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SECONDARY STAGE
BIOLOGY
BOOK ONE
FOR CLASS IX
For
Sindh Textbook Board, Jamshoro.
CONTENTS
SECTION 3 BIODIVERSITY
CHAPTER 7 INVERTEBRATA 65
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY
Biology, the study of life is the most vital and challenging branch of science. Why?
Because it is concerned with and affects all the aspects of human life. This field is
ever growing, as old questions are answered and new questions are raised. When
and where living organisms originated? How do they grow? How did this diversity
of organism come into being? Who created it? This is just a glimpse of questions,
biologists are working upon right from the day one. They are using this acquired
knowledge of the basic natural processes for the welfare of mankind.
Learning objectives:
The word science is derived from a Latin word meaning "to know" Science is a
way of knowing. It emerges from our curiosity about ourselves, the world and the
universe.
Science helps human beings to understand the natural world and is concerned
solely with information gained by observing and testing that world. Natural world
cannot be understood with out asking questions, like how did variety of living
things evolve on earth? In what way they interact? What processes must occur in
each organism? Why living things differ from non-living? Common questions like
these form the basis of the science of biology.
"We made every living thing of water. Will they not then believe?"
(Surah Al-Anbiya, Ayah 30)
"And Allah has created every animal of water. Of them is (a kind) that goes upon
its belly and (a kind) that goes upon two legs and (a kind) that goes upon four.
Allah creates what He will. Lo! Allah is able to do all things."
(Surah Al-Nur, Ayah 45)
An Egyptian mufassir, Allama Abdullah Yusuf Ali has symbolised water with the
protoplasm and thus explains that the protoplasm is the basis of all living matter
and "the vital power of protoplasm seems to depend on the constant presence of
water."
"He it is who sends down water from the sky and therewith we bring forth buds of
every kind; We bring forth the green blade from which we bring forth the thick-
clustered grain; and from the date-palm, from the pollen thereof, spring pendant
bunches; and (we bring forth) gardens of grapes, and the olive and the
pomegranate, alike and unlike. Look upon the fruit thereof, when they bear fruit,
and upon its ripening. Lo! Herein verily are portents for a people who believe."
(Surah Al-An'am, Ayah 100)
Holy Quran has explained the significance of water for plants and animals at
several places.
"Who has appointed the earth as a bed and has threaded roads for you therein
and has sent down water from the sky and thereby We have brought forth divers
kinds of vegetation."
(Surah Ta-ha, Ayah S3)
Glorious Quran has also revealed some facts about the growth and variety of
plants.
"And in the Earth are neighbouring tracts, vineyards and ploughed lands, and
date-palms, like and unlike which are watered with one water. And We have
made some of them to excel others in fruit. Lo! herein verily are portents for
people who have sense."
(Surah Al Ra'd, Ayah 4)
"Lo! Allah (it is) who splitteth the grain of corn and the date-stone (for sprouting).
He brings forth the living from the dead, and is the bringer-forth of the dead from
the living. Such is Allah. How then are you pervented?"
(Surah Al-An'am, Ayah 96)
Above passage refers to the wonderful act of production and also interaction of
living and dead.
Allah has also indicated the usefulness of some of the plants and animals to the
human welfare. The following Ayah can be quoted for reference.
"And Lo! In the cattle there is a lesson for you, We give you to drink of that which
is in their bellies, from betwixt the refuse and the blood, pure milk palatable to
the drinkers."
(Surah An-Nahal, Ayah 66)
"And the earth have We spread out and placed therein firm hills, and caused each
seemly thing to grow there in."
(Surah Al-Hijr, Ayah 19)
"Glory be to Him Who created all the sexual pairs, of that which the earth
groweth, and of themselves, and of that which they know not!"
(Surah Ya-sin, Ayah 36)
"And thy Lord inspired the bee, saying: choose thou habitations in the hills and in
the trees and in that which they hatch; then eat of all fruits, and follow the ways
of thy lord made smooth (for thee). There cometh forth from their bellies a drink
diverse of hues, wherein is healing for mankind Lo! Here is indeed a portent for
people who reflect."
(Surah Al-Nahal, Ayah 68-69)
i) Morphology (Gr: Morphe = form): This branch deals with the study of
external structural characteristics of plants and animals.
ii) Anatomy (Gr: Ana = up, tome = to cut): It deals with the internal
structures or organs of an organism. In plants it deals with the
arrangement of different types of tissues in root, stem leaf etc.
iii) Histology: (Gr: Histos = web or tissues): It deals with the study of
tissues of plants and animals under a microscope.
ix) Genetics (Gr: Genesis = origin): It deals with the study of inheritance
including transmission of hereditary characters from parents to their
offspring.
In the ancient past large quantities of dead organisms were fossilized and formed coal, oil and other
fossil fuel.
xi) Biochemistry: It deals with the chemistry and chemical aspects of the
living system.
xii) Microbiology (Micro = very small): It deals with the study of microscopic
organisms such as viruses, bacteria, etc.
Finally, we can say that biology is related with each branch of science.
1. Observation:
Most of the biological investigations start with an observation. After selecting,
specific biological problem, observations are made to collect relevant information.
For example; take the case of malaria. Malaria is a the greatest killer disease of
man for centuries. Malaria was the one among many other diseases for which a
cure was needed.
In 1878, a French physician, Laveran, studied the blood sample of malaria patient
under microscope and observed tiny creatures in it. These creatures were later
named Plasmodium.
2. Hypothesis:
In the light of observed facts and previously collected information (data)
biologists make 'intelligent guesses' as to what may be the possible answer to
this particular question. This intelligent guess in a form of a statement is called
hypothesis. So, the hypothesis is a statement made by scientists about a certain
phenomenon, on the basis of available information. For example, an observation
was made that Plasmodium is present in the blood of malaria patients. So a
question was raised, is Plasmodium the cause of malaria? It would be a good
guess to say 'yes' but it is only a guess which can be presented as a hypothesis
that:
3. Deduction:
To test the hypothesis certain deductions that are logical prediction are made. In
other words deduction is the logical explanation of a hypothesis. It does not
require any type of experimentation. For example, to test the above hypothesis
the following deductions were made.
"If Plasmodium is the cause of malaria, then all the patient suffering from malaria
should have malarial parasite in their blood while healthy people should not have".
A number of deductions can be made to explain the hypothesis. These deductions
can be tested and verified by experiments.
4. Experiment:
The next step is to test each deduction (prediction) practically to find out whether
or not the hypothesis is correct. In testing the deduction we are actually testing a
hypothesis. This is where the scientist shows his skill as an experimenter. For this
purpose, scientist performs two types of test i.e. control and experimental groups.
Control group means a group of healthy people and experimental group means
group of malaria patients. Both groups were kept in identical conditions. In order
to find out the real cause of malarial, scientists examined the blood of about 100
malaria patients and also examined the blood of 100 healthy persons.
5. Result:
From above experiment it was found that all the malarial patients had
Plasmodium in their blood, where as the blood of healthy persons were free from
Plasmodium. These results verified the deduction and finally the hypothesis i.e.
"Plasmodium is the cause of malaria".
6. Theory:
It is not always possible to confirm a hypothesis immediately. The validity of a
hypothesis rests on a gradual accumulation of indirect evidences. As more and
more evidence come to hand, the hypothesis gain increasing acceptance and
eventually is promoted to the rank of a theory: A theory is a set of scientific
assumptions consistent with one another and supported by evidence, but not fully
proved e.g. theory of evolution
Thus a biologist studies a problem in a sequential manner through observations,
questions, hypothesis, deduction, testing or experimentation. A set of data taken
from experiment, proves or disproves the hypothesis. A cautious attitude
expressed in the form of criticism and further tests are performed until a
satisfactory answer is obtained.
The results of observations and experiments are published in scientific journals or presented in
conferences, where they can be examined by all. These results must be repeatable that is they should
be obtained by any one doing the same procedure.
Abdul Malik Asmai (741 A.D), wrote books "Alkheil, Al-IbiL "Al-wahoosh", "As-
Sha" and "khalaqul Insan", describing structure and function of body parts of
horses, camels, sheep, wild animals and human being. "Khalaqul Insan" was
popular among the western experts in Zoology. He was regarded a specialist of
his time.
Ali bin Rabban Tubri (775-870 A.D), wrote book "Firdus-ul-Hikma" having
many illustrations and detailed articles on Philosophy, Zoology, Psychology and
Astronomy.
Al-Farabi (870-950 A.D) and Abul-Qasim Al-Zahravi (936-1004 A.D). Both were
the renowned hakim and surgeon of the Islamic World. Al Farabi is the author of
two very well known books i.e. "Kitab-i-Nabatat" and "Kitab-ul-Haywanat" and
Zahravi was famous for the removal of urinary bladder stone.
Ibn-al Haitham (965-1039 A.D), wrote books like "Kitabul Manazir" and
"Mizanul-Hikma", He explained the phenomenon of vision and corrected the
Greek conception about vision.
Bu-Ali Sina (980 A.D), wrote books "Al-Qanoon" and "Fil Tib Al-Shifa", about
plants, animals and non-living things. He is considered as one of the founder of
medicine, acknowledged by the greatest expert of his time in medicines in east
and west.
Ali bin Isa was a well known eye-specialist of his time and worked on structure,
function and the diseases of the eye. He wrote three volumes on this subject in
which he described 130 diseases of the eye.
Abul Qasim Majreeti is especially known in Europe for his book on animal
species.
Other Biologists:
After 15th century, European and other biologists made important contribution in
the field of Biology.
Robbert Hook (1665) discovered "cell" the basic unit of living organism.
Charles Darwin (1859), wrote his famous book "origin of species" about
evolution of different species through Natural selection.
Gregor John Mendal (1822-1884) gave his famous laws of heredity and laid
foundation of Genetics.
Watson and Crick (1953) proposed double helix model of DNA to explain the
function of DNA as heredity material.
Although there are many side effects of these technologies yet no one of us wishes to go back to the
days in which large number of people died of epidemic diseases. As science has conquered one
disease after another, the world's death rate has fallen and the human population has exploded. Few
of us are willing to give up technology's gift of private automobile, though we are concerned about the
amount of air pollution that automobile generate.
"That is Allah your Lord. There is no god but Him, the Creator of all things.
Therefore, serve Him. He is the Guardian of all things".
(Surah Al-Ana'm, Ayah 103)
The preceding verse explains that all living beings including insects and snakes
(which crawl), monkeys and grazers (four legged creatures) and birds and
humans (two legged creatures) were created ultimately from water. It is stated:
"He (Allah) who created all things in the best way. He first created man from clay,
then bred his offspring from a drop of paltry fluid. He then moulded him and
breathed into him of His spirit. He gave your eyes and ears, and hearts: yet you
are seldom thankful".
(Surah Al-Sajda, Ayah 7-9}
Once the life had been created, Allah implemented the process of reproduction for
the continuity of races of animals. The various stages of reproduction have been
described in Holy Quran in following way.
"Then fashioned we the drop a clot, then fashioned we the clot a little lump, then
fashioned we the little lump bones, then clothed the bones with flesh".
"Hath there come upon man (every) any period of time in which he was a
thing unremembered?"
(Surah Al-Dahar, Ayah 1)
A close study of above sermons reveals that all animals had common origin but
they gradually underwent changes afterwards and became different from each
other i.e. some developed crawling, some started walking on two legs and some
other had four. It seemed that animals of today are advanced forms of the past
animals who achieved this form after passing through many changes.
Experiment No.1
Some dead snakes were placed in a box. It was noticed that flies gathered around
the dead snakes. After three days maggots appeared in their bodies. After about
eighteen days these maggots transformed into pupae. Some of these pupae were
then transferred to separated glass containers covered with a sheet of paper.
After eight days, a fly emerged from each pupa and all flies were similar to those
which visited the body of the dead snakes. From this it was concluded that
maggots were the offspring’s of flies. The flies had laid eggs on the dead snakes.
These eggs gave rise to maggots which formed pupae and ultimately flies
emerged from them.
Experiment No.2
In another experiment Redi took eight bottles. He put dead snakes in two; pieces
of meat in other bottle and dead fishes in other bottle. He kept four bottles open
and four covered. After a few days, maggots appeared in the open bottles only.
No maggots appeared in the bottles kept covered. This showed that if the flies
were prevented from entering the bottles, the maggots did not appear.
Some workers, however, criticized this experiment and said that the maggots
failed to appear in the covered bottles because air being so essential for
abiogenesis could not enter these bottles. To test this, Redi performed another
experiment.
Experiment No.3
Some pieces of meat were put in a bottle whose mouth was covered with a gauze.
Thus, air could enter the bottle while flies remained out. Again no maggots
appeared on the piece of meat, even after many days inspite of the fact that
entry of air was possible.
These experiments provide evidence supporting the idea that only living beings
give rise to living beings. Thus, the concept of Biogenesis is correct and that of
Abiogenesis is wrong.
Needham's experiment:
In 1748, an English Scientist Needham, boiled meat in water, poured this gravy
in bottles and closed their mouth with cork. After a few days many micro-
organisms were produced in these covered bottles. This once again excited the
believers of Abiogenesis i.e. life from non-life (Fig: 1.3).
Pasture's experiment:
The argument on the issue of biogenesis and abiogenesis continued up to the
middle of nineteenth century, till Louis Pasture, a renowned French scientist
proved with experiments, that abiogenesis could not occur in the present
environment of earth.
In 1864, Pasture performed his experiment, in front of the commission formed of
noted biologists, to resolve this issue. He took flasks which had long curved S-
shaped necks (Fig. 1.4). He added fermentable infusion (yeast + sugar + water)
in bottles and left their mouth open.
The yeast infusions were boiled in the flasks and let steam released out of the
neck of each flask. Then flasks were allowed to cool. No life was produced even
after the lapse of several days; because micro-organisms entering along with
incoming air got stuck up in on the curved walls of the glass neck. To prove this
he broke up the curved necks, so that now contaminated air could reach directly
to the infusion. It was observed that micro-organisms were produced within 48
hours. This proved that if care was taken and no micro-organisms or their spores
were allowed to reach the infusion, no life could be produced. He rejected
spontaneous generation. Commission decided in favour of bio-genesis.
Life originated on earth more than 3.5 billion years ago. We do not know how life formed, although
the evidence is consistent with the hypothesis that it evolved spontaneously from chemicals. There is
considerable discussion among biologists about what the early stages of such an evolutionary process
might have been like.
What was the first life form like? The first life form, perhaps, was a sphere of
naked protein or RNA and was capable of making its copies (reproduction). At
some stage, a membrane assembled around the sphere giving rise to the first cell.
There is now general agreement that this first life form respired anaerobically
because the earth's atmosphere lacked free oxygen; it reproduced asexually. Our
present day knowledge of viruses, bacteria and how DNA makes its copies
provide enough hints in support of the above view. The first living organism may
have been like viruses.
The next step in this story was appearance of an autotrophic way of life, that is,
an organism capable of photosynthesis, adding free oxygen into the atmosphere.
This availability of free oxygen opened the way for an explosion of a variety of
organisms in times to come. Further improvement became possible as some of
the organisms achieved the capability, to reproduce sexually.
For at least the first 2 billion years of life on earth, all organisms were bacteria. About 1.5 billion years
ago, the first eukaryotes appeared.
The story of origin of life highlights change in matter. First inorganic molecules
interacted in a way that organic molecules came into existence. The latter formed
aggregates capable of making their copies and existed as naked spheres of
protein or nucleic acids (RNA or DNA). Ultimately there arose the first cell a unit
with a membrane. This tells us that life eventually arose by a slow process of
chemical changes or organic evolution. The basic underlying concept in this
process is that over a period of time (a very long period) one form gave rise to
another. The idea of organic evolution was supported by scientist like Lamarck
and Charles Darwin. They argued that new forms of life must have arisen from
older ones through variations and that it was something in the process of heredity
which was responsible for variations.
SUMMARY
Biology is the study of living things. It is further divided into three main
branches Botany, Zoology and Microbiology.
Biology can be divided further into a large number of branches like
morphology, anatomy, histology, cytology, physiology ecology, embryology,
taxonomy, genetics, paleontology, biochemistry, biotechnology, etc.
Biology and other natural and social sciences like chemistry, physics,
mathematics, sociology and statistics are inter-related.
The systematic process used in resolving a biological problem is called a
biological method.
Biological investigation starts with observations and collection of information
about the biological problems.
Hypothesis is a guess made by scientist about the solution of a certain
phenomenon.
Deduction is a logical explanation of hypothesis.
Experiment is the practical testing of hypothesis and deduction.
New discoveries in the field of biology are bringing revolution in the fields of
medicine, public health, agriculture, veterinary, landscape etc.
The old discarded belief that the living beings can spontaneously develop
from the non-living is termed as abiogenesis, and the view that only living
things can produce their own kind is called biogenesis.
Modern view of origin of life stresses upon the idea of chemical evolution and
ties it with the origin of earth and the primitive atmosphere.
Living organisms had a common origin but, with the passage of time, they
gradually changed and became different from one another.
EXERCISE
Chapter 2
STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION OF LIFE
The cell is the basic unit of life. It is the smallest entity in which the life can exist.
