Holy Cross College

Sta. Ana, Pampanga

COLLEGE OF ARTS, SCIENCES AND EDUCATION

Module for
GENERAL ZOOLOGY

Prepared by:

JENALYN P. HIPOLITO
Instructor, College of Arts, Sciences and Education
 INTRODUCTION

The module deals with the introduction of zoology, as well as the different

systems of our body. There are some interesting distinctive features in this new

introduction to zoology. They are discussed to illustrate the principles of the

science; the morphological aspect but is coordinated with the physiological

aspect. It provides information on the finer structures of the invertebrates and

vertebrates and their organization into special systems essential to life processes.

In line with this, the module is intended for the elaboration of the systems

of vertebrates and invertebrates. It allows the students to think critically and

scientifically for their better learning. It helps them to understand the new way of

learning for them to achieve a better quality of life.

 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This work would not have been possible without the assistance of the
Board of Directors of Holy Cross College for their confidence and support.

I am grateful to all those with whom I have had pleasure to work during
this and other related projects for providing me extensive personal and
professional guidance and taught me a great deal about this module.

I wish to thank Dr. Leticia D. Flores, Vice President for Academic Affair and
the President, Atty. Dennis C. Pangan, for the opportunity to accomplish this
module.

Most of all, I thank my family, especially my husband Andrew and

daughter AJ, for their support and inspiration. Finally, I thank God, the source of
life, love, knowledge, understanding and wisdom.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Lesson 1: Introduction of Zoology ...................................................................................1

Lesson 2: Essentials of the Chemistry of Life ................................................................3

Lesson 3: Cells and Tissues ................................................................................................4

Lesson 4: Integumentary System .................................................................................. 12

Lesson 5: Skeletal System ............................................................................................... 16

Lesson 6: Muscular System ............................................................................................ 19

Lesson 7: Digestive System ............................................................................................ 21

Lesson 8: Respiratory System ......................................................................................... 22

Lesson 9: Circulatory System ......................................................................................... 23

Lesson 10: Excretory System .......................................................................................... 25

Lesson 11: Endocrine System ........................................................................................ 31

Lesson 12: Reproductive System .................................................................................. 34

Lesson 13: Nervous System ............................................................................................ 36

Lesson 14: Special Senses .............................................................................................. 39

Lesson 15: Heredity and Variation ............................................................................... 42

References ...................................................................................................................... 50
 Lesson 1

INTRODUCTION OF ZOOLOGY

Objectives:

At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

1. discuss biology as a natural science;

2. describe the different properties of matter and their role in the activities of
organism;

3. determine the different properties of matter and their role in the activities of
organism;

4. explain the role of various chemical elements essentials to proper body function;

5. trace the history of the study of the cell;

6. explain the stages of the cell divisions.

Zoology is the branch of biology concerned with the study animals and animal
kingdom. It is also known as animal biology. The study of zoology includes the
interaction of animal kingdom in their ecosystems such as classification, habits,
structure, embryology, distribution, evolution, and extinct species.

1. Anthrozoology is a study of interaction between humans and other animals. This

sub-discipline of zoology overlaps with anthropology, veterinary medicine,
ethnology, and zoology.
2. Arachnology is a branch of zoology that deals with the study of spiders and
related species known as arachnids (such as scorpions, harvestmen, etc).
3. Archaeozoology is the study of dead animals (faunal remains) that includes their
bones, shells, and other body parts. It is also known as zooarchaeology.
4. Bionics is the study of mechanical systems that function like living organisms or
parts of living organisms. It is the concept of applying biological methods and
systems found in nature to the study/design of engineering systems and modern
technology.
5. Cetology is a branch of zoology that deals with the study of marine mammals
that include whales, dolphins, porpoise, etc.
6. Embryology is the branch of zoology that studies the prenatal development of
gametes (also known as sex cells), fertilization, and development of embryos and
fetuses.
7. Entomology is the study of insects. The following is the list of sub-branches of
Entomology that specializes in different types of insects.
8. Coleopterology is the Entomology sub-branch that concerns with the study of
beetles.
9. Dipterology is the sub-discipline of Entomology that studies all types of flies.
10. Hemipterology (True Bugs) is the sub-division of Entomology that studies true bugs
or Hemiptera.
11. Isopterology (Termites) is the study of termites.
12. Lepidopterology (Butterflies) is a branch of Entomology that covers the study of
butterflies and moths.
13. Melittology (Bees) is the study of bees. It is also known as Apiology.
14. Myrmecology (Ants) is a sub-discipline of Entomology which focuses on the study
of ants.

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 15. Orthopterology (Grasshoppers) is a sub-discipline of Entomology which handles
the study of grasshoppers, crickets, etc.
16. Trichopterology (Caddis Flies) is a sub-branch of Entomology focusing on the
study of caddis flies.
17. Vespology (Wasps) is a sub-discipline of Entomology which specializes in the
study of wasps.
18. Ethology is a branch of zoology that deals with animal behavior under their
natural habitats and studying their behavior as an adaptive trait in evolution.
19. Helminthology is the study of parasitic worms (helminths) and deals with
taxonomy of helminth and the effect on their host
20. Herpetology is the study of reptiles and amphibians.
21. Batrachology (Amphibians) is a branch of Herpetology concerns with the study
of amphibians alone.
22. Ophiology (Snakes) is a sub-division of Herpetology which deals with the study of
ophidians or snakes.
23. Histology is the study of microscopic anatomy of cells and tissues of animals and
plants.
24. Ichthyology is a branch of zoology that covers the study of fish (also known as
fish science).
25. Malacology is the study of Mollusca such as snails, slugs, octopus, clams, and all
animals that live in water with shells.
26. Conchology (Mollusk Shells) is a sub discipline of malacology that deals with the
study of mollusk shells only.
27. Mammalogy is the study of mammals and their characteristics. Mammalogy is
also referred as Mastology, Theriology or Therology.
28. Morphology is a branch of zoology dealing with the study of the form and
structure of organisms and their specific structural features.
29. Nematology is a sub-discipline of zoology that studies roundworms (nematodes).
30. Ornithology is a branch of zoology that deals with the study of birds. Check out
the most colorful birds in the world.
31. Palaeozoology is a branch of zoology that deals with the study of fossil animals to
identify multi-cellular animals from geological perspective to establish prehistoric
environments and their ecosystems.
32. Pathology is the study of bodily fluids in laboratory such as blood, urine or tissues
to diagnose a disease. It further narrows down to plant pathology (for plants)
and veterinary pathology (for animals).
33. Primatology is a study of living and extinct primates (monkeys, apes, and
prosimians).
34. Protozoology is a branch of zoology that deals with the study of Protozoa (which
are unicellular organisms such as amoeba, etc.).
35. Taxonomy is a study that defines groups of biological organisms on the basis of
shared characteristics and giving names to those groups. Check out the levels of
biological organization in detail.
36. Zoogeography is the scientific study of geographical distribution of animal
species (both historic and contemporary) in the world.Zoography is study of
animals and their habitats (also known as descriptive zoology).
37. Zoometry is a sub-division of zoology that deals with measurements (length or
size) of animal parts.
38. Human Anatomy is the study of the structure of humans and their various parts
whereas Zootomy specifically refers to animal anatomy. Taxonomically oriented
disciplines identify and classify species and study the structures and mechanisms
specific to those groups.

