read aloud [a o a o e o].
Keep yourJaw lowered and the tongue down for the vowel [o] in
words like: alms, are, ark, arboc ottet ox, ar:d opposite.
Injoreignlanguages it ts tmpor' Read aloud these vowel sounds, alternating between

tantto contrast tle sot.nd.of tlw brigtltand dark alu Feel the movement of the tongue as it
openJorw ard. brglt ah Ja)- and moves more forward and up for bright ah lal and down
the open back dark oh [O.1.
and back for dark ah [o]. Keep yourJaw dropped to a low,
relaxed position for both vowels.
[aoaoa]
[aoaoa]
[aoaoa]
B. Transcrlbe these words lnto IPA symbols. Each word uses [o].
The I is stlent irr catrn [kom],

1. calm tk a)n l 10. fond
batm, palmandpsalm, 2. balm 11. lock
3. quality 12. psalm
4. palm 13. top
5.pop 14. rot
6. stop 15. ah
7. god 16. spots
8. mop 17. barn
9. mom 18. Don
t. [kop] s. [hord]
z. [kod] 4. thokl
78
Chapter 5
D. Transcrlbe these IPA symbols of nonsense words lnto

orthographlc spelltngs.
t. ['lo Iu] 3. [,go'gun]

2. [,zo'bo] 4. ['di,do]
E. Vocallze uslng back vowels.
lsl loul lo] loul

lo] lcI [o] lcI
loul
lcI
lol
[oud] ode [cd] awed lodl odd

[tout] tote [tct] taught [tot] tot
[nout] note [nct] naught [not] not
[rout] wrote [rct] wrought [rot] rot
[bout] uoat [bct] bought [boks] box
luI luI loul lcI lo]

boot book boat bought box
loot look loan law lot
two took tore taught top
79
IPA for Singers
Ttanscribe these words irrto IPA symbols.

These words use backvowels.
1. pork 16. rogue
2. mall 17. spoon
3. swap 18. stock
4. star 19. stood
5. hook 2O. caught
6. doe 21. pothole

7. bond 22. spore
8. monsoon 23. prose
9. got 24. hook
lO. stomp 25. tall
11. sod 26. cross
12. photo 27. store

13. spot 28. moose
14. gold 29. pull
15. ore 3O. call
t.[dcg] rr. [trus]

z. [drc] tz. [wt]
s. [wont] t3. [huz]
a. [mut] t+. [roud]
5. ['gou n] t5. [rouU
o. [sours] t6. [ruU

z. [tut] 17. [rok]
8. [mop] ra. [cft]

e. [mu,ry] te. [mcrg]
to. [mcs] 20. [out]
80
Chapter 5
Chapter 5 Worksheet2
Transcribe these words tnto IPA symbols.

These words use backvowels.
1. spool 16. lost

2.posy 17. low
3. pawed 18. soft
4. trough 19. golf
5. oboe 2O. cork
6. flu 21. war

7. taut 22. wart
8. grotto 23. warp
9. waltz 24. carp
1O. frost 25. cord
11. blown 26. squall

12. malt 27. tarp
13. far 28. form
14. for 29. farm
15. fore 3O. too
t. [gud] tt. [zum]

2. [spo] tz.tplopl
3. [mour] rs. [bct]
a. [noun] 14. [stoun]
5. [k k] t5. [hu]
6. [bcs] to. [tuk]

z. [groun] tz. [koum]
8. [codl 18. [smok]
o. [wm] Ie. [krrd]
10. [blum] zo. [kruks]
81
IPA for Singers
Transcribe these words into IPA symbols.

These words contain forward and back vowels.
1. Pluto 16. plutonic
2. pussyfoot 17. obese
3. evolve 18. brook

4. fought 19. loop
5. robin 2O. caustic
6. walk 21. story

7. roolrde 22. Oz
8. truly 23. bullet
9. scolded 24. clause
1O. gnome 25. pulpit
11. garhc 26. scald

12. manhood 27. scoot
13. plaudit 28. rocket
14. caulk 29. cruise
15. doomsday 3O. causeway
Transcribe these IPA symbols into English words
t. [skroul] tt. [tur]

2. ['bo dr] t2. [brud]
3. [bn,set] t3. [pmlst]
+. [gus] t+. [brum]
5. ['lu lt] r5. ['hou h]
6. ['ho lt] t6. ['so hd]

z. ['tor dr] tz. [hut]
8. ['blor.l trd] r8. ['kou zr]
e.[cfl te. [ruk]
to. [bum] 20. [smouk]
82
CIIAPTER 6
CENTRALVOWEIS
lntroduction to Central Vowels
The central vowels in English are those vowels which are

produced with the high point of the tongue centrally located in the
mouth. Although there are several IPA symbols for the central vowels,
they represent only two basic sounds: uh as tn up and fr as in bun:
Each central vowel has a specific relationship to stress within a word:
therefore, before listing the symbols for the central vowels, this chapter
wfll present a discussion of stressing and unstressing in English.
Stresslng and Unstressing
Stressing and unstressing in the English language is a

phenomenon which influences both the pronunciation of the word and
its IPA transcription. The term stress refers to the varying degrees of
emphasis in a word. Stress occurs when a speaker changes the
loudness, duration or pitch of a particular syllable. In unstressed
syllables, the degree of emphasis is changed by altering the vowel itself.
There are three levels of stress in English words. Primary
stress refers to the syllable having the strongest emphasis within a
word; secordarg stress refers to a syllable with medium emphasis; and
unstressrng refers to the syllable with the shortest and weakest stress.
83
IPA for Singers
Ustng the word secretarg ['se krs ,te rI] as zul example,
we would find primary stress on the first syllable, Sgcretarg;
secondary stress on the third syllable, secretgry; and unstressing on
the remaining syllables, secreta4J.
Primary and secondary stressed syllables are indicated in
IPA by small marks located before the syllable. The word handsau
would be written ['hand ,sc] wtth the primary stress mark aboue
and bejore the syllable and the secondary stress mark below and
beJore the syllable. Refer to Chapter 2, Helpful Hints for Using IPA,
for further discussion for reading stress ilr IPA
accasionallg, tlw pure [e] as in In unstressed syllables, the American speaker actually
chaolig [kE 'o Uk] a:na tfre changes the stressed vowel to an indistinct, brief uh or ih. (The
pwe lol as inthe wordpillout
symbol for the brief uh sound is [e], known as schroa.) For example,
[U fol are used.in unslressed
sgllables. Howersei this ls rare. the second syllable of the word breakJast ['brek ,fest] is pronounced
with schura [e]. It is not pronounced with the sound of E [a] as in
Jast, break:/ast ['brek ,fast]. An example of using the unstressed rh
[t] would be in the word added['e dtd].
If an unstressed vowel ls incolTectly stressed, the excessive
stressing wfll not only change the rhythm of the word, it w.ill typically
change the vowel back to its stressed sound and will distort the
pronunciation of the word, as happens when incorrectly stressing
the first syllable of p-lice ['pou lis] tnstead of stressing the second
syllable po-lice [ps'lis] .
It is lmportant to pay close attention to the stressing and
unstressing of a word in singing, as it is in speech. Unstressed
syllables ln music often have great loudness and long duratlon,
resulting in a tendency to sing the stressed version of the vowel
sound. Being aware of the stresstng and unstressing of a word will
help you fir:d the appropriate vowel sound to sing.
There are times, of course, when speakers or singers wish
to give special emphasis to an unstressed syllable. For instance, the
word exalt [tg 'zclt] is normally pronounced with an unstressed rh
[r] in the first syllable. To give the word dramatic emphasis, the
speaker may convtncinSty *y ex-alt! [,eg 'zclt] bringing the rh [t]
back to an eh [e]. If this is done occasionally in moments of intense
emotion, lt can be ocpressive. However, tf stressing of this nature is
done repeatedly, the result is ouer-stressurg and the singing will
sound pretentious and weighty. Opera singers do this often enough
that they are satlrlzed for it. Avoid over-stressing in your singing by
glving thoughtful attenUon to unstressing when singing in English.
84
Chapter 6
Read aloud these words. Notice how the unstressed

vowels schwa [e] and ih [I] are used. In some unstressed
syllables, either schuro [o] or th [r] can be used. In some
words, there ls only one choice of unstressed vowel.
Dallas ['da los] ['da Ls]
lettuce ['le tes] ['le trs]
beautlful ['bju te fel] ['bju u fel]
analysls [a 'ne le ses] [e 'na h srs]
gbove [o'bnv]
oppose [a 'pouz]
demgn ['di man]
belly ['be h]
pallid ['pa hd]
golng ['gou rg]
Stress in Foreign Languages
Every language has its own sounds and its own patterns
for stressing. In French, for instance, stress is achleved by givlng
vowels longer duration rather than greater loudness as in English,
and the weak sound of schu;a [e] becomes more close and rounded,
almost like an um\auted o [0] (see Chapter 15). In Italian, the
phenomenon of unstressing does not extst and schtoa [a] is never
used.
One of the greatest pitfalls for Americans who stng in
foreign languages, is the tendency to use the fll-defined, brief schtoa
[e] too often. Their English diction habits of stress and unstressing
inappropriately spill over into their foreign diction. The patterns of
stress in each language must be carefully observed by singers ln
order to achieve the flavor and flow of that language.
Description of the Central Vowels

3
The symbols for the central vowels in English are paired in o
the study of phonetics according to their relationship with stressing
A
and unstressing. The positions of the tongue dur'rng the production
of each of the central vowels are illustrated in the diagram on the
right.
85
IPA for Singers
The uh sounds tal and [e]
The sound of uh in English is represented by the two IPA

symbols [rr] and schu;a [e]:
1. The vowel sound uh [,r] as in up [ap]. The uh
[,r] symbol is referred to by its sound and is used only
in stressed syllables.
2. Tlne vowel sound schr.ua [a] as in gppeal
[e 'pil]. This symbol is always referred to by its name,
scluoa, and is used only in unstressed syllables.
Read aloud these words which use stressed uh [rr].
CUD
hut
mqtt
sgme
cgme
dsck
Read aloud these words which use unstressed schua [e].

aware
about
afficial
sgppose
evgn
cru91
The rir sounds tgl and [a]
The sound of rir as tn burr. and butter is represented by two

IPA symbols, [d and [a], both of which have small, hook-like marks
on the upper part of the symbols. These hook-like marks indicate
that a vowel has been blended with the consonant r to produce the r-
coloredvowel.
In unstressed sgltables, all
Enalish wwels canbe reduced 1. The vowel sound,i, [d, as in aurr [b4. This
toichwalef , e:cceptJor irl{ symbol is referred to by its sound or by the name,
whtch redrrce s to hooked schtua
hooked reuersed epsilon. It is used only in stressed
lal.
syllables. [S] is spelled in English as ur as trt wqe, er
as in herd, rr as in bAd, ear as in eorth or as in w4k,
our as njourneA.
2. The vowel sound ir f*1, as 1n batter ['ba ta].
This slmrbol is referred to by the name laoked schu;ct
It is used only in unstressed syllables and is spelled
er as in dtmmer, or as in motg, ar as in dollar, ure as
ln pleasu&, ur as ln Jemw, yr as in zephg, oar as in
cuoboard.
86
f!
Chapter 6
To produce the r-colored vowels, the tip of the tongue is
retracted and suspended in the middle of the mouth. Feei-your
tongue position and listen to the sound of the vowels in the following
words.
Read aloud these words which use sfressed Ar 14.

burn
her
sir
meroe
bfd
lEarn
urn
burst
worth
Read aloud these words which use hooked schrlo [a]
mother
brother
better
actor
ovq
hang
nevq
The r-Iess rir sounds [a] and [e]
In some dialects of the United States, such as the

Southern dialect, the ir sound of English is pronounced, u:ithout the
r-color. The IPA represents that r-less vowel sound with the two
symbols, [s] and schu.ra [e].
I. The vowel r-less rir [s] is the sound used by

Southern speakers who drop their r in words like brd
[bsd]. This symbol is referred to as r-less rir, as
reuersed epsilon, or simply by its sound. It is used
only in stressed syllables.
2. The schu;a [e] is used for the sound of r_less rir
in unstressed syllables, as by speakers who drop their
r in words like butter ['bn te].
To produce r-less rir [s], the tip of the tongue touches the
back of the bottom front teeth. The body of the tongue moves into a
forward, central position. The lips tend io round stigtrtty. The major
artlculation contrast between r-colored,,i. [dJ and r-less rir [a] is that
the r-colored ir [!] is produced with the tip of the tongue raised and
suspended in the center of the mouth and the r-less rir
[s] is pro-
duced with the tip of the tongue down behind the bottom front teeth.
87
IPA for Singers
Experiment with these two sounds. Say one after the other,
feeling the movement of the tip of the tongue up for rir [S] and
down behlnd the teeth for r-less rir [s].
-
lrl [s] ts] [s] tyl [s]

In English, the sound of r-less rir [s] is something like an
uh [,r] produced with half-rounded lips. And if you are familiar with
foreign languages, you may recognize that the sound of r-less rir [s]
is similar to untlanfted 6 [e] of German, only with laxer, less rounded
lips (see Chapter l5).
Read aloud these words imitating a Southern drawl, using
stressed r-less rir [s] and dropping the r.
hurt [hst]
bird tbdl
herd th3dl
tearn [sn]
earn [sn]
turn [tsn]
Read aloud these words imitating a Southern drawl, using
unstressed schtua [e] and dropping the r
buttq ['b,r ta]

motsl ['mou ta]
actor ['ak ta]
suffet ['sa fa]
dollar ['do Ie]
Singing with the Uf Sounds
The sounds of the r-colored,i. [g] and hooked schtuo [d,

being produced with a tense, retracted tongue, result in a singing
tone which is more tense and less free than the vibrant, easy tone
desired in singing. Many singers, therefore, choose to substitute the
r-less rir [s] and schr^t-ra [o] for the r-colored ir lgl and hooked schwa
[a]. When pronouncing a word, the r-value can be added as a
consonant, rather than blended with the vowel. Words would then be
sung as herd [hsrd}, btrd[bsrd], tearn [srn].
88
Chapter 6
Sing these words, sustaining the r-less rir [s] sound until
the release of the note.
6 4o
4
) rll
herd lhs ---- rd]
bird rdl
learn lls rnI
burr lbs ------- rl
earn
Sing these words, sustaining the r-less schu;a [e] in the

unstressed syllables.
6 4o
4
t) rI
comfort[kr mfe------- rtl
Summary
As we approach the exercises for the central vowels. notice

how they fall into consistent pairs of sounds relative to stressing and
unstressing as shown on the following table.
Stressed Unstressed
hl [e]
t3l [a]
lsl [e]
The student is encouraged to refer to this table often until
it is clear that the vowels in the first column are always used in
stressed syllables, while those in the second column are always used
in unstressed syllables.
89
il
IPA for Singers
Exercises The central vorrel [,r] as in bgd
I
Description
The symbol [ir], which represents the sound of uh, is used only in
syllables of primary or secondary stress.
Tongue
The middle of the tongue is in a low position, slightly arched back of the
center of the mouth, which designates [rr] as a mid, central vowel. The
Up touches the back of the bottom front teeth.
Jaw
In a mid-low position.
Ltps
Open and unrounded.
Soft Palate
Raised, closing offthe nasal passageway.
Common Problems
The substttutlon of rh [] or eh [e] for uh [l], caused by positioning the
tongue too high and forward. Example: just may sound like gist orjest.
The substitution of 6 [u] for uh [rr], caused by pulling the tongue too
far back, closing the Jaw, or rounding the lips. Example: toue [[rrv] may
sound like [lw].
The substitution of ah [g] for uh [rr], caused when t]re mouth is too open
and the tongue is too flat. Example: lorr [lrw] may sound like [lov].
The substitution of r-less rir [s] for uh [l], caused by rounding the lips,
clostng the mouth, or bringing the middle of the tongue forward and up.
Example: mud [m,rd] may sound like [msd].
The nasalization of uh [A] when tt precedes m, n, or ng, as in sun, come,
90 hung.
Chapter 6
In English there are two IPA qpbols used to represent the

uh sound. The qlmbol [n], presented in this exercise, ts used only in
primary or secondary stressed syllables. The schwa [e], a similar
sound, is used only in unstressed syllables. The two sounds differ
because the high point of the tongue for [,r] is positioned slightly back
of center, contrasted to [e], which is more centered in the mouth. The
vowel [rt] is produced with a relaxed, mid-low jaw posttlon and
unrounded lips.
As you can see from the previous page under the category
Comrnon Problems, there is a long list of substitutions for the vowel uh
[a]. Speakers often replace uh [a] wtth rh [r], eh [e], oo [u], ah [o], or r-
Iess rir [a]t ffre following lists of words will help you clari$r the sound
and feeling of uh fu1.
A. Practlce the stressed [a] sound.
lbrl [p,r] [b,r] lpnl

labl [ap] [,rb] t^pI
Read aloud these words. Articulate carefully and avoid

moving your tongue too far forward, which will produce [] wlwnltl precedes a
cortsonont made in the front
or [e] or too far backward, which will produce [u]. Ttre vowel of the mouth, the torEue can
sound in each of these words is h] and should sound the be brought too high and.
forutard in the moulh and
-wttt
same. sotutd ftlce [r] or [e]. a
word srrch as just mag
sgch mgch seme brsther lqve soundlike jist or jest.
just tryck trouble dgck cqme
Read aloud these paired words to contrast the [o] and [,r] Be carefi.i not to ptil the
vowel sounds. tongue tooJar back artdup
becantse it will result in the
lal [n] substihlrrcn of # lul for uh
[,r]
hot hut
bomb bum
lock luck
cot cut If the tongue is tooflat tn
got gut tle mouttt tle wwellOl
tt:tl| be sotnded instead of
Read aloud these sounds without pausing between [o] and
[,r].
[,r]. leave the jaw dropped to a low position and feel the
movement of the jaw and tongue as you say these sounds.
The tongue is flatter for [c] than for [,r].
[o,roAoAoA]
91
IPA for Singers
Read aloud these paired words to contrast uh [,r] with rir [4

as tn b1g4. The tlp of the tongue touches the back of the
bottom front teeth for uh [a]. It retracts and raises for rir [s].
[,r] t4
mgtt mgder
lgck lgggner
btrt bum
mgd mglcy
putt purr
htrt her
The uh[a] t a low central Read aloud these words. Avotd substituting r-less rir [s] for uh
wweL Da not rcurtd. the ltps,
close theJaw, or brlng tle [,r] f, the second column. Keep yourJaw dropped to a mid-low
middle oJ the tongue forusard position and lips unrounded for uh [,t]. Both columns of
qrld up. These mouements
words should be pronounced wtth uh [a].
wtll result in the substthilon
oJr-less ,ir [s], yor
"t [rr]. lal [a]
mgtt ether
lgck lgve
mUd meney
pgtt pgnish
Read aloud these sounds without pausing between the uh [a]

and r-&ess rir [e]. Keep yourJaw in a relaxed, low position. Feel
the body of the tongue move up and forward and the lips
shghtly round for the [s]
[rrsa3A3A3A]
Read aloud these paired words to avoid nasalization in the
words ln the second column. All words contain [,r].
[,r] [a]
cut come
such sun
double dumb
duck dump
rut mn
mutt punt
putt pump
B. Transcrlbe these words lnto IPA s5rmbols. Each word contatns [rr].
The loold.s one arrd.wonane 1. pump Epnrnpl 8. sun

both transqibd. tte same,
2. luck 9. dug
lwanl.
3. from 1O. cup
4. dove 11. Bud's
5. love 12. one
6. cut 13. won
7.up 14. dust
92
Chapter 6
t. [fand] o. [b,rk]
z. [rab] 7. [d^k]
3. ['ma nr]- 8. ['b,r &]
+. [traks] s. [sta,mp]
5. [ham] tO. [m,rd]
D. Transcrlbe these IPA symbols for nonsense words lnto

orthographlc spellings.
2. [,ve'zA ,me] 5. ['la,m,sr]

3. [,tr'z d] 6. [,ne'frrz]
E. Vocalize, artlculatlng the [,r] vowel clearly and easlly.
[,r] loI [rt] laI

[,r] leI [rt] lsI
[,r] luI lnI luI
[,r] lcI [rt] lcl
[,r] loI [,r] loI
duck crumb spun

glove crux buck
gull stud one
tlS rug from
lock luck lock

fond fund fond
lot love lot
book buck book
stood stud stood
93
IPA for Singers
Exercises The central vowel schruta [e] as in gppeal
I
Description
Used only in unstressed syllables, the sound of schtoa [e] is a lax

and brief utu It ls possible to confuse uh [,r] with schtoa [o] when
length and stress are disregarded. Because of the brief, ill-defined
nature of schu.ro [e], it carurot be refered to by its sound. We call
it schura, a German derivative from a Hebrew word meaning
'ltttle' or 'weak."
Tongue
The high point of the tongue is located in the center of the
mouth, differing from the stressed uh [], which has the high
point of the tongue back of center. The tip of the tongue touches
the back of the bottom front teeth.
Jaw
Relaxed, slightly dropped.
Llps
The lips are neutral or, on occasions, slightly rounded.
Soft Palate
Ralsed, closing off the nasal passageway.
94
Chapter 6
Common Problems
The omission of the [o], particularly between

consonants in the middle of a word as ln bakery.
The substitution of a stressed vowel for schu.ra [o]. for
example, saytng oppress as [,ou 'pres] instead of
[a'pres].
Schu;o [e] is the most used sound in our language,

occurri4g ln most unstressed syllables. Any English vowel may be
represented by schwa in an unstressed syllable.
A. Practlce the schpa [e] sound.
Read aloud these words to identify the schtua [a] sound.

ggree
affair
qffend
iewel
variety
sofa
aqo
coma
presldgnt
Read aloud these words being careful not to omit the

schtua [e] sound.
bakgry
cabinet
pgrade
pgllce
iewel
vetgran
travgler
fungral
95
il
IPA for Singers
Read aloud these words. The final le forms a syllable. It is

transcribed as [o[
littls ['h tel]
ablq ['et beU
applc ['e pol]
tabls ['ter bel]
cablg ['kel beU
B. Transcrlbe these words tnto IPA symbols. Each words contalns

a schrua [e].
I. bottle lbo ta/ 1 11. aware

2. sodium 12. symbol
3. adapt 13. ado
4. affair 14. battery
5. suppose 15. mystery
6. again 16. away
7. consistent_ 17. camera
8. rubble 18. cruel
9. tumble 19. comma
10. president 2O. period
t. ['d,r bal] z. ['sen trel]

2. ['se kre ,te n]_ 8. [Ig 'z&m paU
3. [e 'dour] 9. ['s,r dan]-
4.l'e le ,founl_ 10. [a 'dres]
-
5. ['ga la n]_ t t. ['ou pen]
6. ['dr fe rent] r2. ['ma feld]
96
Chapter 6
D. Transcrlbe these nonsense words lnto IpA symbols.

