QUANTUM COMPUTING

Quantum computing is computing using quantum-mechanical phenomena,

such as superposition and entanglement. A quantum computer is a device
that performs quantum computing. Such a computer is different
from binary digital electronic computers based on transistors. Whereas
common digital computing requires that the data be encoded into binary digits
(bits), each of which is always in one of two definite states (0 or 1), quantum
computation uses quantum bits or qubits, which can be in superpositions of
states. A quantum Turing machine is a theoretical model of such a computer,
and is also known as the universal quantum computer. The field of quantum
computing was initiated by the work of Paul Benioff and Yuri Manin in
1980, Richard Feynman in 1982, and David Deutsch in 1985.
As of 2018, the development of actual quantum computers is still in its
infancy, but experiments have been carried out in which quantum
computational operations were executed on a very small number of quantum
bits. Both practical and theoretical research continues, and many national
governments and military agencies are funding quantum computing research
in additional effort to develop quantum computers for civilian, business, trade,
environmental and national security purposes, such as cryptanalysis. A small
20-qubit quantum computer exists and is available for experiments via
the IBM Quantum Experience project. D-Wave Systems has been developing
their own version of a quantum computer that uses annealing.
Large-scale quantum computers would theoretically be able to solve certain
problems much more quickly than any classical computers that use even the
best currently known algorithms, like integer factorization using Shor's
algorithm (which is a quantum algorithm) and the simulation of quantum
many-body systems. There exist quantum algorithms, such as Simon's
algorithm, that run faster than any possible probabilistic classical algorithm. A
classical computer could in principle (with exponential resources) simulate a
quantum algorithm, as quantum computation does not violate the Church–
Turing thesis. On the other hand, quantum computers may be able to
efficiently solve problems which are not practically feasible on classical
computers.
The Bloch sphere is a representation of a qubit, the fundamental building block of quantum computers.

Quantum computing is the area of study focused on developing computer

technology based on the principles of quantum theory, which explains the
nature and behavior of energy and matter on the quantum (atomic and
subatomic) level. Development of a quantum computer, if practical, would
mark a leap forward in computing capability far greater than that from
the abacus to a modern day supercomputer, with performance gains in the
billion-fold realm and beyond. The quantum computer, following the laws of
quantum physics, would gain enormous processing power through the ability
to be in multiple states, and to perform tasks using all possible permutations
simultaneously. Current centers of research in quantum computing include
MIT, IBM, Oxford University, and the Los Alamos National Laboratory.

The essential elements of quantum computing originated with Paul Benioff,

working at Argonne National Labs, in 1981. He theorized a classical computer
operating with some quantum mechanical principles. But it is generally
accepted that David Deutsch of Oxford University provided the critical impetus
for quantum computing research. In 1984, he was at a computation theory
conference and began to wonder about the possibility of designing a computer
that was based exclusively on quantum rules, then published his breakthrough
paper a few months later. With this, the race began to exploit his ideas.
However, before we delve into what he started, it is beneficial to have a look
at the background of the quantum world

Quantum Theory

Quantum theory's development began in 1900 with a presentation by Max

Planck to the German Physical Society, in which he introduced the idea that
energy exists in individual units (which he called "quanta"), as does matter.
Further developments by a number of scientists over the following thirty years
led to the modern understanding of quantum theory.

The Essential Elements of Quantum Theory:

 Energy, like matter, consists of discrete units, rather than solely as a

continuous wave.

 Elementary particles of both energy and matter, depending on the

conditions, may behave like either particles or waves.

 The movement of elementary particles is inherently random, and, thus,

unpredictable.

 The simultaneous measurement of two complementary values, such as the

position and momentum of an elementary particle, is inescapably flawed;
the more precisely one value is measured, the more flawed will be the
measurement of the other value.
Further Developments of Quantum Theory

Niels Bohr proposed the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum theory, which

asserts that a particle is whatever it is measured to be (for example, a wave or
a particle) but that it cannot be assumed to have specific properties, or even
to exist, until it is measured. In short, Bohr was saying that objective reality
does not exist. This translates to a principle called superposition that claims
that while we do not know what the state of any object is, it is actually in all
possible states simultaneously, as long as we don't look to check.