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Characteristics of Living and Non-Living Things

There are two different types of things in the ecosystem: Living and Non-living things.

All living things breathe, eat, grow, move, reproduce, and have senses.

Nonliving things do not eat, grow, breathe, move, and reproduce. They do not have
senses.

Some objects do possess that elusive thing called life, although they might not show the
evident signs of life like a human. A tree would probably not react the same way as a
human. It would not react when we hit it and it might not walk around. Since the signs
of life displayed by them are least observable and do not make them nonliving.

Living things

Living things exist and are alive, sustaining life. They own life. Living things have structures
known as cells. They grow and exhibit movement or locomotion. They experience
metabolism which includes anabolic and catabolic reactions.

Living things can produce a new life which is of their own kind through the process of
reproduction. Living things have a life span and are not immortal.

Cellular Respiration enables living organisms to acquire energy which is used by cells to
perform their functions. They digest food for energy and excrete waste from the body.
Their life cycle can be summarized as follows: birth, growth, reproduction, and death.

Examples of living things are: Animals, birds, insects, human beings

Lesson 2

ESSENTIALS OF THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE

Structure of an atom

Electron Cloud Model is proposed by Democritus and it shows that atom is just a
vast empty space.

Plum-Pudding Model is proposed by J.J. Thompson and it shows that atom is

composed of negatively charged particles called electrons which are embedded all
throughout the positive atom.

Nuclear Atomic Model is proposed by Ernest Rutherford and it shows that atom is
composed of a very tiny dense central structure known as nucleus which is made up of
positively charged particles known as protons and uncharged particles known as
neutrons and moving around it are negatively charged particles called electrons.

Planetary Atomic Model is proposed by Neils Bohr and it shows that electrons
move around the nucleus with their specific orbitals which corresponds to energy levels.

Three main sub-atomic particles

Subatomic Particles Charge Mass, grams Location in the Atom

(Symbol)
Electrons (e-) -1 9.109 x 10-28 Outside Nucleus
Protons (p+) +1 1.672 x 10-24 Nucleus
Neutrons (n0) 0 1.675 x 10-24 Nucleus

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Development of Periodic Table

The periodic table is a chart containing information about the atoms that make
up all matter.

Early scientists developed the periodic table by arranging elements in order of

increasing atomic mass.

The modern periodic table shows elements arranged in order of increasing

atomic numbers.

A periodic property repeats itself at regular intervals when elements are

arranged according to a common criterion.

Among the scientists who proposed the historical development of the

arrangement of elements in the periodic table include A.E. Beguyer de Chancourtois,
Johann Dobereiner, John Newlands, Lothar Meyer and Dmitri Mendeleev.

Element is a substance made up of atoms of the same type. It cannot be broken down
into simpler substances.

Compound is a substance that has two or more chemical elements whose atoms are
bonded together.

Uses of some Elements

Aluminum is widely used in vehicle and plane construction, drink cans and power lines.

Antimony is often used in alloys with other metals to harden them.

Chlorine is common oxidizing agent, meaning it readily accepts electron from other
atoms or molecules. Oxidation can kill microbes, chlorine is commonly used as a bleach
and disinfectant.

Salt (NaCl) is often used as condiments/ingredients for food and preservation.

Water (H2O) is one ne of the most important compound that we use in our daily lives.

Lesson 3
CELLS AND TISSUES

Cell

Cells are the basic building blocks of all living things. The human body is composed of
trillions of cells. They provide structure for the body, take in nutrients from food, convert
those nutrients into energy, and carry out specialized functions. Cells also contain the
body’s hereditary material and can make copies of themselves.

Cells have many parts, each with a different function. Some of these parts, called
organelles, are specialized structures that perform certain tasks within the cell. Human
cells contain the following major parts, listed in alphabetical order:

Cytoplasm

Within cells, the cytoplasm is made up of a jelly-like fluid (called the cytosol) and other
structures that surround the nucleus.

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Cytoskeleton

The cytoskeleton is a network of long fibers that make up the cell’s structural framework.
The cytoskeleton has several critical functions, including determining cell shape,
participating in cell division, and allowing cells to move. It also provides a track-like
system that directs the movement of organelles and other substances within cells.

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

This organelle helps process molecules created by the cell. The endoplasmic reticulum
also transports these molecules to their specific destinations either inside or outside the
cell.

Golgi apparatus

The Golgi apparatus packages molecules processed by the endoplasmic reticulum to

be transported out of the cell.

Lysosomes and peroxisomes

These organelles are the recycling center of the cell. They digest foreign bacteria that
invade the cell, rid the cell of toxic substances, and recycle worn-out cell components.

Mitochondria

Mitochondria are complex organelles that convert energy from food into a form that
the cell can use. They have their own genetic material, separate from the DNA in the
nucleus, and can make copies of themselves.