L.lze'mi nal g. [pre 'du ke]
2. ['klou te ma] a. ['kro de ,ser ro] _
E. Vocallze, artlculatlng the schura [e] clearly and easlly.
a - part a - tone a - bove

a - gain of - fense op - press
ma - jo-ri -ty the be - ne - fit a - massed
e ven for - ward mi-ra-cle

dou ble re bel gal- le - ry
97
u
IPA for Singers
Exercises The central vowel fr ts] as in burr
Description
For the sound of rir[$], a vowel is blended with the sound of the
consonant [r]. [S] is used only in syllables of primary or
secondary stress. and is classified as a mid-central vowel.
Tongue
Ttrc ssmbot dr [d] is The tip of the tongue ls retracted and raised to a central posiUon
reJured, to by its sound or in the mouth. The suspended tongue tlp points toward the
by its no;me, the hooked boundary of the teeth ridge and hard palate. The sides of the
reversed epsllon.
tongue touch the side teeth. Alr passes across the center of the
tongue.
Jaw
Slightly lowered.
Llps
Unrounded.
Soft Palate
Common Problems
Many people are unaware that frr 14, as in the word
bgg, ls considered a vowel sound i:: our language. The rir [$] is
an r-colored vowel, produced with the tip of the tongue retracted
and suspended in the center of the mouth.
In English there are two IPA symbols used to represent
the rir sound. The symbol rir [9], presented in this exercise, is
used only ln stressed syllables. 'I\e looked schrua [a], presented
in the next exercise, is used only in unstressed syllables. Both
symbols have a small mark on the upper part of the symbol
98 whtch indicates the r-coloring of the vowel.
Chapter 6
,{- Practlce the stressed ,it t*] sound.
Read aloud these words to identify the rir [r] .
cUIl unfurl vqse worth learn sUd

bifth hurt suge jerk sqve sgarch
Read aloud these sounds to contrast the rir [f,] and uh
[l] sounds.
1r] hl [v] [,r]
burst bust girl gull
curb cub hurt hut
dirt done lurk luck
Read aloud these sounds. Feel the position of your raised
tongue tip for rir [f] .
lbrl [pr] [b$] [pr]

lvb I trp I [rb ] tsp I
B. Transcrlbe these words into IPA symbols.
L irk t:r'h r 8. her

2. earrt 9. sir
3. fur IO. firm
4. nurse 1 1. skirt
5. burst 12. verb
6. grl 13. Turk
7. term 14. curl
C. Transcrlbe these IPA symbols into Engltsh words.

The ir wwels qre not condtrciue
t. Irk] 8. [wcd ] toJree singing because oJthe
tense retracted tongtrc. Mang
z. [ksb] 9. ['prfrkt] singers chmse to replace the r-
colored rlr u'ouels uith the r-less
s. [drt ] to. [fsn ] ,ir [s], tle sound tuutherners
make whentheg drop their r in
+. [wrl d] 11. ['ms sr]- tuords hke herd, bird, burr,
earth. Re/er to Exercise [s] J".
5. [fr] r2. ['pr san] further drscussion.
o.[psr] t3. ['mr ,merd]
z. ['se ksl] t+. ['fr vrd]
D. Transcrlbe these nonsense words into orthographlc spellings.
t. ['srvr] 3. [,si 'wg zol-

z. [da 'mr] +. ['wr br]
99
IPA for Singers
EXefCiSeS The central vowel hooked schutolal as in butter
Description
Although the unstressed. ir [a] has the same sound as the

stressed rir [6], it is more lax and shorter ln duration, and
used only in unstressed syllables. It is classified as a mid-
central vowel and is called twoked schu:sa.
Tongue
The tip of the tongue is retracted and raised to a central
position in the mouth. The suspended tip points toward the
teeth ridge and hard palate. The sides of the tongue touch
the side teeth. Air passes across the center of the tongue.
Jaw
Relaxed, in a mid-high position.
Ltps
Stightly open and unrounded.
Soft Palate
Common Problems
Excessive retraction, pulling the tongue too far back in the

mouth and curling the tongue tip too far back toward the
palate.
100
Chapter 6
.L Practlce the hooked. schroa [a] sound.

Read aloud these words to identi8r the sound of hooked. schu.ra [a]. The hmkedschua [a] is
givs{ [,$ va] motq ['mou t41 used tn English as the
uowel of an unstressed
altg ['cl ta] actq [,ak ta] sgllable.
clamor ['kle ma] sgryivg [sa ,val va]
murdg ['ms da] summq [,sl m+]
B. Transcrlbe the followlng words lnto rpA symbols. use the hooked
schwa [a] for each unstressed r-colored vowel.
1. suffer f'sn f a-] 6. tabor

2. factor 7. scepter
3. pillar 8. tractor
4. dollar 9. mirror
5. flavor 1O. surfer
c. Transcribe the following words, uslng two dtfferent rpA spelllngs.
In the first column use t}..e hmked schura [a]. In the second.
column, use the schtnalef Jollou:ed by the consonant [r]. The
singer may use the pronunciation in the second column to avoid a
tight tone produced by the ltuked schrua. Read these words aloud
as you transcribe them, feeling the lifted tongue tip for [a] and the
lowered tongue tip for [s] and the slight lift for [r].
l.lumber ('l lal

n YN ba I
erI
2. rarer
3. permitted
4. better
5. tremor
6. perhaps
D. Transcribe these IPA symbols into English words.
r. ['skr pa] 4. lp*'fcrml
2. ['pa ta] 5. ['fri za]
s. ['stor ta] 6. [pa'srst]-
E. Vocallze using hooked. schroa [a] and schrua [e].
collar
6 4o
4
lko
t) rI
lko la
effort le -----------fa ------ - - tI
:--:----:--fe
le -..--..--rtl 101
IPA for Singers
EXefCiSeS The central vowel, r-Iess rir [s] as ln bir:d
Description
The sound of the r-less rir [s] resembles the vowel that speakers
with a Southern drawl use when they pronounce a word like brd
tb3dl.
The r-less rir [s] is used only i:r stressed syllables. The sounds r-
less rir [s] and schua [e] exist in a stressed-unstressed
relationship comparable to uh [rr] and schrpa [e] as presented in
prwious lessons.
Tongue
The tongue is arched with the high point in a mid-central
position in the mouth. The middle of the tongue is higher than
for uh [,r] or schruc [e]. The ttp of the tongue touches the back of
the bottom front teeth. The tip is not retracted for this sound.
Jaw
Dropped to a mid-low position.
Ltps
Open and slightly rounded.
Soft Palate
Raised, clostng off the nasal passageway.
The sound r-less rir [s] can be used in any word

normally spoken with r-colored ir [s]. tt ts usually used by
Eastern, Southern and Brttish speakers in such words as brd
tbdl or lerd th3dl, in which they omit the [r].
Like most vowels, [s] can be referred to by its sound.
Some speakers find it difficult to isolate this sound and they
L02 choose to refer to tt as r-less ir or rersersed epsilort
Chapter 6
^t Practlce the r-less ,it tr] sound.

Read aloud these sounds. Feel the tip of the tongue
touching the back of your bottom front teeth.
lbsl [ps] [bs] [ps]

lsbl [sp] [sb] [sp]
Read aloud these sounds. Feel the tip of your tongue
move up and back to become suspended in the middle of
the mouth for the r-colored ir 14 .
lprl [pr] [bs] [bv]

lvp I [rb ] trp I [vb ]
Read aloud these sounds to contrast [S] and [s]. Feel the
difference between the placement of the tongue for these
two sounds and the slight lip rounding for [s].
ly sl [r a] [r s]
lk{l [ks] [kr] [ks] [ks] [ks]
lzsl Lzsl lz4 lzel lzs) lzc^l
Read aloud these words, using [s] followed by [r]
lssl lssl lssl ['ssr vts] (serurce)
lssl lssl lssl ['ssr lcrn] (sirloud

lwsl lwsl lwsl Iward] (u:ord)
lksl lksl lksl lksrdl (atrd
lbsl lbsl lbsl Ibsrst] (burst)
lpsl lpsl lpsl [psrs] (purse)
lmsl lmsl lmsl ['mer tel] (mgrtle)
Read aloud these words contrasting the pronunciations of

r-colored rir [y] and r-less rir [s].
lsl lsI
earn lsnl [srn]
fur lfvl lfsrl
nurse [nss ] Insrs]
term ltsml Itsrm]
curb lksbl lksrbl
skirt lskstl lsksrtl
flirt [fltt ] [flsrt]
spurn lspstrl Ispsrn]
103
IPA for Singers
B. Transcrlbe the followlng words lnto IPA s5rmbols. Use [s]

followed by the consonant [r] tn each stressed syllable.
1. squirm t Etwa r 13. burr

2. firm 14. lurk
3. learn 15. fern
4. pearl 16. earnest
5. worqz 17. hurl
6. curly 18. Berkley
7. curve 19. purr
8. furlough 2O. first
9. curdle 21. hurdle
1O. sperm 22. nervous
I l. girdle 23. turtle
12. turban 24. turmoil
C. Transcrlbe these IPA symbols into Engltsh words.
1. [wsrk] 6. ['se n]
z. [dsrt] z. ['psr fikt]
3. ['msr sr] 8. ['ssr verl ,
4. ['psr sen] _ 9. [!sr me nens]

5. ['msr der] to.[bsrn]
D. Transcribe these nonsense words into Engllsh words.
I Isers] 3. [zsrk]
2 [,bsr'fu] +. [nsrn]
104
Chapter 6
E. Vocallze, uslng [e] tn stressed syllables.
burn hurl urn

lbg rnl [hs rU [s------------ rn]
purse learn turn
lps rsl [ls -- rn] [te------------ rn]
word worrn her
lws ------------ rdl [ws ------------ rm] [hs------------ r]
cer tain hurt - ful irk some

Bert rEun earn - est cour - age
105
IPA for Singers
Transcribe these words into IPA symbols:
I. Ernest 16. alert

2. ultra 17. lover
3. upper 18. abrupt
4. blur 19. concur
5. under 2O. blunder
6. rubber 21. curler

7. burden 22. nurse
8. purse 23. nerve
9. lurk 24. cupboard
1O. fervor 25. wormwood
11. unmask 26. perk

12. fundamental 27. Christmas
13. tough 28. written
14. imitate 29. blood
15. stuff 3O. radium
t. [dav] 6.[dI'zerv]
z. [hart] z. [vsrb]
3. ['ler ber] 8. [e'wer]
+. [,rs] e. [sam]
5. ['vlk tor] 1o. [wsr]
106
Chapter 6
Transcribe these words into IPA symbols:
1. heard 16. honey
2. perhaps 17. ballast

3. surplus 18. vigorous
4. surfboard 19. butter

5. luclry 20. purr
6. serpent 21. money

7. nursery 22. putt
8. river 23. visitor
9. deliver 24. flippant
1O. trouble 25. stir
1 1. fur 26. enough

12. cup 27. furnace
13. once 28. person
14. dug 29. worker
15. plunder 30. girl
r. ['pet per] 6. [warm]

2. ['mer msr] z. [fsrst]
s. ['dr bal] 8. [pl,rmp]
a. [kmst] 9. ['par ler]
5. [sar] to. ['ka del]
L07
IPA for Singers
CIIAPTER 7
DIPHTHONGS
Introduction to Diphthongs
A diphthong, pronounced ['drf 0c4] occurs when two

vowels in the same syllable are blended together to form a single
vowel unit.
TWo vowels existing next to each other in a word do not
necessarily produce a diphthong. For example, in the word chaotic
[ke 'o ttk] ttre vowels a and o are next to each other, but in two
diJlerent syllables. They are heard as two distinct vowel units and
do not become a diphthong.
Sometimes when two vowel letters are next to each
other in the same syllable, as the ou lrt audit tb dltl, the result ls
a single pure vowel sound, not a diphthong.
A pure vowel ls one which is produced without
movement of the articulators. By contrast, a diphthong is
produced when there is a movement of the tongue, lips or jaw
during the production of a vowel, usually with a quick, gliding
motion of the tongue to a hlgher position. The two vowel sounds of
a diphthong are blended into a sound which the speaker perceives
as a single unit. There are six diphthongs in English, four are
phonemes and two are allophones.
108
Chapter 7
The phoneme [al] as xr hrgllu composed of the

pure vowel [a] and the glide [I].
The phoneme [au] as in house, composed of

the pure vowel [a] and the glide [u].
The phoneme [ct] as in boy, composed of the
pure vowel [c] and the glide [l].
The phoneme [u] as in use Liuz], composed

of the glide [j], as in ges, and the pure vowel
lul.
The allophone [et] as in bail composed of the
pure [e] and the glide [I].
The allophone [ul] as tn boat composed of the
pure [o] and the glide [u].
The diphthongs [et] and [ou], which were presented ln

Chapters 4 and 5, have a different character from the remainilf,g four
diphthongs. For instance, whether the speaker pronounces a word
with a diphthongal [et] or a pure [e] (omitting the glide), the mean-
ing of the word remains the same. Baby ['ber bI] and baby ['be bI]
would be both perceived as a word referring to a small child. The
same is true of words which use the vowel [ou]. whether the word
hope is pronounced as [houp] or [hop], it would indicate the same
meaning. The lack of change in meanlng of the words makes the
diphthongal [er] and [ot{ allophones of the phonemes [e] and [o].
However, if the speaker omits the glides from the diph-
thongs [at], [au], [ct] or fiul, and says onlythe strongervowel, the
meaning of the word changes. Read aloud these words.
Height[hatt] becomes hot [hat].

House [haus] becomes hass [has].
Joy [jcr] becomesJau., Uc].

Abuse [e'bjus] becomes abmze [a'buz].
These four diphthongs, [ar], [aul, [cl] and [ju], are thus
shown to be separate, distinct phonemes. In true diphthongs, even
though two symbols are used, the symbols are representative of one
phoneme, and both vowel sounds are needed to matntain the
meaning of the word.
109
il
IPA for Singers
The diphthong [ar] as in h:i.gh

Exercises
Description
Tonglue
The tongue begins in a low position for br'rghtah [a], then quickly
glides to a high, forward position for rh [t]. Orrty the blade and
middle part of the tongue move upward to create the glide [t].
The tip of the tongue remains behind the back of the bottom
teeth.
Jaw
The Jaw drops to a low position for bright ah [a], and closes
slightly for ih [t]. In singing, the tongue is usually used to
I
accomplish the glide [t].
Ltps
Open and unrounded.
Soft Palate
Common Problems
The substitution of pure [a] for the diphthong [a], usually in

Southern dialect. Sayhg f'm as [am] instead of [alm].
The substitution of [e] for the glide [I], caused by not raising the
tongue to a high, forward position for [l]. Saying tight as [taet]
lnstead of [taIt].
1r0
Chapter 7
The substitution of a sound similar to the slort o

[o] or aur [c] in the diphthong [at], caused by
pulling the tongue too far back and by rounding
the lips slightly. An example would be asking:
'Were gou fwrd-bacK?' tnstead of "Wqe gou htred
bacK?'
To become more famtllar with the articulation of the
diphthong [at], sustain the sound bah....., then glide from that
sound toward the vowel ee [i] as in the word eat. Bafu....eaL Notice
the movement of your tongue as you move from bahto eat
' Then read aloud the word buy [bu] and notice the slmilar
movement of your tongue as you pronounce the diphthong [aI]. On
the glide of [t], the tongue does not move as high as [i], so we
transcribe lt as the laxer [t].
A. Practlce the diphthong [a].

lbal [pa] [bat] [par]

larbl [ap] [arb] [arp]
Read aloud these words to identify [at].
style aisle
silent Calro
child why
cholrs hglghten
Item thgh
flying begu_ile
ples Mlke
blry spy
island &yser
Read aloud these words to contrast the diphthong [al]

and pure [a].
larl [a]
hi ha
right rot
eye's ahs
by bah
slights slots
height hot
111
t
IPA for Singers
B. Transcrlbe these words lnto IPA s5rmbols.
1. tried Itrard] 8. rhyme

2. ride 9. deny
3.r 1O. Clyde
4.high 11. htdes
5. ldeas 12. spider
6. fine 13. try

7. lce 14. hght
r. [dt'skrarb] _ 8. [brardz]_
z. [taml 9. ['trar bal]
s. [nart] to. Ismarl]
a. [tad] 11. [mart]
5. [praz] rz. ['ar del]
6. ['er,larn] ts. [kru]
z. ['fra dr] ta. [gard]
D. Transcrlbe these nonsense words lnto orthographtc spelllngs.
r. ['zar gem] 3.['gre la]

2. ['gar wo]- +.[da'tar]-
LL2
Chapter 7
E. Vocallze, artlculatlng eaeh [a] clearly and easlly. When

slnglng, sustaln the flrst part of the dlphthong [a], and then
glide to [l] Just as you release the note.
6 4o
4
l) I ll
high
lha
pie
lpa
6 4o
4
lots
t) lights
r lt
ha hi
rot right
tired mind line

fly bry lie
kite light climb fine

my why wine flight
prlze slide twice size
113
il
IPA for Singers
The diphthong [au] as in house