All the things that living organism can do are done by its cells. In fact some living
things are made up of only one cell. Each cell gets food for energy, obtains
oxygen, produces energy, gets rid of wastes, maintains homeostasis and
produces new cells. How are all these life activities carried out? The answer can
be found by examining the composition and working of its parts.
Learning objectives:
observed nuclei in all types of animal cells but failed to observe cell-wall in them.
From here the difference between plant and animal cell started to establish. In
1858, Rudolf Virchow stated that new cells come only from other cells i.e animals
cells come from animal cell and plant cells from plant cell. The combined efforts
of Schleiden, Schwann and R.Virchow finally gave rise to cell theory.
Resolution Magnification
Resolution is the capacity to Magnification is a means of
separate adjacent objects. increasing size of the object.
Resolution is maintained upto By increasing magnification
certain magnification. resolution is disturbed.
Resolution improves as the Magnification improves with the
wave length of illumination focal length of lens.
become shorter.
The microscopes first used by scientist, as well as the microscope you use in the
biology laboratory are light microscopes. These microscope use visible light as the
source of illumination and glass lenses for magnification. These lenses reflect the
light in a way that the image of the specimen is magnified as it is projected into
the human eye. The light microscope can magnify the object upto 1000 times but
its resolving power is very limited, i.e just 0.2µm (Resolving power is a measure
of the clarity of the image).
In 1935, a new type of power full microscope called Electron microscope was
invented by scientist to improve the resolving power of microscope. It uses a
beam of electron as a source of illumination. The electron beam increases its
resolving power. Modern electron microscope can achieve a resolution of about
0.2 nm, a thousand times improvement over light microscope. The electron
microscope uses electromagnet as lenses instead of glass lenses. This image
cannot focus in human eye, therefore screen or photographic plates are used to
review and focus these images.
Units of measurement
1 centimeter (cm) = 10-2 meter.
1 millimeter (mm) - 10-3 meter.
1 micrometer (µm) =10-6 meter.
1 nanometer (nm) = 10-9 meter.
Electron microscopes reveals many organelles that are impossible to be seen with
the light microscope. But the light microscope has many advantages especially for
the study of live cells. In electron microscopy, chemicals and physical methods
are used to prepare sample which kills cells.
1. Cell-wall:
Cell-wall is the non living, outermost boundary of plant cells, bacterial cells and
fungal cells. It is not found in animal cell. It is secreted by the protoplasm of the
plant cell. In plant cell it is mainly composed of cellulose and pectin. Ultra
microscopic structure of cell-wall shows that cellulose make the fibers which are
arranged in criss cross manner. These fibers are kept in their position by a
cementing material called calcium pectate (Pectin).
Bacterial cell-wall is made up of protein and carbohydrate while fungal cell wall is
made up of fungal cellulose and chitin.
Thickness of cell-wall varies in different cells of plant. It is composed of three
main layers: middle lamella, primary wall, secondary wall and some times tertiary
wall. Middle lamella is formed between the primary walls of neighbouring cells.
Primary wall, the first wall of plant cell is chemically composed of cellulose and
pectin, some limes, lignin. Cell-wall provides protection and support to the cell. It
gives a definite shape to the cell. It also performs the function of transport of
material from outside to inside or vice versa, therefore, it is permeable in nature.
2. Cell- membrane:
The cell-membrane or plasma membrane surrounds nucleus and
cytoplasm in all types of cells. However in bacteria and plants, plasma
membrane itself is surrounded by a cell-wall. It can repair itself to some extent.
Different models have been presented to understand the structure of cell
membrane. The most acceptable model among them is Fluid mosaic model
presented by Singer and Nicholson (1972). According to it, cell membrane
consists of lipid (Phospho-lipid) bilayer, in which protein molecules float like
iceberg in the sea. This basic structure is found in all the membranes of
mitochondria, chloroplast etc. Therefore, it is also called unit membrane.
3. Nucleus or Karyon:
Nucleus (discovered by Robert Brown in 1831) is an important arid prominent
structure present inside the cell. It controls all the activities of cell. It may be
spherical or irregular in shape. In animal cell it is usually present in the center but
in plant cell, due to presence of large vacuole it is pushed towards cell-
membrane. Nucleus is enveloped by a double membrane called nuclear-
membrane. This membrane possesses large number of nuclear pores. Nucleus is
filled with a gel like substance called nucleoplasm. The nucleoplasm contains
nucleoli and a network of thread like structures called chromatin network. The
threads of chromatin become prominent during cell-division. Each thread is called
chromosome. These structures of major importance. They are composed of
Deoxyribo nucleic acid (DNA) and protein. DNA plays significant role in the
4. Cytoplasm:
It is the translucent fluid portion of the cell lying in between plasma membrane
and nucleus. It consists of an aqueous ground substance called cytosol and
granular portion called cytoplasmic organelles.
Chemically cytoplasm is about 90% water and forms a solution and serves as
store house of vital chemicals. It is a site of metabolic reactions like protein
synthesis, glycolysis etc. Many reactions can occur at the same time in different
regions of the cytoplasm.
Some important cytoplasmic organelles found in eukaryotic cells.
1. Endoplasmic reticulum:
(Endo= inside, plasma = protoplasm, reticulum=net work).
It is a network of membranous channels or tubules extending throughout the
cytoplasm. The channels seem to be in contact with plasma membrane as well as
nuclear membrane. There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum.
i) Rough endoplasmic reticulum having ribosomes at its outer surface which
are involved in protein synthesis.
ii) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum without ribosome.
Endoplasmic reticulum plays important role in the synthesis and transport of
material within the cell. It also provides mechanical support to the cell so that its
shape is maintained. It detoxifies the harmful effects of drugs.
2. Golgi complex:
They were discovered by Camillo Golgi and thus called Golgi complex or bodies or
apparatus". They are set of smooth membranes that are stacked into flattened,
fluid filled sacs or vesicles containing carbohydrate, glycoproteins and enzymes.
Golgi bodies are mainly concerned with the cell secretions.
4. Plastids:
Plastids are found in the cells of all the higher plants. These are the organelles
which contain different types of pigments. Plastids are of three types on the basis
of their pigment or colour (Fig: 2.11)
i) Chloroplasts have green pigment i.e. chlorophyll found in leaves and
other green parts of a plant. They manufacture carbohydrates by the
process of photosynthesis.
ii) Chromoplast have coloured pigments other than green found in fruit,
flower, petals and other coloured parts of plants .
iii) Leucoplast (leucos = white or colourless) are colourless, found in the
cells of underground parts of plants. They store food in the form of starch.
6. Ribosome:
They are granules, rich in ribonucleic acid (RNA). They serve as sites where
proteins are synthesized hence called protein factories of cell. They are found free
in cytoplasm as well as attached on the surface of rough endoplasmic reticulum.
7. Vacuole:
They are the fluid (other than cytoplasm) filled sacs surrounded by a membrane
called tonoplast. In animal cell they are numerous, small but temporary
structures while in plant cell they are permanent and very large in size, one or a
few in number. They are concerned with storage of cell sap.
1. Mitosis:
In this type of cell division a parent cell divides into two daughter cells in a way
that the number of chromosomes in the daughter cells remains the same as in
the parent cell.
Although mitosis is a continuous process, its karyokinesis can be divided for
convenience into four phases which are Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and
Telophase. Let us now study mitosis is an animal cell.
i) Prophase:
During early prophase chromatin material condenses and becomes
visible as thick coiled, thread like structures called chromosomes.
Each chromosome at this stage is already double, i.e. consists of two
chromatids. The chromatids are attached to each other at
centromere. The nuclear membrane gradually disappears and at the
same time centrosome divides to form two centrioles, each moves
towards the opposite pole of the cell and forms the spindle fibres. The
centrioles are absent in plant cells.
ii) Metaphase:
During this phase each chromosome arranges itself on the equator of
the spindle. Each chromosome is attached to separate spindle fibre by
its centromere.
iii) Anaphase:
In this phase the centromere of a chromosome divides and the
chromatids of each chromosome separates from each other and begin
to move towards opposite poles. In this way one set of the chromatids
(each chromatid is now an independent chromosome) move towards
one pole while the other set towards the other pole.
iv) Telophase:
This is a stage when the chromatids (now called chromosomes) reach
the poles and their movement ceases. Each pole receives the same
number of chromosomes as were present in the parent cell. The
nuclear membrane is reformed around each set of chromosomes. In
this way two daughter nuclei are formed in each cell.
Soon the cytoplasm of the cell also divides and two daughter cells
arise. The nucleus of each daughter cell contains the same
2. Meiosis:
Meiosis or reduction cell-division is a special type of cell-division S| which a
parent cell finally divides into four daughter cells in a way that the number of
chromosome in each daughter cell reduce to half of their parent cell. Thus it is the
reduction of the diploid (2n) number of chromosomes to the haploid (n) number.
In animals meiosis produces gametes (sperms and eggs) while in plants it gives
rise to spores.
The process of meiosis involves two consecutive divisions.
2.6.1 Tissues:
A major step in the direction of multicellular organization of life has been the
formation of tissues. A tissue consists of a group of cells which are similar in
structure and function. Both plants and animals tissues have achieved increasing
complexity by formation of organs and organ systems.
1. Plant tissues:
In plants there are two basic types of tissues which are as follows.
i) Meristematic tissue: This tissue contains cells which have ability
to divide, so that the number of cells increases and the organism can
grow . Meristematic cells are smaller in size with comparatively thin walls
and a nucleus in the center. This tissue is commonly present in root tips
and shoot apex and helps to increase the length of the root and the shoot
by adding primary tissue.
ii) Permanent tissue: Permanent tissue is formed from meristematic
cells. This tissue is different from meristematic tissue because its cells do
not divide. The walls of these cells are thick enabling them to maintain
their shape. Permanent tissue may be classified into two groups i.e. simple
tissue and complex tissue.
Simple tissue is made up of one type of cells forming a homogeneous or
uniform mass and a complex tissue is made up of more than one type of
cells working together as a unit.
a) Simple tissue: Simple tissues may further be divided into following type
on the basis of their structure, i.e. Parenchyma, Collenchyma and
Sclerenchyma.
2. Animal tissues:
Like plants, animals have tissues which form organs and organ system. Some
important types of animal tissues are:
i) Epithelial tissue: The cells of this tissue occur in a single layer and are
closely packed together. This tissue forms surface layer under lines of the
tubular organs of the body. Epithelial tissue occurs in glands where it is
variously folded.
ii) Connective tissues: These tissues provide support to other tissues and
organs and bind them together. They consist of a ground substance, cells
and fibres. They range from soft to very hard tissues. Fatty tissues are
examples of the soft type. Cartilage and bone are special types of these
tissues and are hard. Blood is also a special connective tissue with cells
suspended in a fluid medium. It transports materials in the body.
iii) Muscular tissues: This tissue is formed of muscle fibres. Each muscle
fibre is an elongated cell, which has the ability to contract and relax. These
tissues are responsible for movement of the body and body parts.
iv) Nervous tissues: These tissues are formed of cells called neurons or
nerve cells. Nerve cells are specialized to conduct messages in the form of
electrical currents. The nervous system (brain, spinal cord, nerves) is
made up of this tissue. '
2.6.2 Organs:
Your arm is an organ because it consists of various kinds of tissues such as
epithelial tissue, muscular tissue, connective tissue and nervous tissue. All of
these tissues have come together in the arm to make it an organ. Your heart,
kidney, liver and many others structures are organs made in the same way.
Similarly, in a plant the root, the stem and the leaves arc organs. The stem, for
example, consists of several tissues such as epidermal tissue, ground tissue and
conducting tissue.
Amoeba:
It is a unicellular aquatic organism found in stagnant water pools and ponds. It is
microscopic in size measuring about 0.25 millimeter. It does not possess a
permanent form and' keeps on changing its shape.
The structure of Amoeba is very simple. The nucleus and cytoplasm are
surrounded by a protective cell membrane.
Cytoplasm is differentiated into two parts. Its outer portion, which is clear and
transparent is called ectoplasm. The inner viscous, translucent and granular part
is called endoplasm. The endoplasm contains many food vacuoles of different
size, a contractile vacuole and other cells organelles.
Nucleus is usually present in the centre but as the Amoeba moves, the nucleus
changes its position. The contractile vacuole functions to remove excess water
from the body. The food vacuoles contain food particles. The animal moves by
producing temporary finger-like projections called pseudopodia (Pseudo = false,
podia a feet). The pseudopodia are also used to capture food particles, which
enter the body as food vacuoles. Amoeba respires by exchanging gases with the
surrounding water through its surface.
2.8 MULTICELLULARORGANISMS
The majority of living organisms consist of many cells and are called
multicellular organisms. Brassica and frog have been selected here as
representative examples of multicellular plants and animals, respectively.
2.8.1 Brassica:
Brassica campestris is the botanical name of mustard (sarsoun). You are very
familiar with this plant since its oil (mustard oil) is used for cooking and its leaves
are used as vegetable (saag).
Structure of Brassica:
This plant consists of roots, stem, leaves, flowers, fruit and seeds. These parts
can be divided into two categories on functional basis i.e. vegetative parts and
reproductive parts.
The vegetative parts are those which do not directly take part in sexual
reproduction. These parts are root, stem, branches and leaves.
The reproductive parts consist of sex organs which are directly related to
sexual reproduction. These are flowers.
1. Vegetative parts:
i) Root: The root is that part, which grows under the soil and
develops from the radicle of the seed. The first part of the root to arise
from the radicle is known as the primary root. During its growth it gives
off secondary and tertiary roots. The primary roots are thicker than the
secondary and tertiary roots. The tips of all the roots bear a cap, the root
cap. The root bears fine, thin root hairs. The plant absorbs water and
minerals from the soil through the root hairs only, the rest of the root fix
the plant to the soil.
Internal structure:
The outer part of a root is the epidermis (epi=above; derma=skin), which
protects the root. Root hairs are outgrowths of epidermal cells. Next to epidermis
is the cortex. Cortex is composed of parenchyma cells. Parenchyma cells store
food material. Within the cortex is a central cylinder region called the stele. The
stele of the root is surrounded on the outside by a layer of cells called
endodermis. Next to the endodermis is a layer of cells called pericycle. Branch
of the root originate from the pericycle. The central part of the stele is occupied
by a star shaped xylem. In between the arms of the xylem is phloem. Rest of
the stele is made of parenchyma cells.
ii) Stem: This part of plant develops from the plumule of the seed and
grows away from the soil. It bears branches and flowers. The point, on the
stem or on a branch, which gives rise to leaf, is known as the node. The
part between two adjacent nodes is called the internode. The stem and
the branches transport water and salts from the root to the leaves. It also
transports prepared food from the leaves to all parts of the plant. In
addition, the stem supports the leaves and the branches in the air, thus
enabling the leaves to receive maximum amount of sun light for
photosynthesis. The stem and its branches also bear flowers, which are
the reproductive organs.
Internal structure:
A cross section of Brassica stem shows that it is surrounded on the outside by a
single layered epidermis. Next to the epidermis is cortex. The cortex is made up
of parenchyma and collenchyma cells. Food material is stored in the cortex. Next
to the cortex is a ring of vascular bundles. Each bundle consists of xylem and
phloem. Xylem is located towards the inside and phloem towards the outside. In
between xylem and phloem, there is a region consisting of meristematic cells
iii) Leaf: Leaves grow out on the stem and its branches from the
nodes. Generally, the leaf of Brassica consists of two parts. The lower stalk
like part is the petiole and upper green expanded portion is the lamina.
Young leaves are without petioles and their margins are entire or smooth
but in mature leaves the margin is wavy. There is a swollen vein in the
middle of the leaf which is known as midrib. The branch veins emerge
and spread in the leaf like a net. These veins are actually vascular bundles
consisting of xylem and phloem. This network of veins supports the leaf
and keeps its lamina in an expanded position. New branches of the plant
arise from buds present in the axil of the leaf. The function of the leaf is to
prepare food. Therefore, all of its tissues are arranged in such a way that
photosynthesis can take place easily.-----------------------------------------
The leaves are arranged on the stem and branches in such a way that
their upper surfaces remain directly exposed to sunlight while the lower
surface does not get the same amount of light. Due to this difference the
upper and lower surfaces are slightly different from each other. Leaves
having different upper and lower surfaces are called bifacial leaves.
Internal structure:
A leaf is composed of several distinct cell layers. The upper layer of a leaf is
called the upper epidermis. The lower layer of the leaf is called the lower
epidermis, which contains stomata (Sing: Stoma). Each stoma has a pore and
two guard cells. The tissue between upper and lower epidermis is called the
mesophyll. The mesophyll cells below the upper epidermis are longer than broad
and are closely packed. It is called the palisade layer. The cells next to the
palisade layer are irregular in shape and loosely arranged having spaces like
sponge and is called the spongy layer.
Photosynthesis takes place in palisade and spongy mesophylls. Running through
the leaf are many vascular bundles or veins. The veins are composed of xylem
and phloem. Xylem is located towards the upper side and the phloem towards the
lower epidermis.