Nucleus

The nucleus serves as the cell’s command center, sending directions to the cell to grow,
mature, divide, or die. It also houses DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), the cell’s hereditary
material. The nucleus is surrounded by a membrane called the nuclear envelope,
which protects the DNA and separates the nucleus from the rest of the cell.

Plasma membrane

The plasma membrane is the outer lining of the cell. It separates the cell from its
environment and allows materials to enter and leave the cell.

Ribosomes

Ribosomes are organelles that process the cell’s genetic instructions to create proteins.
These organelles can float freely in the cytoplasm or be connected to the endoplasmic
reticulum

Comparison of Animal and Plant Cell

Animal Cell Plant Cell

Cell wall Absent Present (formed of cellulose)

Shape Round (irregular shape) Rectangular (fixed shape)

Vacuole One or more small vacuoles One, large central vacuole taking up to
(much smaller than plant 90% of cell volume.
cells).

Centrioles Present in all animal cells Only present in lower plant forms (e.g.
(Chlamydomonas)

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 Animal Cell Plant Cell

Chloroplast Absent Plant cells have chloroplasts to make their

own food.

Cytoplasm Present Present

Ribosomes Present Present

Mitochondria Present Present

Plastids Absent Present

Endoplasmic Present Present

Reticulum
(Smooth and
Rough)

Peroxisomes Present Present

Golgi Present Present

Apparatus

Plasma Only cell membrane Cell wall and a cell membrane

Membrane

Microtubules/ Present Present

Microfilaments

Flagella Present in some cells Present in some cells (e.g. sperm of

( e.g. mammalian sperm bryophytes and pteridophytes, cycads
cells) and Ginkgo)

Lysosomes Lysosomes occur in Lysosomes usually not evident.

cytoplasm.

Nucleus Present Present

Cilia Present Most plant cells do not contain cilia.

Parts of a Microscope

• EYEPIECE is where we look to see the specimen being observed.

• DRAW TUBE supports the eyepiece.
• BODY TUBE connects the eyepiece to the stage.
• REVOLVING NOSEPIECE - is the movable part that changes one objective lens to
another.
• OBJECTIVES
LOW POWER OBJECTIVE — is marked 10x or 12x and the shorter objective that
shows the general form of the specimen.
HIGH POWER OBJECTIVE — is marked 40x, 43x or 60x. It is the longer objective
that shows the detailed part of the specimen.
OIL IMMERSION OBJECTIVE — the longest objective of your microscope is
marked 97x or 100x.
• COARSE ADJUSTMENT KNOB – bigger circular knob that moves the body tube up
and down.

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 • FINE ADJUSTMENT KNOB – smaller circular knob used to make the specimen
clearer and detailed.
• ARM – is where we hold the microscope.
• STAGE - is the platform where you place the slide with specimen to be observed.
• STAGE CLIPS - holds the slide in place.
• DIAPHRAGM - is a set of holes that regulates the light to be reflected to the
specimen being observed.
• INCLINATION JOINT – is the screw that connects the arm to the base. It is also
used to tilt the microscope.
• PILLAR – connects the arm to the base.
• MIRROR - use to collect light whether natural or artificial.
• BASE - U-shaped or Y-shaped platform where the microscope rest.
Cell Division

Mitosis is how somatic or non-reproductive cells divide. Somatic cells make up most of
your body's tissues and organs, including skin, muscles, lungs, gut, and hair cells.
Reproductive cells (like eggs) are not somatic cells.

In mitosis, the important thing to remember is that the daughter cells each have the
same chromosomes and DNA as the parent cell. The daughter cells from mitosis are
called diploid cells. Diploid cells have two complete sets of chromosomes. Since the
daughter cells have exact copies of their parent cell's DNA, no genetic diversity is
created through mitosis in normal healthy cells.

The appearance of the nucleus at various stages is described in the following stages:

1. Propose – the chromosomes are thicker and shorter because of repeated

coiling.

2. Metaphase – the spindle is at the center of the cell where the nucleus used to
be.

3. Anaphase – the centromere divides and the two new single-stranded

chromosomes move away from each other.

4. Telophase – the chromosomes are now at the opposite poles of the spindle

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EXERCISE 1

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EXERCISE 2

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EXERCISE 3

Label the parts of microscope

QUIZ 1

Multiple Choice. Encircle the letter of the correct answer

1. A sub-division of zoology that deals with measurements (length or size) of animal

parts.
A. Zoography B. Zoometry C. Pathology D.
Paleozoology
2. Branch of zoology dealing with the study of the form and structure of organisms
and their specific structural features.
A. Protozoology B. Morphology C. Embryology D. Primatology
3. A branch of zoology that deals with the study of spiders and related species
known as arachnids
A. Arachnology B. Histology C. Isopterology D. Ornithology
4. A study of interaction between humans and other animals. This sub-discipline of
zoology overlaps with anthropology, veterinary medicine, ethnology and
zoology.
A. Anthropology B. Zoometry C. Pathology D.
Paleozoology
5. A branch of Entomology that covers the study of butterflies and moths.
6. A sub-discipline of Entomology which focuses on the study of ants.
A. Anthrozoology B. Zoometry C. Pathology D. Myrmecology
7. Branch of zoology, deals with animal behavior under their natural habitats and
studying their behavior as an adaptive trait in evolution.
A. Arachnology B. Ethology C. Isopterology D. Ornithology
8. The study of parasitic worms (helminths) and deals with taxonomy of helminth
and the effect on their hosts.

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 A. Helminthology B. Herpetology C. Batrachology D.Histology
9. A study of reptiles and amphibians.
A. Arachnology B. Batrachology C. Herpetology D. Malacology
10. A branch of zoology dealing with the study of the form and structure of
organisms and their specific structural features.
A. Morphology B. Zoometry C. Pathology D. Paleozoology

QUIZ 2

Encircle the letter of the correct answer

1. Which subatomic particle has a positive charge?

A. Electron B: proton C: neutron D. axon

2. Which subatomic particles have an approximate mass of 1?

A. electrons & protons B. protons & neutrons

C. neutrons & electrons D. axon & neutrons

3. Which subatomic particle is located outside of the nucleus?

A. electron B. proton C. neutron D. dendrites

4. Which subatomic particle has no charge?

A. electron B. proton C. neutron D. Axon

5. Which subatomic particle has a charge of -1?

A. electron B. proton C. neutron D. Axon

ASSIGNMENT 1

Make a table of food containing compound and their corresponding element.