Exercises
Description
Tongue
The tongue begins in a low position for brlght ah [a], then quickly
glides to a high, back position for o"o [u]. Only the back of the
tongue moves to create the glide [u]. fne tip of the tongue
remains behind the back of the bottom front teeth.
Jaw
The jaw is dropped to a low position.
Ltps
The lips are open and unrounded for [a], ttren move to a rounded
position for [u].
Soft Palate
Common Problems
The substitution of pure [a] for the diphthong [au], usually in
Southern dialect.
The substitution of [e] for [a], caused by bringing the tongue too
high and forward for [au].
The substitution of [e] for [u], caused by not rounding the lips
for [u].
Nasalizing [au] by speaking through the nose. This most often
LL4 occurs before m, n. and ng, but is also found in other positions.
Chapter 7
To become more famlliar with the articulation of the

diphthong [au], sustain the sound ho......, then glide from the sound
toward the word ooze. Notice the movements of your llps and tongue
as you move from ha to ooze. Then read aloud the word house
[hals] and notice the similar movements of your lips and tongue as
you pronounce the diphthong [al].
A- Practlce the dtphthong [al] as ln house.
lbaul [pau] [bau] [pau]

laupl [aub] [aup] [aub]
Read aloud these words to identity [au].
bsgnd out
trggt cgl r
tgvel brow
sauerkraut alggd
plqu€h h@r
Read aloud these words to contrast [a] and [au].
lal [au]
catch couch To awid prdrclngtteflat,
raisedsound o|LiE-l in the
hand hound diphthong laul, be_sure to drop
gourjau and"giue lal rts/utt
mass mouse open spqce.
pat pout
sand sound
Read aloud these words, contrasting pure [a] and

diphthongal [au].
lal [au] Be sure to round uour lips Jor

the i6lul otide. bo r:y:lt
ha how etimnite'tfre glide lu'l nor
substitute tlw unrowtded
pot pout schtua [e].
fond found
bra brow
clot clout
115
il
I
IPA for Singers
Read aloud these words, being careful not to nasalize

the [ar].
brown
down
found
town
lounge
fountain
noun
l. gown f aav
_- nl 8. found
2. rowdy 9. plow
3. allow lO. brown
4. announce _ I I. frown
5. prowler 12. mountain
6. pout 13. ours
7. ounces 14 boundary_
C. Transcrlbe these IPA s5rmbols lnto Engltsh words.
t. [raund] 0. lpraud]
2. [brau] z. [kau]
3. [plaud] s. [varrd]
+. [samd] 9. [rau]
5. [traut] to. [maund]
D. Transcrlbe these nonsense words lnto IPA s5rmbols.
t. [brauk] 3. [darg]
z. ['tau,ket] +. ['vau ken]
116
Chapter 7
E. Vocallze, artlculatlng each [au] carefully and easlly. When

slnglng, sustaln the f,rst part of the dlphthong [a], glldtng to [u]
Just as you release the note.
6
4
4o
vow
t) r lt
house
lha usI
Joust out pout

brown shout town
clowns brow vow
flow - ers shout - ed down town

round - ed loung - es pound ed
LL7
il
IPA for Singers
The diphthong [cr] as in beg

Exercises
Description
Tongue
The tongue begins in a low, back position for au., [c], then
quickly glides to a high, forward position for rh [I]. the tip of the
tongue remains behind the back of the bottom front teeth.
Jaw
Dropped to a low position.
Lips
Rounded for [c], then relaxed for the gtde [t].
Soft Palate
Common Problems
The substitution of pure [c] for diphthong [cI], omitting the glide
trl.
To substitution of [o] for the glide [l]. ln addition, some speakers
add the [w] or y tj], so that a word such as torl sounds like
ltcwoll.
The substitution of the diphthong [u] for [ct] occurs
occasionally in North American speech. The lips do not round
and the jaw is not sufficiently dropped when beginning the
diphthong. Tott [tcrl] sounds like trle [tall].
118
Chapter 7
To become more familiar with the articulation of the

diphthong [cI], sustain the sound cclw....., then glide from that
sound toward the word eat. Feel the movements oi your lips and
tongue as you move from caus to eot. Then read aloud the word corl
[kctl] and notice the similar movements of your lips and tongue as
you pronounce the diphthong [cr].
.{- Practlce the dtphthong oy [cr] as ln boy.
lbcrl [pcr] [bcr] [pcr]

lcrbl [crp] [crb] [crp]
Read aloud these words containing the diphthong [cr]
pyster
boil
cov
join
deplsy
destrpy
Read aloud these words to avoid the use of [w] or the

replacement of the glide rh [r] with schu;a [e].
lcrl [ce] [cw]

poise not paws nor paw was
joys not jaws nor jaw was
noise not gnaws nor gnaw was
Read aloud these words, and be careful not to omit the

glide rh [t] nor replace it with a schu.,o [e].
lcl diphthong [cr]

all oil
Saul soil
tall toil
ball boil
fall foil
call coil
119
I
IPA for Singers
1. coin [{rrnl 8. toy

2. ointment 9. broil
3. Hoyle lO. oyster
4. royal 11. turmoil
5. soil 12. avoid
6. oily 13. recoil
7. foibles 14. exploited
t. [fuI 6. [kcr]
2.lpctzl z. [spctl]
3. [scrld] 8. [tcrz]
+. [e'ncld] 9. [a 'drcrt]
5. [hcrst] to. [tcrld]
D. Transerlbe these nonsense words lnto Engltsh words.
t. [crt] 3. ['kct zem]_

2. [,ni'fcr] +. [scrz]
L20
Chapter 7
E. Vocallze and artlculate each oy [cI] clearly end eeslly.
When singing a diphthong [cI], be sure to sustaln the [c],

and add the glide [l] only as you release the note.
6 4o
4
) rl!
toy
ltc rI
boil
lbc rlI
brawl broil tall toil

call coil fall foil
Boyd Hoyle oil boil

Join coin moist Joint
t2L
IPA for Singers
Exercises The diphthong Liul as in abgse
Description
The first part of the diphthong [ju] is formed by the gliding sound of
y as in yes. The y sound is represented by the IPA s1'rnbol [j] , which
is named Uot Uctl.
Tongue
The tongue begins in a high, forward position for the sound of got
[i], tfren quickly moves to a high, back position for e [u]. The tip of
the tongue remains behind the back of the bottom front teeth.
Jaw
Relaxed.
Lips
Urrrounded for got [i], ttren immediately rounding to produce e [u].
Soft Palate
Common Problems
Tte gtide slot [ict] wiltbefuttg The use of the diphthong [iu] is in transition in American speech.
dlscnssed tnClwpter 13, Glides.
Following a [d], [n] or [t], either [iu] or [u] is now considered
standard. Many speakers, however, prefer to maintain Uu] in these
words, saying deu., ldju]instead of do [du].
L22
Chapter 7
The diphthong [u], as ln abuse, differs from the other
three diphthongs tn this chapter in that the glide portion occurs at
the beginning lnstead of the end of the diphlhong. to produce the
[iu] aipnthong, you will begtn with your tongue tn a high, forward
position like rtt [r]. Ttre tongue moves quickly from that position, not
remaining there lo4g enough to produce the full vowel sound of
[r].
The gliding movement produces the sound of yot
Uct]. It will be fully
discussed in Chapter 13, Glides.
Your tongue will quickly glide back from the forward
position of yot [i] to ttre high, back position of the vowel &
[u]. vou
can feel this movement dramatically tf you will lighily touch the front
of your tongue with your forefinger as you say the diphthong
[ju].
The forward tongue of [j] witt snap back quickly for [u]. you can feel
the sudden movement of the tongue as it leaves your finger.
A- Practlctng the dtphthong [u].

Read aloud these words with initial [ju].
ltse eulos
Unit uniform
usual qphony
Read aloud these words with medial [ju].
abgse refgse
amgse vlgwer
cgbe pqberty
I'ewer mgtilated
mgsic bgreau
hUge cgrious
Read aloud these words. Use either [iu] or [u] according Fottowins a [d], [n], or [t] Aotrr
to your preference. Consistency is desirable but not tfe diphtlrorg IUJ and tlw pure
mandatory. uourel [UJ are considered
standard.
due tube
dew tulip
exude Tuesday
new numeral
nude nuclear
L23
IPA for Singers
Read aloud these words. Contemporary General American

speech shows a preference for the pure vowel [u] when
preceded by the sounds [s]. [z], [] or th [0].
suit suitor
lute Lutheran
resume absolutely
suitcase enthusiasm
B. Transcrlbe these words lnto IPA s5rmbols. Each word contalns

the dlphthong [ju].
Inthe wordqtmillate 1. useful f t,il^s {o1l 8. ewe

['kju mje ,lert], raucet:ulrt
tlw sqond syllable ts
unstressed. The diphllono
2. feudal 9. humorous
[u]urtll be weakened,to fie]. 3. fume 1O. beauty
4. mule 1 1. cute
5. cue 12. you
6. mute 13. abuses
7. musical 14. cumulate
C. Transcribe these IPA s5rmbots lnto Engltsh words.
1. [por 'fjum]_ 8. ['jun jen]

z. ['fju tol] 9. ['ju nr ,far]
3. ['pju pel] to. [kju]
+. [pju nr] tt. [pju]
5. ['dju el] t2. ['ju nr ,fcrm]
6. [fjuz] 13. [mju]
z. [o tjuz] t+. [mjul]
D. Transcrlbe these nonsense words lnto orthographic spelllngs.
r. ['zju,mi]- s. ['jum,dju]-
2. [5u ,h ,s] 4. [,bo'kju tam] _
L24
Chapter 7
E. Vocallze on the dlphthong [ju]. Cnae qutckly from yor U] to

the second part ofthe dlphthong, [u].
6 4o
4
) rll
use
[ju z)
beauty
lbju trI
you view hew

cute mute huge
a buse u nite eu-lo s
L25
IPA for Singers
Chapter 7 Worksheet I
Transcrtbe these words tnto IPA symbols.
l. cried 16. mile
2. flounder 17. fuse
3. pie 18. cider

4. brofled 19. drive
5. gown 2O. fly
6. bureau 21. eye

7. twice 22. beauty
8. pride 23. rice
9. cowboy 24. destroy
1O. bike 25. amount
11. sirloin 26. voice

12. music 27. tower
13. somehow 28. toy
14. hardboiled 29. pure
15. abuse 3O. highbrow
Transcribe these IPA qpmbols into English words.
r. [e 'drcrt] 6. [ko \auzl

z. [skaut] z. ['di ,kcr]
3. [blut] 8. ['qr,gju]
4. [grcrn] e. [klam]
5. Uu'nartl to. [kland]
L26
Chapter 7
1. avoid 16. moist

2. pointed 17. proud
3. doily 18. cloud

4. ploy 19. unity
5. hike 2O. soy
6. ground 21. oysters

7. rites 22. utility
8. Bible 23. hour
9. pupil 24. Lribal
10. cue 25. loud
11. convoy 26. crowded

12. trout 27. kite
13. cloister 28. proudly
14. employ 29. accused
15. beautiful 30. poise
Transcribe these IPA ryrnbols into English words
r. ['da et] 6. [saur]

2. [skar] 7. lat 'diell
s. [sprut] 8. [pre'vard]
+. [rr 'naund] 9. Lju ne 'vsr sell
5. [flart] rO. [rn'sart fal]
L27
IPA for Singers
CIIAPTER 8
CONSONANTS
Introduction to Consonants
Now that you are familiar with the IPA qfmbols for vowels, you
will find it easy to learn the remaining symbols for the consonants of
English. Of the twenty-five symbols for consonants in the International
Phonetic Alphabet, sixteen are identical to the letters in the English
alphabet. That leaves only nine new sSrmbols to be learned. Figure 12
shows the IPA s5rmbols used for English consonants.
Classification of Consonants
A consonant is a speech sound that is formed when the

articulators interrupt the flow of air through the vocal tract. The place of
articulation, the manner of articulation, and uoicing of a consonant
determine its classification.
The place of articulation refers to the place in the vocal tract
where the internrption of the air flow occurs. For example, the place of
articulation for the consonant [p] is at the lips, because the flow of
breath is internrpted at the lips. The points of the vocal tract where
breath intern:ption occurs to produce consonants are: the hps, teeth,
tongue, teethridge, lurdpalate, soJtpalate and glottis. See the drawing of
the vocal tract in Figure B, page 13 (Oral Cavity and Its Articulators).
r28
Chapter 8
F-lgure 12: The IPA Symbols Jor ErglishConsonants
IPA Symbol Sound English word
Stop plosives tpI p pet

tbI b bet
ttl t toe
tdl d doe
tkI k kit
tgI e give
Nasals lmI m moon

lnI n neat
tnI ng hung
Fricatives tfl f feet

lvI v vain
t0l unvoiced th think
tdl voiced th than
lsl S sea
lzl Z zip
U] unvoiced sh she
tsI voiced zh azure
thI h heat
Lateral tu I lift
Glides lrl r rose
rjI v ves
lhwl unvoiced w when
lwl voiced w were
Combination
Consonants tfI unvoiced ch cheek
161 voiced j jeer, gin
'Ihe manner of articulation refers to the method of lntermption

of the breath flow, whether by a complete intermption or by a partial
intern-rpUon in the flow of air. In the production of the [p] consonant, for
example, the air flow is completely stopped before being released
suddenly. The various manners of articulation include:
L29
il
IPA for Singers
air flow is completely prevented

1. Stop-plosiue
- the the
from passing through mouth or the nose and then
is released suddenly. Examples: [p b k g].
2. Fricatirse the air flow is partially intermpted, thus
-
producing a noisy sound. Examples: [f v s z].
3. Nasal the vocal tract is blocked at some point
- oral
within the cavity, but the dropped soft palate
allows air to travel through the nasal passageway.
There are only three nasal consonants in English: [m
nl and ns [t]1.
4. I-ateral- the tongue tip lifts to touch the teeth and
the teeth ridge and the breath flows past one or both
sides of the tongue. The [1] consonant is the only
lateral consonant in English.
5. Glide the sound is charactefaed by a movement
-
of the articulators from one position to another.
Examples: [r], Lj] as in ges and [w] as in trrrd.
6. Combination Consonants the sound is produced
by a stop-plosive followed by - a fricative consonant,
forming a single sound. The two combination
consonants in English, [{] as fi gheek and [B] as in
jeer; are sometimes called affricatives.
The classification of uoicing indicates whether the

consonant is produced with vocal fold vibration (uoiced or without
vocal fold vibration knuoiced. To determine whether a consonant is
voiced, simply place your hand on your throat and speak the
consonant. If you feel vibration, the consonant is voiced and has
pitch. In English, there are several pairs of consonants (called
cognates) which have the same place and manner of articulation.
Cognates are differentiated only by the voicing.
Example: Unvoiced Voiced
tpl ibl
tsl lz)
trl tdl
lkl tgl
tfl Iv]
The following chart represents the classification of

consonants according to the place and manner of articulation and
voicing. Any unfamiliar symbols will be pointed out as they occur in
forthcoming exerclses.
130
Chapter 8
Figwe 13: Tlle Classifrcatton o;lConsonants
Place of Articulation
Upper
Teeth Tongue Tongue Tongue Tongue
Both and and and and and
Llps Upper Teeth Hard Soft Glottis
Iower
Lips Teeth Ridge Palate Palate
unv. v unv, v unv. v unv v unv v, unv v unv V.

E
o Fricative fv 0d SZ .r 3 h
+r
c
a
cl
Stop-Plosive pb rd ks
+,
{
rr.a
Nasal m n rj
o
k
(, Lateral 1
x
lr
c Glide hww r
E j
Common Problems in Articulation
The most common problems in articulation are

mulfle dnes s, ouer- a r ticulation, mis - ar ttculation,
s ub s titution,
a.ddition, and omrssion of specific consonants.
The category of mulfledness refers to the lazy or
slow use of the lips and tongue which results in
indistinct, mushy articulation. Unlike vowels which
have the potential for loud volume, consonants are
very limited in carrying power and must be
arttculated with precision and clarity for words to
be easily understood.
Ooer - articulatton is exaggerated articulation which
is the result of inappropriate emphasis, the
separation of syllables, or excesslve movement of
the lips and tongue. Over-articulation is often
called mouthing the words.
131
IPA for Singers
Mis-articulatiron is the distortion of one or more specific

consonants. This occurs most often with th s, z, t, d, t
or r. Lisps would fall into thls category of mis-
articulatlon.
Another articulatlon distortion which frequently
occurs ts called substttution. The speaker or singer
substitutes one consonant for another. An example
would be saying cidg for clfu.
Some speakers make additions of inappropriate
sounds irr some words, such as saying idearfor idea.
Other speakers articulate in such a way that there are
omisstons of necessary sounds. Omissions are most
likely to occur in consonant clusters. An example
would be to omit the t in exactor exactlg.
The exercises which follow are designed to identify the IPA

symbol for each specific consonant and to clari$r the articulation of
each sound. The consonants will be presented in groups according to
their manner of articulation. Chapter 9 includes the stop-plosive
consonants.
r32
CIIAPTER 9
THE
STOP-PLOSTVE
CONSONAT{TS
A stop-plosive consonant is one in which the air flow is

completely stopped from passing through the mouth or nose and is
then suddenly released. Stop-plosive consonants are further defined
by whether the consonant is voiced (produced with vocal fold
vibration) or unvoiced (without vocal fold vibration).
Cognates are paired consonants which have the same
manner and place of articulation but are differentiated only because
one is unvoiced and the other is voiced. Stop-plosive consonants can
be grouped into three cognates. In this chapter the stop-plosive
consonants will be presented in the following order:
l. The cognates [p] as in petand [b] as in bet
2. The cognates [t] as in tenand [d] as in den.

3. The cognates [k] as in kit and [g] as in giue.
tpl tbl ttl tdl tkl tgl

133
IPA for Singers
The stop-plosive consonants [p] and [b]

Exercises
Description
IPA
Symbol tpI tbI
Word
Example pat bat
Voicing unvoiced voiced
Place of
Articulation both lips
Manner of stop-plosive
Articulation
The lips close. The soft
palate is raised, closing
the nasal passageway.
Air pressure builds
behind the lips and is
then released plosively.
Common problems
The substitution of unvoiced [p] for voiced [b] or the reverse . Dabble
should not sound like dapple.
The omission of [p] and [b]. fnis error occurs most often in the
medial or final position as in clasp or bulb.
Excessive vocal effort caused by building up too much breath
pressure before releasing the sound.
r34
Chapter 9
In the exercises, keep your lips soft and relaxed as you articulate
the [p] and [b] consonants. Do not tighten the lips i::to a straight line. Do
not try to make stop-plosive consonants louder by building additional force
before the plosive part of articulaUon. the [p] and [b] consonants are best
produced when the lips, cheeks, and jaw remain loose and flexible.
When an IPA symbol ts the same as the letter of the alphabet, it
can be referred to by the name of the letter. For instance. [p] could be
called [pi]. However, in the IPA we are dealing wit]r sounds, not names. In
the following exercise, you wfll read aloud the sound of the consonant. To
pronounce the stop-plosive consonant [p], tfre lips will close creating a
stoppage of air, then the lips open and air is released plosively. As you
release the plosive part, you will hear a sound like a whispered uh (schu;a
[e]). So [p] *ill sound like whispered pulu A similar sound occurs with
[b]. Vou will hearvoiced buh-
^{.
Arttculatlon drllls for [p] and [b].
The objective in this exercise is to distinguish between the

unvoiced [p] and the voiced [b]. nlace a finger on the front of your throat,
on your Adam's apple, as you read aloud the consonants in a normal
conversational loudness. Feel the vibration that occurs for [b] but not for
tpl.
Read aloud these sounds. Whenmore thnnone
consonant is printed
tpl tb] withinbrackets with a
tp pl
space betweentlw
tb bI consonants, repeatthe
tpppl tbbbl sound.
Read aloud these paired words to contrast the sounds of [p]

and [b] in these words.
pear bear
pit bit
pate bait
putt butt
ape Abe
cap cab
maple Mabel
happy abbey
Read aloud to feel the contrast between pressured and non-

pressured articulation.
As you read the following words, articulate [p] and [b] forcefully
(as if you were angry). Allow the breath pressure tobuild up excessively for
the plosive part of the articulation. Feel the undesirable tension this
creates in the neck and lips on [p] and [b].
poke pun
pearly pick
bad burn
boy bum
135
IPA for Singers
Read the words aloud a second time, articulating the [p]

and [b] consonants gently. Speak the sounds clearly and
without excessive pressure.
poke pun
pearly pick
bad burn
boy bum
Sing this muslcal pattern using a lip trill.
Put your lips together gently and blow air through them.
This will result in a fluttering of the relaxed lips, the
sound we make when saying, "Brrr, it is cold!" This
exerclse, called a lip trlll, is excellent for loosening the lips
and improvtqg the consistency of breath flow.
brrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrr
B. Transcrlbe these words wfth [p] and [b] lnto IPA s5rmbots.
Read aloud the words as you write them, clearly

articulating each [p] and [b] in the initial, medial and
flnal posittons.
Initial
I. pes t fe$ lt 6. been
z.bee t- ba?l 7. best
3. pole 8. pest
4. bowl 9. beast
5. pen 1O. peace
Medial
1. happy 6. trouble
2. abbey 7. rumble
S.puppy 8. rumple
4. baby 9. capable
5. helpful 1O. probably_
Final
I.rip 6. mob
2. rib 7. sop
3. cap 8. sob
4. cab 9. rope
136 5. mop 1O. robe
Chapter 9
r. ['srm pel] 6. ['pam per]

z. ['stm bel] z. [mapt]
3. ['em ber] a. ['sab ss datz]
+. ['skem per] _ 9. ['op tr mem]
5. ['nam bor] to. [grab]
D. Vocallze, artlculatlng each [p] and [b] clearly.
pole bowl peg beg

pick Bic pert Bert
hap - py, ab - bey sip ping

sib - ling sam - ple, SA ble
pur - ple, am - ble, am ple
cap cab tap tab

cop cob rip rib
E. Sentences wtth [p] ana [b].