2. Reproductive parts
Flower:
With growing age, Brassica plant bears small, yellowish flowers. Flowers are the
most beautiful and important parts of the plant. They are arranged on young
branches in a special way. This special arrangement of the flowers on the stem is
called inflorescence.
i) Calyx: This is the outermost whorl and consists of four free sepals. The
sepals are light greenish in young flowers but as the flower matures,
their colour also becomes yellowish like that of the petals. The most
important function of the calyx is to cover the inner parts of the flower and
to protect them from sunlight and rain.
ii) Corolla: This is the second whorl and is composed of four free yellow
petals. Because of the petals, the flower becomes very conspicuous that
honey bees, butterflies and other insects are easily attracted and thus help
in pollination.
iii) Androecium: The androecium lies inside the petals. It makes the third
whorl of the floral leaves. Its parts are not leaf-like. The androecium
consists of six free stamens which are the male reproductive organs of
the flower. In Brassica flower, the stamens are arranged in two circles.
The outer circle has two small stamens. The inner circle has four long
stamens. Each stamen has two well defined parts, a lower delicate stalk
called the filament and an upper swollen part called the anther. Each
anther contains numerous pollen grains. When the anther matures a
longitudinal slit in its wall enables the pollen grains to escape. There are
dark green nectaries of small size at the base of the androecium. These
nectaries contain nectar (a honey-like substance). This nectar is the food
of insects. When the insects are attracted towards the flowers to collect
this nectar pollen grains get attached to their bodies and are transferred
from one flower to another. This results in the pollination of flowers.
iv) Gynoecium: This is fourth whorl occupying the central position in the
flower. The parts of the gynoecium are called carpels, who are the female
reproductive organs of the plant. In Brassica, gynoecium is formed by the
union of two carpels. Each carpel is divisible into three main parts.
The lower swollen part is the ovary. Above the ovary carpel extends into a
thin stalk, the style. The style has swollen tip, which is called stigma. In
the ovary many ovules are present, which ripen into seeds. The ovary
ripens and is converted into fruit. The fruit of Brassica is a long dry
capsule with many seeds. The seeds are very small and light. They can be
easily dispersed by air currents. When these seeds fall on a suitable place
they germinate and produce new Brassica plants.
2.8.2 Frog:
The frog lives both in water as well as on land. It swims in water and moves by
jumping when on land. There is a membranous skin between its toes which helps
in swimming. There are five toes in each foot but the hand has only four fingers
because the thumb is rudimentary. In male frog the first finger is thicker than the
others.
Frog has neither a neck nor a tail. As the head is directly attached to the trunk
frog cannot move it as we can. The conical head has two large bulging eyes.
Behind each eye is a circular area called tympanic membrane. These membranes
help in hearing. At the tip of the snout it has two openings called external nostrils
by which frog breathes. The skin of the frog is loose and slippery. It is slippery
due to secretions produced by glands present in it.
Frogs are found in abundance in the rainy season during which they lay eggs.
They hibernate during the winter season by burying themselves in the mud and
stay there throughout the winter. This phenomenon is called hibernation or
winter sleep.
Internal organs:
The internal organs are located in the body cavity, which is also called coelom.
These organs make up various systems, which perform specific functions. These
are as follows:
the buccal cavity and being free behind. This allows the animal to
throw it outward.----------------------------------------------------------
Frog feeds mainly on insects. On seeing the prey, it suddenly throws
out its tongue. The prey sticks to its sticky tongue. The tongue is
then immediately withdrawn and the prey is swallowed.
ii) Pharynx: The buccal cavity opens into a short but narrow pharynx,
which leads into a wide tube,, the oesophagus. Immediately behind
the tongue on the floor of the pharynx is a slit like opening, the
glottis, which opens into the lungs. When the food passes into the
oesophagus, the glottis is closed and during respiration it is opened.
iii) Oesophagus and stomach: Pharynx opens into a wide tube called
oesophagus or gullet; It transports food into the stomach. Stomach
is a thick walled, muscular and glandular sac. Anterior end of
stomach is called cardiac end while posterior end is called pyloric
end. Food is grounded in stomach and mixed with enzyme pepsin,
which partially digest proteins. Food in stomach changes into a paste
like substance called chyme.
iv) Intestine: The intestine is a long narrow coiled tube. It is divisible
into small and a large intestine. The partially digested food from the
stomach enters the small intestine through pyloric end, where its
digestion is completed. The digested food is absorbed into blood. The
undigestible parts of the food enter the large intestine, also called
rectum. The short terminal part of rectum is called cloaca. From
cloaca undigested food is expelled out as faeces through its opening
called cloacal aperture. This is a common aperture for urine,
reproductive and undigested food discharge.
v) Liver and pancreas: The liver is a large reddish-brown gland
located adjacent to the stomach. Its secretion is known as bile.
Between the lobes of the liver is a rounded pouch called gall
bladder, which stores bile. A bile duct arises from it. On its way, this
duct passes through pancreas and joins the pancreatic duct. The
pancreas lies between stomach and duodenum, the first part of small
intestine. Its secretion, pancreatic juice, is carried by the pancreatic
duct. The pancreatic duct and the bile duct join to form a common
hepato-pancreatic duct, which then opens into duodenum. The
bile and the pancreatic juice help in the complete digestion of the
food in the small intestine.--------------------------------------------
Digestion is a process by which the complex insoluble food
substances are converted into soluble form by the action of enzymes.
The digested food is then absorbed into the blood through the
intestinal walls.
2. Respiratory system:
Energy is required by every organism to carry on all the life activities. It is
produced by the oxidation of food specially glucose. This process takes place in
the cells. For oxidation the cells require oxygen and as a result of oxidation of
food they produce CO2 as waste product. This entire process called respiration,
divided into two phases.
We will restrict our discussion upto gaseous exchange as respiration. Frog has
three types of respiration on the basis of organs involved in the gaseous
exchange. These are:
i) Pulmonary respiration
i) Pulmonary respiration:----------------------------------------------------
The gaseous exchange, which takes place in lungs is called pulmonary
respiration.
The frog has two lungs, which are balloon like structures. Their outer
surface is smooth but their inner surface has numerous folds which
increase the area for gaseous exchange. The lungs are richly supplied with
blood vessels. Each lung has a bronchus at its upper end. The two bronchi
open into a larynx. The glottis opens into the larynx.-------------------------
During respiration air is taken in by the external nostrils. It passes into the
buccal cavity through the internal nostrils. From here it enters the glottis,
passes through the larynx and bronchi finally reach the lungs. In the lungs,
exchange of gases between air and blood takes place i.e. oxygen is taken
up by the blood and CO2 is given out, which leaves the body through same
route.
Aresting human breathes out about 500 litres of CO2 every 24 hours.
3. Circulatory system:
Every cell requires a supply of oxygen and nutrient molecules and must get rid of
waste products. For this purpose a transport system usually called circulatory
system is required. Blood transports these materials during its circulation through
out the body.
Frog has a closed type circulatory system in which blood circulates in the closed
circuit of blood vessels being pumped by an organ called heart, This system is
also called cardiovascular system. It consists of:
Heart:
Heart is a conical, muscular pumping organ, located in the anterior region of body
cavity. It is enclosed in a membrane called pericardium. It contracts and
expands continuously through out the life. This contraction and expansion of
heart is called heart beat, due to which blood circulates continuously in the body.
Frog heart consists of three chambers.
The longest heart stoppage was 4 hours. A Norwegian fell into the sea in December 1987.
Survival was due to the low temperature of his body in the sea.
The truncus arteriosus originates from ventral side of the ventricle and divide
into two branches each of which divides into three arches (arteries). Another thin
walled triangular sac called sinus venosus formed by major veins opens into
right atrium. Both of these structures are not true chambers of heart but often
called accessory chambers.
In heart, the flow of blood is continuous and moves in two path ways. The
oxygenated blood from the lungs enters the left auricle through pulmonary veins.
The deoxygenated blood from all other parts of the body enters the sinus venosus.
From sinus venosus, it reaches the right auricle. When the two auricles contract,
the blood is pushed into the single ventricle. When ventricle contracts it is
pumped into the truncus arteriosus From here it enter (a) the pulmonary arteries,
which carry the blood to lungs for oxygenation and (b) the systemic arteries,
which supply it to all parts.pf the body and (c) the carotid arteries, which supply
it to the brain.
A human being contains about 70 ml of blood per Kilogram of body weight. For an adult,
this is about 4 or 5 liters.
The opening between various chambers of the heart are guarded by valves, which
prevent the flow of blood in reverse direction.
4. Arterial system:
A blood vessel, which carries blood away from heart to the various body parts is
called an artery. The arterial system can be simply stated to comprise of the
following three main components.
5. Venous system:
It is a set of blood vessel, called veins, which bring the blood from all the parts of
the body towards heart. The venous system consists of the following major
components.
Portal system: Set of veins, which collect the blood from one organ and
discharge it into another organ, is called portal veins. The set of veins draining
their blood into liver are included in hepatic portal whereas the set opening into
the kidneys are called renal portal system.
Hepatic portal system: The veins collecting the blood from the digestive system
do not carry it directly to the heart. They all join to form a hepatic portal vein,
which breaks up into capillaries in the liver to allow transfer of some of the
digested food into the liver for storage. From the liver, blood enters the post-
caval, which carries it to the sinus venosus. Some of the blood from hind limbs is
collected in an abdominal vein, which joins the hepatic portal vein in the liver and
drains blood into liver from where it is collected by the post caval vein. These
veins are also included hepatic portal system.
Renal portal system: The alternate route of blood from the hind limbs is by the
way of a renal portal vein. These veins begin in capillaries in the hind limbs and
breaks up into capillaries in the kidneys. From the kidneys, this blood enters the
post caval by renal veins and ultimately returns to the heart. These veins arc
included in renal portal system.
6. Excretory system:
It is the set of organs involved in the process of excretion i.e. the removal of
metabolic waste matters from the body. This function is performed by kidneys,
which filter out the excretory matter from the blood and pass it out in the form of
urine. There are two kidneys in frog. They are elongated reddish brown organs
attached to the dorsal wall of the body cavity. The urine is carried from the
kidneys by a pair of tubes called ureters, which open into the cloaca. From the
cloaca, it is either passed out directly through cloacal aperture or is stored for
some time in a bag, the urinary bladder.
7. Reproductive system:
Reproduction is the process of production of new babies by their parents. Organs
involved in this process are included in reproductive system. Sexes are separate
in the frog. The reproductive organs consist of gonads and their ducts. The
gonads produce germ cells and the ducts pass them but of the body. The male
gonad is known as the testis (plural testes) and the female gonad is called the
ovary. The gonads are paired structures and are located near the kidneys. The
sex cell of male is sperm and that of female is ovum (Plural ova) or egg. The ova
are released into water through the cloaca in the mating season.
The male produces sperms during the breeding season. Sperms are also released
from the testes into water near the eggs. Each sperm fuses with a egg and a new
frog starts developing.
8. Nervous system:
The set of organs, which control and co-ordinate all the activities of the body is
called nervous system. It is composed of two parts, i.e the central nervous
system and the peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system includes
the brain and the spinal cord whereas the peripheral nervous system comprises of
nerves, which connect the central nervous system with various parts of the body,
i.e. muscles, glands and sense organs.
The brain is protected in the skull and the spinal cord is enclosed in the vertebral
column. The brain consists of the following regions:
(i) The most anterior region comprises the olfactory lobes.
(ii) Immediately behind the olfactory lobes, there are two large
outgrowths called the cerebral hemispheres.
(iii) Behind the hemispheres are located two prominent outgrowths called
the optic lobes.
(iv) The part between the optic lobes and hemispheres is known as the
diencephalon. On the dorsal surface of diencephalon is present a
pineal body while the pituitary gland is attached to its ventral
surface.
(v) The last part of the brain consists of the cerebellum and the
medulla oblongata.
The spinal cord starts from the posterior end of the medulla oblongata like a thick
thread. It passes from the skull through a hole and enters the canal of the
vertebral column. The vertebral column protects the spinal cord just as the skull
protects the brain. Brain and spinal cord are not solid. They have a system of
canals which is filled with a fluid.
Olfactory lobes are associated with the sense of smell and transfer of olfactory
sensation to the cerebral hemispheres, which are the seats of intelligence and
memory. The diencephalon receives a variety of messages from the internal and
external environment of the body and also controls the secretion of hormones
from the pituitary gland. The optic lobes are associated with the eyes and vision.
The cerebellum and the medulla oblongata co-ordinate body movements and
maintain balance of the body. The medulla also controls respiration, circulation
and digestion. The spinal cord controls the movements of the trunk area, and
many other functions independently.
The peripheral system connects body parts with the central nervous system. This
system consists of cranial and spinal nerves. Cranial nerves connect and establish
communication between various parts of brain and parts of the head while the
spinal nerves connect structures of the trunk area with the spinal cord.
Some special nerves are present in the head and trunk region called the
autonomic nerves, which work automatically. Autonomic nerves control the
internal organs of the body such as heart, lungs, stomach, smooth muscles of the
intestine, vessels and glands.
The animal with the most acute sense of smell is the male emperor moth. Using its
antennae, it can detect a female emperor moth 11.Km upwind
The biggest mammalian tongue that has ever been weighed belonged to a Blue whale
caught by Russian trawlers in 1947. Its tongue weighed 4.3 tonnes.
1. Ear:
In frog, like the other vertebrates, the organ of hearing is the ear. Its outer most
part is the tympanic membrane. An external ear called pinna is absent in frog.
On the inner side of this membrane is a cavity known as tympanic cavity. The
cavity contains three small rod- like bones called ossicles Its one end is attached
to the tympanic membrane and the other with the internal ear.
High pitched sounds are rapid vibrations of the molecules In air. Human can hear sounds
which vibrate at about 19 KHz. Some bats can hear ultrasonic sounds upto about 160 KHz.
The internal ear (Fig: 2.43) is a very delicate organ. It consists of three semi-
circular canals. These canals are filled with a fluid and sensory cells are located at
special places in these canals. When sound waves strike the tympanic membrane
it is set into vibration. This vibrates ossicles which in turn, vibrate the internal ear
and thus, sound waves stimulate the hearing receptors in the inner ear. The
internal ear, in addition to hearing, also keeps the balance of the body.
2. Eye:
The frog has two eyes one on each side of the head (Fig: 2.44). If we make
vertical section of the eye, we find that the innermost layer of the ball is the
sensory retina. The retina contains photoreceptor cells. Outside the retina is the
choroid, which is richly supplied with blood capillaries supplying nutrients to the
retina. The sclerotic is the hard, outer most layer of the eye. It provides shape to
the eye ball. The anterior transparent part of the eye is called cornea. Behind the
cornea is iris. The iris has a window called the pupil. Behind the pupil is the lens
of the eye. The cornea, pupil and lens focus light on the retina. A watery fluid is
present in between the cornea and lens. Similarly a jelly like fluid is present
between the lens and retina, through which light passes before it strikes retina.
Optic nerve takes the sensory messages from the eye to the brain.
SUMMARY
EXERCISE
1. Fill in the blanks with appropriate terms:
i) Animals which consist of only one cell are called________
ii) Finger like projection in amoeba are called________
iii) Botanical name of mustard plant is__________
iv) Reproductive part of a higher plant is_______
v) Part of stem from where leaf arises is called
7. Distinguish between:
i) Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell.
ii) Cell-wall and cell-membrane.
iii) Mitochondria and plastids.
iv) Light and electron microscope.
v) Arteries and veins.
SECTION 3
BIODIVERSITY
Around two million types of organisms exist on the earth today; much more have
gone extinct, many more are yet to be discovered. To study such a diversified
group it is customary to classify it into groups. Two hundred years ago biologists
divided all the organisms, into two kingdoms, as either plants or animals. But
closer examination with better techniques necessitated three more kingdoms.
Chapter 3
CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING ORGANISMS
Learning objectives:
The exact meaning of classification.
The advantages of classifying living organisms.
Criteria used in the classification of living organisms.
The units of classification like species, genera, families, orders,
classes, phyla/divisions and kingdoms.
Binomial nomenclature.
Common and scientific names of living organisms.
The scientific study which deals with the classification of living organisms is called
taxonomy (Taxis = Arrangement and Nomos = Law) So, taxonomy deals with
the laws governing the arrangement or classification of living organisms. In a
broader sense, taxonomy can be defined as a branch of biology, which deals with
the description, identification, classification and naming of living organisms
according to structural similarities and dissimilarities.
All the living organisms placed in a particular group have many fundamental
similarities in their structure. It is not always easy to recognize these basic
similarities. Many bases and techniques are used to classify organism. It is
principally the homologous structure that one considers in grouping organisms.
Homologous structures are those that are similar because of their common origin.
Sometimes it is impossible to classify organisms using morphological criteria, so
one may compare the chemical substances which they contain. This is particularly
useful when classifying organisms like bacteria which may all look alike and have
an identical cellular structure. Other characteristics used in classifying organisms
include cytological structures with the help of electron microscope, genetic
constitution and their developmental patterns etc.
For example:
Ficus bengalensis (Banyan tree) named after locality.
Ficus religious (Peepal) named after religious belief.
