Sea lions are sea mammals characterized by external ear flaps, long foreflippers, the ability to

walk on all fours, short, thick hair, and a big chest and belly. Together with the fur seals, they
comprise the family Otariidae, eared seals, which contains six extant and one extinct species
(the Japanese sea lion) in five genera. Their range extends from the subarctic to tropical waters
of the global ocean in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, with the notable exception
of the northern Atlantic Ocean.[1] They have an average lifespan of 20–30 years. A male
California sea lion weighs on average about 300 kg (660 lb) and is about 8 ft (2.4 m) long, while
the female sea lion weighs 100 kg (220 lb) and is 6 ft (1.8 m) long. The largest sea lion
is Steller's sea lion, which can weigh 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) and grow to a length of 10 ft (3.0 m).
Sea lions consume large quantities of food at a time and are known to eat about 5–8% of their
body weight (about 15–35 lb (6.8–15.9 kg)) at a single feeding. Sea lions can go around 16 knots
in water and at their fastest they can go up to 30 knots.[2] Three species, the Australian sea lion,
the Galápagos sea lionand the New Zealand sea lion are listed as Endangered.[citat
Sea lions are related to walruses and seals. Together with the fur seals, they constitute the
family Otariidae, collectively known as eared seals. Until recently, sea lions were grouped under
a single subfamily called Otariinae, whereas fur seals were grouped in the subfamily
Arcocephalinae. This division was based on the most prominent common feature shared by the
fur seals and absent in the sea lions, namely the dense underfur characteristic of the former.
Recent genetic evidence, suggests Callorhinus, the genus of the northern fur seal, is more
closely related to some sea lion species than to the other fur seal
genus, Arctocephalus.[3] Therefore, the fur seal/sea lion subfamily distinction has been eliminated
from many taxonomies.
Nonetheless, all fur seals have certain features in common: the fur, generally smaller sizes,
farther and longer foraging trips, smaller and more abundant prey items, and greater sexual
dimorphism. All sea lions have certain features in common, in particular their coarse, short fur,
greater bulk, and larger prey than fur seals. For these reasons, the distinction remains useful.
The family Otariidae (Order Carnivora) contains the 14 extant species of fur seals and sea lions.
Traditional classification of the family into the subfamilies Arctocephalinae (fur seals) and
Otariinae (sea lions) is not supported, with the fur seal Callorhinus ursinus having a basal
relationship relative to the rest of the family.[4] This is consistent with the fossil record which
suggests that this genus diverged from the line leading to the remaining fur seals and sea lions
about 6 million years ago (mya). Similar genetic divergences between the sea lion clades as well
as between the major Arctocephalus fur seal clades, suggest that these groups underwent
periods of rapid radiation at about the time they diverged from each other. The phylogenetic
relationships within the family and the genetic distances among some taxa highlight
inconsistencies in the current taxonomic classification of the family.[4]
Arctocephalus is characterized by ancestral character states such as dense underfur and the
presence of double rooted cheek teeth and is thus thought to represent the most "primitive" line.
It was from this basal line that both the sea lions and the remaining fur seal genus, Callorhinus,
are thought to have diverged. The fossil record from the western coast of North America presents
evidence for the divergence of Callorhinus about 6 mya, whereas fossils in both California and
Japan suggest that sea lions did not diverge until years later.[4]
There are many components that make up sea lion physiology and these processes control
aspects of their behavior. Physiology dictates thermoregulation, osmoregulation, reproduction,
metabolic rate, and many other aspects on sea lion ecology including but not limited to their
ability to dive to great depths. The sea lions' bodies control heart rate, gas exchange, digestion
rate, and blood flow to allow individuals to dive for a long period of time and prevent side-effects
of high pressure at depth.