Example:

Food Product Element Compound

Soy sauce Sodium Salt

ASSIGNMENT 2

The teacher may ask the students to make a reflection on what they have learned
based on the activity following the format below.

I’ve learned that …….……………………

I’ve realized that …………………………

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 Lesson 4
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

1. identify and describe the parts of integumentary system, skeletal system,

muscular system, digestive system, respiratory system, circulatory system, and
excretory system.

2. illustrate gas exchange in animals;

3. explaining digestion in animals;

4. explain the disorders of the integumentary system, skeletal system, muscular

system, digestive system, respiratory system, circulatory system, and excretory
system.

Functions of Integumentary System

The skin and accessory structures perform a variety of essential functions, such as
protecting the body from invasion by microorganisms, chemicals, and other
environmental factors; preventing dehydration; acting as a sensory organ;
modulating body temperature and electrolyte balance; and synthesizing vitamin D.
The underlying hypodermis has important roles in storing fats, forming a “cushion”
over underlying structures, and providing insulation from cold temperatures.

Protection

The skin protects the rest of the body from the basic elements of nature such as
wind, water, and UV sunlight. It acts as a protective barrier against water loss, due to
the presence of layers of keratin and glycolipids in the stratum corneum. It also is the
first line of defense against abrasive activity due to contact with grit, microbes, or
harmful chemicals. Sweat excreted from sweat glands deters microbes from over-
colonizing the skin surface by generating dermcidin, which has antibiotic properties.

Sensory Function

The fact that you can feel an ant crawling on your skin, allowing you to flick it off
before it bites, is because the skin, and especially the hairs projecting from hair
follicles in the skin, can sense changes in the environment. The hair root plexus
surrounding the base of the hair follicle senses a disturbance, and then transmits the
information to the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord), which can then
respond by activating the skeletal muscles of your eyes to see the ant and the
skeletal muscles of the body to act against the ant.

The skin acts as a sense organ because the epidermis, dermis, and the hypodermis
contain specialized sensory nerve structures that detect touch, surface
temperature, and pain. These receptors are more concentrated on the tips of the
fingers, which are most sensitive to touch, especially the Meissner corpuscle (tactile
corpuscle).In addition to these specialized receptors, there are sensory nerves
connected to each hair follicle, pain and temperature receptors scattered
throughout the skin, and motor nerves innervate the arrector pili muscles and
glands. This rich innervation helps us sense our environment and react accordingly.

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Skin

Functions: chemical and mechanical barrier, biosynthesis, control of body

temperature, sensory

Layers: Epidermis (Stratum Basale, Spinosum, Granulosum, Lucidum, Corneum) and

dermis (papillary, reticular)

Mnemonic: British and Spanish Grannies Love Cornflakes

Hair

Types: vellus and terminal

Structure: Follicle and bulb (shaft, inner root sheath, outer root sheath, glassy
membrane)

Nails

Nail plate, nail folds, nail matrix, nail bed, hyponychium

Secretory glands

Sweat glands: eccrine (most numerous, covering almost the entire body) and
apocrine (only in the axilla and genitalia)

Sebaceous glands: Cover the entire body and secrete sebum (oily and fatty)

Subcutaneous tissue (hypodermis)

Adipose tissue that increases skin mobility, insulates the body, and acts as a shock
absorber

Blood supply

Direct cutaneous: From the main arterial trunks

Musculocutaneous: From intramuscular vasculature after piercing muscles and

spreading in the hypodermis

Fasciocutaneous: From perforating branches located deep to the deep fascia

Innervation

Pacinian corpuscles, Meissner corpuscles, specific stimuli receptors

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Types of Receptors

A cell within a multicellular organism may need to signal to other cells that are at
various distances from the original cell. Not all cells are affected by the same signals.
Different types of signaling are used for different purposes.

In chemical signaling, a cell may target itself (autocrine signaling), a cell connected
by gap junctions, a nearby cell (paracrine signaling), or a distant cell (endocrine
signaling). Paracrine signaling acts on nearby cells, endocrine signaling uses the
circulatory system to transport ligands, and autocrine signaling acts on the signaling
cell. Signaling via gap junctions involves signaling molecules moving directly
between adjacent cells.

Receptors are protein molecules inside the target cell or on its surface that receive a
chemical signal. Chemical signals are released by signaling cells in the form of small,
usually volatile, or soluble molecules called ligands. A ligand is a molecule that binds
another specific molecule, in some cases, delivering a signal in the process. Ligands
can thus be thought of as signaling molecules. Ligands and receptors exist in several
varieties; however, a specific ligand will have a specific receptor that typically binds
only that ligand.

Internal receptors

Internal receptors, also known as intracellular or cytoplasmic receptors, are found in

the cytoplasm of the cell and respond to hydrophobic ligand molecules that can
travel across the plasma membrane. Once inside the cell, many of these molecules
bind to proteins that act as regulators of mRNA synthesis. Recall that mRNA carries
genetic information from the DNA in a cell’s nucleus out to the ribosome, where the
protein is assembled. When the ligand binds to the internal receptor, a change in
shape is triggered that exposes a DNA-binding site on the receptor protein. The
ligand-receptor complex moves into the nucleus, then binds to specific regions of
the DNA and promotes the production of mRNA from specific genes .Internal
receptors can directly influence gene expression (how much of a specific protein is
produced from a gene) without having to pass the signal on to other receptors or
messengers.

Hydrophobic signaling molecules typically diffuse across the plasma membrane and
interact with intracellular receptors in the cytoplasm. Many intracellular receptors
are transcription factors that interact with DNA in the nucleus and regulate gene
expression.