Ficus elastica (Rubber plant) named after that atex is extracted.
Ficus erica named after Eric a person.
Although Whittaker's Scheme received wide spread approval, it had one major
draw back. This relates to the protist kingdom, which contained all unicellular
organisms, including those that formerly had been regarded, as animal
(Protozoan) and those that had been regarded as plant (unicellular algae). Other
problem was that it meant putting the algae into two separate kingdoms, the
protista and the plant kingdom.
This led two other biologists, Margulis and Schwartz, to put forward a
modification of Whittaker's scheme (1989). According to this, there are five
kingdoms of living organisms as listed below:
SUMMARY
There are uncountable forms of life ranging from VIRUS (border line between
the living and non-living) to the most highly evolved and complex life in the
form of human-beings.
The scientific study which deals with the classification of living organisms is
called Taxonomy (Taxis= Arrangement. Nomos=Law).
All the living organisms placed in a particular group have many fundamental
similarities in their structure.
The basic unit of biological classification is the species.
Closely related species are grouped together into genera.
Each grouping of organisms within the hierarchy is called a taxon (plural taxa)
and each taxon has a rank and a name for example class Mammalia or genus
Homo.
Linnaeus's system of naming give each species a scientific name comprising
two words is known as binomial nomenclature.
Previously living things were classified into two kingdoms namely plant
kingdom and animal kingdom.
Now a days living organisms are classified into five kingdoms.
EXERCISE
Chapter 4
VIRUS, BACTERIA AND CYANOBACTERIA
The most abundant organisms on earth are so small that they cannot be seen
with the naked eye. They are most successful hence so abundant to be found
every where in large numbers. Though structurally simple viruses and bacteria
play an important role in the biosphere.
Learning objectives:
Micro-organisms, a heterogenous group of living organisms which can only be
seen with the help of microscope.
Discovery of virus, characteristics, structure, types and the diseases caused
by viruses in humans, other animals and plants.
Characters of bacteria.
Shapes, nutrition and importance of bacteria.
Characters of cyanobacteria.
The minute living organisms which cannot be seen without the help of microscope
are called micro organisms. They form a heterogenous group which includes
viruses, bacteria, cyanobacteria, protozoa, unicellular algae and some
fungi.
Bacteria and cyanobacteria are prokaryotes and studied under kingdom
prokaryota (Monera). Rest of the micro-organisms are eukaryotic and studied
under protoctista (Protista). Bacteria are heterotroph as well as autotroph, but
all members of cyanobacteria and algae are autotroph. Protozoa are heterotroph.
Viruses lie somewhere between living and nonliving organisms.
4.1.1 Viruses:
Viruses (Latin word Viron = Poison) are the smallest, the simplest and perhaps
the most primitive living things.
By 1800's many biologists had demonstrated that many diseases of man and
other organisms were caused by bacteria. Some diseases puzzled them. One such
disease was tobacco mosaic disease occurring in tobacco plant leaves. In 1892,
Russian biologist, Iwanowsky showed that this disease was due to some thing
smaller than bacteria. He named them as viruses. No one had seen them because
they were too small to be seen even with the compound microscope.
The year 1935 was important in solving the story of what viruses really are and
how they behave. A new kind of microscope the electron microscope had been
constructed and any object smaller than mµ (millimicron 1,000,000,000th part of
a metre) can be observed. Wendell Stanley crystallized the infectious particles,
now known as tobacco mosaic virus (TMV). This TMV and many other viruses
were actually seen with the help of the electron microscope.
4.1.2 Characteristics:
Viruses are non-cellular obligate parasites that always have a protein coat and a
nucleic acid core. They cannot live and reproduce outside of living cells since they
lack the ability to do so by themselves. They range in size from 20 nm to 250 nm
(One nm =10-9 metre). They are sub-microscopic. There is no sexual or asexual
reproduction. They reproduce by replication.
The simple viruses use the enzymes of the host cell for both their protein
synthesis and gene replication; the more complex ones contain upto 200 genes
and are capable of synthesizing, through their host many structural proteins and
enzymes themselves.
Viruses are either virulent, destroying the cell in which they occur or temperate,
becoming integrated into their host genomes (total hereditary materials) and
remaining stable there for long periods of time.
4.1.3 Structure:
They appear like small rods, tadpoles 6r may be polyhedrals or like little spheres.
Viruses may consist of nucleic acid, capsids, envelopes and tail-fibers. Their
nucleic acid may consist of a single or several molecules of DNA or RNA. The
smallest viruses have only four genes while the largest have upto two hundreds.
The protein coat that encloses the nucleic acid is called a capsid. It may be of
different shapes. Capsid is made up of protein subunits called capsomeres. The
number of capsomeres is characteristics of a particular virus.
Some viruses have accessory structures called viral-envelopes that help them
infect their hosts. They are membranes covering their capsids.
The simplest viruses consist of a single molecule of a nucleic acid (DNA or RNA)
surrounded by a capsid, which is male up of different protein molecules.
Some bacterial viruses or bacteriophages, are among the most complex viruses.
Each of them is made up of at least five separate proteins: these make up the
head; the tail core, the molecules of the capsid, the base plate of the tail, and the
tail fibers. A long DNA molecule is coiled within the head.
1. Animal diseases:
Colds are viral infections of the upper respiratory tract. More than 200 of viruses
that cause colds have been identified.
Measles and Mumps are the common viral diseases of children. However, proper
vaccination of MMR vaccine develops immunity against these infections.
Human Immune Virus (HIV) was discovered in 1985 to be the cause of
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS).
Rabies, in humans is also caused by a virus but flu is the most common disease
caused by the influenza virus.
The majority of human viral diseases are spread through respiratory tract by air
borne droplet spread by sneezing and coughing of infectious people or by the
contaminated water and food or by blood or other body fluids. Hygienic living and
vaccinations are the two best controls of viral diseases.
2. Plant diseases:
One of the best known plant disease is caused by tobacco mosaic virus. This virus
affects the leaves of tobacco plants and light green and yellow patches appear on
the leaves of diseased plant.
Agriculturists have not yet succeeded to device cure for most of viral diseases of
plants. Therefore, their efforts are focused largely on reducing the incidence and
transmission of such diseases and also on developing varieties of crop that are
relatively resistant to certain viruses.
4.2 BACTERIA
Next to cell-wall is thin outer most layer of plasma membrane or cell membrane
which is attached to cell-wall at few places. It has many pores. Chemically, it is
made up of lipids and proteins. Cell-membrane performs the function of
respiration as mitochondria are absent in them. It also acts as selective
membrane.
iii) Spirilla: (Singular-Spirillum = Gr. Sperira = A coil. They are spiral or cork
screw shaped (spirillum).
iv) Vibrio or comma: They are slightly curved or comma (,) shaped e.g
Vibrio cholerae. They may be flagellated.
4.2.2 Nutrition:
Most bacteria are heterotrophic with few autotrophic. Heterotrophic bacteria are
those which cannot synthesize their organic compounds from simple inorganic
substances. According to their mode of feeding, heterotrophic bacteria may be
saprophytic, symbiotic or parasitic.
i) Saprophytic bacteria:
They get their food from dead organic matter. The soil is full of organic
compounds in the form of humus. Bacteria living in the soil have large number of
enzymes that break down the complex substances of humus to simpler
compounds. These bacteria absorb and utilize these simple compounds as a
source of energy. Many other saprophytic bacteria cause decay of dead animal
and plant material as they convert complex organic compounds to simpler ones.
They are found associated with other living organisms. They obtain food from the
host without harming it, e.g. nitrogen fixing bacteria in the roots of leguminous
plants.
They grow inside the tissues of other living organisms and obtain food at the
expense of host. These bacteria lack certain complex systems of enzymes.
4.2.3 Respiration:
Some bacteria are killed in the presence of oxygen, they are called obligate
anaerobes. Others use oxygen but can respire without it, they are called
facultative anaerobes. Bacteria which can only survive with oxygen present are
obligate aerobes.
1. Useful bacteria:
iii) Industrial bacteria: They help in curing and ripening of tobacco leaves,
fermentation of sugar into alcohol, ripening of cheese, retting (softening) of
fibres, curdling of milk, conversion of hides into leather etc.
iv) Medicinal bacteria: Valuable antibiotic drugs have been obtained from
bacteria, e.g Thyrothycin, Subtilin. Riboflavin is a vitamin produced by
Clostridium.
2. Harmful bacteria:
NOSTOC:
Structure:
The Nostoc is filamentous. The filaments are intermixed in a gelatinous mass
forming a ball like structure. It floats on water. A single filament look like a chain
of beads. Each filament is unbranched and has a single row of rounded or oval
cells. Each cell has double layered wall. The outer thicker layer is made up of
cellulose mixed up with pectin. The inner thin layer is made up purely of cellulose.
The protoplasm is differentiated into an outer coloured region - chromoplasm and
an inner colourless region centroplasm.
The centroplasm also called central body have hereditary material (DNA) in the
form of long coiled structure called chromatin body.
At interval there are found slightly larger oblong, colourless cells with slightly
thicker walls. These are called heterocyst. Each heterocyst is the center of
nitrogen fixation. But they are specially concerned with the multiplication of
filaments during unfavorable conditions.
SUMMARY
Living organisms which cannot be seen without the help of microscope are
called micro organisms. They form a heterogenous group which includes
viruses, bacteria, cyanobacteria, protozoa, unicellular algae and some fungi.
Viruses are the smallest, the simplest and perhaps the most primitive living
organisms.
Viruses are non-cellular parasites. They cannot live and reproduce outside the
living cells.
Some bacterial viruses or bacteriophages are among the most complex
viruses.
There are three types of viruses. Plant-viruses infecting plants. Animal-viruses
infecting animals. Bacteriophages are those which infect bacteria.
Bacteria are the most abundant prokayrotes with variety of shapes.
Most bacteria are heterotrophic a few are autotrophic. According to their mode
of feeding, heterotrophic bacteria may be saprophytic, symbiotic or parasitic.
Some bacteria are killed in the presence of oxygen, they are called obligate
anaerobes. Others use oxygen but can respire without it, they are called
facultative anaerobes. Bacteria which need oxygen for survival are obligate
aerobes.
Bacteria are responsible for most varied kind of diseases in human beings,
animals and plants. They may act as invisible enemies of man.
The Nostoc is filamentous. The filaments are intermixed in a gelatinous mass
forming a ball like structure. It floats on water. A single filament look like a
chain of beads.
EXERCISE
Chapter 5
FUNGI AND ALGAE
Algae play an important role in nature. Bearing chlorophyll they produce more
oxygen than all the land plants combined. Without the oxygen produced by algae,
most of the plants and animals could not survive.
Earth around us would have been a mess without the recycling'of the dead and
waste matters. Fungi, together with bacteria, are at work everywhere on the
earth doing this recycling business.
Learning objectives:
• Algae and Fungi.
• General characters of fungi with reference to Rhizopus, Penicillium,
Agaricus, Ustilago.
• Importance of fungi.
• General characters of algae with reference to Chlamydomonas and Spirogyra.
• Economic importance of Algae.
5.1 FUNGI
Fungi are a group of living organisms having a body called mycelium, made up
of hyphae which are coenocytic (multi nucleated), non-chlorophyllous and have a
cell-wall of fungal cellulose.
Agaricus (Mushroom):
Some species of Agaricus are commonly cultivated as food, for example the
button mushroom, Agaricus campestris. An effort is being made to increase the
cultivation of additional species of mushrooms, especially in Asia. Some can be
grown on waste products. Many have a high protein content, as well as a delicate
flavour.
Penicillium:
Among the other economically important fungi Penicillium is one of the name.
Some species of penicillium are sources of the well-known antibiotic penicillin.
Other species of the genus give the characteristic flavours and aromas to cheese.
Ustilago:
Another kind of fungi including Ustilago are responsible for the rust and smut
diseases of cereals.
Medicines: Fungi have opened a new field in medicine being the course of
antibiotics like Penicillin, Chloromycetin, Neomycin, Terramycin etc.
Soil fertility: They maintain soil fertility by decomposing the dead organic
matter.
Plant diseases: Fungi destroy many agricultural crops, fruits, ornamentals and
other kinds of plants. Some of the diseases are loose-smut of wheat, late-blight
of potato, downy and powdery mildews etc. Rusts and smuts can cause crop
destruction in large area.
Spoilage: Many types of fungi are responsible for the spoilage of leather-goods,
wool, books, timber, cotton etc.
5.2 ALGAE
The term algae is used for a large and very diverse group of mainly aquatic
autotrophic organisms ranging from single celled members (Chlamydomonas)
to large multicellular seaweeds (Sargassum). Previously algae were regarded as
plants and placed in thallophyta. R.H. Whitaker (1969) placed them in two
groups — unicellular eukaryotic algae in Protista and multicellular algae were
considered as plant and placed in Kingdom Plantae. Finally all the algae have
been placed in Kingdom Protoctista (Margulis and Schwartz).
Algae are classified on the basis of the type of pigment they contain; therefore,
there are green, golden brown, brown, and red algae. All algae contain green
chlorophyll, but they may also contain other pigments that mask the colour of the
chlorophyll. Algae are also grouped according to biochemical differences, such as
the chemistry of the cell-wall and the chemical compound used to store excess
food. Common examples of Algae are Chlamydomonas, Spirogyra, Ulva etc.
1. Chlamydomonas:
Cell-wall is thin but firm and transparent. It is made up of cellulose and pectin
compounds.
Cytoplasm has an outer thin clear region and an inner dense region. Cytoplasm
has granular endoplasmic reticulum, free ribosomes, mitochondria, golgi bodies,
chloroplast, pyrenoid, contractile vacuoles and an eye-spot. There is a single
large cup-shaped chloroplast occupying major part of the cell. It lies towards
posterior end. The single protoplasmic body inside chloroplast is pyrenoid. It is a
tiny starch manufacturing factory. There are two small contractile vacuoles
present towards anterior end and at the base of two flagella. They are pulsating
in nature under-going alternate expansipn and contraction. These are considered
to regulate water content of the cell. They may be regarded as excretory
organelles. Eye-spot is an orange coloured structure. It is situated antero-
laterally. This is sensitive to intensity of light. Flagella are the two cytoplasmic
elongation arising near the contractile vacuoles. Nucleus is circular and present
in the cup-shaped cavity formed by chloroplast.
2. Spirogyra:
It is a green fresh water alga, usually found floating freely on slow running
streams and stagnant water, rarely attached to substratum by branched rhizoidal
cells called holdfast.
Each cell is much longer than it is broad. Its outer wall is made up of cellulose
and pectin substances. Pectin swells up and forms a gelatinous sheath around
whole filament, it also makes the filament slimy The cell has a parietal layer of
cytoplasm known as primordial utricle which encloses a large vacuole, filled
with cell sap. The chloroplast is ribbon shaped with toothed margin. The number
of chloroplast present varies from 1-14 according to species. These chloroplast
are spirally arranged in protoplasm Each chloroplast has several rounded bodies
along its length, these bodies are made up of protein and are known as
pyrenoids. Nucleus is present to some extent in the center of cell, it is
suspended by cytoplasmic strands.
SUMMARY
Fungi is a group of living organisms having a body called mycelium, made
up of hyphae which are coenocytic, non-chlorophyllous and have a cell-
wall.
The fungi are distinguished primarily by their sexual reproductive
structures.
Some species of fungi are commonly cultivated as food for example, the
button mushroom.
Rusts and smuts are important fungal plant pathogens.
Among the economically important genera of fungi are Penicillium
and Aspergillus. Some species of Penicillium are sources of the well-known
antibiotic penicillin, and other species of the genus give the characteristic
flavours and aromas to cheese.
The term algae is used for a large and very diverse group of mainly
aquatic autotrophic organisms ranging from single celled members
(Chlamydomonas) to the large multicellular seaweeds (Sargassum).
Spirogyra is unicellular, but grows in colonial form known as filament. The
filaments are unbranched and consist of uniform cylindrical cells which are
joined end to end.
EXERCISE
Chapter 06
BRYOPHYTES AND TRACHEOPHYTES
Plants are the connecting link between inorganic and organic world. They are all
autotroph and manufacture food for all forms of life hence called producers. The
constitute the most important link in ecosystem.
Learning objects:
All plants have a life cycle that shows an alternation of generations; some have a
dominant gametophyte and some have a dominant sporophyte.
Funaria:
Gametophyte consists of rhizoids, pseudo stem and leaves. The stem may be
branched. Male sex organs called Antheridia (singular-antheridium) are located
at the apex of male branch and female sex-organs called archegonia (singular -
archegonium) at the tip of female branch.
Nearly, all tracheophytes have well developed true root, stem and leaves. They
vary greatly in height ranging from miniature to giant size like Sequoia (Red
wood tree). All tracheophytes show alternation of generation in which sporophyte
generation is dominant and totally independent, whereas gametophyte generation
may be very small, inconspicuous, short lived and totally dependent on
sporophyte except in pteridophytes. The zygote develops into well protected
embryo from which young plant is produced.