Read aloud these sentences, articulating quickly, easily
and flexibly.
Pertry Patty picks pretty, pink posies.

Paul paints preposterous purple palaces.
Bouncing baby boys bring bountiful blessings.
Brett burned Brian's buttered breakfast biscuits.
L37
IPA for Singers
The stop-plosive consonants [tl and [dl

Exercises
Description
IPA
Symbol trI tdI
Word
Example leam deem
Place of
Articulation tongue tip and teeth ridge
Manner of stop-plosive
Articulation
The tongue tip touches the teeth
ridge to stop the air flow through
the oral passageway. The soft palate
is raised, closing the nasal
passageway. Air pressure builds up
and then is released explosively.
Common problems
The substitution of unvoiced [t] for voiced [d] or the reverse. Pretty
must not be preddg.
Incomplete closure causing muffledness.
The omission of [t] and [d] which occurs most often in the medial or
final position as in lo.st or bland-
Pressured articulation, building up too much pressure on the stop
138 part of the stop-plosives [t] and [d].
Chapter 9
A. Artlculatton drllls for [t] and [d].
Articulate the [t] and [d] consonants by uslng a fledble

upward movement of the tongue tip to touch the teeth ridge. Be sure
to keep yourJaw relaxed.
Practice the following sounds tn isolation to contrast the
voiced and unvoiced qualities of each. Place your hand on the front
of your throat, on the Adam's apple, and say the sounds [t] and [d].
Feel the vibration that occurs for [d] but not for [t].
ttl IdI
lt trI tdddl
lt tttl tddddl
Read aloud these words. Feel the contrast between
pressured and non-pressured articulation.
Articulate these words forcefully (as if you were angry).

Allow the breath pressure to build up excessively for the plosive part
of the articulatlon. Feel the undesirable tension this creates in throat
and neck on [t] and [d].
tie tan
ton toe
slie Dan
g[one (ough
Read these words aloud a second time, but this time
gently. Articulate clearly and ruithout excessive pressure
or explosiveness.
tie fan
ton toe
die Dan
glone (ough
Read aloud these paired words to contrast the sounds of
ltl and [d].
ttl tdl
wrole road
tight trde
beI bed
plolling ploslsling
matter madder
otter odder
hoped homeg!
slapped slammeg[
clipped climbe(
latler ladder
leller (not leSlsler)
pre1ry (not preslsly)
little (not liddLle)
139
il
IPA for Singers
Notice that the final d is sometimes pronounced [d] and sometimes

[t]. When the final d follows a voiced consonant sound, the d is
pronounced as voiced [d].
hummed th^md] The d follows the sound of voiced [m].

beloved [br 'hvd] The d follows the sound of voiced [v].
However, when d follows an unvoiced consonant sound, it is
pronounced as unvoiced [t].
clipped tklryt] The dfollows the sound of unvoiced [p].

kicked tkkt] The dfollows the sound of unvoiced [k].
Read aloud to contrast [t] wittr [ts].
fact facts
pest pests
lift lifts
insist insists
Read aloud to contrast [d] and [dz]

band bands
find finds
end ends
friend friends
B. Transeribe these words lnto IPA s5rmbols.
Read aloud the words as you write, clearly articulating

each [t] and [d] in the initial, medial and final positions.
Initial
1. toil 5. din
2. don 6. tie
3. die 7. tone
4. tin 8. dune
Medial
L middle 5. better
2. attain 6. lantern
3. mid-day 7. notice
4. sounded 8. mandate
Final
1. send 5. nod
2. sent 6. clipped
3. kicked 7. bleed
4. nut 8. hummed
140
Chapter 9
C. Transcrlbe these IPA symbols into English words.
r. [d^d] 6. [bendz]
2.[det] 7. t'dEd LI
s. [test] 8. [stip]
4. [tr€k] e. tdredzl
s. [drest] 10. [o 'drest]
D. Vocallzatlons. Slng the followlng muslcal patterns,

articulating each [t] and [d] clearly and easily.
tore, door, take, day

ten, den, top, Don-
mat ter, mad der

ot ter, od der
let ter, pret ty
me dal, me tal
tab, dab, tie, die

send sent, cod, cot
E. Sentences wlth [t] and [d].

and flexibly.
Tiny tots attain terribly, tattered mittens.
Doleful David disavows dapper Dan's disclaimer.
L4L
IPA for Singers
The stop-plosive consonants [k] and [g]

Exercises
Description
IPA
Symbol tkI tsI
Word
Example kit gaue
Place of
Articulation back of tongue and soft palate
stop-plosive
Manner of
Arliculation The air flow stops as the back of the
tongue lifts to touch the soft palate,
closing off the oral passageway, and
the soft palate is raised, closing off
the nasal passageway. Air is then
plosively released by the quick
downward movement of the back of
the tongue.
Common Problems
The substitution of unvoiced [k] for voiced [g],particularly when it is
in the final position. Vigor should not sound like uicar.
The omission of [k] and [g], which occurs most often in medial or
final position as in deck, beg, or arctic.
Incomplete closure causing muffledness as in deck or tact.
Pressured articulation, building up too much pressure on the stop
part of the stop-plosives [k] and [g].
t42
Chapter 9
.{- Artlculatton drtlls for [k] and [g].
Articulate tfre [k] and [g] consonants by lifting the back of

the tongue to touch the soft palate. Keep the tip of the tongue behind
the bottom front teeth and theJaw relaxed.

Practice the following sounds in isolation to contrast the
voiced and unvoiced qualities of each. Place your fingers
on the front of your throat, on the Adam's apple, and say
these sounds. Feel the vibration that occurs for [g] but
not for [k].
tkl tsl tk kl [g g] [k k k] [g g g]
As you read these sounds, give attention to ttreir precise,

clean articulation while avoiding pressure or tightness irt
the throat. Keep the jaw relaxed.
tkl tgl tk kl [g g] tk k kl [g s g]

lkl and [g].
tkI tgI
back bag
Huck hug
rack rag
lack lag
uncle bungle
vicar vigor
pick pig
arc Margaret
arctic signiff
tactic significance
L43
IPA for Singers
B. Transcrlbe these words wfth [k] and [g] lnto IPA s5rmbols.
Read aloud the words as you write, clearly articulating

each [k] and [g].
Initial
1. class 4. grime
2. glass 5. cane
3. crime 6. gain
Medial
1. racket 4. wigs
2. ragged 5. accident
3. wicks 6. mix
Final
1. pique 4. lug
2.pi9 5 ask
3. luck 6 morgue
In our language, the letter x is transcribed as [<s] or [gz]. Listen

carefully to your pronunciations.
fix [fils] exalt [rg 'zcltl

excellent [ek se lant] exotic [lg 'zo Uk]
C. Transcribe these IPA s5rmbols lnto English words.
t. [bg ncg] o. [glcd]

z. [ak] z. [klrpt]
s. [gest] s. ['s]s ul
+. [kks] g. [esnd]
5. [kesz] to. Ing L]
L44
Chapter 9
D. Vocallze, artlculattng each [k] and [g] clearly and easlly.
give kit kin

go get key
cuwe can care
ra cket rag ged vi gor

decked tact lagged
big, dog, dig, rug

take, peak, oak, nack
E. Sentences with [k] and [g].

and flexibly.
Ken's calm cow comforted Kathie's kicking, crylng calves.
Good girls get great gag gifts.
L45
IPA for Singers
Chapter 9 Worksheet
l. apostrophe 16. discipline
2. style 17. Gregorian
3. operate 18. actor

4. fundamental 19. triad
5. chords 20. polyphonic
6. kaleidoscope 21. trio

7. except 22. melody
8. poetry 23. sustain
9. resonated 24. tenor
1O. baritone 25. gargle
11. baroque 26. cue

12. mystic 27. contralto
13. composer 28. piano
14. duet 29. applause
15. expanded 3O. accompanist
r. ['g1o trs] 11. ['ler br el]

z. ['kla srk] tz. ['po hps]
s. [,brb h 'o gre fr] rs. ['ok uv]
4. ['srm be ,h zom] 14. [!lc ze bel]
5. ['ou ver,tounz] t5. ['plu rel]
o. [,ak's€p te bel] t6. [g,\lfl

z. ['do me nont] L7. fttzd)
e. ['to nrk] ts. ['sta ft]
g. [scft 'pa lrt] t9. [dr'nout]
t0. [hps] 2o. ['bers ,bol]
146
CIIAPTER 10
THE
NASAL
CONSONAI\ITS
A nasal consonant is one in which the oral passageway is

blocked at some point and the soft palate is lowered to allow the air
to flow through the nasal passageway. There are only three nasal
consonants in English:
[m] as in me
[n] as in neat
ng [D] as in hung
[m] [n] t{l

The soJtpalate is Ttle soJtpalate is raised,
loutered permitting air closing the nasal
to enter nasalcautlg passagewaa,
I L47
IPA for Singers
Description
Exercises
The nasal consonant [m]
IPA
Symbol lmI
Word
Example Ire
Voicing voiced
Place of
nasal
Manner of
Articulation The lips close to stop the flow of air
through the oral passageway, The
soft palate lowers to permit air to
flow through the nasal passageway.
The tongue tip touches the back of
the bottom front teeth.
Common problems
Insufficient nasal resonance. Ttre [m] sound should be well hummed up

through the nose in speech as well as singing.
Inadequate duration causing muffledness.
148
Chapter 10
rL Artlcrrlatton drtlls for [m].
The nasal sounds are long sounds. They give good resonance to
the voice-brilliant tone and carrying power. Take advantage of them.
Don't cheat them.
The consonant [m] vibrates fully when the cheeks are soft, the
lips gently close, the jaw is relaxed with the teeth slightly separated, and
the tongue ls forward in the mouth.
Sing, using a vibrant [m] sound.
Sing the word Jume [fjum] in slow motion:

II[faAaAuuummmmmm. The yot [j] sound will help you bring
your tongue forward. The rounded [u] wfll help you relax your
Jaw by bringing your lips forward. As you close your lips for the
[m], feel that you are gathering the vibration of the [u] into the
[m]. ttre sustained [m] should feel and sound vibrant and
buzzy. Sing on a pitch in your speaking range for this exercise.
6 4o
4
t) rI
tfffjjjjjjjjuuuuuu - mmmmmmml
Read aloud these words.

With your lips lightly touching each other, sustain the sound of
each [m] for four full counts. Feel the vibration of sound in the
front of the face, around the lips or nose. Do not force the
sound nor allow it to fade in intensity. Maintain adequate
breath support during all four counts.
Counts: 12 3 4 r234
say:
surnmer (summmmrnmmer) hem (hemmmmmmm)
hammer (hammmmmmmer) I'm (I'mmmmmmmm)
somewhere (sommmmmewhere) game (gammmmmme)
humble (hummmmmmmble) dumb (dummmmmmb)
149
IPA for Singers
Ltnger over the [m] sound ir: each word, letting it "sing
out" in speech with the same vibrance as in singing.
ya11l amplify
stor4 proppt
crme walpgth
bottom resepqbles
hug thlmble
sogle pugtped
perfory for4ulate
from colqfort
tomb copplicated
rhvthm rumble
Read aloud the words as you write. Be sure each [m]

vibrates clearly and easily.
Initial
1. me fzrt L ] 4. mop
2. moo 5. merry
3. must 6. mire
Medial
1. hammer 4. bloomed
2. army 5. blamed
3. summer 6. timid
Final
1. name 4. some
2. I'm 5. Rome
3. sum 6. team
C. Transcribe these IPA symbols lnto Engllsh words.
1 lslrml o. [klerm]
2 [mut] z. ['ko men]
3 ['trar emfl e. ['mju ztk]
4 [Ik'strim] g. [pram]
5. [tum] ro. [maus]
150
Chapter 10
D. Vocallzlng wlth [m], vlbratlng each [m] clearly and easlly.
Humming with [m]
mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmm
miil, mate, mud, mad

might, moot, mead, muck-
milk, mark, move, mime
comf - ort, farm - er, tam - er, aimed

lim ber, calm - er, clum - sy named
sum - mer, dumb - er, room - er, homed
some seem slam Sam

deem dumb dam dame
him ham home I'm
E. Sentences with [m].
Read aloud these sentences, vibrating each [m] clearly

and easily.
Managing the menu made Mary moan.

Mirihful music maintains many men.
151
IPA for Singers
The nasal consonant lnl

Exercises
Description
IPA
lnl
Symbol
Word
Example aeat
Voicing voiced
Place of
Articulation teeth ridge and tongue tip
nasal
Manner of
Articulation The tongue tip touches the teeth
ridge to stop the flow of air through
the oral cavity. The soft palate
lowers to permit air to pass through
the nasal cavity.
Common problems
Insufficient nasal resonance. The [n] sound should be well hummed

up through the nose for speech as well as singing.
Inadequate duration causing muffledness.
L52
Chapter 10
A. Artleulatton drills for [n].
The consonant [n] can be fully vibrated when the tip of the
tongue lifts to gently touch the teeth ridge and teeth. L.et your Jaw
drop sllghtly. As you say [n], feel the vibrations at the tip of the
tongue. The sound of the sustained [n] is a hum, Just as the [m] is a
hum.
Sing, using a vibrating [n] hum.
Slng the word Juneral ['fju ne rel] in slow motion: Tte nasal sounds are long
sounds, proulding gd.
fuaauunnnnnnnnnnnnnnneral. Pause on the n [n] sound. resonance to the uoice-brilliant
Feel the lifted tongue tip gently touch your teeth ridge. tone artd carrying powen Take
Ltsten for the vibrant hum. aduantage oJthem. Don't cheat
tllem.
6 4(}
4
I ) rll
tfffjj j uuuunnnnnn nnn n nnnnl

With your tongue tip lightly touching the teeth ridge,
sustain each [n] sound for four full counts. Feel the
vlbrailon which occurs around the tip of the tongue and
the nose. Do not force the sound nor allow it to fade in
intensity. Maintain adequate breath support during all
four counts.
Counts: 12 3 4 t234
say:
tender (tennnnnnnder) pin (pinruennnnn)
handy (hannnnnnnndy) town (townnnnnn)
canyon (cannnnnnyon crane (crannnnnne)
spent (spennnnnnnt) brain brainnnnn)
153
IPA for Singers
Linger over the [n] sound in each word, letting it "sing

out" in speech wtth the same vibrancy as tn singing.
siger tlnt
looseg sender
sougd co11te11t
pen co4versation
pougd rage
thro4e friend
groag tones
cou4ter cegter
B. Transcribe these words lnto IPA symbols.
Read the words aloud as you write. Vibrate each [n]

clearly and easily.
Initial
1. note fn out l 4. nail
2. knock 5. neat
3. nip 6. nice
Medial
1. bundle 4. annul
2. tenor 5. mental
3. invent 6. donor
Final
1. man 4. brown
2. moon 5. stun
3. in 6. fan
C. Transcrlbe these IPA symbols lnto English words.
r. [nus] 6. ['trrnz ,lert]_

z. [nart] 7. lrrn'1,r kt]-
3. [,rtn'dan] 8. [nun]
+. [rent] o. ['nrf tr]
5. [drernd] t0. [,,rn 'tal]
L54
Chapter 10
D. Vocallze, vlbratlng each [n] clearly and easlly.
not lrrrow name

knee Nick night
neat noon nap
in vent bend - ing conscious kind

do nor main - ly mon - ey signed
non sense want - ed con - tact found
gone den green

fun done can
own won ton
E. Sentences wtth [n].
Read aloud these sentences, vibrating each [n] clearly

and easily.
Ned's new neighbors never need noisy nights

Nanny found invitations were not necessary.
155
IPA for Singers
The nasal consonant ng [q]

Exercises [tt] i" called eng [et:]
Description
IPA ttl
Symbol
Word
Example hutg
Voicing voiced
Place of
Articulation back of tongue and soft palate
nasal
Manner of
Articulation The back of the tongue is raised to
touch the soft palate and stop tJle
flow of air through the oral
passageway. The soft palate lowers
to permit air to pass through the
nasal cavity.
Common problems
Insufficient nasal resonance. Ttre [j]sound should be well hummed
up through the nose.
Inadequate duration causing muffledness. The nasal consonants are
long sounds. Be sure to give them adequate duration.
Substitution of [n] for [g], particularly ln tng words. Coming becomes

comin'.
156
Chapter 10
.{. Articulatton drtlls for [g].
Take advantage of the [g] hum for good resonance-brilliant tone and
carrying power. Don't cut short the duration of this sound.
With the back of your tongue gently touching the soft palate,
sustain each ng [tJ] for four full counts. Relar your throat and Inthese examples,
feel the sound vibrate around your nose. Do not force the sustain tlw corsonant ng
sound nor allow it to fade in intensity. Maintain adequate [g], not ttw tnwels.
breath support during all four counts.
Counts: r234 r234

Say: sing spring
Pronoutrce "ino" withih
going coming [II, ur co;4ins [ram
^ r! as
tongue king...... ...... . &*"b:: 'lr'l
Read aloud these words using ng [rJ]. Notice that there is no

[g] sound in these words.
hanging ['haq r!] not ['harp q]
solg
sing a [sry e scp]
singing ['srJ q]
hanger ['herl er]
s\Mi4gitg ['swttJ t!]
I,o11g Island ficr; 'ar land]
Read aloud these words spelled with ng. These words are
pronounced with [4] plus the consonant [g].
fi4ger [frp gsr]

si4gle ['u0 gal]
elopgate [r 'lctJ gprt]
spangled ['speg geld]
strollger ['strcq gar]
Read aloud these words spelled with nk, nc or nx. These
words are pronounced with fu] plus the consonant [k].
bank tbcqkl
drunk tdr rJkl
tanks [tegks]
ankle ['aq kel]
anchor ['aq ker]
Lincoln ['14 kon]
r57
IPA for Singers
Read aloud these palred words to contrast the [n] and [g]
sounds. Feel the difference between tongue positions for
[n] and [g]. nor [n] the tip of the tongue lifts to touch the
teeth ridge. For [g] the back of the tongue lifts to touch
the soft palate.
lnI tuI
sin stng
sun sung
ban bang
bun bungle
kin king
lawn long
Read aloud these words being careful not to substitute [n]

for [g]. The rrg words in our language are particularly
susceptible to this substitution.
coming notcomin'
practicing not practicin'
nothing not nothin'
being not bein'
strength not strenth
length not lenth
B. Transcrlbe these words lnto IPA symbols.
Read the words aloud as you write. Vibrate each [p]

clearly and easily. Notice there is no initial position for
this consonant in English.
Medial
1. singer fsryrar]
---- 4. angular
2. monkey 5. strongly
3. tingle 6. larynx
Final
1. hung 4. song
2. long 5. among
3. bring 6. ring
C. Transcrlbe these IPA symbotrs lnto Engltsh words.
t. [beil] 6. ['swrrJ er]_

z.lta;r,l z. ['du tg]
3. [bnlk] s. [gen]
+. [sap] 9. ['rid q]
5. [tc0z] to. [wq]
158
Chapter 10
D. Vocallze, vlbrating each [g] clearly and easlly.
t{t I
sing er
bun gle
hang ar
fling ing
ring rang rung

sing sang sung
long flung strong
see ing giv ing
pin ping sin sing Articulate carefullg the

consonants inthese
flint fling lone long paired uords.
togs tongs brick brink

black blank tug tongue
log long duck dunk
E. Sentences wtth [g].

Read aloud these sentences, vibrating each [g] clearly and
easilY.
Frank longs to sing a soaring song.
Young and single, they languish for strong dungarees.
159
IPA for Singers
Chapter lO Worksheet
1. sustain 16. prolong

2. harmony 17. starring
3. nasal 18. tongue
4. symphony 19. mandolin
5. contemporary 2O. make-up
6. monotone 21. announce

7. singer 22. season
8. dressing room 23. interview
9. training 24. dancer
lO. consonants 25. velum
11. phar5mx 26. winning

12. unison 27. inspiring
13. monologue 28. tempo
14. dramatic 29. meter
15. manuscript 3O. heroine
Transeribe these IPA qambols into English words
r. ['le rrrJks] rr. ['den tel]

2. [se'nc re tr] t2. ['tjun q]
s. ['stju dsnts] t3. [rn'toun]
+. ['trm pe ni] r+. ['frer zrg]
5. ['dar e frem] t5. ['krun rq]
6. [mcrst] to. [sla0]

z. [flem] tz. ['nou bel]
8. ['sar nes] 18. ['so rut]
9. [rn 'ten se tr r9. ['dan rp]
to. ['ab de men] zo. ['lef q]
160
Chapter 11
The
Ftricative
Consonants
A fricative consonant is one in which the air flow ls partially

intermpted as it passes through the vocal tract, thus producing a noisy
sound. Fricatives are longer sounds than the short stop-plosives. Because
they can be sustained, they are called conttnuants. The fricative
consonants in English are:
1. The cognates [fl as inJeetand [v] as in gcrn.
2. The 'th" cognates: [0] as in think and [d] as in lhen.
3. The cognates [s] as in sea and [z] as i\ Zip.