Cell-Surface Receptors

Cell-surface receptors, also known as transmembrane receptors, are proteins that

are found attached to the cell membrane. These receptors bind to external ligand
molecules (ligands that do not travel across the cell membrane). This type of
receptor spans the plasma membrane and performs signal transduction, in which
an extracellular signal is converted into an intercellular signal. Ligands that interact
with cell-surface receptors do not have to enter the cell that they affect. Cell-
surface receptors are also called cell-specific proteins or markers because they are
specific to individual cell types.

Each cell-surface receptor has three main components: an external ligand-binding

domain, a hydrophobic membrane-spanning region, and an intracellular domain
inside the cell. The size and extent of each of these domains vary widely, depending
on the type of receptor.

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 Cell-surface receptors are involved in most of the signaling in multicellular organisms.
There are three general categories of cell-surface receptors: ion channel-linked
receptors, G-protein-linked receptors, and enzyme-linked receptors.

Ion channel-linked receptors

Ion channel-linked receptors bind a ligand and open a channel through the
membrane that allows specific ions to pass through. To form a channel, this type of
cell-surface receptor has an extensive membrane-spanning region. When a ligand
binds to the extracellular region of the channel, there is a conformational change in
the proteins structure that allows ions such as sodium, calcium, magnesium, and
hydrogen to pass through.

G-protein-coupled receptors

G-protein-coupled receptors bind a ligand and activate a membrane protein

called a G-protein. The activated G-protein then interacts with either an ion
channel or an enzyme in the membrane (Figure 5). Before the ligand binds, the
inactive G-protein can bind to a site on a specific receptor. Once the G-protein
binds to the receptor, the G-protein changes shape, becomes active, and splits into
two different subunits. One or both subunits may be able to activate other proteins
as a result.

Enzyme-linked receptors

Enzyme-linked receptors are cell-surface receptors with intracellular domains that

are associated with an enzyme. In some cases, the intracellular domain of the
receptor itself is an enzyme. Other enzyme-linked receptors have a small intracellular
domain that interacts directly with an enzyme. When a ligand binds to the
extracellular domain, a signal is transferred through the membrane, activating the
enzyme. Activation of the enzyme sets off a chain of events within the cell that
eventually leads to a response.

Chromatophores

Chromatophores are pigment-containing and light-reflecting cells, or groups of

cells, found in a wide range of animals including amphibians, fish, reptiles,
crustaceans, and cephalopods. Mammals and birds, in contrast, have a class of
cells called melanocytes for coloration.

Xanthophores and Erythrophores

Chromatophores that contain large amounts of yellow pteridine pigments are

named xanthophores; those with mainly red/orange carotenoids are termed
erythrophores.[5] However, vesicles containing pteridine and carotenoids are
sometimes found in the same cell, in which case the overall color depends on the
ratio of red and yellow pigments.[

Iridophores andLleucophores

Iridophores, sometimes also called guanophores, are pigment cells that reflect light
using plates of crystalline chemochromes made from guanine. When illuminated
they generate iridescent colors because of the diffraction of light within the stacked
plates.

Melanophores

At the bottom is a mutant zebrafish larva that fails to synthesize melanin in its
melanophores and at the top a non-mutant is a wildtype larva. Melanophores
contain eumelanin, a type of melanin that appears black or dark-brown because of

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 its light absorbing qualities. It is packaged in vesicles called melanosomes and
distributed throughout the cell. Eumelanin is generated from tyrosine in a series of
catalyzed chemical reactions.

Lesson 5
SKELETAL SYSTEM

The human skeleton can be divided into two components: the axial skeleton and
the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton is formed around the central axis of
the body and thus includes the skull, spine, and ribcage. It protects the brain, spinal
cord, heart, lungs, esophagus and major sense organs like the eyes, ears, nose, and
tongue. The appendicular skeleton is related to the limbs and consists of the bones
of the arms and legs, as well as the shoulder and hip girdles

Skeletal System Function

Support

The first and most apparent function of the skeletal system is to provide a framework

for the body. The presence of a firm bony skeleton allows the organism to have a

distinctive shape adapted towards a particular lifestyle. For instance, in a fast-

moving animal like the cheetah, the skeleton contains long, thin limb bones and an

extremely flexible spine. The structure of the skeleton also allows it to absorb the

impact of running at high speeds.

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 Integration with the Muscular System

The skeletal system also provides an important form of attachments to the muscular

system. Bones and exoskeletons are hard and do not bend or move when muscles

are flexed. This means that the contraction of muscle cells will lead to the shortening

of muscles, while the bone retains its shape. This basic structure allows muscles to

move different parts of the body, using forces generated while pulling on the

skeletal system.

Protection

The next obvious function of the skeletal system is the role it plays protecting the

fragile internal organs. In humans, this is seen in the skull, which surrounds the brain

completely. It is also exhibited by the ribcage, which surrounds the lungs and heart

but still allows for expansion. Even invertebrates like snails and prawns often have

hard exoskeletons to protect themselves from predators. The rigid endoskeleton

allows the body to rise up above the ground or stand upright, and bears the weight

of the organism, and provides the scaffolding for movement. Muscles generate the

force required to move bones at joints. Muscle fibers contain actin and myosin, two

protein filaments that can slide past each other to change the length of the muscle.

When a nerve impulse arrives at the neuromuscular junction, it signals the muscle to

contract. The force generated by the contracting muscle either pulls two bones

together or apart, based on the nature of the interaction between the muscle and

joint.

Blood Cell Production

The central part of a bone contains the bone marrow, the primary site for blood cell

production in adult humans. There are two types of bone marrow in adults. Around

50% is red bone marrow containing hematopoietic stem cells and supportive tissue.

The rest is yellow bone marrow made of fat and its proportion increases with age.

Skeletal System Parts

The anatomy of the skeletal system is complex, and it includes hundreds of bones in the

human body. The anatomy of the system varies widely between organisms, as evolution

17 | P a g e
has selected for various adaptations in certain species which change the structure and

function of their bones.