Pteropsida (Ferns) are the common and important group of pteridophyte. They
are found growing in nature or in moist cool, shady places. The common
examples of ferns are Dryopteris, Pteris, Adiantum, Marsilea etc.
i) Pteris:
It is found in wild state in some regions of Punjab but in Sindh it is a common
ornamental plant. The main plant is a sporophyte having adventitious roots,
under ground stem-rhizome, pinnate compound leaves called fronds and
sporangia in sori found under the surface of sporophyll (sporangia bearing
leaves).
ii) Adiantum:
It grows in the wild. It resembles with pteris except the shape of leaflets, which
are comparatively broad and arranged alternately.
The main plant is sporophyte, a small herb which consists of a stem, roots and
leaves.
Spores after liberation from sporangium develop into small gametophyte called
prothallus.
This division is based whether ovules are naked or covered. This gives rise to
naked or covered seeds. The covering structure is called ovary, which develops
into fruit in angiosperms.
Among the first seed-producing plants were the gymnosperms, which produce
naked seeds. The four divisions of these plants are probably not closely related.
PINUS:
Pinus plant is very tall and thick. The height may be 40 to 50 meters and
thickness may be up to 2 meters. It has well-developed root, stem, leaves and
reproductive bodies called cones/ It has naked seeds as fruits around it does not
develop.
A conifer is the most typical example of a gymnosperm. In the conifer life cycle,
windblown pollen grains replace swimming sperm. Following fertilization,! the
seed develops from the ovule, a structure that has been protected within the
body of the sporophyte plant. The seeds are uncovered and dispersed by the
wind.
Roots: It has well-developed tap roots. Lateral roots are longer than primary
roots.
Stem: The main stem has two types of branches called long-shoots and dwarf
shoots.
Leaves: The leaves are also two types of which are foliage and scale-leaves.
Foliage leaves are popularly called needles because of their shape. They are
green and found only at the apices of dwarf branches. They perform the function
of photosynthesis.
Scale leaves are sessile, thin and brownish. They are present on main stem as
well as on both types of branches.
Male cones: They arise in cluster near the ends of long shoots. They are very
small and never longer than 2cm;Each male cone has a central axis called
thalamus or torus. This axis has 60 to 100 very small scales called
microsporophylls. Each microsporophyll has sac like microsporangium which
produce small spores called microspores. These microspores develop into winged
pollen grains and are liberated in air.
Female cones: They develop singly in place of dwarf-shoots. They are larger in
size and measure upto 20cm in length and upto 10cm in width. Each female cone
has an elongated axis (thalamus) on which large number of paired scales are
present called megasporophyll having megasporangium or ovule, each ovule
produce 4 comparatively large megaspores, out of these four, one will survive
and develop into female gametophyte.
Gametophytes of Pinus:
Fertilization and formation of seed: One of the male gamete fuses with the
ovum to form oospore, becomes diploid. It develops into an embryo. In the mean
time, the whole megasporangium develops into seed. Pinus seed has seed coat,
endosperm and an embryo with an axis to which 6 to 10 cotyledons are attached.
The two ends of the axis have plumule and radicle. Pinus seed has epigeal
germination and gives rise to pinus plant.
THUJA:
In Thuja, the female cones are small, spherical or oval in shape and about the
size of a spherical fruit locally called "bair" (berry). They consist of hard brown
colour scales with triangular apices.
6.4 ANGIOSPERM
More than half of the plants present on earth belong to this group. Angiospcrms
are those flowering tracheophvtes which produce seeds within fruits. This is
because the angiospermic flowers have ovules enclosed in the ovary.
Angiospcrms are divided into two major groups monocotyledons and dicotyledons
having one and two cotyledons (seed leaves), respectively.
SUMMARY
Plants may be defined as multicellular, eukaryotic, chlorophyllous living
organisms having cell-wall made up of cellulose and their zygotes develop into
an embryo.
Bryophytes are the simplest group of plants. They are relatively poorly
adapted to life on land, so are mainly confined to damp shady places. They
are amphibious needing water for sexual reproduction.
Bryophytes show distinct heteromorphic alternation of generation. It
means the two generations called gamctophyte and sporophyte are
morphologically as well as cytologically different. In contrast to other
plants, bryophytes have dominant gametophyte (Haploid).
Tracheophyte are the plants, which have conducting or vascular tissues.
Nearly, all tracheophytes have well developed root, stem and leaves.
Ferns are the common and important group of pteridophytes. They are found
growing in moist cool, shady places. The common examples of ferns are
Dryopteris, Pteris, Adiantum, Marsilea etc.
Spermatophytes produce seeds. Spermatophytes are divided into two major
groups called gymnosperms and angiosperms. Gyrnnosperms have naked
ovules because cones are without ovaries. Ovules develop into naked seeds as
fruits are absent due to the absence of ovaries.
The body of an angiospermic plant may be divided into two parts, namely
vegetative and reproductive parts. Each part is subdivided into different
organs.
Flower is a highly modified form of a branch, which is responsible for the
reproduction of plants by producing seeds within fruits.
EXERCISE
1. Fill in the blanks with appropriate terms:
i) Bryophytes are one of the two groups of plants, the other
being________.
ii) The dominant generation in bryophytes is _________ generation.
iii) Sporophytic generation is partly or completely dependent on
gametophyte in ______________ plants.
iv) Adiantum has spore producing bodies found at ___________ .
v) Gymnosperms have ________ ovules.
2. Write whether the following statements are true or false:
i) Funaria has true leaves.
ii) Water is necessary for fertilization in Marchantia.
iii) The other name of Pteris is Adiantum.
iv) Dryopteris plant belongs to Musci of Bryophyta.
v) Tracheophyta have trachea in the xylem.
6. Differentiate between:
i) Sprophyte and gametophyte.
ii) Bryophyta and tracheophyta.
iii) Antheridia.and archegonia.
iv) Angiosperms and gymnosperms.
v) Male and female cone.
vi) Monocot and dicot plant.
Chapter 7
INVERTEBRATA
Unicellular organisms are considered to be in the phylum Protozoa. Multicellular
animals called metazoa are divided into two groups those that have backbones
are called vertebrates; those that do not have backbones are called invertebrates.
More than 95% of all members of the animal kingdom are invertebrates. They
have many diverse forms and ways of life.
Learning objectives:
* Invertebrates.
* Diversity among invertebrates.
* Important features of major groups of invertebrates.
* Identification of invertebrates around you and their placement in proper
groups.
7.1 INVERTEBRATES
Animals, which do not have back bone in the bodies, are termed as invertebrates.
They are greater in number, but usually smaller in size than vertebrates.
Invertebrates are divided into many groups or phyla. Some of the important
phyla are described below:
1. Phylum Protozoa:
Phylum protozoa consists of unicellular (single celled), microscopic animals like
organisms, which are now not treated as true animals. They occur either as free-
living (e.g. Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena, etc.) or as parasites, which depend
upon other living organisms for their nourishment and shelter. Common
protozoan parasites are Plasmodium and Entamoeba histolytica which cause,
important human diseases malaria and dysentery, respectively. Free-living
protozoa are chiefly found in water, both in fresh as well as in marine water.
Paramecium lives in fresh water pond. Its surface is covered by thousands of very
fine, hair-like structures called cilia which help in locomotion. Paramecium has
two nuclei, one is larger called macronucleus while the other one is smaller
called micronucleus. Outside the cell membrane, a flexible, non-living covering
or pellicle provides it a definite shape.
2. Phylum Porifera:
Porifera are the simplest group of multi-cellular (many celled) animals. Their
bodies consist of loose aggregates of cells and lack any kind of tissues. The entire
body has numerous minute pores or ostia. Porifera are commonly termed as
sponges. All sponges are aquatic (live in water) and sessile (fixed at one place
throughout their life). The surrounding water enters into the body through ostia,
which leads through channels into a hollow space inside the body, where the
inner cells of sponges filter out the microscopic food particles. The water then
leaves the body of sponge through another opening, the osculum.
Sponges have an internal skeleton of hard structures called spicules, which are
formed of calcium carbonate or silica. The spicules provide support and shape to
the multi-cellular body of a sponge. Common examples of sponge are Sycon,
Venus flower basket and bath sponge.
Hydra is a fresh water coelenterate which can be better seen with a microscope.
Its body is cylindrical with several thread-like tentacles at its one end encircling
an opening called mouth. Both, the tentacles and the ectoderm bear a number of
poisonous, stinging cells for defence and for paralyzing the prey. The tentacles
are used for capturing the prey. The mouth opens into a hollow space or
coelenteron that lies inside the body. The prey is digested in the coelenteron.
The end of body of hydra opposite to the mouth is normally kept attached to
some object in water.
Jelly fishes live in the sea. They have an umbrella like body with thicker body
walls. They swim freely in water. The mouth is located in the center of the down-
side of umbrella. It is encircled by four long arms each bearing numerous stinging
cells. The long arms are used for capturing small animals.
4. Phylum Platyhelminthes:
Platyhclminthes arc commonly called flat-worms because of their flat body. They
occur mostly as parasites of animals as well as man. Howover, some are free-
living such as Planaria which- lives in fresh, water streams. Platyhelminthes are
triploblastic animals because of the development of a middle layer of cells, the
mesoderm, in between ectoderm and endoderm.
Tape worms live in the intestine of their vertebrate hosts. Their bodies are long,
ribbon-like and divided into series of segments. The anterior end is some what
rounded and head like. It is provided with four suckers and rings of minute hooks
which help them to attach with their host. Tape worm lacks digestive system,
mouth and anus. It absorbs the digested food of its host through its body surface.
Every segment has a set of male and a female reproductive organs.
5. Phylum Nematoda:
Nematodes or round worms have long, smooth, cylindrical body, which is
pointed at both the ends. The body is unsegmented. Nematodes have a complete
and one way digestive tube with mouth at the anterior tip while anus near the
posterior tip.
They are free-living as well as parasites of animals, man and even plants. The
most common round worm infecting man is Ascaris lumbricoides commonly called
human round worm. It lives in the intestine of man. Sexes are separate in round
worm and male is slightly smaller in length than female.
6. Phylum Annelida:
Animals in this group have elongated, segmented body. The segmentation in
annelids is both external as well as internal. Internally, many organs are repeated
in every segment of the body. Annelids occur in water as well as on land. Most of
them are free living e.g. earth-worm, etc. while few are ectoparasites e.g. leech,
etc. They have well developed organ-systems in their bodies. However,
respiration occurs through their general body surface. An important feature of
annelids is their advanced closed type circulatory system i.e blood circulates
in blood vessels being pumped by. a number of simple hearts.
The leech lives in ponds. It attaches with the help of its suckers to man and other
animals that come in contact with water. It sucks the blood of its host.
7. Phylum Arthropoda:
Phylum Arthropoda is the largest phylum of Kingdom Animalia. They have
jointed limbs (legs). Their body is covered externally with a hard covering called
exo-skeleton which is made up of a complex chemical called chitin. Arthropods
occur on land as well as in water. The body of an arthropod is usually divisible
into three distinct regions; an anterior head, a middle thorax and a posterior
abdomen. Scorpions, spiders, crabs, prawns, centipedes and insects are the
common arthropods.
Insects are the most abundant animals on earth. They all have three pairs of
legs, two pairs of wings and one pair of sensory hair-like antenna. Many of them
have wings to fly. Insects have special types of mouth parts (appendages for food
handling) according to their mode of feeding, for example mouth parts of
mosquito, housefly, butter fly and cockroach have different types of mouth parts.
Many insects such as mosquitoes hatch out of their eggs in a premature form and
pass through different stages of development to reach the adult stage. This
phenomenon is called metamorphosis.
i) Complete metamorphosis:
In complete metamorphosis, the young one, the larva, which hatches out of egg
is morphologically completely different from adult. It feeds actively and then
encloses itself in a cover to become pupa. After going through farther changes,
the pupa comes out of its capsule, it is now termed adult. Thus, (The life cycles
complete after passing through these insect passes through egg, larva, pupa and
adult stages. Insects such as butter flies, mosquitoes, house flies, etc. undergo
complete metamorphosis.
In this type, the young one, called nympn which emerges out of egg is a
miniature young one which closely resembles the adult except that it lacks wings
and its reproductive organs are immature. After the development of wings and
maturity of reproductive organs, the nymph becomes adult. Incomplete
metamorphosis is observed in insects like grass-hopper, cockroach, termite, etc.
8. Phylum Mollusca:
Animals of this group have a soft, fleshy body enclosed in a thin fleshy cover
called mantle. Many molluscs are covered over externally by a hard, non-living
shell made up of calcium carbonate. They mostly occur in water but some are
found on land. A fleshy organ or foot is given out of the shell on the ventral side
of the body. It helps in locomotion. The structure of shell plays an important role
in identification and further grouping of molluscs. Common examples of molluscs
are snail, pearl oyster, squid, octopus, and fresh water mussel. Squids are the
largest invertebrates.
Snails have spirally coiled shells and are commonly seen in lawns and gardens.
Fresh water mussels are aquatic and have a shell composed of two plates joined
together by a hinge joint.
9. Phylum Echinodermata:
Echinodermates have rough, spiny skin. They are found only in the sea. They are
pentamerous and have a unique water vascular system which pumps the
external water throughout their bodies. This vascular system operates the soft,
tube shaped feet (tube feet) which enable the animal to glide over the rocks in
water. They do not have head, eyes or even brain. Common examples of phylum
echinodermata are star-fish-, sand-dollar, sea-cucumber, sea urchins etc.
Star-fish has a plate-like central disc with five or more arms extended out from it.
Sea Urchin has a ball-like body without arms. Its body is covered over externally
by long spines.
SUMMARY
EXERCISE
i) It is not multicellular.
(a) Porifera (b) Arthropoda (c) Nematoda (d) Protozoa.
ii) These are exclusively marine.
(a) Protozoa (b) Annelida
(c) Echinodermata (d) Mollusca.
iii) Spiders do not have
(a) Jointed legs (b) Wings (c) Exoskeleton (d)Head
iv) Which of the following is free-living?
(a) Plasmodium (b) Tapeworm
(c) Hydra (d) Liver fluke.
i) Sponges are sessile. How do they get food while staying at one
place?
ii) You have studied different groups of animals. Make a list of few
tripoblastic invertebrates beginning from the simplest forms.
iii) What do you know about insects?
iv) What is exoskeleton? Name two phyla of animals having
exoskeleton.
v) Define parasite. Name five parasites and the phyla to which
they belong.
vi) Write short notes on Hydra and tape worm.
Chapter 8
CHORDATA / VERTEBRATA
This unit introduces the most advanced of all the animals—the vertebrates. All
vertebrates have a spinal column made up of bones called vertebrae. Inside the
spinal column is the nerve cord. This cord is joined to highly developed brain. This
system makes its possible for the vertebrate to respond to stimuli in a very
effective way for its own survival. This superior nervous system is the real key to
the biological supremacy of vertebrates.
Learning objectives:
* The chordates.
* Vertebrates relation with chordates.
* Major groups of vertebrates.
* Important features of vertebrate groups.
Animals such as cat, dog, bird, frog, fish, etc. which you commonly observe
around you belong to the phylum Chordata. Human beings also belong to this
group. Although, chordates are less numerous in number than invertebrates, yet
they occur in greater diversity. The name chordata given to this group is due to
the presence of a solid, elastic, rod-like supporting structure, the notochord. It
is one of the basic features present in all chordates. In addition to the notochord,
all chordates have a dorsal, hollow, tube-like nerve cord and many pharyngeal
gill slits which appear as paired openings in the walls of pharynx. Notochord,
hollow dorsal nerve cord and pharyngeal gill slits are considered as the basic
features of all chordates. These basic features are essentially present in all the
chordates during their embryonic period. Later in adult life, they may be modified
or even lost. .
8.1 VERTEBRATA
Most of the chordates belong to the group vertebrata. It is the group of chordates
in which notochord is replaced by a series of bones, called vertebrae, arranged
in the form of a column being termed as vertebral column. Their brain is also
protected in a brain box.
Labeo (Rohu) is a common edible fish found in fresh water. Its gills are covered
with bony plates or opercula (Sing, operculum) and the skin has external
skeleton of large scales.
Fishes, the largest group of vertebrates, are very important source of food for
animals as well as for man. Millions of people around the world are engaged in
fishing industry. Fishing is also a popular sport throughout the world.
2. Class Amphibia:
They live in water during their early life. Later, in adult life, they live in water as
well as on land. For this reason they are termed as Amphibia (means dual life).
These are the vertebrates with four limbs (legs) whose fingers are clawless.
Breathing in early stages occurs through gills. In adult stage, gills are replaced by
lungs. Adult amphibia have a naked skin which is thin, moist and slimy skin,
which is also used for exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide). Like fish,
they are cold blooded animals. Common examples of amphibia are frogs, toads,
and salamanders.
Frog has a smooth, slimy, brightly coloured wet skin. It lives close to water. It
jumps quickly in water in case of any danger on land. Toads usually have dull
coloured skin with less jumping capability.
The eggs of frog are laid in water. The immature young one which hatches out of
egg is called tadpole larva. It undergoes metamorphosis (series of changes) to
become a small frog. During winter, in order to avoid low temperature, frogs
burry themselves in the mud present at the bottom of pond. This phenomenon is
called hibernation.