To illustrate this theory, we can use the famous and somewhat cruel analogy
of Schrodinger's Cat. First, we have a living cat and place it in a thick lead
box. At this stage, there is no question that the cat is alive. We then throw in a
vial of cyanide and seal the box. We do not know if the cat is alive or if it has
broken the cyanide capsule and died. Since we do not know, the cat is both
dead and alive, according to quantum law - in a superposition of states. It is
only when we break open the box and see what condition the cat is in that the
superposition is lost, and the cat must be either alive or dead.

The second interpretation of quantum theory is the multiverse or many-

worlds theory. It holds that as soon as a potential exists for any object to be in
any state, the universe of that object transmutes into a series of parallel
universes equal to the number of possible states in which that the object can
exist, with each universe containing a unique single possible state of that
object. Furthermore, there is a mechanism for interaction between these
universes that somehow permits all states to be accessible in some way and
for all possible states to be affected in some manner. Stephen Hawking and
the late Richard Feynman are among the scientists who have expressed a
preference for the many-worlds theory.
Which ever argument one chooses, the principle that, in some way, one
particle can exist in numerous states opens up profound implications for
computing.

A Comparison of Classical and Quantum Computing

Classical computing relies, at its ultimate level, on principles expressed by

Boolean algebra, operating with a (usually) 7-mode logic gate principle,
though it is possible to exist with only three modes (which are AND, NOT, and
COPY). Data must be processed in an exclusive binary state at any point in
time - that is, either 0 (off / false) or 1 (on / true). These values are binary
digits, or bits. The millions of transistors and capacitors at the heart of
computers can only be in one state at any point. While the time that the each
transistor or capacitor need be either in 0 or 1 before switching states is now
measurable in billionths of a second, there is still a limit as to how quickly
these devices can be made to switch state. As we progress to smaller and
faster circuits, we begin to reach the physical limits of materials and the
threshold for classical laws of physics to apply. Beyond this, the quantum
world takes over, which opens a potential as great as the challenges that are
presented.

The Quantum computer, by contrast, can work with a two-mode logic

gate: XOR and a mode we'll call QO1 (the ability to change 0 into a
superposition of 0 and 1, a logic gate which cannot exist in classical
computing). In a quantum computer, a number of elemental particles such as
electrons or photons can be used (in practice, success has also been
achieved with ions), with either their charge or polarization acting as a
representation of 0 and/or 1. Each of these particles is known as a quantum
bit, or qubit, the nature and behavior of these particles form the basis of
quantum computing. The two most relevant aspects of quantum physics are
the principles of superposition and entanglement .
Superposition

Think of a qubit as an electron in a magnetic field. The electron's spin may be

either in alignment with the field, which is known as a spin-up state, or
opposite to the field, which is known as a spin-down state. Changing the
electron's spin from one state to another is achieved by using a pulse of
energy, such as from a laser - let's say that we use 1 unit of laser energy. But
what if we only use half a unit of laser energy and completely isolate the
particle from all external influences? According to quantum law, the particle
then enters a superposition of states, in which it behaves as if it were in both
states simultaneously. Each qubit utilized could take a superposition of both 0
and 1. Thus, the number of computations that a quantum computer could
undertake is 2^n, where n is the number of qubits used. A quantum computer
comprised of 500 qubits would have a potential to do 2^500 calculations in a
single step. This is an awesome number - 2^500 is infinitely more atoms than
there are in the known universe (this is true parallel processing - classical
computers today, even so called parallel processors, still only truly do one
thing at a time: there are just two or more of them doing it). But how will these
particles interact with each other? They would do so via quantum
entanglement.

Entanglement Particles (such as photons, electrons, or qubits) that have

interacted at some point retain a type of connection and can be entangled with
each other in pairs, in a process known as correlation . Knowing the spin state
of one entangled particle - up or down - allows one to know that the spin of its
mate is in the opposite direction. Even more amazing is the knowledge that,
due to the phenomenon of superpostition, the measured particle has no single
spin direction before being measured, but is simultaneously in both a spin-up
and spin-down state. The spin state of the particle being measured is decided
at the time of measurement and communicated to the correlated particle,
which simultaneously assumes the opposite spin direction to that of the
measured particle. This is a real phenomenon (Einstein called it "spooky
action at a distance"), the mechanism of which cannot, as yet, be explained by
any theory - it simply must be taken as given. Quantum entanglement allows
qubits that are separated by incredible distances to interact with each other
instantaneously (not limited to the speed of light). No matter how great the
distance between the correlated particles, they will remain entangled as long
as they are isolated.