Bone

Bones serve a variety of functions, but the most important is supporting movement of

the limbs and body. Two bones or cartilages are held together at a joint through tough

connective tissues called ligaments. Muscles are securely attached to bones through

flexible but inelastic connective tissue called tendons. Muscles, joints, tendons, and

ligaments are part of the intricate machinery that allows the movement of different

bones.

Joints

Functionally, joints can be divided into three classes based on the range of movement

they allow in the associated bones. Immovable joints are formed when two bones are

held together by fibrous connective tissue with no synovial fluid. These kinds of joints

hold the bones of the cranium together.

Partially movable joints are also called cartilaginous joints and are present in the spine

and ribs. The third type of joints is called synovial joints and have a fluid-filled synovial

cavity that allows the interfacing bones the largest range of movement. Based on the

structure of the synovial joints, they can be classified into 6 types, including the hinge

joints of the fingers and the ball and socket joints of the hips and shoulders.

Cellular Composition

Each bone is made of complex sets of cells, tissues and a specialized extracellular

matrix. The two main cell types are called osteoblasts and osteoclasts with mostly

opposing functions. While osteoblasts are involved in the formation of bone, osteoclasts

are associated with a reduction in bone mass. The extracellular matrix of the bone

consists of collagen and other organic fibers as well as the inorganic component

containing calcium salts such as hydroxyapatite. In the interior of bones, a soft tissue

called the bone marrow plays an important role in immunity and hematopoiesis. The

bone is also richly supplied with nerves and blood vessels.

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Bone Classifications

Bone
Features Function(s) Examples
classification

Femur, tibia, fibula,

metatarsals, humerus,
Cylinder-like shape,
Long Leverage ulna, radius,
longer than it is wide
metacarpals,
phalanges

Cube-like shape, Provide stability,

approximately equal support, while
Short Carpals, tarsals
in length, width, and allowing for some
thickness motion

Points of
Sternum, ribs,
attachment for
Flat Thin and curved scapulae, cranial
muscles; protectors
bones
of internal organs

Protect internal Vertebrae, facial

Irregular Complex shape
organs bones

Small and round; Protect tendons

Sesamoid embedded in from compressive Patellae
tendons forces

Lesson 6
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
About 40% of the weight of the body is muscle. Some muscles get their instructions from
the nervous system, which sends electrical impulses to the muscles telling them to
move. However, your heart, which is made up of cardiac muscle, can contract all by
itself, without directions from the brain.

Muscles get their energy from glucose that is carried in blood cells through the body.
The body also stores glucose in the muscles as glycogen. Then, when you exercise, the
glycogen is broken down to provide energy.

Muscles are made up of fibers. The more a fiber contracts, the shorter the entire muscle
becomes. The fibers consist of bundles of myofibril which contains two types of filaments
─ called myofilaments: thin filaments, primarily made of the actin protein, and thick
filaments, primarily made of the myosin protein. These myofilaments are bundled
together to create myofibrils. These myofibrils are then bundled together to create a
skeletal muscle fiber.

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 The Structure of skeletal muscle

When a muscle is stimulated, an action potential travels over the muscle fiber
membrane and causes a contraction. In a contracted state, the actin (thin) filaments
are pulled inward among the myosin (thick) filaments so that the filaments then overlap
each other.

There are three different types of muscle: skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, and cardiac
muscle. Of these, only the skeletal muscles are controlled by conscious thought.

Skeletal muscle
The muscles visible on the outside of the human body are skeletal muscles. Arranged in
parallel bundles and attached to bones by tendons, some of the skeletal muscles are
the largest and most powerful muscles in the human body. Skeletal muscles include
ones located in the arms, legs, neck, tongue, and face. Tendons are located wherever
there are skeletal muscles, helping to make a powerful movement team by attaching
the muscles to bone.

The smooth muscles make up hollow internal organs, which include organs such as
blood vessels, the gastrointestinal tract, and the bladder. They use much less energy
than the skeletal muscles and do not require conscious thought to make them work ─
try telling your stomach to contract! Also, the speed of smooth muscle contraction is
much slower than the skeletal muscle.

The cardiac muscle is the muscle that makes up the walls of the heart. Unlike the
skeletal muscle, the heart takes a lifetime to tire. It pumps blood through the entire
body continuously. Blood carries oxygen, and the cardiac muscle needs continuous
unobstructed oxygen to keep it alive, so when a heart attack occurs (and blood stops
flowing) the cardiac muscle rapidly dies.

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 Lesson 7

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Digestion is the breakdown of food into small molecules, which are then absorbed into
the body.
Mouth is where the process of digestion begins. In the mouth, the teeth work to break
down food into smaller parts. Saliva helps break food down chemically and helps clean
your teeth!

Tongue. The tongue helps move food around in your mouth, and it is also covered with
taste buds that help you taste your food. Eating would not be much fun without the
taste buds that you have on your tongue!

Teeth. The teeth help chop up food and break it into smaller pieces so that you can
swallow it more easily. Kids have 20 teeth, but by the time they are fully grown, they
should have 32 teeth (some people do have less!). There are different kinds of teeth
that have different jobs: some are for cutting and biting, others are for tearing, others
are for crushing, and still others are for grinding.

Pharynx connects both your mouth and your nasal passageway to your esophagus. A
small flap of cartilage called the epiglottis falls and covers your windpipe to prevent
food from going down it instead of your esophagus.

Esophagus connects your pharynx to your stomach and is a long tube about nine
inches long. Food moves down the esophagus through peristalsis, which is a wave-like
series of squeezing movements along the esophagus. These successive squeezing
movements move the food along the esophagus and into the stomach. Peristalsis helps
food move along your intestines, too.

Liver. The liver has many different jobs to do. One of its most important jobs is
detoxification. This means that your liver can remove harmful chemicals from your
blood so that they do not hurt your body. The liver also secretes bile, which is a
yellowish-greenish fluid that helps the digestion process, especially fat absorption, and
digestion

The stomach is shaped like a J, and it has three main functions: to store food, to mix up
food, and to pass the food into the small intestine. The partially digested food that
leaves your stomach is part fluid and part solid, and it has a special name: chyme.