3. Class Reptilia:
Reptiles are considered as the first, completely terrestrial (land) vertebrates.
Unlike amphibia, they lay their large shelled eggs on land rather than in water.
Their dry skin is covered with epidermal scales. They breathe by lungs. Majority
of reptiles live on land. However, some are also aquatic. The limbs have digits
with claws. Both the jaws in reptiles bear teeth. Most of them are cold blooded.
Very early reptiles called dinosaurs were huge animals but they do not live now.
Among the living reptiles lizard, tortoise, turtle, snake, crocodile are common
examples.
Snakes are the limb-less reptiles. Some of them (e.g. Cobra) are well known for
their deadly poison. Poison called venom is produced in the poison glands located
near the upper jaws. Poison is injected into the prey through special, long pointed
teeth called fangs which can regenerate if broken. The rest of the teeth have
nothing to do with injecting poison. In fact, most snakes are non-poisonous.
of their neck. Their eggs are large, covered by a hard shell and contain great
amount of reserve food usually in the form of yolk. Eggs are laid on land. The
birds maintain a constant body temperature so they are termed as warm
blooded animals. Parrot, sparrow, pigeon, ostrich, kiwi are some of the common
examples of birds.
Humming bird, the smallest bird of the world is about 2 inches in length.
it feeds on the nectar of flower.
Ostrich is the largest bird of the world. Its egg is about 1 to 2 lbs in weight
Pigeons were used to serve as a means of dispatching letters in the old times.
Pigeon rearing and flying was once a very common sport. Pigeons are among the
modern birds which can fly for hours in the skies.
Kiwi, found in New Zealand is a good example of birds which have lost the power
of flight. Their wings are short and feathers are hair-like. Therefore, such birds
are termed as flight-less birds.
5. Class Mammalia:
Mammals are named so because of the presence of mammary glands in their
skin. Mammary glands are functional and secrete milk in females, which is used
to feed their young ones. The skin of mammals is covered over with hair. In
addition to mammary glands, skin also contains sweat glands, sebaceous
glands and scent glands. Both upper and lower jaws in mouth bear various
types of teeth. Like birds, they are also warm blooded animals. Most of the
mammals give birth to live young ones. Mammals can be divided into three sub-
groups.
b) Pouched mammals:
They give birth to premature babies. As the new born babies are weak, the
mother keeps them in a pouch on its belly until they develop fully and become
strong enough for independent life. Inside the pouch, opening of mammary
glands are present for feeding milk to the young one. Kangaroo, koala bear and
opossum are common examples of pouched mammals.
c) Placental Mammals:
Most of the mammals including man belong to this group. In placental mammals,
the young one completes its development inside the body of its mother where it
is fed through on organ called placenta. After birth, the young one is fed on
mother's milk secreted from the mammary glands.
Common examples of placental mammals are man monkey, elephant, rat, cat,
lion, bat, seal, whale and dolphin.
Although mammals are chiefly terrestrial, some (e.g. whale dolphin seal, etc) live
in water. Blue whales are the largest living animals in the world. Bats are unique
as they can fly.
1. Flora:
Our country has representatives of all groups of plants which you have studied.
Although all of them are important in their own way, forests are especially
noteworthy. Forests and forestry are considered to be the backbone of our
economy. They regulate the qualities of water in the rivers by preventing the free
flow of soil in water by holding it with their roots. They prevent formation of
deserts, control water logging and maintain the amount of salts in the soil and
regulate the temperature of atmosphere. They not only supply oxygen to the air
but also provide food and shelter to animals (wild-life). They are an integral part
of our ecosystem. Can you guess what may happen to our wild-life if forests are
cut down? Some of the economically important flowering and non-flowering
plants of Pakistan are discussed below:
The high mountains in the northern and north western part of Pakistan, due to
sufficient snow fall, support thick forests. These forests consist of trees like blue
pine, chir pine, chalghoza pine, deodar, fir, juniper and olives, etc.
Forests of desert plants like Acacia are found in the areas where there is less rain
fall and scarcity of water. Trees of Sheesham, Mulberry, Willow, Poplar, Neem
etc. are found in irrigated lands like Changa Manga. These forests play a key role
in providing us wood for furniture, sports goods and fuel.
In the plains many crops are cultivated which fulfill our nutritional and other
requirements. These crops include wheat, maize, rice, sugar cane, sugar beet,
pea, potato, tomato, onion, garlic, chili, turnip, radish carrot, cauliflower, many
cereals, grains and cotton, etc.
Pakistan is also rich in fruit bearing trees like mangoes, apples, apricots, peaches,
oranges, bananas, walnut and almonds etc. Many plants are cultivated for
ornamental purpose e.g. Chrysanthemum, roses and jasmines etc. The hills and
plains of our country possess various types of grasses, which provide fodder for
our grazing animals. Still a large number of plants like Typha, Hydrilla, and many
types of algae are found in fresh water ponds, lakes, streams and river. A variety
of marine plants are found in oceans and coastal regions of our country.
The above mentioned plants not only provide us food but are also important for
their medicinal values. Some plants form thick forests from which we get timber
while some plants are cultivated for ornamental purposes. Is it not a good idea to
prepare a list of plants found in your locality? It will increase your knowledge of
the flora of Pakistan.
2. Fauna:
Like flora, our fauna is also full of variety of animal groups learned by you. Each
one of these groups holds an important position in its biological relationship with
plants and with human beings. You have learnt a bit about these relationships in
your previous classes. There are, however, a few facts which you should
remember.
The coastal and offshore waters of Sindh and Baluchistan are rich in seafood.
These are considered to be one of the best fishing grounds in the world.. Can you
list the types of animals which make up sea-food? Obviously, fishes would appear
in this list as a major group of economic value. Fishes in large number and
variety are found in our sea. This is in addition to the fishes in our rivers and
lakes. Fishes in general are of great commercial value.
Common fishes of Pakistan include rohu, pullah, khagga, trout, maha8heer, flat
fish, sea horse, malee, skates, rays, scoliodon (dog-fish), etc.
You are undoubtedly familiar with our common amphibians, frogs and toads. Our
reptiles include crocodile, lizard and turtles. Cobra, krait, vipers and pythons are
among our common snakes.
Our country is rich in a variety of flying birds, though we do not have any
representation of the flightless birds group. Every year large number of migratory
water birds like ducks visit our lakes. These together with quails, partridges and
the beautiful pheasants constitute a group called game birds.
Other common birds are Houbara bustard, crane, water fowl, falcon, eagle, kite,
peacock, pigeon, crow, parrots etc.
These together with ibex (a wild goat) and urial (a wild sheep) attract hunters.
Uncontrolled hunting has endangered their survival. Although we have many
mammals of the carnivore group, we have lost the tiger and the lion perhaps due
to hunting. Our monkey is endangered because of its great demand in overseas
markets. Don't we need to do something about it?
The most important group of mammals being associated and helpful to man is
ungulates, the hoofed mammals. They provide us milk and meat. Many have
been domesticated for fun and as beast of burden. Pakistan has large variety of
these animals. Common representative are wild goats, sheep, deer, gazelles,
markhores etc. Cows, buffaloes, donkeys, horses! goats and camels are the
common domesticated forms.
Grey Langur, Rhesus monkey, Markhor, Snow Leopard, Wolf, etc. are much
endangered animals of Pakistan.
This brief account of our fauna gives you some idea about our animal life. Fauna
and flora are biologically inseparable because of their interrelationship and have
an impact on our own welfare or even survival. Fauna, flora and man form a kind
of a triangle in which there is a natural balance. If this balance is disturbed, each
one would be negatively affected. One component of this triangle which can help
make or break this balance is the human being himself.
SUMMARY
Chordates have a notochord in their bodies., in vertebrates notochord is
replaced by vertebral column.
The group vertebrata includes most of the chordates
Vertebrates are divided into pisces, amphibia, reptilia, aves and
mammalia.
Pisces, amphibia and reptiliaare cold blooded animals.
Aves and mammalia maintain their body temperature and are called
warm-blooded animals.
Pisces have paired as well as unpaired fins on their bodies.
Amphibia have four limbs with clawless digit.
Snakes are limb-less reptiles.
Birds have wings and feathers.
Most mammals give birth to young ones.
Pakistan enjoys a variety of geographical and climatic conditions which
support a great diversity of fauna and flora.
EXERCISE
1. Fill in the blanks with appropriate terms:
i) The name chordata refers to the presence of a solid, elastic rod
like, supporting structure called the___________ .
ii) Most of the chordates belong to the group____________.
iii) The skin of fish is usually covered over with ________.
iv) Amphibia means____________.
v) Birds and mammals are _________ blooded animals.
SECTION 4
MAINTENANCE OF LIFE
Life is the sum-total of a vast number of activities going on inside the body. It is
like a factory, a place of great activity, where fuel and raw materials are taken
and converted into finished products and energy. These finished products form
the new cells. Energy keeps this machine system working and up till these major
systems are working, in co-ordination, organism is alive whenever they stop, life
ceases to survive.
Chapter 9
FOOD AND NUTRITION
To remain alive and to maintain the body processes all organisms take in
nutrients. Nutrients are chemical substances needed by the body. They provide
energy, the fuel of life. They repair the older body cells and form new ones.
Learning objectives:
All living organisms require energy to carry on their life processes. To meet these
demands they intake two main categories of molecules from environment:
already synthesized high-energy compounds (food) or the raw materials from
which new protoplasm can be synthesized. The intake and processing of these
materials is called nutrition. Materials required for the synthesis of new
protoplasm as well as for the production of energy are called nutrients.
Living organisms can be divided into two groups on the basis of their mode of
nutrition.
(i) Autotrophic organisms (ii) Heterotrophic organisms
(i) Autotrophic organisms: Organisms, which can synthesize their own organic
compounds (food) from inorganic raw material taken from inorganic
surroundings. The molecules of raw material are small enough and soluble to
pass through the cell-membrane. Most of the autotrophs are photo synthetic e.g
plants, algae some bacteria etc.
Monomers Polymer
Monosaccharides e.g. glucose Polysaccharide e.g. starch and
Amino acids glycogen
Fatty acid and Glycerol Proteins
Fats and oils
Fig: 9.1 Diagram showing how complex carbohydrates arise from simple sugar
Plant cells store extra carbohydrate as starch while animal cells store extra
carbohydrate as glycogen which is some times called animal-starch.
As you know that the English language has 26 letters of the alphabet and they
form millions of different words. In the same way, the 20 amino acids form a
great variety of proteins. The number of amino acids combined in most proteins
molecules ranges between 300 to 3000.
Main role of protein is to provide building material in the body. They help in
growth and repair of body parts (healing). They make structures like muscles,
nails and hairs.
Fig: 9.3 Diagram showing how fats are formed from glycerol and fatty acids
In dealing with life processes in plants in this chapter, we shall first discuss
photosynthesis and its processes.
Light Energy
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
Chlorophyll
This equation shows only the starting materials and end products of the process
but gives no information about the intermediate reaction steps involved. It is also
obvious that oxygen is produced as a by-product of photosynthesis. During day
light, green plants take in carbon dioxide and give out oxygen. Thus, oxygen
would appear here to be a waste product.
1. Their broad flat shape offers a large surface area for absorption of
sunlight and carbon dioxide.
2. Most leaves are thin and the CO2 has to diffuse across only short
distances to reach the inner cells.
3. The large spaces between cells inside the leaf provide an easy passage
through which C02 can diffuse.
4. There are many stomata (pores) mostly in the lower surface of the leaf
which allow the exchange of CO2 and O2 with the air outside.
5. There are more chloroplasts in the upper cells than in the lower cell
because the cells of upper surface receive more sunlight.
6. The branching network of veins and veinlets provide a good water
supply to the photosynthesizing cells and no cell is very far from a
water conducting vessel.
Fig: 9.5 (a) The external appearance of leaf shows the transport tissues.
Fig: 9.5 (b) Transverse section through part of a leaf.
The leaves of most land plants are only a few cells thick. The upper and lower
surfaces of a leaf consist of a layer of transparent cells, the epidermis. The outer
surface of both epidermal layers are covered by a waxy, water proof covering, the
cuticle that reduces the evaporation of water from the leaf A leaf obtains CO2 for
photosynthesis from the air through adjustable pores in the epidermis called
stomata which open and close at appropriate times to admit CO2. Inside the leaf,
there are a few layers of cells collectively called mesophyll (which means simply
middle of leaf) where photosynthesis occurs predominantly.
1. Light:
Carbon dioxide and water are the basic constituents required for formation of
glucose. However, they will not combine in the absence of sunlight because
various reaction steps necessary for synthesis of glucose require energy input.
This energy is supplied by light. As light is composed of seven colours; rays of
two colours chiefly red and blue, are used in the process. Photosynthesis is also
affected by the intensity of light. Very intense light is harmful, while light of
moderate intensity accelerates and weak light slows down the rate of
photosynthesis. In the total absence of light even the chlorophyll does not
develop. Photosynthesis can also take place in artificial light.
2. Chlorophyll:
Chlorophyll imparts green colour to the leaves. It traps the energy of sunlight and
makes it available for use by the plant. Photosynthesis will not proceed without
chlorophyll and that is why it occurs only in the parts of the leaf or stem that
contain chlorophyll.
3. Carbon dioxide:
Plants get the carbon dioxide to be used during photosynthesis from the air. It
enters the leaf through the stomata. It is used as a source of carbon for glucose.
Photosynthesis will not take place without carbon dioxide. Although it comprises
only 0.03 to 0.04% of the air, its supply does not exhaust as it is continuously
recycled into the air. The process of photosynthesis accelerates if its proportion is
increased up to 1.0%. However, greater amounts of carbon dioxide, adversely
affect the process.
4. Water:
This constituent is as basic as is carbon dioxide. Water is important in
photosynthesis in two ways; firstly, it provides hydrogen for the building up of
glucose and secondly, opening and closing of stomata is regulated by increase or
decrease in the amount of water. It is important that stomata should remain open
so that carbon dioxide may enter leaves. Water together with salt (e.g. nitrates),
absorbed by the roots ultimately reaches leaves where it is used in
photosynthesis.
5. Temperature:
Suitable temperature is also necessary for photosynthesis. Normally a
temperature range of 15°C to 30°C is most suitable for this process. At higher
temperature the rate of photosynthesis starts declining and at 45°C it completely
stops. However, depending on regions, the temperature requirements of the
plants may change. For example, this process occurs at a temperature range
from 0°C to 10°C in plants of cold and mountainous regions.
Light Energy
6CO2 + 6H20 C6H12O6 + 6O2
Chlorophyll (Glucose)
1. Light reaction:
Light reaction is also called light-dependent reaction because chlorophyll and
other molecules capture light energy and convert some of it into the chemical
energy.
Some of the light is utilized to split water into oxygen and hydrogen. This splitting
of water is called photolysis (photo= light, lysis= to break). Oxygen which is
produced during photolysis is released in the environment whereas hydrogen
together which CO2 is used in building glucose.
Within the chlorplast, chlorophyll and the other pigment molecules form highly-
organized assemblies called photosystems. The conversion of light energy into
chemical energy in these photosystems produces two energy rich compounds.
These are:
(i) NADPH2 (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate)
(ii) ATP (Adenosine Tri-Phosphate)
NADP, which already exists in the chloroplast reduces into NADPH2 by accepting
hydrogen ion released from splitting of water.
NADP + H++e- NADPH2
(In cell) (From water) (Reduced form)
Reduction and oxidation are two important chemical concepts which help us to
understand the terminology of the electron transfer chain.
Reduction is the addition of electrons to a substance. In biological systems this
addition of electrons is usually brought about by the addition of hydrogen or the
removal of O2. Oxidation is the removal of electrons from substance.
ATP and NADPH2, both are energy rich compounds. They provide energy for the
conversion of CO2 into carbohydrates during dark phase of photosynthesis.
2. Dark reaction:
Dark reaction is also called light independent reaction because light energy is not
captured during this phase. Only ATP and NADPH2, which are synthesized during
light reaction, provide energy to synthesize glucose by fixing CO2 and H2O.
Fixation of CO2 and its conversion into glucose occurs in the chloroplast by means
of a series of reactions known as Calvin cycle or dark reactions.
Glucose molecules thus formed at this stage are stored as starch in the
chloroplast.
Melvin Calvin a scientist received a Nobel prize in 1961 on determining the dark reaction.
Experiment No. 1
For destarching the leaves, the potted plant is kept in a dark place for a couple of
days and then exposed to daylight for a few hour. The leaf is then removed from
plant. Its out line is carefully drawn to note the position of presence or absence of
chlorophyll on it. Now iodine is applied to the leaf to test for the presence of
starch. (Startch whenever come in contact with iodine turns blue).
This test shows that only those parts which were previously green turned blue
with iodine while the white parts turned brown. This result indicates that starch is
formed only in those parts of the leaf where chlorophyll exists (i.e. green parts).
In other words, photosynthesis is not possible without chlorophyll. If this were
possible the white parts of the leaf should have also given a blue colour with
iodine.