4. The 'sh- and 'zh" cognates: U] as in Ehe and [S] as in azure.
5. The consonant [h] as trt fueat.
tfl [v] tel tdl

[s] Lzl tjl tsl
thl
161
IPA for Singers
The fricatlve consonants [fl and [v]

Exercises
Description
IPA
Symbol tfl lvI
Word
Example Ieet uatn
Place of
Articulation upper teeth and lower lip
Manner of fricative
Articulation
The lower lip genfly touches the
upper teeth. Air is forced out
between the lower lip and upper
teeth. The soft palate is raised,
closing the nasal passageway.
Common problems
Pressured articulation. Many people speak these consonants in a

pressured way, so that they sound more like a stop-plosive
consonant rather than a sustained fricative.
The omission of [fl and [v], particularly before other consonants
{giae me becomes gimme).
The substitution of unvolced [fl for voiced [v]. The word haue
L62 becomes hqfl
Chapter 11
A. Arttculation drllls for [fl and [v].
When articulating [fl and [v], tisten for the sustained

fricative sound which is produced by the escaping air between the
lower lip and upper teeth. Be careful not to press or force the sound.
It should be a gentle sound. Building up too much force will create
unnecessary throat tension.
Practice the following sounds in isolation to contrast the Keep inmindthatwiced
voiced and unvoiced qualities of each. Place a finger on consonants haue pitclt
the front of your throat, on the Adam's apple, and say the
following. Feel the vibration that occurs for [v] but not for
tfl.
tfl [v] tf fl [vv] tf f fl [vvv]
Sustain the sound of the fricative consonants [fl and [v]
for the duration of two slow counts. Avoid pressured
articulation.
Counts: l2 l2
(feel) fffffffffffffeel (veal) wvwweal
(fine) fffffffffffffine (vast) wwwwast
(sel0 selfffffffffffff (rave) ravwvwwve
(fool) ffffffffffffffool (vile) wwwvwile
(i0 iffffffffffffffff (believe) believwwwwe
Read aloud these words, being careful not to omit the [fl
and [v] sounds.
Give me that. (Not Gimme thatl.
What a goll course!
Loye me or leaye me.
Graph paper.
Read aloud these words to contrast the sounds of [fl and
[v]. oo not substitute [fl for [v], but give full voicing to
each [v].
saf-e - save
leaf - leave
haf - haye
163
IPA for Singers
B. Transcrlbe lnto IPA symbols these words wtth [fl and [v] .
Read aloud the words as you write. Articulate each [fl

and [v] clearly and easily.
Initial
1. feet
(+;xl 4. fat
2. vail Cv et !) E. vat
3. fail 6. vim
Medial
1. affair 4. reveal
2. differ 5. drafty
3. lever 6. over
Final
1. rave 4, reef
2. cough 5. rough
3. stove 6. self
C. Transcribe these IPA symbols lnto Engllsh words.
t. [hafl o. [kafl
z.lhevzl z. ldr 'fektl
s.[grifl 8. [louql
+. [grivz] 9. flouvz]
5. ['fi ver] ro. ['laf ter]-
164
Chapter 11
D. Vocallze, artlculatlng each [fl and [v] clearly and easlly.
wvyvYvwwwwvwvvywvwwwww
------a
vote fore vice fight

forge vogue fan van
vase feign vault fault
tough - er fer - vor hav ing

draft- y pave - ment ri fle
heav - y craft - y dri ver
cuff cove waif wave

prove proof str'rfe strive
cliff give leaf leave
safe save serve surf
E. Sentences with [fl and [v].
Read aloud these sentences, articulating [fl and [v]

clearly and easily.
Few fellows feign fine feelings.
Voodoo vendors vowed vast vocal viruses.
165
IPA for Singers
The th consonants [0] and [d]

Exercises tOl is called by its sound or by the name theta
[Oete]. [U] is called by its sound or by the name
ethe [eil] or crossed d.
Description
IPA t0l t0l

Symbol theta ethe
Word think then

Example Jaitft smooth
P1aceof
Articulation upper front teeth and tongue
fricative
Manner of The upper front teeth and
Articulation tongue touch. Air passes
between the tongue blade and
upper teeth. The sides of the
tongue touch the upper
molars. The soft palate is
raised, closing the nasal
passageway.
Common problems
The substitution of unvoiced [0] for voiced 16l. Teethe must not sound like
tee&.
Misarticulation by putting the tip of the tongue behind the teeth resulting
in a sound like a stop-plosive [t] or [d] . These should not sound like dese.
The omission of [0] or [il], particularly in consonant clusters.
Inadequate duration of the sounds of [0] and [6] resulting in muffledness.
166
Chapter 11
A. Artlculatlon drills for [0] and [6].
Listen for the sustained fricative sound of [0] and EI. ge

careful not to press or force the sound. Building up too much force
will create unnecessary tongue and throat tension.

Practice the following sounds in isolation to contrast the Remember that wiced
voiced and unvoiced qualiUes of each. Place your hand on consonants, srrch as ethe, [6],
twue pitclt
the front of your throat, on the Adam's apple, and say the
following sounds. Feel the vibration that occurs for ethe
EI but not for l}tetulOl.
tol t6l
t0el t6 6l
t0uel te6eI
Read these words aloud, sustaining the sound of each
theta l0l and ette [d] for the duration of a full measure.
Avoid forcing or pressuring the sounds. Sustain the
consonants, not the vowel.
6 4o
4
) rll
Say: earth
soothe IsuU
breaths tbme0
breathes tbri6
think t0 ---rlkl
these tu rz)
Read aloud these words. Be careful not to omit the theta

[0] and ethe16T sounds.
both of them
bathe a child
width or
[wrd0] [wIt0]
breadth [b,redO] or [bret0]
t67
IPA for Singers
B. Transcrtbe lnto IPA s5rmbols these words uslng tln;eta [0] and ethe [U].
Read aloud the words as you write, articulating each [0] and [d]
clearly and easily. If you are unsure about the voicing, sustain the
'th" for two slow counts. This will help you distinguish between
[0] and [61.
Initial
1. these Cz;.1 4. thine
2. thin L0rnl 5. third
3. there 6. them
Medial
1. rather 4. father
2. method 5. weather
3. ethics 6. broth
Final
1. path 4. breath
2. writhe 5 breathe
3. beneath 6. soothe
t. [6rs] o. [siU]
z. [Ori] z. [mrrn0]
s. iletUl s. [raO]
+. [mOs] 9. ['sker Uq]
5. ['Orm bel] _ to. [Uer]
168
Chapter 11
D.Vocallze, artlculating each [0] and [6] clearly and easlly.
t6
think thick thaw thank

thee then thine this
thumb there thin these
through them they that
either mother rather noth ing

method author feather oth er
father earthy breathy teeth ing
myth troth lath

bathe clothe lathe
path tooth both
smooth breathe wrlthe
E. Sentences with [0] and [6].

Read aloud the following sentences, articulating clearly and easily.
Ethical thinkers think ethereal, thriilhg, truthful, faithful thoughts.
This worthy bathing soothes the father in seething, writhing,
scathing weather.
169
IPA for Singers
The fricative consonants [s] and [z]

Exercises
Description
IPA
Symbol
Is] lzl
Word sea zio

Example rage LUAS
Place of tip or blade of tongue near teeth

Articulation ridge
fricative
Manner of
Articulation Either the tip of the tongue is near
the teeth ridge or the blade of the
tongue is near the teeth ridge with
the tip behind the bottom front
teeth. Air flows between the teeth
and tongue. Sides of the tongue
touch the upper molars. Soft palate
is raised, closing nasal passageway.
Common problems
Frontal and lateral lisps.

The substitution of unvoiced [s] for voiced [z]. nDs must not sound
like rrps.
L70
Chapter 11
,{- Artlculatlon drtlls for [s] and [z].

The fricative consonants [S] and [z] are created by the e]dting air
through the center of the mouth over the tongue ttp or blade. The tongue
can be placed in either of two positions, both of which have the same
acoustic result. One way is to suspend the tip of the tongue in the front of
the mouth near the teeth ridge. The other is to place the tip of the tongue
behind the back of the bottom teeth and raise the blade of the tongue
toward the teeth ridge. Both of these tongue placements produce a clear [s]
or [z]. Notice which way you make [s] and [z].
Read aloud the following sounds to contrast the voiced and
unvoiced qualities of each. Place your hand on the front of your
throat, on your Adam's apple, and say the following sounds. Feel
. the vibration that occurs for [z] but not for [s].
tsl lzl [s s] lz zl [s s s] lz z zf
Read aloud these words to contrast [s] and [z].
tsl lzj
sip zip
sag zag
sink zirtc
lacy lazy
price pnze
false falls
rice rise
lacks lags
waltz walls
beets beads
Read aloud these words avoiding pressured articulation. Sustain

the sound of each fricative [s] and [z] for the duration of two
slow counts.
Counts: l2 l2
(pass) passsssssss (rise) rissssssssse
(seal) ssssssssseal (zeal) zzzzzzz.zzzz.eal Aftontol lisp occurs
wlren some oeople
Read aloud these paired words to contrast tOl - ts] and [d] - [z] prdrrce [s]'ana [z] wirh
their torEue tip
In the following words feel the contrast as the tongue moves iraapproprtatelg placed
from between the teeth for the sounds [0] and [U] to the back of betweentlle teethlike a
"th'sorutd.
the teeth in the following words for the [s] and [z] sounds'
Aloterql liqp occurs
tel [s] tql lzl wlen air escapes arotntd

tlue sides of the tonEte
bath bass bathe baYs rstlerthanouer the
myth miss breathe breeze center and-tlw torque tiP.
path pass seethe seize Tle tip is pressedfirmlg
withered ag oirlst the teeth ridge
thank sank wizard
ortdtle corners of the tiPs
theme seem writhing rising are ofienpriledbackto
permitthe escape oJ ain
L7L
IPA for Singers
Read aloud these words to lncrease your tactile awareness

of the placement of the tongue. Repeat the word eat
several times until you feel the flrm contact of the sides of
the tongue with the teeth. As you repeat the words below,
adding [s] or [z], keep the sides of the tongue lifted.
Listen for a sharp quality of the [s] and [z] when emitted
properly from the front of the mouth.
eat - eats - eats - eatsss - eatssss [ssssssss]
tote - totes - totes - totesss - totessss [sssssssss]

bead - beads - beads - beadsss - beadssss lzzzzzzzzl
toad - toads - toads - toadsss - toadssss lzzzzzzzzzl

B. ?ranscrlbe lnto IPA symbols these words uslng [s] and [z] .
Read aloud the words as you write, articulating the [s]

and [z] clearly and easily. If you are unsure about the
voicing, sustain the sound for two slow counts. This
should help you distinguish between [s] and [z].
Initial
1. soap fs oupl 5. sleep
2. zeal fz,L!-7 6. zoom
3. sin 7. sane
4. zebra 8. zip
Medial
1. puz,zle 5. music
2. abysmal 6. freezer
3. misty 7. thirsty
4. pencil 8. thistle
Final
1. rose 5. these
2. pass 6. this
3. lags 7. bets
4. peace 8. beds
C. Transcrlbe these IPA Symbols lnto Engllsh words.
t. [sct] o. [klottz]
2. [zoun] z. [klous]
s. ['zi ruO] e. [sis]
+. [saund] e. [siz]
5. [dI 'fjuz] to. [piz]
172
Chapter 11
D. Vocallze wlth [s] and [z]:
ZZ ZZZ ZZZZZZ Z ZZ ZZ Z ZZZZZZ Z ZZ ZZZ ZZZZ ZZ
so zotTe sea zeal

sap zap say zest
steak soap zoo zip
rac er mer - cy pass - ing

haz - y los er dlz ry
eas v froz en fac ing
niece knees dose doze

purse purTS loose lose
cease seize dice
E. Sentenees vith [s] and [z].

Read aloud the following sentences, articulating [s] and
[z] clearly and easily.
Sam said Sandra saw several Soviet submarines.
His dazzling roses cause cosmic breezes.
173
IPA for Singers
The sh and zh fricative consonants p1 and tsl

Exercises ul is called esh [eJ].
lsl is called by its sound, as in crzttre.
Description
IPA rIl tsl

Symbol Called esh Called by
lell its sound
s,he azure
Word qean
Example casua|
sugar beige
nafun
Place of tongue blade and boundary of the

Articulation teeth ridge and hard palate
fricative
Manner of
ArLiculation The sides of tJle tongue laterally
touch the side teeth. The tongue tip
is pointed either toward the back of
the teeth ridge or lower gum ridge.
Air shoots out over the tongue and
between the front teeth.The soft
palate is raised, closing the nasal
passagewaay.
Common problems
Lateral lisp, in which air escapes over the sides of the tongue rather
than over the center.
The substitution of unvoiced esh [I] for voiced [S]. ffiSSion should
not rhyme with u6ton.)
L74
Chapter 11
A. Artlculatton drllls for esh U] and [S].
Read aloud the following sounds to contrast the voiced

and unvoiced qualities of each. Place your hand on the
front of your throat, on the Adam's apple, as you say the
followtng sounds. Feel the vibration that occurs for [S] but
not for esh Ul.
UI tsl UII [ss] UIII [sss]

Read aloud the following words to contrast the sounds of
esh U] and [3]. Give full votctng to each [S].
U] tsI
figion vigion
cauf[on cagual
lusgious fusion
passion prestige
an5[ous garage
Read aloud these sentences. If you have a particular kind

of lisp on [s] and [z], you probably will have that problem
with U] and [S]. The most common is t}:,e lateral lisp
where the air comes out over the sides of the tongue
ratl:er than over the center. Check your articulation of []
and [S] in these sentences.
My dicllon is good.
It is a cagual party.
My profession is teaching.
His vigion is broad.
Contrast final [S] and [z].
6 4o
4
) rll
rouge ruse
beige bays
liege Lees
175
IPA for Singers
B. Transcrlbe lnto IPA symbols these words uslng U] and [S] .
Read aloud the words as you write, articulating each U]

and [S] clearly and easily. If you are unsure about the
voicing, sustain the sound for two slow counts. This
should help you distinguish between [J] and [S].
Initial
L she E i1 There is no rnrtial [3]
2. sure in English.
3. sheep
Medial
1. ocean 4. delusion C dt'lu n)
2. fraction 5. seizure
3. assure 6. visual
Final
1. mash 4. beige
2. cash 5. rouge
3. thrash 6. prestige
l.tr,tj] 6. [Jerm]
z.UstI z. [fIeJ]
s. [mt hos] s. [ge 'rog]
a. [e 'ker Sen] _ s. ['vr 3an]
5. [Ju ger] 10. ['kc Jan]-
t76
Chapter 11
D. Vocallze wrth Ul and [S].
sheen shot sharp shirk

shout sure she shut-
shake sake shame same

shun sun sheet see
ca sual a zute plea sure

vi sion fu sion mea sure
lu scious cau - tion mis sion
o cean pas - sion pa tient
rush rouge bar rage

cors age mi rage
brash gash un leash
E. Sentences with Ul and [s].

Read aloud the following sentences, articulating [] and
[3] clearly and easily.
Shepherds shouldn't shoot sheared sheep.
Unusual beige garages measure prestige.
t77
IPA for Singers
The fricative consonant [h]

Exercises
Description
IPA
Symbol
thl
Word
Example heat
Voicing unvoiced
Place of
Articulation glottis
fricative
Manner of
Articulation Air escapes unvoiced through the
glottis (space between the vocal
folds). The articulators are in
position for the vowel which follows
the [h]. The soft palate is raised,
closing the nasal passageway.
Common problems
Over-aspiration, pushing too much air through the glottis resulting

in breathiness.
L78
Chapter 11
.L Arttculatlon drllls for [h].
Read aloud, differentiating between these paired words,

with and without an [h].
haste aced
has as
hear ear
hate ate
high I
Hugh you
who's ooze
B. Transcrlbe lnto IPA syrmbols these words using [h]. Ttve initiatwh in the uords who
[hu], whole [houU, ondtheir
deriuatiues are Dronounced with
Initial fhl. otwr *ord." begtnning with
wh such as white and whither
1.heat Ihit] 4.whole are Dronounced with an
unvticed w [hw]. see Chapler
2. hound 5. hammer 13 on Glides for a full
disctrsstcn and [w].
3. hue 6. home "f[hw]
Medial
Inthe words hue qndhumo,n
1. ahead 4. antihistamine *w initirr| h is pronounced tn
s tandard Amer ic an s oe ech.
2. unwholesome _ 5. inhuman Tlereisno.final [h] sound tn
English.
3. inheritance 6. uphill
C. Transcribe these IPA symbols into English words. Inmang spellings inBngtistt h
is not sounded, as tn horror
t. [hafl o. [,ad'hi sw] ond exhibit. Listen carefullg to
z. [hot] 7. [.,rn'ha pI]- Aour pronunctotions.
s. ['hc tr] 8. ['hi 6en]-

+. [herl] 9. ['hju men]-
s. [h,tg] to. [br 'hed rd]
D. Vocallze wlth [h].
Practice the onset of tone using words with and without
an [h].
ear hear AS has

old whole ate hate TheJricatiue consonant [h] is an
unuoiced sound and cannot be
sung. Thls sound is usefulJor
E. Sentences wtth [h]. uualization bg singer s, howeuer,
to auoid. a glottal plosiue attack
and to learn a gentle orset oJ
Read aloud the following sentence, articulating the [h] tone.
clearly and easily.
He who has high hopes humors humanity.
L79
IPA for Singers
Chapter l1 Worksheet
Transcribe these words into IPA symbols
1. zest 16. fling

2. witnesses 17. ghost
3. patrontze 18. headphone
4. nasal 19. entourage
5. sextet 2O. foreclosure
6. shallow 21. partial

7. leisure 22. crazy
8. haberdasher 23. medicine
9. nation 24. valuable
1O. immersion 25. motherland
t 1. thwart 26. exhaust

12. hourly 27. brethren
13. loathe 28. mouth
14. loath 29. phonetic
15. invert 3O. cashew
t. ['vou ke liz] tt. [buO]

2. ['vou ke larz] 12. [ftc &]
s. [flatj t3. [fou te grrcfl
+. [fer mas] 14. [vr 'bro ,tou]
5. [OrtU 15. Iti6]
6. ['ne &ar landz] to. [kerv]
z. ['hor me nr] tz. ['sa ,flau er]
8. lhort] t8. [,ncr0 'ist]
g. [sa$] ro. [her van]
Io. [rn 'hr br trd] 2O. [hs van]
180
Chapter L2
The
Late;ai
Consonant
tll
A lateral consonant is one in which the sides of

the tongue are lowered, not touching the upper molars. The
breath flows laterally over one or both sides of the tongue,
and comes out the stdes of the mouth. fhe [] is the only
lateral consonant tn English.
trl
181
IPA for Singers
The lateral consonant I I ]

Exercises
Descriptlon
IPA
Symbol tu
Word
Example !,fr
Voicing voiced
Place of
Articulation tongue tip and teeth ridge
lateral
Manner of
Articulation The tip of the tongue raises to touch
the teeth ridge. The sides of the
tongue lower to permit the flow of
air over the sides of the tongue and
out the sides of the mouth.
Common Problems
Slack articulation, occurring when the tongue tip does not firmly touch
the teeth ridge, resulting in an indistinct, muffled sound.
The omission of [l], occurring most often in the medial positions. The
word help should not become hep [hep]
Tongue thrust occurring when the speaker puts the tongue between the
teeth to make [l] . rhe tip of the tongue tends to be pointed and tense.
r82
Chapter 12
In Engllsh there are four allophones of []. first, there is

the clear [l] whrch is made with the tongue tip touchtng the teeth. It
is used preceding forward vowels and diphthongs. Read aloud these
words and feel the placement of the tip of your tongue touching the
teeth: leap, lit, let, lot, late.'Ihe IpA symbol for this clear sound is [[] .
Next, there is the dark [], sometimes called the alveolar

[l]. the ttp of the tongue touches higher up on the teeth ridge.
Generally, Amerlcans use the dark [l] at the ends of words or in the
middle of words. Feel the placement of the tip of your tongue against
the teeth ridge as you read these words: Jult, help, walt-, Jeil,
clwllenge, inlnnd, truly. The IPA symbol for this dark sound rs [1].
' In English there is a dental
[] which Americans use
preceding tlu Feel the tip of the tongue on or between your teeth as
you read these words: uealth. stealilu heottt selt the car will theg
go? This sound is represented in IpA nV [1^ ] . Dental
[[ ] becomes a
distortion called tongue thrust when it is used consistenily for [l] in
English in words other than before tlu
The clear [[] and dental [ [ ] are often used in foreign
languages, while the dark [1] is neither common nor desirable in
other languages. American singers will need to identi$ and use the
clear [[] or dental I I ] for singing in Italian, German and French.
This manual will simply use the unmodified symbol [l]

unless there is a need to indicate one of the allophones listed above.
Lastly, ln words like little, botile, or able, the final le is
spoken as a urouelized or syllabDed l. The IpA transcription for this
fourth allophone uses a dot underneath the symbol tll. ln singing,
however, the syllabtc I [!] does not produce a freely vibrating tone
on sustained notes. Therefore, singers sing on the vowel [a] followed
by an Ul. Sgllabtc I [] will be transcribed as [al] in this text.
Word Spoken Sung
little ['lr tl] ['h tsl]
bottle ['bo tl] ['bc tal]
able ['er b!] ['er bel]
A. Artlculatlon drtlls for [].
Read aloud these sounds. Practice this drill using a clear
tt] and a dropped jaw. Give attention to the flexible
lifting of the tip of the tongue to the back of the teeth to
produce the clear [[].
lla la lal [ou [ou lou] [lu [u lu] tla la lal
183
IPA for Singers
Read aloud these words using a dark F]. se sure that

your tongue tip firmly touches the teeth ridge for each E].
wall
elevate
relevant
alright
help
onlY
told
Read aloud these words. noticing that the I is silent. Be
sure you do not pronounce the I in these words.
walk psalm
balk alms
talk calf
calm half
B. Transcrlbe lnto IPA s5rmbols these words using [1] .
Read aloud the words as you write, articulating [l] clearly

and easily.
Initial
t.lit LAtil 4. limb
2. leap 5. leaf
3. lose 6. liver
Medial
1. wealthy 4. delicate
2. pulpit 5. shoulder
3. sullry 6. selling
Final
1. funnel 4. purple
2. middle 5. cattle
3. recall 6. opal
C. Transcrlbe these IPA s5rmbols lnto English words.
r. ['mr ler] o. [val]

z.[cl] z. ['si hg]
3. ['set ler] s. [erm]
a. [,cl 're dr] g. [td]
184
s. ['ka lan der] lo. [boul]
Chapter 12
D. Vocallze wlth [U.
lla la la la la la la la la]
leaf laid lace lip

loud lot lend lung
lobe lake like lock
glow help tel ler

play flame wil liam
gold milk mil lion
ap - ple, - tle
rat a- ble hill
mid - dle o-pal pur - ple wall
E. Sentences wtth [U.