Pancreas secretes hormones (such as insulin) into your blood and secretes enzymes into
tiny ducts so they can travel throughout your body to help break down fats, proteins,
and carbohydrates.

Gallbladder is a muscular membranous sac. It is shaped like a pear, and its main job is
to store the bile that the liver secretes. This is a great example of how all the parts of the
body work together to accomplish what they were designed to do.

Small Intestine is another long tube that carries your food onwards. The cells in the small
intestine secrete chemicals that further break down the food and finish the digestion
process.

Large Intestine is wider and shorter than the small intestine. It does not secrete
chemicals, so its job is different than the small intestine's. The large intestine works to
absorb water, as well as form and get rid of feces.

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Rectum is the last part of the large intestine, and it connects to the anus.

Anus is the exit point of the digestive system. Just think about all the amazing
transformations that have occurred along the route of the digestive tract! Food enters
your mouth, travels down your pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large
intestine, rectum, and finally leaves through the anus. Along the way, your body breaks
down the food into small compounds that it can use to help you grow, stay healthy and
give you energy. It's an incredible journey in an incredible system!

Lesson 8

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The parts of the respiratory system that are in charge of supplying oxygen are the nose,
nasal passageways, windpipe, lungs, and diaphragm. In the nose and nasal passages,
the entering air is made warm, damp, and clean of unknown particles. Next, the air
moves down through the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli. Trachea is the
empty tube that serves as passageway of air into the lungs. Bronchi are the two
branching tubes that connect the trachea to the lungs. Bronchioles are the hair like
tubes that connect to the alveoli. Alveoli are the air sacs that allow gas exchange in
the lungs. When you breathe in, or inhale, the diaphragm muscle contracts. Inhaling
moves the diaphragm down and expands the chest cavity. Simultaneously, the ribs
move up and increase the size of the chest cavity. There is now more space and less air
pressure inside the lungs. Air pushes in from the outside where there is a higher air
pressure. It pushes into the lungs where there is a lower air pressure. When you breathe
out, or exhale, the diaphragm muscle relaxes. The diaphragm and ribs return to their
original place. The chest cavity returns to its original size. There is now less space and
greater air pressure inside the lungs. It pushes the air to the outside where there is a
lower air pressure

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Diseases of Respiratory System

Cigarette smoking harms nearly every organ in the body, causing many illnesses and
affecting health in general. The negative effects of smoking on circulatory system
include increased heart rate and blood pressure, coronary heart disease,
arteriosclerosis, and vascular diseases. The respiratory diseases caused by smoking are
chronic bronchitis, emphysema, asthma, cough, colds, tuberculosis, lung cancer, and
other respiratory infections.

Lesson 9

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The circulatory system is the life support structure that nourishes your cells with food and
oxygen. It also carries away the waste products. The circulatory system can be
compared to a complex arrangement of highways, avenues and lanes connecting all
the cells together into a neighborhood. Sequentially, the community of cells sustains the
body to stay alive.

The following are the three major parts of the circulatory system, with their roles:
1. Heart – pumps the blood throughout the body.
2. Blood vessel – carries the blood throughout the body.
Arteries - carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to the cells, tissues,
and organs of the body.
Veins – carry deoxygenated blood to the heart.
Capillaries - the smallest blood vessels in the body, connecting the
smallest arteries to the smallest veins. These are the actual sites where gases and
nutrients are exchanged
2. Blood- carries the materials throughout the body.

Types of Circulation

1. Pulmonary Circulation

Movement of blood from the heart to the lungs, and back to the heart

2. Coronary Circulation

Movement of blood through the tissues of the heart

3. Systemic Circulation

Movement of blood from the heart to the rest of the body, excluding the lungs

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The Human Heart

The heart is a hollow muscle which is just as big as the fist. It has four chambers with
specific tasks to do: two ventricles and two atria. The atria are the receiving chambers
of the heart, accepting blood from the body (right atrium) and from the lungs (left
atrium). The ventricles are the pumping chambers, moving blood to the lungs (right
ventricle) and into the body (left ventricle).

The heart has two pumps. Each pump has two chambers, the upper and lower
chambers. The upper chamber is the atrium that receives blood coming in from the
veins. The lower chamber is the ventricle that forces the blood out into the arteries.
There is a valve between each atrium and ventricle to prevent the blood from flowing
backwards.

A Closer Look at Blood

 Blood is the transport tissue in your body. It carries needed materials to the cells
and carries waste materials away from the cells.
 The liquid part of blood is called plasma. The solid part of blood is made up of
different kinds of blood cells.
 Plasma is 90% water and is beige in color. Plasma contains digested food,
chemicals, and waste products. These substances are carried to and from the
cells by the plasma.

Three Kinds of Blood Cells

1. Red blood cells contain hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is red and gives blood its
color. It links up with oxygen and carries this oxygen to all parts of the body. The
same hemoglobin in the red blood cells also picks up most of the carbon dioxide
waste that is made by the cells.
2. White blood cells are larger than red blood cells fight infection and disease.
They destroy harmful bacteria, viruses and other small invaders.
3. Platelets are pieces of cells that are small and colorless. They help to stop
bleeding by giving off a chemical that helps blood to clot.

24 | P a g e
 Lesson 10

EXCRETORY SYSTEM
The excretory system is a collection of organs with the main function of excretion or
the process of disposing waste from the body. Moreover, the excretory system is
responsible for the elimination of waste produced by the chemical processes in the
body to regulate its metabolism.

Functions

 It eliminates waste products in the body such as urea, uric acid ammonia,
and other waste products. These products are excreted from the body
through urine.
 The excretory system helps in maintaining the osmotic level of blood and
plasma.
 It is involved in the process of osmoregulation, a process that maintains the
proper amount of electrolytes in the body regardless of external factors like
temperature, diet, and weather conditions.
 An electrolyte is a substance that produces an electrically conductive
solution when dissolved in a polar solvent like water. It is maintained through
osmoregulation and is involved in vital processes of the body.
 When taking medication, the excretory system metabolizes or processes the
drugs that are not processed in the liver.