Experiment No. 2
Experiment No. 3
A petri dish containing soda lime (potassium hydroxide) is placed in one of the
pots to absorb any carbon dioxide present in the polythene bag. In the other pot
a petri dish is placed containing sodium bi-carbonate solution which would
produced carbon dioxide. The plants are then left in light for several hours. A leaf
from each pot is detached and tested for starch. The leaf from the pot containing
soda lime does not turn blue. Soda lime had absorbed any carbon dioxide present
in the bag. The leaf from the other pot where carbon dioxide was being released
by the sodium bicarbonates solution turns blue indicating the presence of starch.
These results show that carbon-di-oxide is essential for photosynthesis.
Experiment No. 4
Light intensity:
The rate of light reaction will depend on the light intensity. The brighter the light,
the faster will water molecules split in the chloroplast. Fig.9.11 shows that an
increase in light intensity does indeed speed up photosynthesis, but only up to a
point. Beyond that point, any further increase in light intensity has only a small
effect. This limit on the rate of increase could be because all available chloroplast
are fully occupied in light absorption. So, no matter how much the light intensity
increases, no more light can be absorbed and used.
Temperature:
The dark reaction will be affected by temperature. A rise in temperature will
increase the rate at which CO2 combines with hydrogen to make carbohydrate.
Thus rate of photosynthesis increases with the increase in temperature within
optimum limits.
Plants through photosynthesis keep carbon and oxygen cycle going on and thus
maintain them in balance. During photosynthesis they fix CO2 and release oxygen
in environment. Animals use O2 in respiration and release CO2 back into
atmosphere.
One of the property of CO2 is that it absorbs heat of sun. If CO2 accumulates in
the atmosphere, the environmental temperature would rise and our earth will
warm up. Photosynthesis keep on using CO2 has an indirect cooling effect.
Nitrogen is also added to the soil in the form of ammonium nitrate or ammonium
sulphate. Phosphorous and potassium are added in the form of super phosphate
and potassium chloride, respectively.
A well known parasitic plants is cuscuta. It is a total parasite; its weak and
yellowish stem twines around shrubs and the branches of host trees.
2. Saprophytes:
These plants have no chlorophyll and derive their food from dead organic matter.
Some flowering plants like monotropa and neottia are also saprophytic in
nature. These plants are found in thick jungles where sunlight cannot reach the
ground and the soil is rich in decomposing organic matter. As there are no root
hairs in these plants they cannot draw their nourishment from the soil. The roots
of these plants develop in association with a special type of fungus. A part of the
hyphae of this fungus enters the roots of these plants. These hyphae thus serve
as 'root hairs' and help in the absorption of the food from the dead organic
matter.
3. Insectivores:
These plants are found in marshy areas of many countries. These marsh lands
are deficient in nitrogen compounds and nitrates. To make up for this deficiency
4. Symbionts:
An association of two organisms in which both the partners get benefits is called
symbiosis. For example, the association between nitrogen-fixing bacteria and
roots of leguminous plants is symbiosis. Lichens are another example of
symbiosis. Lichens are formed by association of a fungus and an alga so, they are
modified organisms. The fungus provides shelter and water to the alga. The alga
makes food by photosynthesis.
1. Carnivores:
This type of nutrition in which animals feed upon other animals is called
carnivorous nutrition. Such animals are called carnivores. For example cat, dog,
etc. Canine teeth of carnivore mammals are strong, long, sharp and pointed for
tearing flesh of other animals.
2. Herbivores:
In this type, animals use plants as their food. For example, horse, cattle, deer,
etc feed upon leaves and grass. Such animals are called herbivores. They do not
have canines. Many birds such as sparrow, parrot, etc. are also herbivores.
3. Omnivores:
It is the mode of nutrition in which animals feed upon flesh as well as plants.
Man, cockroach etc. fall into this category .These organisms are called omnivores.
4. Frugivorea:
Animals like parrot, etc which feed on fruits like guava, figs etc. are frugivores
and this type of nutrition is called frugivorous.
5. Insectivores:
In this type nutrition, animals feed upon insects. For example wall lizard and frog
feed upon-a-variety of insects. Such animals are called insectivores.
6. Parasitic:
A parasite lives in close association with the other living organism called host for
obtaining its food. Organisms with this type of nutrition are called parasites. The
relationship is advantageous to the parasite but harmful to the host. Some
parasites live on the external surface of their hosts. They are called
ectoparasites e.g. mosquito, lice, etc. They obtain their food from the surface of
the host. Others live inside the bodies of their hosts. They are called
endoparasites e.g. tape worms and round worms in the intestine of vertebrates.
They obtain nourishment from inside the body.
7. Saprozoic:
The organisms who obtain food from dead organisms are called saprobes and
this type of nutrition is called saprozoic. Saprobes secrete the enzymes out side
their bodies, on the food to digest it and then absorb it in the fluid form. Fungi
and many bacteria fall in this category.
The food which animals, including humans, take in consists of the following
components or nutrients.
(1) Carbohydrates (2) Fats (3) Proteins
(4) Vitamins (5) Minerals (6) Water
1. Carbohydrates:
These are the fuel of the body because they are the most direct source of energy.
Common examples are starch, sugars, etc. The most common simple sugar is
grape sugar called glucose. It is the most readily available source of energy.
2. Fats:
Fats belong to a group of organic compounds called lipids. Fats are high energy
food. They provide double amount of energy upon oxidation, in contrast to the
same quantity of carbohydrates.
We obtain fats from animal sources e.g. ghee, butter, cream, fish oil etc, as well
as from plant sources e.g. mustard oil, soyabean oil, peanuts etc.
Animals store fats beneath the skin and around some visceral organs. Besides
serving as source of energy they insulate the body and protect internal organs.
They also serve as building material of protoplasm and membrane systems.
3. Proteins:
Proteins are the building materials of protoplasm. They are obtained from meat,
pulses, milk, cheese, dry fruits, etc. They consist of smaller units called amino
acids. Proteins are required for growth, repair, defence of body, clotting of blood,
etc., the deficiency of proteins in diet especially that of essential amino acids
containing proteins, severely affects such functions. They are structure building
compounds which make many body structures like hair, nails, muscles, etc.
4. Minerals:
Minerals are ionic substances which are required in metabolic activities of the
body. They do not provide us energy but ensure proper growth and functioning of
the body. Some important minerals are described below:
Calcium: It is obtained from milk, eggs, fruits, and cereals. It strengthens the
bones and teeth. It also helps in muscular contraction, blood clotting and
conduction of nerve impulse.
Iron: It is found in meat, liver, eggs, apple, spinach and other vegetables. It is
used in synthesis of haemoglobin and myoglobin in blood and muscles,
respectively.
5. Vitamins:
Vitamins are organic compounds which are needed in minute quantities for proper
growth and development of the body. Plants can synthesize all vitamins from
simple substances but animals have to obtain them through their diet. There are
different vitamins which are denoted by letters of the alphabets such as A, B, C,
D, E, K. They are classified as fat soluble vitamins e.g. A, D, E, K and water
soluble vitamins e.g. B, C. Fat soluble vitamins can be stored along with, fat but
water soluble vitamins cannot be stored so we require continuous intake of them.
Table 9.2 shows different vitamins alongwith their sources, their deficiency
disorders and characterization of disorders.
RBC.
Vitamin K Dark green Prolong Blood does
leafy clotting time not clot
vegetables. excessive
Made by bleeding
bacteria in
intestine.
Vitamin B Husk of wheat Wasting of Beri Beri
Complex grains and muscles;
Vitamin B1 brown rice. circulatory
Water soluble vitamins
failure and
paralysis
Vitamin B2 Leafy Sore mouth, Sore
vegetables, eyes and skin
fish, eggs.
Nicotinamide Meat, fish, Diarrhea, Pellagra
milk, eggs. dermatitis and
mental
disorder
Vitamin C Citrus fruits Bleeding from Scurvy
and green gums, wounds
vegetables. fail to heal
6. Water:
Water makes up nearly 70 percent of the total body mass. It is required as
solvent in most of the metabolic activities of the body. It also helps in the
absorption and transportation of the digested food. It helps plants in
photosynthesis for intake of minerals from the soil and in movement of food.
With the help of modern science, various methods have been developed to
preserve the food for longer period of time without affecting its nutritional value
and taste. Some of the important methods are as follows:
1. Pasteurization:
It was discovered by Louis Pasteur to prevent milk from turning sour. You all
know very well that milk is boiled after purchasing it from milk- man. Increase in
temperature of milk up to the boiling point, kills most of the germs (bacteria)
present in it thus milk can be kept longer. In the absence of boiling, it turns sour
very quickly. The modern way of milk pasteurization comprises of heating to
71 °C and then immediate cooling. As a result most of its bacteria are either
killed or if survive, their growth is retarded so the milk can be preserved for few
days.
2. Refrigeration:
Refrigeration is another way of preserving food. In this method food is kept at
very low temperature at -30°C to -40°C. Due to very low temperature the
bacteria are either killed or their growth is retarded. Now-a-days, food quickly
freezes (-18°C) in about 30 minutes. It renders taste and texture of the food.
3. Dehydration:
It is the oldest method of preserving food by dehydration. Although drying of food
does not kill micro-organisms, it preserves the food as it makes water unavailable
to micro-organisms which requires it to grow and multiply. Dried food is easily
stored and transported due to its light weight. However, it often brings about a
change in texture and taste of the preserved food.
4. Canning:
In this method, food is adequately cooked and then sealed while hot in a sterile,
metallic and air tight container. Heating kills the microorganisms as well as
inactivates the enzymes.
1. Under-nutrition:
It is a problem of poor countries of the world where there is insufficient food for
the people. Famine stricken countries such as Ethiopia are facing this problem.
Under-nutrition especially affects the children. Due to insufficient food, their
physical as well as mental growth are severely affected. Such children or persons
This condition is called marasmus.
2. Mal-nutrition:
It refers to a diet missing in one or more basic nutrients. It can affect person of
any age or group. It can badly affect the pregnant women and infants. It has
been noticed that mal-nutrition is the major cause of death among the children
upto the age of five in the world especially in developing countries.
In Africa and Asia, due to poverty and famine, the diet is usually deficient in
proteins and carbohydrates. Deficiency of protein in dite increases susceptibility
to diseases besides retardation in growth.
3. Over- nutrition:
It is observed in developed countries where people take excess nutrients. Obesity
is the most common disorders due to over-nutrition. Obesity is caused by
excessive consumption of refined carbohydrates and fats.
Balanced diet:
A balanced diet contains adequate amount of nutrients. It helps in proper growth,
metabolism, and maintenance of good health. Unfortunately despite extensive
research, it is not yet possible to say exactly how much of each type of food a
person must take in order to satisfy all of its requirements. The problem of doing
this is complicated by the fact that the body's food requirements vary
according to age, body size, sex, occupation, and health. For example children
need more food for their proper growth. Youth on the other hand need more
food than elderly people because of their active physical work. It has been
recommended that an average adult healthy person requires the necessary
energy 50 percent from carbohydrate, 40 percent from fats and 10 percent from
proteins. Fats are necessary in diet as they contain fat soluble vitamins as well as
fatty acids. It is also recommended that adults should eat at least 1gm of protein
per kg of body weight per day. How ever infants should be given 2gm per kg from
birth to six months. It is further suggested that 60 percent of daily intake should
consist of animal proteins since this contains more essential amino acids.
9.9.1 Ingestion:
The process of taking in of food into the mouth or body of animal is called
ingestion. In the mouth cavity also called buccal cavity or oral cavity, this food is
cut down into smaller pieces with our teeth. This crushing of food make its
swallowing easy, helps in mixing the saliva in it and makes the work of digestive
juices (emzymes) easier and quicker. The process of breaking the food
mechanically into smaller pieces is called mechanical digestion while the
chemical break down of food into smaller chemical molecules is called chemical
digestion which is brought about by enzymes.
1. Teeth:
As stated above, teeth in our oral (mouth) cavity perform mechanical digestion.
In both of our jaws, teeth are embedded in jaw sockets. We have two sets of
teeth during life time. The first set of teeth, milk teeth appears at about 6
months of age. Later, about at the age of 7 years, the milk teeth gradually fell
and are replaced one by one by permanent teeth. The maximum number of
permanent teeth is 32. (i.e, 16 in upper, while 16 in lower jaw).
Structure of tooth:
Each tooth consists of three parts i.e. crown, neck and root.
Crown is the part of tooth projected above the gum level. It is the biting or
chewing surface of tooth. Neck is the part surrounded by gum while root is the
part embedded in bone.
The outer surface of crown is covered by a very hard white substance, the
enamel. It is non-living and protects teeth besides giving lustrous appearance to
teeth. The root as well as the portion inside the enamel is dentine. It is less
harder than enamel. Inside the dentine, there is a cavity, the pulp cavity. It is
filled by soft connective tissue called pulp. It also contains nerves and blood
vessels that supply the growing tooth with food and oxygen. The root of each
tooth is covered with another hard material called cement.
The tough fibers of periodontal membrane attach the cement to the jaw bone so
that each tooth is fixed firmly in socket.
Types of teeth:
According to the shape and function following types of teeth are present in our
oral cavity.
i) Incisors ii) Canines iii) Premolars and iv) Molars.
Molar: The molars are large strong teeth efficient at grinding food.
Premolar: Also known as bicuspids, because of other two distinct edges grind the
food.
Incisors: These teeth have a chisel shaped, sharp cutting edge ideal for biting.
Canines: The canines are sharp pointed teeth, Ideal for tearing food.
i) Incisors: The flat chisel-shaped teeth resent in front of oral cavity are incisors.
They are eight in number, four in upper while four in the lower jaws. They are
used in cutting.
ii) Canines: Beside incisors lie canines on each side in both jaws. They are four
in number and are pointed. They are used for tearing and pulling flesh. That's
why they are very long and prominent in carnivores such as lion. Herbivore
animals usually do not have canines.
iii) Premolars: In both jaws each canine is followed by two premolars. They are
8 in number and each with two distinct edges. They are involved in grinding the
food.
iv) Molars: Premolars of each side of both jaws are followed by three molars.
They are 12 in number. They also grind food. The last molar is called wisdom
tooth.
It represents each type of tooth in half of the upper jaw and half of the lower jaw.
If this decay is ignored, the erosion penetrates deep to destroy dentine. This
enables bacteria to infect pulp. This results in tooth ache and tooth is gradually
destroyed. Tooth decay can be reduced by cutting down sugary diet and proper
brushing with a fluoride tooth paste.
Visit a dentist regularly for check up for healthier teeth.
9.9.2 Digestion:
in food. It also softens the food. Renin helps to curdle milk in infants. Pepsin acts
on proteins to break them into peptones. The thick walls of stomach churn up the
food. After staying here for few hours, the food becomes a thick fluid-like chyme
which is released bit by bit into the small intestine.
Peristalsis: The movement of food from oesophagus and onward up to the anus
takes place by means of an automatic movement or peristalsis (Fig: 9.22) of
alimentary canal.
4. Enzymes:
Enzymes are chemical substance that work as catalyst in chemical reactions of a
cell. These proteins are useful as they speed up chemical reactions without being
used up by themselves. Enzymes performing the process of digestion are called
hydrolytic enzymes. They are secreted by digestive glands.
a) Liver: The liver is the largest gland in the body. It is reddish brown in colour.
It is located in the abdomen underneath the diaphragm. For the process of
digestion, it secretes an alkaline, greenish yellow juice called bile which is stored
in a sac-like gall-bladder attached with it. There are no enzymes in bile. It
contains some salts. Its most important salt is sodium bicarbonate. It also
contains bile pigments. However, they are not involved in digestion. Bile helps in
breaking down of larger molecules of fats into small droplets. This process is
called emulsification. It makes the digestion of fats easier in the small intestine.
After the process of digestion of food is completed here, the digested food in the
form of soluble molecules glucose, fructose, amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol,
etc. is absorbed into the body through very fine, finger like projections called villi
present on the internal walls of ileum.
Each villus is about 1mm long. There are about 5 million villi in the ileum. Due to
villi, the internal surface area of ileum has estimated to be 30 square meters for
absorption of food.
The villi greatly increase the internal surface area of the ileum. Inside each villus,
there is a dense network of blood capillaries and a single lymph vessel or lacteal.
Both blood capillaries and lacteal absorb the digested food. Nutrients other than
fatty acids diffuse through the surface cells of villi and are taken into the blood
flowing in capillaries of villi. These capillaries join together to form a larger blood
vessel called the hepatic portal vein which carries the absorbed food to the liver.
Some fatty acids, after they are absorbed by surface cells of rilli, recombine to
form fats which are passed onto the other side into lacteal rather than blood
capillaries. Lacteals of villi join together to form lymph vessels which finally
deliver the fats into blood stream through lymphatic system.
Table: 9.4 Digestive juices, their sources. secretion / enzymes and the
action.
Name of Source Secretion/ Action
digestive juice Enzyme
Saliva Salivary glands in Ptyalin Breaks down
oral cavity starch into
maltose.
The soluble nutrients after being absorbed are transported through the blood to
each and every cell of the body. Depending upon the requirement of the cell, this
food can be used either to build new protoplasm or to obtain energy to perform
various activities. The incorporation of food by a cell in its components is called
assimilation.