Read aloud these sentences, articulating the [1] clearly
and easily.
Luckily, little lads love long-limbed lasses.
Alright!All the old cold milk has been sold!
185
IPA for Singers
Chapter 12 Worksheet
Transcribe these words irrto IPA symbols.
1. left 11. latter
2. hall 12. ruling
3. elbow 13. lather
4. olfactory 14. fallable
5. lace 15. abdominal
6. locust 16. intercostal
7. elevate 17. loudly
8. feelings 18. loathe
9. roller 19. choral
1O. liquid 2O. cerebral
Transcribe these IPA symbols into English words'
r. lnn der,lat I4] 6. ['sou ,lou lst]
z. ['li der] z. [fo Joud]
3. [ta lens] 8. [ter lor]
+. [!is miel o. fmo na ,lcg]
5. ['me ltt] r0. [rn 'terl]
186
Chapter 13
The
Glides
A glide ls a consonant whose sound is characterized by a

movement of the articulators from one position to another. Glides are
sometimes referred to as semi-vowels or semi-consonants.
The glides in English are:
The r glide [r], as in fose, Led. ram.
The y glide [j], called yot Uct], as in Aes, aou,

yesterday.
The u.r glides, voiced [w] as n were and unvoiced [hw] as
in ushen.
[r] tjl thwl [w]

187
IPA for Singers
The glide [r]

Exercises
Description
IPA lrl
Symbol
Word LOSe
Example Pfice
beru
Voicing voiced
Place of
Articulation tongue tip just back of teeth rid$e
glide
Manner of
Articulation The vocal folds vibrate as the sides
of the tongue press against the
inside of the upper back teeth. The
tongue tip is retracted and pointed
upward just behind the teeth rid$e.
The soft palate is raised, closing the
nasal passageway.
Common Problems
Excessive retraction of the tip of the tongue.

The addition of [r] where it should not exist: ideat lnuisianan; warsh-
The rounding of the lips when forming an [r], which results in a

sound similar to [w]. Red should not sound like u.red.
188
Chapter 13
The consonant [r] is classified as a glide because it is produced

with a contlnuous movement of the tongue from one position to another.
Notice the gliding movement of the tongue as you say the words red. rose,
drip, and tr'tp.
When r follows a vowel in the same syllable, it can sometimes be
heard as a separate consonant as in car or as part of the vowels [sJ and
[a] as immwder.
You will need to listen to your own speech to determine whether
r is part of a vowel sound, or whether it is separate from the vowel. Read
Chapter 6, Central Vowels, for information about transcribing and singing
the r-colored vowels.
. The rolled r [I] is used ln other languages but is not usually
spoken tn English. However, it ls occasionally used in singing when a
stronger artlculation is needed, as with an orchestra in a large hall.
Vocalizing on the rolled r [f ] is also a valuable exercise to achieve greater
tongue flexibility.
A one-tap r [f ] , as in the British pronunciation of rregy, is also
used occasionally by singers for additional clarity to communicate the
word.
A. Artlculatlon drllls for [r].
Read these words aloud giving attention to your articulation of

lrl.
rose berate beel
red elode wEe
f,ace pletend chail
Ean fgiend deal
wrono bdng hele
WTAD clamp stal
fest qrew vour
getrieved apploach harl
reasonable ttack sta5e
Read aloud these words to contrast [r] and [w]. Do not use
excessive lip movement. Feel the movement of the tongue on
lrl.
reed weed
red wed
rate wait
ride wide
rays ways
189
IPA for Singers
Initial
l. rose Lrov z) 5. wrecked
2. red 6. right
3. rail 7. raw
4. reel 8. rate
Medial
l. apround 5. arrest
2. erode 6. trite
3. very 7. three
4. uproot 8. awry
Final
1. car 5. fore
2. fear 6. pear
3. par 7. parr
4. tour 8. dear
r. ['ri zen] 0. ['fju rr es]

2.[rifl z. ['ka rt]
s. [frend] a. ['fri lt]
+. [brrE] g. [rarts]
5. ['mr ste rr] _ rO. Imour]
D. Vocallze wfth [r].
trilled [I]t r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r
190
Chapter 13
rude risk room wreck

rich reap rate rock
right wren rake rare
ga-rage ber-ry ve-ry ar dor

er-rand a - round mer -ry car ry
war fore fear warIn

our wear bear your
car guard fort court
grain dress droop straw

crisp shrewd dry price-
cry prove track street
tree three frown thrift
E. Sentence wlth [r].

Read aloud, articulating the [r] sound clearly and easfly
Ruby rode Ralph's rich, red roan rapidly.
191
IPA for Singers
The y gtide Ul, as in ges UesI

Exercises The symbot [j ] is called Aot Ul
Description
o IPA
Symbol
rjl
Word aes
Example mtlllon
Voicing voiced
Place of
Articulation tongue and hard palate
glide
Manner of
Articulation The tongue tip touches the back of
the bottom front teeth. The blade of
the tongue moves to a high, arched
posiUon, close to the hard Palate,
similar to the vowel [r], then quickly
shifts to the vowel which follows.
The soft palate is raised.
Common Problems
The substitution of [6] for U I . Dtdgou? becomes Didjeut?

The addition of [j ] between words which end and begin with a
vowel. f am becomes I yam.
L92
Chapter 13
A. Arttculatlon drtlls for [].

Read aloud the following words with an initialjot U].
ye
year
you
yes
Read aloud these words which include [j] after [l] and
lnl.
million ['ml jen]
stallion ['stal jan]
billiards ['brl jerdz]
onion [,rn jen]
opinion [e 'prn jen]
companion [cem 'pan jan]
Read aloud these phrases. Do not add a [j] sound
between words which end and begin with a vowel sound.
amI not Iyam
see it not see yit
Joy in not joy yrn
Read aloud these words, carefully articulating the [j]

sound.
Would you? not Would djeu/?
I'll let you. not I'll let chew.
Beside you. not Beside djew.
Read aloud the following paired words to contrast the

sound of pure [u] and diphthongat Uu]. See Chapter 7
for a discussion of [ju].
lul Liul
food [fud] feud [fjud]
coo tkul cue [cju]
booze [buz] abuse [o'bjuz]
booty ['bu tI] beauty ['bju tI]
Read aloud these words which use U].
gniform ['ju ne ,fcrm]

ewe Liul
ssual ['ju Su el]
193
IPA for Singers
Initial
1. yield t i !-d) 4. unified
2. yam 5. usage
3. youth 6. yesterday
Medial
1. pinion 4. civilian
2. union 5. canyon
3. billion 6. William
Final
There are no final [j] sounds in English
C. Transcrlbe these IPA symbols into English words.
r. ['trrl jen] 5. ['jou go]-

z. [et] 6 liaok]
s. [je 1o] z. [jist]
+. ['ju ntt] 8. Irr]
194
Chapter 13
D. Vocallze, carefully artlculatlng each [j].
you yel low yearn yet

yo gi yank yacht yeast
yield bil - lion year ly

pin ion un - ion can yon
E. Sentence wlth [j].

Read aloud, articulating each [j] clearly and easily.
Yards yield yellow yams yearly.
195
IPA for Singers
Exercises
The w glides [hw] and [w]
The symbol [hw] is called
unvoiced w
The symbol [w] is called "w"
Description
IPA
Symbol lhwl lwl
Word
Example when wert
Place of
glide
Manner of
Arliculation The tongue tip is behind the back of
the bottom front teeth. The back of
the tongue is raised. The lips are
rounded and ready to move into the
next sound. The soft palate is
raised, closing off the nasal
passageway.
Common Problems
The substitution of voiced [w] for unvoiced [hw]. Whine [hwaln]
should not sound like rlrne [waln].
196 Inadequate lip rounding for [hw] and [w].
Chapter 13
.{. Artlculatlon drtlls for unvolced w [hw] and volced w [w].
Place your hand on the front of your throat, on the

Adam's apple, and say the foltowing sounds. Feel the
vlbration that occurs for [w] but not for [hw].
Read aloud the following sounds to contrast the voiced
and unvoiced qualities of [w] and [hw].
lwl [hw] [w] [hw] [w] [hw]

Be sure to use adequate lip
rantding Jor these sounds.
Most speakers of standard American English use the
unvoiced n: [hw] for the tuh in such words as u.rheel, u:here, and,
ushat. However, using unvoiced ro [hw] seems to be declining in
certain parts of the United States. As you will see in the following list
of paired words, the use of unvoiced ru [hw] and voiced u, [w] helps
distinguish meanings. Therefore, in singing, you should continue to
use [hw] forthe ruhwords.
unvoiced ru [hw] and voiced [w]. oo you use [hw] in Another IPA sgmbol uthich is
your dialect? somettmes used for u'obeless
[hw] ir; [,tr].
lhwl lwI
wheel weal
whine wine
whey way
where wear
which witch
whether weather
Read aloud these words which use the [h] sound.

who [hu]
Tluere are some ruords beginning
whose [huz] withthe spelling uh in which
the initirrl sourrd is not the
whom [hum] y4picedu, [hw] but is sunplg
whole tht.
[houl]
whore [hour]
Read aloud these words in which the to is silent.
written ['rl ten] Words beoinntrw wtthur are

wracked [rakt] p-r-r uu[ [r] onlg, the
"Zd
letter w betrq silent.
\riren [ren]
wring [rItJ]
wrinkle ['rtr3 kel]
L97
IPA for Singers
B. Transcrlbe these words lnto IPA symbols. The words use both
unvolced [hw] and voiced [w].
Read aloud these paired words as you write the IPA

transcription to contrast [hw] and [w].
lhwl lwI
r.whideo fhwgr.{.4'l world f wa r !-&f
2. whale wail
3. whither wither
4. wheat we
5. while wile
6. whirred word
7. whine vrine
8. whisper wisp
9. whet wet
1O. white \yild
Read aloud these words that contain a [w] sound fol-

lowing another consonant. Write the transcription.
1. swag 5. quit
2. dwell 6. quail
3. twenty 7. quick
4. dwarf 8. choir
t. [hwerl] 6. [kweIl]
2. [wet] z. ['swo 1o]
3. ['hwt sal] 8. ['wcl nat]
+. [wan] e. [hwsr!
5. [kwtl] ro. [wsr]
198
Chapter 13
D. Vocallze, artlcul,atlng the unvoiced [hw] and volced [w]

sounds carefully.
why white what-

wine weak wise
whirled world won
E. Sentences wlth [hw] and [w].
Read these sentences aloud, articulating each unvoiced u

[hw] and voiced to [w] clearly and easily.
Whywhisper for whiskey and whine for wheat?
Whirl and whip the white whey.
Watch out! The wicked woman wants Wilma's
water well.
Wise witches wont wear wool.
199
IPA for Singers
Transcribe these words into IPA symbols
1. worthy f 1. urring
2. whiskers 12. yammer
3. razed 13. whirl

4. unwieldy 14. punitive
5. cupid 15. while
6. arrest 16. unique
7. wander 17. wise
8. yearly 18. tweet
9.wry 19. whatever
lO. ukulele 20. valued
Transcribe these IPA symbols into English words'
r. [twrst] o. [hwtz]
z. [hwcrf] z. [twikt]
3. [wIuk] 8. [rcrJ]
+. ['pju me] g. ['wom ,bat]
5. ['stju por] to. [kruz]
200
CIIAPTER L4
THE
COMBINATION
CONSONAIIITS
The combination consonants, also called affricatives, are

those which combine the articulation of two consonant sounds
into a single speech unit. In English, there are two combination
consonants, both of which are composed of a stop-plosive and a
fricative consonant. The combination consonants are:
The cognates [[] as in gheek ana [{,] as injeer or girt
t[] 16l
20L
L.- r
IPA for Singers
The combination consonants tfl and t6l

Exercises
Description
IPA
Symbol tuI rql
I Word
Example chtlt
jet
gtn
Place of tongue and boundary of teeth ridge

Articulation and hard palate
combination
Manner of
Articulation The tongue blade touches the teeth
ridge and the sides of the tongue
touch the upper side teeth to form a
stop-plosive sound. The tongue tip
then moves to a fricative position.
The soft palate is raised closing off
Ttue corwonants [f] [6] the nasal passageway.
""a
are calledbg thetr sound..
Common Problems
Lisping air escapes laterally, out of the sides of the mouth
202
Chapter 14
.{. Artlculatlon drltls for [f] and [t].

Place your hand on the front of your throat, on the Arttcriate each [f] and [*]
Adam's apple, and say the following sounds. Feel the wlth prectsion. gtving attention
to the wlcing and the manner oJ
vlbration that occurs for [$] but not for [f]. artianlation ( stop - plo s iw
Jollowed bg Jrtcatil:e) .
Read aloud the following sounds in isolatton to contrast
the unvoiced [f] and voiced [S].
rfr t*r rf fr 16 6t rft t6I

Read aloud the following words to contrast [f] and [t].
unvoiced [f] voiced [6]
q[ose Jewel
chamo lam
Qhina angina
dild Giles
breegh bri(ge
mateh Maglge
Read aloud these words to contrast [[] and [S] with

other votced and unvoiced sounds.
lsI U] tfl
sea she cheep
sop shop chop
bass bash batch
distant dishes ditches
lzl tsI 161

zeal adhesion Jean
zlp visionary gvp
has azDte Madge
busy collision pidgeon
Read aloud to contrast [I] and [f]

ut
share
tf]
chair
she cheap
ship chip
marsh march
hush hutch
cash catch
luscious lunch
Read aloud to contrast [S] and [*].

tsl
beige
t*I
hedge
casual surging
fusion fudge
leisure legion
mirage smudge
203
IPA for Singers
Read aloud the words as you write the symbols,

articulating each [f] and [4] clearly and easily.
Initial
1. chill ttfrZ I 6. gentle
2. Jill Ll3r !-t 7. chump
3. chest 8. Jump
4. Jest
-- 9. cheap
5. chin 1O. Gene
Medial
1. etching_ 6. regent
2. edging 7. lunches
3. searching 8. lunges
4. surging 9. ketchup
5. richest lO. midget
Final
I. leech 6. grudge
2. ledge 7. crutch
3. perch 8. strange
4. purge 9. church
5. hatch 1O. judge

t. ['Srl drrn] o. [6us]

z. [*em] z. fhe frt]
3. [sag'6est]_ 8. [$erl]
+. ['rr fu e1]_ 9. ['per Su rt]
5. ['Se tust] to. ['vsr fu]
204
Chapter 14
D. Vocatlz&, ustng [f] and [6].
chip Jean cheese

Chad Jane cheap
chump Jest chest
rt
catcher bachelor pi geon

ditches legion a gile
badger midget etch ing
{
March {rgdpe _ catch edoe
-_
fudge siege speech rich
E. Sentences wtth [f] and [t].

Read aloud the following sentences, articulating each [[]
and [*] clearly and easily.
Charlie's chilly children chase Chet's chickens.
Jeff j ust joined Judd's jazzy jiggers.
205
IPA for Singers
Transcribe these words into IPA qrmbols.
1. virtuous 16. Butch
2. cheese 17. gouge
3. natural 18. picture
4. larger 19. such

5. lodge 2O. surge
6. coach 21. Jump

7. watcher 22. gentle
8. peach 23. chum
9. huge 24. joke
10. choke 25. agent
I t. match 26. choice

12. damage 27. juice
13. structure 28. soldier
14. wage 29. itch
15. pouch 3O. page
Transcribe these IPA symbols trrto English words.
t [b,r*] tt. [str[]

z. [he*] 12. [seg tBs fen]
3. [!r Sen] t3. [frn]
a.[rnrf] ta. [kauf ]
5. t[if] t5. [fck]
6. [kwes fen] t6. ['far ru fer]

z. ['fju [ar] 17. [ri[]
s. [tn* 6er] t8. [Setn]
9. [o'epn de] le. [6ct]
to. [Sor] 20. [tE ne reI
206
CIIAPTER 15
ADDITIONAL
IPA SYMBOIS
FOR ITALIAIII
FRENCH
AT{D GERITIAI\I
Phonemes and Allophones in Foreign

Languages
Each language has its own patterns for articulating

indtvidual speech sounds. The way a vowel is spoken in English may
have variations in other languages. In French, for example, the
phoneme [e] is articulated with the high point of the tongue closer to
the roof of the mouth than in English, so close, ln fact, that it sounds
almost like an [i] to many Arnericans. The close, forward French [e],
therefore, is an allophone of the phoneme [e].
The French schura [a] also has a different sound from the
schr.ua in English. The English schroa [e] is a weakened mid-central
uh [a] sound. But the French schu.ra [e] is a more forward and
rounded sound. It can be considered the unstressed counterpart of
the mixed vowel [6]. emerican slngers must be very careful about
the articulation of the French schu.,a [e].
Other IPA phonemes which have allophones in other
languages include the [t], [d] and [n] consonants which are
articulated in English with the tongue tip at the teeth ridge. In
foreign languages, these consonants become dental, with the tongue
tip touching the teeth instead of the teeth ridge.
207
IPA for Singers
There will be many sounds to be considered as you learn the

Mixed Vowels pronunciation rules of a new language and your diction teacher will
instruct you in the particular sounds of each language. This chapter will
be devoted solely to the presentation of additional IPA symbols which are
used in Italian, German and French, but not in English.
I l Mixed Vowels
The mixed vowels are those vowels articulated with the tongue
in a hlgh, forward position as for a forward vowel, while the lips are
rounded, as for a back vowel. For example, put your tongue in the
position for ee [i] and then, u:ithout mouirtg the tonguq round your lips
and say e [u].The resulting sound will be the close mixed vowel [y], a
blending of the two sounds [i] and [u]. etfrough mixed vowels are not
found in English, they are used in both German and French.
Iv]
When reading IPA transcriptions aloud, mixed vowels can be
referred to in three ways. The most coutmon way is simply to cail them
by their sound. A second way of referring to them labels their overall
method of production (from the most close to most open) by calling them
.first position [y], second position [v], tftra position [0], and Jourth
position [ce]. tlaming the vowel in this manner can help clarify
cornmunication about the vowel sound ln a class situation when the
articulation of each mixed vowel sound may not yet be totally accurate.
There is a third way to refer to the mixed vowels. In the
German language, mixed vowels are written with an umlaut (two small
I l
dots) over the letters ii or 6, as in the words,;ftih and schdn. The vowels
are referred to as close and open umlauted 'i., [y] and [v], designating
the fact that the space in the mouth for the first vowel is more close than
for the second, and close and openumlautedb, [0] and [e], which again
designates the relative close and open spacial relationship of the two
sounds. These Germanic names are often used for the mixed vowels in
diction classes and are useful for communication. You may choose
which of the three methods of naming mixed vowels you wish to use.
Description of Mixed Vowels
I l There are four mixed vowel sounds represented by the IPA

symbols ty], tv], tO], ta]. These sounds are produced with the tongue
and lips in the positions indicated on the following chart. For each mixed
vowel, start with the high, forward tongue position suggested ([i], [r],
[e], or [e]). fnen, wilhoutmouing tle tongue, say the second vowel which
uses the rounded lips of the back vowels [u], [u], [o], or [c]).
208
I
I
Chapter 15
It must be pointed out that to produce the mixed vowel the

speaker does not glide from the forward vowel to the back vowel.
Instead, both vowels are produced stmultaneously. It ts the
combining of the two sounds into a unified single vowel sound that
results in the mixed vowel.
Chart of Tongue and Lip positions for the

Mixed \Iowels
Tongue position Lip position Resulting mixed vowel

l. til + [u] = tVI
2 trl + [u] = [v]
3. [e] + [o] = t1l
4. [e] + [c] = [e]
,{. Practlce the mlxed vowels [y y 0 c].
Practice these sounds repeatedly until you can articulate

them easily and accurately. These are new sounds to most
Americans and you may need some extra guidance from someone
who knows these vowel sounds well. When saylng these vowels, be
very specific about how they feel and sound in order to learn them
accurately.
look in a mirror as you practice to see the position of your
jaw, lips, and tongue. Whisper the vowels in the following order and
watch for the rounding of your lips and the high, forward position of
the tongue for each of the vowels. The Jaw, lips, and tongue move
progressively from a more close position to a more open position as
you tuhisperthis list of mixed vowels.
t. [y] (tongue as [i] and lips as [u])
z.[v] (tongue as [l] and lips as [u])
3. [0] (tongue as [e] and lips as [o])
+. [e] (tongue as [e] and lips as [c])

Whisper, then speak each of the vowels using a normal
conversational voice.
1. Whisper [y], speak [y].