Taken together, quantum superposition and entanglement create an

enormously enhanced computing power. Where a 2-bit register in an ordinary
computer can store only one of four binary configurations (00, 01, 10, or 11) at
any given time, a 2-qubit register in a quantum computer can store all four
numbers simultaneously, because each qubit represents two values. If more
qubits are added, the increased capacity is expanded exponentially.

Quantum Programming

Perhaps even more intriguing than the sheer power of quantum computing is
the ability that it offers to write programs in a completely new way. For
example, a quantum computer could incorporate a programming sequence
that would be along the lines of "take all the superpositions of all the prior
computations" - something which is meaningless with a classical computer -
which would permit extremely fast ways of solving certain mathematical
problems, such as factorization of large numbers, one example of which we
discuss below.

There have been two notable successes thus far with quantum programming.
The first occurred in 1994 by Peter Shor, (now at AT&T Labs) who developed
a quantum algorithm that could efficiently factorize large numbers. It centers
on a system that uses number theory to estimate the periodicity of a large
number sequence. The other major breakthrough happened with Lov Grover
of Bell Labs in 1996, with a very fast algorithm that is proven to be the fastest
possible for searching through unstructured databases. The algorithm is so
efficient that it requires only, on average, roughly N square root (where N is
the total number of elements) searches to find the desired result, as opposed
to a search in classical computing, which on average needs N/2 searches.

The Problems - And Some Solutions

The above sounds promising, but there are tremendous obstacles still to be
overcome. Some of the problems with quantum computing are as follows:

 Interference - During the computation phase of a quantum calculation, the

slightest disturbance in a quantum system (say a stray photon or wave of
EM radiation) causes the quantum computation to collapse, a process
known as de-coherence. A quantum computer must be totally isolated from
all external interference during the computation phase. Some success has
been achieved with the use of qubits in intense magnetic fields, with the
use of ions.

 Error correction - Because truly isolating a quantum system has proven so

difficult, error correction systems for quantum computations have been
developed. Qubits are not digital bits of data, thus they cannot use
conventional (and very effective) error correction, such as the triple
redundant method. Given the nature of quantum computing, error
correction is ultra critical - even a single error in a calculation can cause
the validity of the entire computation to collapse. There has been
considerable progress in this area, with an error correction algorithm
developed that utilizes 9 qubits (1 computational and 8 correctional). More
recently, there was a breakthrough by IBM that makes do with a total of 5
qubits (1 computational and 4 correctional).

 Output observance - Closely related to the above two, retrieving output

data after a quantum calculation is complete risks corrupting the data. In
an example of a quantum computer with 500 qubits, we have a 1 in 2^500
chance of observing the right output if we quantify the output. Thus, what is
 needed is a method to ensure that, as soon as all calculations are made
and the act of observation takes place, the observed value will correspond
to the correct answer. How can this be done? It has been achieved by
Grover with his database search algorithm, that relies on the special
"wave" shape of the probability curve inherent in quantum computers, that
ensures, once all calculations are done, the act of measurement will see
the quantum state decohere into the correct answer.

Even though there are many problems to overcome, the breakthroughs in the
last 15 years, and especially in the last 3, have made some form of practical
quantum computing not unfeasible, but there is much debate as to whether
this is less than a decade away or a hundred years into the future. However,
the potential that this technology offers is attracting tremendous interest from
both the government and the private sector. Military applications include the
ability to break encryptions keys via brute force searches, while civilian
applications range from DNA modeling to complex material science analysis.
It is this potential that is rapidly breaking down the barriers to this technology,
but whether all barriers can be broken, and when, is very much an open
question
 REFRENCES

www.google.com
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_computing
https://www.research.ibm.com/ibm-q/learn/what-is-
quantum-computing/
https://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/quantum-
computing