9.9.5 Egestion:
The faeces are stored in the rectum, the last portion of alimentary canal where it
is stored for the time being and then egested outside the body through a terminal
opening called anus.
Proper functioning of the digestive system or gut needs regular intake of balanced
and germ free diet. However, some times due to the intake of contaminated food,
some disorders of gut may develop. Some disorders of gut are discussed below:
1. Vomiting:
Whenever we take food containing harmful or poisonous substances, the contents
of stomach are expelled out through the mouth by antiperistaltic movements.
This process is called vomiting. It may occur when we over eat and helps to
expel out the food from the stomach giving us some relief. The sensation, just
before vomiting, that the food in the stomach wants to come out is called
nausea. There are a number of other reasons for vomiting such as peptic ulcer,
appendicitis, many other diseases, psychological or emotional problems, travel
sickness, bad smells, pregnancy etc.
2. Diarrhoea:
Diarrhoea refers to the condition of large number of watery motions. It is usually
caused by infection of colon or food poisoning. Due to continuous diarrhoea, the
body can lose large quantity of water which could be fatal if not rehydrated.
Infants and young children are easily dehydrated due to diarrhoea. In case of
diarrhea, they must be given continuously solution of ORS (Oral Rehydrated
Salt). The physician must be consulted immediately to diagnose and treat the
patient.
3. Constipation:
This is just reverse of diarrhoea. It is the condition in which there is infrequent or
difficult passing of dry, hard faeces occurs. It is said to be the mother of all
diseases. It is a disorder of large intestine which absorbs excessive amount of
water from undigested food. It can be avoided by drinking lot of water and eating
more fibre containing food.
4. Appendicitis:
It is the inflammation (burning, painful sensation) of the appendix associated with
vomiting and abdominal pain. It could be due to obstruction of the appendix
either by faeces or worms which cause localized swelling Pain in right side of
lower abdomen. In such a case, physician must be consulted irnmediately for
diagnosis and treatment . If the condition remained ignored for some time, the
appendix may burst cavity that could be extremely fatal for the patient.
5. Enterobiasis:
Thread worms cause a disease called enterobiasis. These are minute, thread
like worms which live in the large intestine of man. At night time, the female
worms come down and lay eggs at the preanal region. It produces severe itching
around the anus. Upon scratching the anus, the microscopic eggs are transferred
on fingers and nails. Such contaminated hands can cause reinfection of the same
person or others who take food or drink contaminated with the eggs. Proper
treatment and development of hygienic habits can over come the thread worm
infection.
SUMMARY
The intake of nutrient by living organisms is called nutrition.
Living organisms can be divided into two groups on the basis of their
modes of nutrition i.e. Autotrophs and heterotrophs.
The heterotrophs eat food which contain bio-molecules like carbohydrates,
proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals and water.
Simple sugar, starch and glycogen belong to a group of compounds called
carbohydrates.
Proteins are the polymers of nitrogenous monomers called amino acid.
Proteins are building as well as biocatalyst molecules of the body.
Most of the plants prepare their food by the process of photosynthesis. In
this process a plant can build sugar by taking CO2, H2O in the presence of
chlorophyll and light.
During light reaction photolysis of water and
photophosphorylation occur as a result of it O2, ATP and NADPH2
molecules are formed.
Solar energy is converted into chemical energy in the form of ATP and
NADPH2 which is utilized during dark reaction for the fixation of CO2.
The Dark reaction is light-independent phase where glucose and finally
starch is synthesized.
Natural and artificial fertilizers are the source of mineral nutrients for
plant.
Although majority of plants are autotrophs, some plants like, parasites,
saprophytes, insectivores and symbionts are partially or totally
heterotrophs.
Animals can not prepare their food from simple inorganic substances and
hence are all heterotrophs.
Fats provide double amount of energy than carbohydrates.
Minerals ensure proper growth and functioning of the body.
Water is biological solvent.
Malnutrition develops due to intake of inappropriate quantities of food.
Vomiting occurs due to antiperistalsis.
EXERCISE
Chapter 10
RESPIRATION
One can survive for weeks without food, for days without water but without
oxygen one just cannot survive after a few minutes. To keep the candle of life
burning exchange of O2 and CO2 inside and outside the body is a must.
Learning objectives:
Definition and significance of respiration.
ATP and its importance.
Respiration and breathing.
Aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
Combustion, respiration, photosynthesis.
Gaseous exchange in plants and animals.
Human respiration.
Effects of smoking on respiratory system;
An ATP molecule is the instant source of energy within the cell. It supplies energy
to every energy consuming process anywhere in the cell.
ii) Cellular respiration on the other hand is the oxidation of food taking place
within the cells by the help of oxidative enzymes resulting in the release of
energy. Thus both the steps of cellular respiration and breathing go together as
two separate steps but integral processes for the release of energy.
Chemical equation;
In bacteria and fungi,
Aerobic
Glucose Ethanol + Carbon dioxide + Energy (210 KJ)
respiration
In animals:
Aerobic
Glucose Lactic acid + Energy (150KJ)
respiration
Fermentation:
The anaerobic respiration of fungi and bacteria is commonly known as alcoholic
fermentation because in the absence of oxygen glucose is broken down into
ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide. This fermentation process is commercially
utilized in making alcoholic products (Beer, wine, vinegar etc), ripening of tea
leaves and tobacco leaves, preparation of cheese, yoghurt and bread etc.
Human muscle cells make ATP by lactic acid fermentation when oxygen is
deficient. In the absence of oxygen, in muscle cells glucose is broken down into
lactic acid. This occurs during prolonged heavy exercise, when sugar catabolism
for ATP production surpasses the muscles supply of oxygen from the blood. Under
these conditions the cells switch over from aerobic respiration to fermentation.
The lactic acid that accumulates as a waste product may cause muscle fatigue
and pain, but is gradually carried away by the blood to the liver where it is
converted back to an energy releasing compound pyruvic acid and glycogen by
the liver cells.
When oxygen was discovered as the agent for combustion, it was known that the
food is burnt within cells in the presence of oxygen.
Photosynthesis and respiration are the two metabolic reactions opposite to each
other. Photosynthesis takes place only in the green parts of the plant body having
chlorophyll, whereas respiration takes place in all the living cells of plants and
animals. Mitochondria are the cellular organelles where respiration takes place
while the organelles for photosynthesis are chloroplasts. Photosynthesis takes
place during the day time only, where as respiration takes place day and nignt. In
photosynthesis body weight is increases but in respiration weight decreases.
Respiration is an oxidation reaction whereas photosynthesis is a reduction
reaction. It can be well understood by comparing their chemical equations.
Chemical equation;
In respiration,
Mitochondria
Glucose + Oxygen Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy
enzymes
In photosynthesis,
Chloroplast
Carbon dioxide + Water Glucose + Oxygen
Solar energy
Exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen between the environment and organism
is termed gaseous exchange. All living organisms exchange gases with the
environment. This is necessary to allow the cells to obtain the gases needed for
metabolic processes and to facilitate the removal of gaseous metabolic waste.
Efficient gaseous exchange depends upon three conditions. Diffusion gradient,
large respiratory surface area and a moist surface membrane. So that the gases
can go into solution before they pass across. Gaseous exchange takes place in all
organisms by diffusion directly or indirectly.
Stomata:
Stomata (sing: Stoma) are pores in the epidermis of leaves and stems of plants.
Each pore is bordered by a pair of modified epidermal cells called guard cells,
which are (bean) shaped, containing chloroplasts and a large sap filled vacuole.
The inner wall (the wall lining the pore) is thicker and less elastic than the outer
wall. The opening and closing of stomata depends on changes in the fluid
pressure of the walls. If water flows into the guard cells, they expand opening the
pore. If the guard cells lose water, they straighten up closing the pore.
The timings of opening and closing of stomata depends upon the environment.
Under natural conditions stomata open at day time and close at night. So light
appears to be the main factor which initiates opening.
There are marked differences in the oxygen content of air and water. A unit
volume of air contains far more oxygen in it, than an equal volume of water. Thus
an aquatic organism such as fish must pass a correspondingly much greater
volume of water over its gaseous exchange surface than a terrestrial vertebrate
passes air in order to absorb sufficient amount of oxygen for its metabolic needs.
Animals show a great variety of form and structure, but the functions of life are
the same. All animals respire as it is the basic need of living organisms by which
they get energy to do work. As the form of organisms becomes more and more
complex, their functions also become complicated to achieve the maximum
efficiency.
Comparison of a sample of fresh water and air
Air Water
Density 1 77
Viscocity 1 100
O2 Content 210 ml/litre or 21% 10 ml/litre or 1%
In Poriferian and Cnidarians all the cells of both the layers are in contact with
the water so each cell is able to exchange gases. Free living platyhelminthes
acquire oxygen by means of diffusion through their body surface. This is
facilitated by the flatness of the body which increases the surface area to volume
ratio. Annelids possess a blood vascular system which contains the as gas
carrying pigment haemoglobin. The oxygen diffuses through the body surface into
the blood circulating under the skin, where it combines with the haemoglobin and
is carried to all the parts of the body. The carbon dioxide is brought back by the
blood diffuses out.
Gills:
Gills are respiratory organs of aquatic animals, which are in direct contact with
the surrounding water. They exhibit a great variety of form but basically they
share the same fundamental structure. Each gill has a number of membranous
folds called lamellae, which are richly supplied with blood capillaries.
Deoxygenated blood circulates through the gill capillaries, where gaseous
exchange takes place:
The oxygen of the surrounding water which enters through mouth and bathes the
gills diffuses into blood and carbon dioxide of the blood diffuses out. The
respiratory pigments help in diffusion and transport of the gases.
Tracheal tubes:
The Tracheal tubes are found in terrestrial insects, which form a network of
ramifying troubles through out the body forming a tracheal system. It allows
gaseous oxygen to diffuse in from the outside air directly to the tissues without
the need of transportation by blood. This is much faster than diffusion of
dissolved oxygen through the tissues and permits high metabolic rates.
A number of paired holes called spiracles are present on the sides of thoracic
and abdominal segments which lead air into branched tubes called tracheae.
Each tracheae has a chitinous cuticle lining which prevents it from collapsing. In
each segment the tracheae branch into numerous smaller tubes called
Tracheoles which ramify among the body tissues ending blindly. Tracheoles lack
a chitinous lining. At rest the tracheoles are filled with watery fluid through which
gaseous exchange takes place in dissolved state.
Book lungs:
Book lungs are pulmonary sacs found in terrestrial arthropods like scorpion and
spiders. Each book lung consists of a compressed sac like cavity having numerous
folds or lamellae which are attached to the inner side of the chamber and are
arranged like the leaves of a book. Each lamellae is hollow where the blood flows,
while the inter lamellar spaces are filled with the air, so that gaseous exchange
takes place through the thin walls of the lamellae.
Lungs:
Lungs are the most advanced type of respiratory organs found in terrestrial
animals and in those aquatic animals which breathe through the air. These are
amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. The amphibians (frogs) have a pair of
hollow sac like simple elastic lungs which hang into the abdominal cavity, Their
inner surface is greatly folded, moistened with mucus and richly supplied with
blood capillaries. Leading from each lung is a short tube the bronchus. The two
bronchi join to form the trachea which opens into the pharynx. The ventilation
takes place by the up and down movement of the floor of buccal cavity.
The reptiles have more complex internal foldings of the lungs. Ventilation occurs
by the movement of the ribs. Bird’s lungs are small compact inelastic structures
composed of numerous branching air tubes called bronchioles. Extending from
bronchioles are large thin-walled air-sacs.
The mammalian lungs though elastic are build on the same plan as of birds. They
are remarkably efficient structures which fulfil the function of gaseous exchange
with minimum water and heat loss.
The Lungs are situated in the thorax, in a rib cage, the walls of which are formed
by the ribs attached ventrally to the sternum and dorsally to the vertebral
column, which intercostal muscles in between. The floor is made up by the
diaphragm.
Air is drawn into the lungs from nose, through a pair of nostrils into the nasal
sacs. The nose and mouth are separated by the palate so that one can breathe
through nose even when eating. The inside of the nasal cavity is moist and warm.
It has mucus producing ciliated lining and numerous blood vessels close to the
surface. The air is moistened and its temperature is adjusted as it passes over
these surfaces. At the same time it is also cleaned, as the dust particles and
germs get stuck in the mucus and are propelled toward the pharynx by the cilia
where they are swallowed or coughed out.
The air the passes into a long wind pipe, the trachea about 12cm long. Its upper
part is called larynx or vice box which contains vocal cords. The opening of the
larynx is called glottis having a cartilaginous flap like structure epiglottis which
closes the glottis during swallowing of food and water. The walls of trachea are
supported by incomplete rings of cartilages which keep it open all the time.
The trachea branches into two bronchi which have almost the same structure as
that of the trachea bur are smaller in diameter. Each bronchus enters a lung,
where it splits and respilts into numerous branches. These branches are called
bronchioles
At the end of each bronshiole a bunch of tiny air sacs or alveoli, where the
gaseous exchange takes place between air and the blood. The walls of the alveoli
make the respiratory surface which is surrounded by the blood capillaries. Oxygen
diffuses out into the blood and carbon dioxide from the blood difuse into the
alveoli.
10.6.1 Ventilation:
Ventilation means movement of air in and out. Breathing, one step of respiration,
is often called ventilation. Breathing which takes by the movement of the chest,
can be divided into two steps inspiration and expiration.
When breathing in (inspiration) the muscles of the diaphragm contract, this pulls
the diaphragm downward making it flat. At the same time the external intercostal
muscles contract. This pulls the rib cage upwards and outwards. Together these
movements increase the volume of the thorax. As a result, the pressure insite it
falls and the air rushes in to fill and expand the lungs.
When breathing out (expiration) the muscles of the diaphragm relax, so that it
springs back up into its dome shape. At the same time the external intercostal
muscles relax and the rib cage of drop down again into its normal position. This
decreases the volume of the thorax and increases the pressure inside so the air is
squeezed out.
The internal intercostal muscles are used when breathe more forcefully like coughing.
As the exhaled air contains 16% of oxygen mouth to mouth breathing is possible in case of
emergency.
10.6.3 Effect of exercise on the rate and depth of breathing and its
relation to energy requirements:
Some times, as in case of a continuous exercise, muscle cells may need a lot of
oxygen very quickly, for which we breathe deeper and faster to inhale more
oxygen. Our heart beat and blood circulation become faster. Eventually a limit is
reached. The heart and lungs cannot supply oxygen to the muscles any faster.
But more energy is still needed for the movement of the muscles.
This energy debt is met by anaerobic respiration. Some glucose is broken down,
even in the absence of oxygen, producing lactic acid. This does not release much
energy, but a little extra might make all the difference. When we stop the
exercise we have quite a lot lactic acid in our muscles and blood. The deposition
of lactic acid makes the muscles fatigue and one feels tired. This lactic acid must
be broken down by combining it with oxygen. The amount of oxygen needed to
remove this lactic acid from the muscles is called the oxygen debt. For this
purpose we breathe deeper and deeper to pay the oxygen debt.
According to World Health Organization (WHO) smoking could become the world’s
biggest killer by the year 2020, causing more deaths than any other diseases.
10.7.1 Smoking
Smoking affects the lungs. Heavy smoking can also damage the heart and blood
vessels. Non-smokers are also affected if they spend much time in a room with
people who are smoking. Cigarette smoke contains three main ingredients. These
are nicotine, tar and carbon mono-oxide. Each of these has its own effects on
the body.
Nicotine is addictive. Once the body gets used to it, it is very hard to do without
it. It increases the heart beat and blood pressure and causes heart diseases. Tar
increases the chances of getting lung cancer. Where as carbon mono-oxide is
poisonous.
10.7.2 Bronchitis
10.7.3 Tuberculosis
Today lung cancer has taken over from T.B as the major killer. In lung cancer a
growth develops in the wall of the bronchial tubes. This blocks them, so breathing
becomes more and more difficult. The lung cancer can be detected by chest X-
ray. If a growth is visible, it is removed by surgery or may be destroyed by
radiation therapy.
SUMMARY
Respiration is a process that liberates chemical energy stored in the organic
molecules.
Some of the energy is stored in the form of ATPs, the rest escapes as heat
energy.
Cellular respiration takes place within the cells.
Aerobic respiration takes place in the presence of free oxygen, releasing
maximum energy.
Anaerobic respiration occurs without oxygen producing less energy.
Respiration is a catabolic exothermic reaction where as photosynthesis is an
anabolic endothermic reaction.
Fermentation is the anaerobic respiration, resulting in the formation of
alcohol or lactic acid.
Most of the gaseous exchange in plants takes place through leaves either
directly or through stomata.
Animals have a variety of ways for gaseous exchange some respire through
body surface, some have respiratory organs like gills, tracheal tubes, book
lings and lungs.
Human breathing system consists of a pair of lungs and the associated
tubes. The gaseous exchange takes place within the alveoli.
Bronchitis may be caused by smoking, tuberculosis is caused by a
bacterium.
Lung cancer is an abnormal growth of the lung tissue.