2. Whisper [y], speak [v].
3. Whisper [0], speat [0].
4. Whisper [e], speak [ce].
209
I
IPA for Singers
After speaking the vowels in the order suggested, reverse

the order, goirtr from the most open mixed vowel, Jourth positton [a],
to the most close mixed vowel,..;[rrstposttion [y].
lel
lsl
lvl
tyl
B. Practlce these German words whlch use mlxed vowels.
Read aloud these words using close umlaut ri [y]
fur [fyr r]
gluht [glyr t]
'rhe IPAsgmbol [:] marates
suss [zy: s]
that tle preceding sound should lugen flyl gan]
be prolorged. Fruhling [fry: hr]l
mude [my: de]
bliiht [blyr t]
uber [yl ber]
Read aloud these words using open umlaut u [v].
musst [mvsl st]

zuruck [tsu'rvk]
Gluck lglvkl
gebuclrt [ge'bvkt]
Sunde ['zvn de]
Kunste ['kvn sta]
Mutter ['mvtl ter]
Read aloud these words using close umlaut 6[0)

hdrt [hgrt]
Sdhnen f'zg nen)
l6sen f'ld, zanf
bdse I'ba zal
ddsen f'd1 zen)
l6hne ['10 ne]
6hren ['O ren]
schdn ["tOn]
2LO
Chapter 15
Read aloud these words using openuntlaut o [a]

H6lle ['het le]
kdnnte ['ken te]
G6tter ['get: ter]
Mrirder ['mer der]
Itischt tlaJt]
giinnte [gcen ta]
zwolf [tsvelfl
bffen ['efrfnan]
C. Practlce these French words uslng [y O e]. The second
posltlon [r] vowel sound ls not used ln the French language.
Read aloud these words using [y]

tu [ty]
sur [syr]
Lr:xe flykse]
du tdyl
lune [y ne]
sud [syd]
muter [my te]
pure [py re]
Read aloud these words using [P]
feu tfo]
deux tdo]
bleu [blP]
Yeux LiOt
cieux tsjOl
pleut tplPl
jeu [so]
fameux [fa mOI
Read aloud these words using [a]

seul [sel]
coeur [koer]
meurt [mer]
boeuf [befl
jeune [Se ne]
soeur [sar]
pleurer [ple re]
douceur [du scr]
2LL
IPA for Singers
French Nasal The French Nasal Vowels

Vowels
The four nasal vowels in French t6], t6], [6], and [G], are
produced by slightly lowering the soft palate and permitting air to
enter the nose. It is important that the nasal vowels do not become
x so nasal as to be sharply twangr in quality. Listen to French singers

and you will hear how beautifully these vowel sounds can be sung.
t,
I l
In fact, many voice teachers recomnend the use of nasal vowels to
help women achieve head voice or men achieve the covered tone.
The nasal vowel sound is formed by the combination of the
vowel plus the nasal consonant. In the word son [s6], the letterd on
form a unit and are pronounced as [6]. The n is not pronounced, it
is silent. A listing of the four French nasal vowels follows.
The nasal vowel [€] is nasalized [e]. It is used in words
like bren tbj6], mattn [ma t€] and srnple [s5 ple].
N The nasal vowel [6] is nasalDed [s]. It is used in words
l
like champ 116), enJant [6 f6], and dans [dti].
I The nasal vowel [6] is nasalDed [o].

like son [s6], bon [b6], and tombeau [td bo].
lt is used in words
The nasal vowel [C] is nasalized [e]. lt is used in words

like parJum [par fG], un [G], and humble [C bla].
Language is constantly changing and variations within
languages will occur. This is true of the sounds of the French nasals
[6] and [6].
N
l
Although the IPA symbol [ii] represents the nasalized [o],
I
pure [o] is pronounced with unrounded lips, while the nasal [6] is
pronounced with slightly rounded lips, resulting in a vowel which
sounds almost like [5]. This sound may be considered an allophone
of [ti]. Read these words aloud and feel the slight rounding of your
lips which occurs on [6]. Vent [v6], temps [t6], quand [k6].
The second nasal vowel which needs clarification is [6].
A)
I l In Ftench a wwel is nasalized when tt precedes afnal m or n or precedes an

m or n which is Jollowedbg arwther consonant other tlwn n or n.
In ltai.:son, which ts tlle connecting oJ aJinal consonant to the tnitial tnwel

sound oJ the nert word, m and. n are prorwunced.
,:!!
;ftjffi|1
tndtcates ttw wwet is nasatized. For exampte, f1f u;outd. be
2t2
Chapter 15
Unttl recently. dlctionartes and texts have transcribed the vowel

[6] as [5]. Yet. the sound of [5] is really too open for this French
nasal vowel and can be easily confused with the slightly rounded
allophone of [6]. Read these words aloud, using the well rounded
lips of [6]. Ont [6], legons [e s6], sombre [sO bra].
A. Practlce the French nasal vowels.
Read aloud these words with the nasal vowel [E].
Jardin [Sar d€] loin [lw€]

importe [€ pcr ta] ainsi [€ si]
reviens vjE] main In swken F}enclt lhe fnal
[re [mE] schrua [a] r silent. Ii si4ging,
pleins [plE] insulte [E syl te] whenthefinal schLua [e] ts
chemin Ue m€l vainqueur [vE ker] giuen anote, it is pronounced.
Read aloud these words with the nasal vowel [ti].

entends [6 t6] dimanche ldi m6 Jel
quand tk6] sentier [so tje]
temps tt6l encore [6 kc re]
prends tpr6] chante UC te]
sembler [sd ble] pamphlet lpd fIeI
Read aloud these words with the nasal vowel [6]

ton tt6l sont ls6I
maison [me z6] long tl6l
songe [s6 so] horDon lo ri z6l
tombe [tO be] ombre [6 bro]
front [fr6] papillons [pa pi j6]
Read aloud these words with the nasal vowel [G]

ddfunts [de f6]
humble [6 bla]
un t6I
parfum [par fC]
!
*
il
2L3
IPA for Singers
Italian and The Italian and French enAa lJ:4
French The IPA symbol ft], called erya, represents the gn sound in
enaa Italian, as in qgni and in French, as in digna In English, the closest
sound which can be found to the Italian and French enya [p] is tfre
[nj] in the word onlon ['a, njen]. rhe [nj] in oniorL however, requires the
tip of the tongue to lift to the teeth ridge for [n] then lower to the back
of the bottom front teeth fo. Ul. The enya [U], bV contrast, is produced
l
with a single tongue action.
To produce enAa [t], slightly part your lips, put the tip of
the tongue behind the bottom front teeth and lift the blade of the
tongue to touch the front of the hard palate. Add voice, and you wlll be
producing the nasal, palatal consonant sound erga Utl.The sound is
something like an [n], except that it is made with the blade of the
tongue touching lhe palate rather than the trp of the tongue touching
the teeth ridge.
A. Practice the enya [p].
Sing, humming with the nasal consonants [n] and [p]
6 4(D
4
l) rI
In
tjt
Sing, sustaining [n] and [t] and the following vowels.
Feel the movement of the tongue tip as it lifts to touch the
teeth ridge for [n], then lowers for the vowel [i].
6 4o
4
) rll
In ------l
In
'o
-----l
In LI
lni
Ino
Ina
2L4
Chapter 15
Feel the contact of the blade of the tongue with the hard
palate for Ut]. The tip of the tongue remains behrrd the
bottom front teeth to produce both the enga[gl and the
vowel [i].
4
6 4() t) l ll
h i I
tn o I
tn o I
tri I
$o I
$o I
Read aloud these Italian words using [3].
degno ['de ;tc] bisogna [bi'zopa]

segno ['se 1c] Signori [sipo ri]
nc]
compagno [kom 'pa sognare lso ha rel
cognome fko 3o me] regno llencl
Read aloud these French words using [p].
agneau [ano] peignoir [penwar]

fik]
magnifique[manr dignite tdinr te]
peigne [pela] dignes [dino]
vignes [vilo] bagne [balo]
2L5
IPA for Singers
The Italian Elgrr 61

The
Italian Alaa$}is a lateral, non-fricative, palatal consonant which
elga is used ir: Italian
glL
in eqltand uog@mo.In Italian, etga Vl is spelled
In English, the closest sound to elya [d] is in mtllion

['ml jen]. the [lj] in miltion, however, the tip of the tongue touches
the teeth ridge for the consonant [l] and then moves to the back of
l
the bottom front teeth for the glide []. 'Itte elya [,(], by contrast, is
I
produced with a singte tongue actlon.
To produce efua [d], sltghtly part your lips, put the tip of
your tongue behind the bottom front teeth, arch the front of your
tongue, lifting it to touch the front of the hard palate. Add voice and
let the air exit laterally over the sides of the tongue. The sound will
be something like an [l], only it ls made with the blade of the tongue,
not the tip, against the boundary between the teeth rid$e and the
hard palate.
.t. Practlce the Itallan elyal,[1.
Sing these sounds, leaving the tongue tip behind the back
of the bottom front teeth for both the [[] and the vowel which
follows. Feel the movement in the body of the tongue as you go from
the consonant [y] to the vowel.
6 4o
4
) rll
[,( i I
[,(e l
lfo I
[,{c I
[,{u l
Read aloud these Italian words using [d].

egli ['e fi]
gli tfiI
foglia ['fc ,(o]
Pagliacci [po'dou fi]
voglia ['vo da]
figlio ['fi dc]
Guglielmo [gu'del mc]
consiglio [kon 'si dc]
2r6
Chapter 15
The French Glide [q] The

The IPA symbol [q] is a shortened form of the mixed vowel French
[y], and ls referred to by its sound. The [q], along with [w] and [i], Glide
are the three consonant glides of French. Some references prefer to
call the glides semi-vowels.
To find the sound of h], sing the following examples. First,
sustain the mixed vowel [y]. fhen sing the word again, this time
l
shortening the duration of the [y] until it becomes the glide [q], a
I
sound which is not sustained but moves quickly from one position to
another.
^d
Practlce the French GUde [q].
Sing these words to contrast the sounds [y] and [q].
lui
6 4o
4
[1y
t) llqi :---I
r il
tlqil (sustain [Y]; (quickly go to the sustained [i])
nuage lny--------asel [nqa------se]

[nqa ss] (sustain [y]) (quickly go to the sustained [a])
Read aloud these words using [q].
lui tlqil
nuage [nqa:3]
bruit [brqi]
suis [sqi]
depuis [do'pqi]
fuyez [fqi je]
fuyant tfqi jtil
pluie [plqi]
2L7
IPA for Singers
The The German "ch" [g] and [x]

German
,rchil
Fotward "ch"
The IPA symbol [g] is referred to as Jortoard clL as ichlaut

or simply by tts sound. It ts a voiceless palatal fricative
I c5 l
[tglaot],
consonant, made with the tip of the tongue behind the bottom front
teeth, and the front of the tongue arched upward toward the hard
palate at a point just behind the teeth ridge. The sound of rchlzut is
similar to the sound of a whispered ee [i] or the sound of h in the
English word hue.
The ichlaut [g] sound occurs in several positions in
German but mostly after forward vowels, mixed vowels or
consonants as in mtch [mlg], Buclrcr [by ger], and durch tdurgl.
x
.{. Practlce the German "ch" [g].
I l Read aloud, to contrast the sounds of [J] and [g].
UI - tsl Ul - tsl Ul - tgl

Read aloud these German words using ictrlaut [g]
dich tdtgl
licht [lrgt]
lieblich [Up Lg]
breche tbre CaI
mich [mtg]
luftig [uf ug]
sich lngl
mocht [maEt]
nicht [ruEt]
duftig [drf uE]
Madchen [me: tgen]
Gretchen [gre tgen]
Der Erlkonig [der'erl k0: rug]
Veilchen ['fael gan]
euch [cgg]
vergebliches Standchen Eer ge bL ges Jten tgenl
The smatl mark at the bottomoJ [9] i,s cq.lled. a cedille [se di je].
2L8
Chapter 15
The bo,ck "en.n 1x1
The IPA symbol [x], ts referred to as back ch as acttlaut

[xlaot], or simply by its sound. It is a voiceless velar fricative
consonant made with the back of the tongue close to the soft palate
(or velum) and the tip of the tongue behind the bottom front teeth.
The exltlng atr makes a fricative sound, similar to a sharply
whispered ah [o]. An aclilaut [x] occurs after a back vowel.
Read aloud, contrasting the sounds of [k] and [x].
tkl - txl tkl - txl tkl - txl
Read aloud these German words using achlautlxj
nach [nax]
sucht [zuxt]
Nacht [naxt]
schwach [Jvax]
Bach [bax]
ach [ax]
Hauch [haox]
gelacht [ga'laxt]
auch [aox]
Nachtigall ['nax ti gal]
noch [ncx]
Rache [raxa]
kocht [kcxt]
vollbracht ['fcl braxt]
Buch [bux]
Strauch [Jtaox]
2L9
IPA for Singers
The German Diphthongs

The In German there are three diphthongs which correspond to
diphthongs in English. Some texts use the same IPA symbols in
German German as in English, while other texts use a different IPA spelling
Diphthongs for German.
In German the glides of the diphthongs are less forward
than tn English, giving a darker quality to the sounds of these
vowels. The IPA symbols chosen for the glides in German reflect
that difference. This text recommends the use of the German
transcriptions listed below for the three diphthongs.
English German
ae
I l
[a] as tnmtght
[au] as in house
[ct] as in bog
r{. Practlce the German Dlphthongs.
[ae] as in MaL meine
[ao] as in Augert
[c6] as ln FYeude, Tann]uiuser
Read aloud these words using [ae]
sein [zaen]
theilten ['tael ten]
ao
meine ['mae ne]
I l
dein [daen]
eigen ['ae gan]
Saiten ['zae ten]
Schrei Urael
einmal ['aen ma[
Read aloud these words using [ao]
Auge ['ao go]

auf [aofl
blaues
l
['blao os]
gebaut
I
[ge'baot]
traurig ['trao ng]
Laub [aop]
lauter ['lao ter]
auch [aox]
Read aloud these words using [cg]
neuen ['nco en]
Freude ['frco do]
leuchtet ['lcpg tet]
Streut Utrc0tl
shuselt l'zct zeltl
Fleuch [flc69]
trHumen [trc6 man]
220 euch lcosl
Chapter 15
The Glottal Stop

The
The IPA symbol p] refers to a glottal stop, a volceless Glottal Stop
plosive made by closing the vocal folds, bulldtng up breath
pressure, and then suddenly opening the folds to release the breath
plosively. The glottal stop occurs in German before stressed initial
syllables beginning with a vowel. A glottal stop can be heard in
English between words which end and begIr with a vowel, as in thg
wple [6i ? 'e pol].
Some texts replace the p] wittr t[,* IPA symbol which
indicates a pause. This text prefers [[ to inAicate the glottal stop
between words in German.
[?]
.L Practlce the Glottal Stop.
Read aloud these sentences, using a glottal stop when

indicated tV t[.
Seit ich ihn gesehen (Schumann)
lzaetl rg | iln geze:enl
Du bist wie eine Blume
[du: brst vi: I aene blume]
Dies Bildnis ist bezaubernd