The high pressures associated with deep dives cause gases such as nitrogen to build up in
tissues which are then released upon surfacing, possibly causing death. One of the ways sea
lions deal with the extreme pressures is by limiting the amount of gas exchange that occurs when
diving. The sea lion allows the alveoli to be compressed by the increasing water pressure thus
forcing the surface air into cartilage lined airway just before the gas exchange surface.[5] This
process prevents any further oxygen exchange to the blood for muscles, requiring all muscles to
be loaded with enough oxygen to last the duration of the dive. However, this shunt reduces the
amount of compressed gases from entering tissues therefore reducing the risk of decompression
sickness.[5] The collapse of alveoli does not allow for any oxygen storage in the lungs however,
this means that sea lions must mitigate oxygen use in order to extend their dives. Oxygen
availability is prolonged by the physiological control of heart rate in the sea lions. By reducing
heart rate to well below surface rates, oxygen is saved by reducing gas exchange as well as
reducing the energy required for a high heart rate.[6] Bradycardia is a control mechanism to allow
a switch from pulmonary oxygen to oxygen stored in the muscles which is needed when the sea
lions are diving to depth.[6] Another way sea lions mitigate the oxygen obtained at the surface in
dives is to reduce digestion rate. Digestion requires metabolic activity and therefore energy and
oxygen are consumed during this process, however sea lions can limit digestion rate and
decrease it by at least 54%.[7] This reduction in digestion results in a proportional reduction in
oxygen use in the stomach and therefore a correlated oxygen supply for diving. Digestion rate in
these sea lions increase back to normal rates immediately upon resurfacing.[7] Oxygen depletion
limits dive duration, but carbon dioxide (CO2) build up also plays a role in the dive capabilities of
many marine mammals. After a sea lion returns from a long dive, CO2is not expired as fast as
oxygen is replenished in the blood, due to the unloading complications with CO2. However,
having more than normal levels of CO2 in the blood does not seem to adversely affect dive
behavior.[8] Compared to terrestrial mammals, sea lions have a higher tolerance to storing
CO2 which is what normally tells mammals that they need to breathe.[8] This ability to ignore a
response to CO2 is likely brought on by increase carotid bodies which are sensor for oxygen
levels which let the animal know its available oxygen supply.[8] Yet, the sea lions cannot avoid the
effects of gradual CO2 build up which eventually causes the sea lions to spend more time at the
surface after multiple repeated dives to allow for enough built up CO2 to be expired.[8]
Behavioural and environmental correlates of Philophthalmus zalophi, a foot parasite. And the
infection has impacted the survival of juvenile Galapagos sea lions (Zalophus wollebaeki).[9] This
infection leads to diseases that are connected to global warming. The number of infectious
stages of different parasites species has a strong correlation with temperature change, therefore
it is essential to consider the correlation between the increasing number of parasitic infections
and climate changes. To test this proposed theory researchers used Galapagos sea lions
because they are endemic to the Galapagos islands.[9] The Galapagos Islands goes through
seasonal changes in sea surface temperatures, which consist of high temperatures from the
beginning of January through the month of May and lower temperatures throughout the rest of
the year. Parasites surfaced in large numbers when the sea temperature was at its highest.
Furthermore, data was collected by capturing sea lions in order to measure and determine their
growth rates. Their growth rates were noted along with the citings of parasites which were found
under the eyelid. The shocking results were that sea lions are affected the parasites from the
early ages of 3 weeks old up until the age of 4 to 8 months.[9] The parasites found in the eye fluke
did serious damage to the eye. From the data collected, 21 of the 91 survived; with a total of 70
deaths in just a span of two years.[9] The parasites are attacking the pups at such young ages;
thus causing the pups to not reach the age of reproduction. The death rates of the pups is
surpassing the fertility rate by far. Since most pups are unable to reach the age of reproduction,
the population is not growing fast enough to keep the species out of endangerment. The pups
who do survive must pass their strong genes down to make sure their young survive and the
generation that follows. Other parasites, like Anisakis and heartworm can also infect sea lions.
Along with Galapagos islands, sea lions (Zalophus wollebaeki) being affected are the Australian
sea lions (Neophoca cinerea).[10] The same method was used for the sea pups on the galapagos
island, but in addition, the researchers in Australia took blood samples. The pups in Australia
were being affected by hookworms, but they were also coming out in large numbers with warmer
temperatures.[10] Sea pups in New Zealand (Phocarctos hookeri) were also affected really early
ages by hookworms (Uncinaria). The difference is that in New Zealand researchers took the
necessary steps and began treatment.[11] The treatment seemed to be effective on the pups who
have taken it. They found no traces of this infection afterwards. However, the percentage of pups
who do have it is still relatively high at about 75%.[11] Those pups who were treated had much
better growth rates than those who did not. Overall parasites and hookworms are killing off
enough pups to place them in endangerment. Parasites affect sea pups in various areas of the
world. Reproductive success reduces immensely, survival methods, changes in health and
growth have also been affected.