(Schumann)
schon (Mozart)
I l
[dus brltnrs I rst bstsaobornt .[0:n]
Dein blaues Auge (Brahms)
[daen blaoos I aoge]
22L
Answer Sheets for Exercises
Chapter 4 5. [vet] 12. bell page 62-Ei
6. tle ul r3. [ret] 1. tbull 6. [urk]
page 22-B 7. tle rul 14. [tne ru] 7. thukl
2. ttrtl
1. tmil t2 Init] page 4O-C 3. tlrudl 8. tbukl
2. Iminl l3 lnil 1. said 6. end 4. [vrulf] 9. [hud]
3. tkizl t4 Imit] 2. fell 7. bled 5. tfinl 1O. [wut]
4. tpr"l l5 twil 3. help 8. meant page 62-C
5. tpisl l6 [sid] 4. elf 9. left L 6. tlukl
6.tpizl 77 tupl tflul
5. wed 1O. Bess
2. ttuu 7. [uk]
7. thil l8 [iv] page 40-D 3. [stul] 8. [wud]
8. tfidl l9 tbil l. [mold] rr. f€ldl 4. tsrrdl 9. [wud]
9. tbistl 20 tprpl 2. [ernd] 12. [plerd] 5. tbuml lO. [mud]
lO. tAiz] 2l tlil 3. [eb] 13.
11. tAisl 22 tptizl
[stt] page 62-D
4.tpikl 14. [sled] l. prove 5 pull
page22-C 5. [nel] 15. [rot] 2. cook 6. toots
1. eat 6. seen 6. [wn] 16. tbeltl 3. soon 7. book
2. deed 7. rr.eeJ 7.[wend] 17. tferdl 4. bull 8. groove
3. keen 8. team 8. 18.
[wed Eedl page 68-C
4, heed 9. free 9.td€t] 19. Ertl
5. teak lO. cream 1. tgouzl 6. [fou]
lO. [dcrt] 20. tfitl
page 26-8 2. [otrn] 7. [mot.tt]
page 40-E 3. [kum] 8. [qo{rt]
1. [hm] 6. [uz] 1. gape 6. day 9. tloudl
4. [loun]
2. [\m mn] 7. tkr! 2. mill 7. deck 5. [nad] IO. [Aa'lt]
3. [frn] 8. [fiz] 3. geese 8. ffst
4. [ml] 9. [drn] 4. vail 9. game
page 68-D
5. lkrdz] tO. fursdl 5. let lO. step l. nose 4. mode
2. soaks 5. mostly
page 44-B 3. mold o. boast
l. tflrtl 8. [mrd] r. [bak] 9. [es]
2. lEv) e. tb LI page 68-E
2. [kat] fO. [adz]
3. tspikl lo. t,L LI 1. tkupl 6. [na:]
3. [deb] I l. [hav]
4. [mlk] 11. [n'siv] 4. 12.
2. tku! 7. [nun]
tbedl [hm] 3. [kout] 8.
5. I-ikl 12. [br liv] 5. taksl 13.0ml [nuk]
6. [trnt] 13. rh Ll 6. 14. ftantl
4.0nlkl 9. lhoul]
tpadl
7. [srt] 74. lnzl 7. I5. 5. [nom] lo. Iskrail]
lantl thekl
page 26-C 8. [rat] 16. [blak] page 69-F
l heat 5. leave page 44-C l. could 6. wood
2. hit 6. live 2. lope 7. boat
l. act 5 tans
3. loon 8. foot
3. deep 7. seep 2.ham 6. pack
4. dip 8. sip 4. stone 9. coast
3. rat 7. tack
page 32-C 5. ooz* lO. fool
4. bran 8. stamp
l. [berlz] 9. tb€rl page 44-D page 72-B
2. [derl] lO. [ma] 1 . [sc] 6. [hcm]
1. [tak] 11. [gn] 2. [rclt] 7. tb"tl
3. [wert] r l. [fo] 2. tlikl 12. il*l
4. [wert] 12. [fen] 3. 13. [et]
3.tkfl 8. [kcl]
[ser]
5. [ert] 13. 4. [sct] 9. [rrt]
[gren] 4. [set] 14. SebI
6. [dem] 14. [sen] 5. 15.
5. tbcll 1O. [stcl]
[hat] [gcrv]
7. [verl] 15. [scri] 6. [p€t] 16. ftlasl
page72-C
8. [ferl] 16. [hed] 7. [far) 17. [sit]
l. law 5. raw
page 33-D 8.[man] 18. [mrr]
2. pause 6. coffin
3. talk 7. offfce
l. cape 6.pay 9.[t nfts] 19. [rek]
4. ought 8. salt
2. mail 7. ace lO. ['1, L] 20. IEkl
3.gay 8. vase page 45 page 73-D
4. va'in 9. sane l. Texas 6. sand r. tkr*l 6. [lus]
5. nape lO. state 2. taxes 7. blessed 2. [fclt] 7. [ro:m]
page 33-E 3. pest 8. bland 3. [spm] 8. [m1]
4. past 9. ski 4. [m] 9. [sou]
I . [sit] 7. ILdl
5. lake lO. live 5. [ilon] 1O. tflrl
2. trikl 8. [kem]
3. [her] 9. [krs] Chapter 5 page 73-E
4. [ke*] lO. [si] page 58-B l. home 6. broad
5. trikl 1 1 . [vil] 2. loop 7. grown
1. [but] 9. 8"1 3. loft 8. rude
6. [uk] 12. [ter! 2. rO.
tkildl [erup] 4. look 9. bull
page 33-F 3. [sup] 1l.tp".fl 5. tall 10. loaf
1. leak 9. deem 4. [ku ku] 12. ffrut] page 78-B
2. lick lO. dim 5. tlukl 13. [nun]
3. lake I l. date 6. 14. [rud]
r. [kom] rO. [fond]
[spun]
2. tboml I l. tlokl
4. meet 12. mean 7. [blu] ls. [kul] 3. [kwo Ia tr] 12. [som]
5, mitt 13. main 8. [tu] 16. [prun]
6. mate l4- steed . tpoml r3. [top]
page 58-C 5' f4.
7. pit 15. stick ]' boon 6. clues
tpopl [rut]
8. paid 16. steak 6. [stop] 15. [q]
2. tomtr 7. pm.l 7.lstr.d) I 6. [spots]
page 39-8. 3. lose 8. brood 8. [nnp] 17. tboml
l. [snt] 8. [b nr] 4. food 9. glue 9. [mom] 18. [don]
2. [best] 9. [gest] 5. droop 1O. mood
page 78-C
3. lkelp] lO. [tempts]
1. cop 3 hard
4. [dents] I I . [blend]
2. cod 4 hock
Note: Several answers may have more than one correct spelling. For example, r.rait and ue(ghlwill have 223
the same IPA spelling.
IPA for Singers
lO. [spsm] 22.lttzt ws) 3. tp"tll a.
Chapter 6 [p€st]
page 92-B
I l. [!ar del] 23. [ter tel] 4. tbou! 9. [bist]
5. tpe"l 10. [pis]
12. [tsr ben] 24 [@nctl)
L [prmp] 8. [sm]
2. tl^kl 9. [daC] page lo4-c r. [ta pt] 6. ['tn bel]
3. fftam] 1O. ftnpl l. work 6. surrey 2. ['a bd 7. [t^mbe!
4. [dav] I 1. [brdz] 2. dirt 7. perfect 3. tla pd 8. [trmpaU
5. [hv] 12. [wm] 3. mercy 8. sunrey 4. [ber h] 9. [ker pa bel]
6. tk^tl 13. [wm] 4. person 9. permarrence 5. [help fsl] 10. [!m be bh]
7. tnp) 14 [dast] 5. murder lO. burn
page 93-C Chapter 7 l. [np] 6. [mob]
page 112-B 2. [rb] 7. ['op]
l. tund 6. buck
2. rutr 7. duck 3. [kep] 8. [sqb]
1. [trad] 8. [ram]
3. money 8. buddy 4. [kab] 9. [rorp]
2. lrudl 9. [dr ha]
4. trucks 9. stump 5. [rup] 1O. [rarb]
3. [a] rO. lklnd]
5. hum lO. mud 4. [had 11. lhadz] page 137-C
page 96-8 5. [a'di az] 12. ['spa dar] l. simple 6. pamper
1. lbo t"l] l l, [e 'wu] 6. [fam] 13. [trad 2. symbol 7. mapped
2. ['sar dr em] 12. ['sm bel] 7. [as] 14 [at] 3. ember 8. subsidize
4. scamper 9. optimum
3. [e'dapt] 13. [a'du] page 112-C
5. number 1O. grab
4. [e fer] 14. ['b€ te fl] l. describe 8. brides
5. [sa'po:z] 15. [trus ta n] 2. time 9. tribal page l4o-B
6. [e'q€n] 16. [a'wer] 3. night lO. smile r. [bil] 5. [&n]
7. lkan'srs tont] 17. [ka ma n] 4. tide I1. might 2. tdonl 6, Itar]
8. [tr be1] 18. [tn al] 5. prizn 12. idol 3. Id"{ 7. [tou:]
9. [tm ba1] 19. Iko ma] 6. airline 13. cry 4. [tn] 8. [dun]
10. [!re za denr] 20. [p n ad] 7. Friday 14. guide
page 96-C page 116-E} 1. [rnr da1] 5. ['be or]
1. double 7. central 2. [a tem] 6. ['lan rem]
I . [sam] 8. [faund] 7. ['nou trs]
2. secretary 8. example 3. [Yrud ded
2. [Yau dr] 9. [plau] 8.
3. adore 9. sudden 4. [\aun dId] [Ynan dert]
3. [a 'lau] lO. [bmur]
4. allophone 1O. address I l. [fnun]
4. [e 'narms] 1. lsndl lmdl
5. gallery 1 1. open
5. [!rau ler] 12. [tnau: tan]
b- different 12. muffled 2. [snt] 6. lkl,ptl
6. [pau] 13. [aurz]
3. tkrktl 7. lblidl
page 99-B 7, ['atxr srz] 14 [baun da n]
8.tbl 4. lmtl 8. [hamd]
1. [sk] page 116-C
2. [sn] 9. [s: ] page 141-C
3. [f: II lO. [fs m] l. round 6. proud ]. dud 6. bends
2. brow 7. cow 2. debt 7. deadly
4. [m sl I 1. [sks t]
3. plowed 8. vowed 3. test 8. steep
5. [b3 stl 12. [vs b] 4. sound 9. row
6' [s' ll 13. [t: k] 4. trek 9. dreads
5, trout 1O. mound 5. dressed lo. addressed
7. lt3 ml 14. [b 1]
page 120-8
page 99-C page 144-8
l.luk 8. word
1. [korn] 8. [t r] l. [kles] 4. [grarm]
2- curb 9. perfect 2. ['rrnt ment] 9. [bnil] 2. [slr.] 5. [kein]
lO. fern 3. [hctl] lO. ['crs tar] 3. [kram] 6. [gern]
3. dirt
4. world 11. mercy 4. [!:r al] I l. ['tar mcrl]
12. person 5. [srrl] 12. [e vcrd] 1. [takt] 4. lwrgz)
5. fur
6. pun 13. mermaid 6. [bI lt] 13. [n'kcrl] 2. l'ragd) 5. ['a kse dant]
/ alrale 14. fervid 7. {ftLalz) 14. [rks Urr trd] 3. [wks] 6. [mrks]
page iOl-B page 120-C
1. ['sr fa] 6. ['1er ba] t. foil 6. coy l. [pik] 4. tl^sl
2. poise 7. spoil 2. tp'sl 5. lskl
2. l'tak t?l 7. ['spta]
3. [pr ta] 8. t'trak tal 3. soiled 8. toys 3. Il^kl 6. lm"rgl
4. 9. l!il re] 4. annoyed 9. adroit page 144-C
['do Ia]
10. ['s fa] 5. hoist lO. toiled
5. [f1er va] l. eggnog 6. glad
page 101-C page L24-B 2. lack 7. clipped
1. [ltm ba] ['lm bar] l. [Jus fal] 8. Uul 3. guest 8. sixty
2. [te p] ['re rer] 2. ['fju del] 9. ftrju ma ns] 4. kicks 9. agreed
3. [pa'rnr ud] [gar lnr trd] 3. [!um] 10. [5ju u] 5. kegs lO. ugly
4. [be ta] ['be ter] 4. [mjul] IL [kjut] Chapter 1O
5. ['tr ma] [lre mar] 5. [kju] 12. [ju]
6. [mjut] 13. [e'bju zz]
page 15O-B
6. lpo'hepsl [per'haps] l. 4. Imop]
[mi]
page 101-D 7. [Ynju zr kal] 14. [kju mja lert]
2. [mu] 5. ltre nl
l.skipper 4. perform page 124-C 3. [mst] 6. [mar]
2. patter 5. fieezer 1 perfume 8. unlon
3. starter 6. persist 2. futile 9. uni$ 1. [ha mer] 4. [blmd]
page 104-8 3. pupil 1O. cue 2. [br md 5. [bleImd]
1 . [skw:m] 13. [br] 4. puny I 1. pew 3. [br mar] 6. ['tr md]
2. [fsm] 14. [brk] 5. dual 12. uniform
3. []:ml 15. [fsm] 6. fuse 13. mcw l. [nem] 4. ["m]
4. [p:rl] 16. ['sm rst] 7. accuse 14. mule 2. [am] 5. Irorm]
5. [\vs n] 17. [hrl] Chapter 9 3. [srm] 6. tti*l
6. [krL] 18. ['bsr I':I] page 136-8 page 1sO-C
7. [bw] 19 [par]
I tpesl 6. tb€nl
l. slim 6. claim
8. [fsr la:]
9. lksr dell
2O. [fsst]
2l . [tur dal]
, lb€o] 7. [best]
2. might
3. triumph
7. common
8. music
224
Answer Sheet
4. qtrcmc 9. prtme 3. [ve n] 7. teril
5. tomb lO. mouse 1. [!r rel] 5. [inju ak] 4. [ap tut] 8. [a ta]
page 154-B 2. [a'bz mei] 6. [fi zer]
l. [nur] 4. Inerl] 3. [trus u] 7. [938 ul 1. [kar] 5. [fonr]
2. tnokl 5. tnitl 4. [!en sel] a. [& sal] 2. tfrrl 6. tperl
3. [rup] 6. [nars] 3. tporl 7. tperl
I . [rarz] 5. t6iz] 4. [ur] 8. ldlrl
l. [bm dal] 4. [a tui] 2.[ps] 6. [drs] page 19O-C
2. [te nar] 5. [tren t 1] 3. [Iags] 7. [b€ts] l. reason 6. furious
3. [m !ent] 6. ['dor ner] 4. tpisl 8. [bedz] 2.rcef 7. carry
page 172-C 3. friend 8. freely
l. [man] 4. [braun] l. souglrt 6, closc 4. brl4g 9. rights
2. [mun] 5. lstml 2. znne 7. closc 5. mystery 1O- more
3' [m] 6. lfal 3. zenith 8. cease page I94-B
page 154-C 4. sound 9. sicze r. liild] 4. ['ju na fard]
l. noose 6. translate 5. difh:se lO. peas 2.UmI 5. ['ju sr{,]
2. night 7. unlucky page 176-8 3. Uuel 6. [Jss tar der]
3. undone 8. noon l.td
4. rent 9. nifty 2.Uw) 1. [pm jan] 4. [savrl jan]
5. drained lO. untie 3. Utpl 2. ['jun jan] 5. ['kan jan]
page158-B 3. [biljan] 6. ['wrl jam]
l [srq ar] 4. ['eq qja lsr] l. ['or Jen] 4. [dr 'Iu 5en] page 194-C
2. ltnnq k] ' 5. ['stng L] 2. lfiek fen] 5. [si 5ar] l. trillion 5. yoga
3. [u[ sel] 6. ['la ngks] 3. [a Jur] 6. [vt 5u al] 2. yet 6. yank
3. yellow 7. yeast
1.tl^ql 4. Iscrj] l. [neJ] 4. tberSl 4. unite 8. year
2. tlrql 5. Ie tnilJl 2.lke!] 5.[rur] page 198-8
s. [bnt] 6. lngl 3. [eraJ] 6. tp* tfI 1. [hwarld] Iwsrld]
page158-C page 176-C 2. [hwerl] Iweil]
1. bang 6. swinger l. rush 6, shame 3. [hw dor] ['w 0or]
2. rarrg 7. doing 2. shot 7. flesh 4. th*itl twil
3. brink 8.gang 3. mirage 8. garage 5. [hwarl] Iwarl]
4. sang 9. reading 4. occasion L vision 6. [hward] Iward]
5. tongs lO. wing 5. sugar lO. caution 7. [hwarn] Iwam]
Chapter 11 page 179-8 8. [hws per] Iwrsp]
pageI64-E} l. [hit] 4. [houl] 9. [hwet] lwetl
2. [haund] 5. [ta mar] lO. fhwan] Iwar1d]
1. [fit] 4. lf.tl
s. [hju] 6. [hum]
2. [veIl] 5. lvatl
3. [ferl] 6. [.m]
l. [swag] 5. [kwrt]
l. [e bed] 4. [a u'hE ta m] 2. tdwetl 6. [kwal]
2. [4n horl sam] 5. [n hjuman] 3. ['tmtr] 7. [kwIk]
1. [e fer] 4. [n vil] 3. [rn'hE E 6. hp tutl
tans] 4. [dwctrl 8. [kwar]
2. Idf er] 5. ['draf u]
3. [1e ver] 6, ['or vsr]
page 179-C page 198-C
1. half 6. adhesive I. whale 6. quail
1. [rerv] 4. tnfl 2. hot 7. unhappy 2, way 7. swallow
2. [kcfl 5. k^fl 3. haughty 8. heathen 3. whistle 8. walnut
4. hail 9. human 4. wine 9. whirl
3. [storv] 6. lslfl 5. hug lO. behcaded 5. quill 10. were
page164-C Chapter 12 Chapter 13
1. half 6. calf page 184-8
2. haves 7. defect
page204-B
3. grief 8. loaf l. tL4 4.[t-l l. tfill 6. ['{en tal]
4. grieves 9. loaves 2. Ilipl 5. thfl 2.t*,ll 7. [frmp]
5. fever lO. laughter 3. [luz] 6. ['t ver] 3. [[est] 8. [tamp]
page 168-8 4. t*Estl e. t[ip]
1. ['wel &] 4. ['de la kat] 5. [[rn] 1O. t{rnl
l. [diz] 4 ldanl 2. tpl prtl 5. [furl dar]
2. [Orn] 5 [Oard]
3. ['ul k] 6. fsl rg] 1. [b[ tq] 6. Iri {:nt]
3. [iler] 6 ldeml
2. t'e6 rql 7. ['lan frz]
l. [ta 6ar] 4. [fo 6er]
1. [fi nol] 4. [!sr pai] 3. [bgrf r0] 8. ['lan *p]
2. [tn dal] 5. [ka tal] 4. [lelq, rrJ] 9. [ke [ap]
2. [re eed] 5. ['re6sr]
3. [n tcl] 6. ['or gat] 5. [hf rst] 10. ltu S,ot]
3. [b &ks] 6. IbDel
page 184-C
l.heel 4. lbre0l l. miller 6. vile l. tL[] 6. [sn*,]
2. [nr6] 5. lbrid] 2. all 7. ceiling 2. tbql 7. Ernfl
3. lbr hi0] 6. ls6I 3. sailor 8, lame s.tpgrtfl 8. [strcm{,]
page 168-C 4. already 9. lid a.tpe4l e' [fa{]
5. calender lO. bowl 5. tha[] lo.tq"6l
1. this 6. seethe
2. three 7. month Chapter 13 pagezm-C
3. lathe 8. wath page l9o-B l. children 6. juice
4. myths 9. scathing I . [ro:z] 5. trcktl 2. Eer 7. hatchet
5. thimble 10. there 2. [ad] 6. [rart] 3. suggest 8. jail
page L72-B 3. [rerl] 7. [n] 4. ritual 9. pe{ury
l. 5. tslipl 4. [ril] 8. [rcn] 5. celltst 10. virtue
tsoupl
2.Un) 6. [r*]
3. [srn] Isem] 1. [a 'gnund] 5. [e test]
4. [H bn] 8. lopl 2. [r torrd] 6. [trat]
225
Acknowledgments
I would like to a(press my deep appreciation to several colleagues and friends for
thetr enthusiasm and untiring help ln the production of this book. I am grateful to
Bobbie Caldwell for her arr:azing all around help, to Karen Kelsey for her sharp eyes and
ears and hours of cheerful proofreading, and to Cheryl Golden for her help in proofing
the manuscript.
Special thanks goes to my husband, Ernest Ludwick, whose artistic talent

produced the diagrams and drawtngs for the text and whose constant patience offers
such loving support.
Fllally, heartfelt thanks to my publisher and editor, Robert Caldwell, who kept
the inspiration flowing.
226

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rn

A manual for English and Foreign Language Diction

Printed in the United States of America

Copies of this book may be ordered by contacting:

Edited by Robert Caldwell

Chapter 2: HelpJul Ilints onusing the IPA 8

PART II: VOWELS

Chopter 4: The ForusardVowels 76

Chapter 5: Back Vowels 52

PART TII: CONSONANTS

Chapter 9: Stop-Plosiue Consonants 739

Chapter IO: l\Iosal Consononts 747

Chapter 77: fricatiue Consonants 767

Chopter 72: The Lateral Consoncnt 781.

Chapter 73: Glides 787

Chapter 74: The Combination Consononfs 2Ol

PART TV: ADDITIONAL IPA SYMBOIS FOR ITALIAN, FRENCH, A]\iD

Answer Sheets to Exerci.ses 223

I['hat are Phonetics?

The study of phonetics is the study of speech sounds. Or,

A quick look at the roman alphabet of English will show

For example, the sound of ee may have seven different

A single symbol may stand for many sounds. For

A sa€le letter may not have a sound at all, such as the p

Americans are sometimes unaware of the sounds of their

Figure 1: The IPA sgmbols jor Elglish uourels.

IPA Symbols ln General Amerlcan Dlalect

Back Vowels: lul boot

\lrhat is the International Phonetic Alphabet?

The Irrternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is a true pho-

IPA q.rnbols are recognized by their enclosure in brackets.

The process of using only one s5rmbol per sound promotes

The Value of the IPA

The study of the International Phonetic Alphabet is valu-

English andJoreign longuage diction books and. d.ictionaries

Foreign language diction texts used in music departments

Phonetic Readings o:[ Songs and Arias by Coffin, Erro]le,

Figrtre 2: Sample of IPA transaiption in Phonetic Readings Ef Songs and Ariqs.

schubert Der tfanderer

Several contemporary foreign language dictionaries, such

A significant reference work for English pronunciations is

Figure 3: Sample oJ IPA transcrtptions in A Pronowtcittg Dictionary gf Amerban

Current uocal pedagogg texts and. wco,l research studies use

Today's vocal pedagosr texts and vocal research studies

(more closed) (more closed)

Figure 5: Somplefrom theNATS Bulletin.

32 0^f y' !^)'o Yt

IPA otfers apositiue i4fluenee on the deoelopment oJthe

The old masters of votce teaching have said: Chi sa ben

Precise vowel enunciation, along with good breath

This text proposes that by anchoring speech sounds to

The use oJIPe results in more precise communication about

As sounds become associated with a specific visual

The International Phonetic Alohabet fgl Sinoers is intended

Each chapter contains descriptive comments about

The symbols are presented progressively. Only symbols

A word of caution: people in different parts of the United

Speech sounds form the basis of vocal technic and art.

This chapter will offer a few helpful hints and definiUons so

[t] is an IPA qpbol.

Silent letters: Do not transcribe silent letters into IPA.

lotous is [nou], without the k.

Double letters: Transcribe only what your hear. Double letters do