Main Organs and their Functions

Kidneys

The kidneys are the main organ of the excretory system. Everyone has a pair of
kidneys, located on each side of the spine at the level of the liver. The kidneys are
divided into three regions: the renal cortex, renal medulla, and renal pelvis. The
renal cortex is the outer region of the kidney. It is the region between the renal
capsule and the renal medulla. It is made up of blood vessels connected to the
nephrons. Erythropoietin, a hormone needed for the synthesis of new red blood
cells, is also produced in the renal cortex. The renal medulla is the inner region of the
kidney. It is where renal pyramids are found. These are dense networks of nephrons.
This is where blood is filtered, and water and ion levels are regulated. The renal pelvis
is the region where blood enters and exits the kidney. It is also where urine exits from
the ureters and empties into the urinary bladder. It is the region that connects the
kidney to the rest of the body. Nephrons are found in the kidneys and are
responsible for the filtration of blood and regulation of chemicals.

Ureter

The ureter is connected to the renal pelvis. It is a muscular tube whose sole function
is to carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder.

Urinary bladder

The urinary bladder is a sac-like structure, lined with a smooth layer of muscle, where
the ureter transports urine from the kidneys. The placement of the urinary bladder
differs in gender. As the bladder reaches its capacity, the receptors on the walls of
the bladder send an impulse through the pelvic nerve to the brain via the spinal
cord.

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 Urethra

The urethra is a tube that arises from the urinary bladder and functions to expel urine
to the outside by micturition. The urethra is the pathway for both urine and sperm for
males. Men have longer urethras than women. The opening of the urethra is
guarded by a sphincter that is autonomic ally controlled.

Other Excretory Organs

 The skin is the largest organ in the body. The skin excretes body waste via
sweating.
 The lungs are the main organ of the respiratory system. The lungs expel waste
by taking in oxygen and breathing out carbon dioxide. The lungs also expel
water in the form of vapor.
 The liver is also important in the excretion of waste in the body.
 It is the first to process hormones, fats, alcohol, and drugs.
 While few drugs are directly eliminated in the kidneys, drugs are first or
partially processed in the liver.

Disorders and Diseases of the Excretory System

• Obstructive Disorders happen when the flow of urine is blocked causing it to back
up and injure one or both kidneys.

• Kidney Stones are hard, crystalline mineral material formed within the kidney or
urinary tract. Kidney stones are a common cause of blood in the urine (hematuria)
and often severe pain in the abdomen, flank, or groin.

• UTI’s (Urinary Tract Infections) are infections of the urinary tract – can be in kidneys,
ureters, bladder, or urethra.

• Glomerular Disorders are disorders that affect kidney function by attacking the
glomeruli • Glomerulonephritis – a group of diseases that injure the part of the
kidney that filters blood (called glomeruli).

• Glomerulosclerosis is a disorder that scars the tiny blood vessels that filter urine from
the blood in the kidney’s glomeruli.

• Renal failure is partial or complete failure of kidneys to function.

• Incontinence is loss of bladder control.

• Prostatitis is swelling and inflammation of the prostate gland

• BPH (Benign Prostyatic Hyperplasia)are enlarged prostate glands. The prostate

enlargement in benign prostatic hyperplasia is not malignant (not cancer). BPH can
impede the flow of urine. Symptoms include frequent urge to urinate, getting up at
night to urinate, difficulty urinating and dribbling of urine

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EXERCISE 1

TRUE OR FALSE. Circle T if the statement is correct and F if the statement is incorrect.

1. True or False: There are four different kinds of muscles.

2. True or False: Some engineers need to know how muscles work
3. True or False: Astronauts do not need to exercise in outer space
4. True or False: When we get old, our muscles get weaker
5. True or False: Exercising helps our muscles stay strong
6. True or False: Rough muscle is one type of muscle
7. True or False: We can control all of our muscles and tell them when to move
8. True or False: Cardiac muscle is found in the heart
9. True or False: Skeletal muscle is voluntary muscle

EXERCISE 2

Answer the following questions:

1. What are the different organs of the digestive system?

2. What are the roles of the organs of the digestive system to digest the food?

3. As a student, how can you take care your digestive system?

EXERCISE 3

Refer to the diagram, and check your understanding of the breathing system by
labeling each part and giving its functions in the box corresponding to the part

27 | P a g e
 QUIZ 1

Match the picture of the organs to its function in column B. Write your answers on the
space provided

COLUMN A COLUMN B

A. is the part of the gastrointestinal tract between the

stomach and the large intestine
_____1. Mouth

B. organ in vertebrates through which food passes

_____2.Liver
C. is the last part of the gastrointestinal tract and of the
digestive system in vertebrates.
____3.Esophagus

D. the fleshy muscular organ in the mouth of a mammal,

used for tasting, licking, swallowing
____4. Stomach

E. is a large, meaty organ that sits on the right side of the

belly
__5. Small intestine

F. is the first portion of the alimentary canal that receives

food and produces saliva
___6.Large
intestine

G. is a muscular organ located on the left side of the

upper abdomen
___7.Tongue

QUIZ 2

Multiple Choice. Write the letter of your answer on the space provided before the
number.

____1. In humans, exposure of the skin to sunlight is required for ________.

A. vitamin D synthesis

B. arteriole constriction

C. folate production

D. thermoregulation

____2. One of the functions of the integumentary system is protection. Which of the
following does not directly contribute to that function?

A. stratum lucidum C. folic acid synthesis

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 B. desmosomes D. Merkel cell

____3. An individual using a sharp knife notices a small amount of blood where he
just cut himself. Which of the following layers of skin did he have to cut into to
bleed?

A. stratum corneum C. papillary dermis

B. stratum basale D. stratum granulosum

____4. As you are walking down the beach, you see a dead, dry, shriveled-up fish.
Which layer of your epidermis keeps you from drying out?

A. stratum corneum C. stratum spinosum

B. stratum basale D. stratum granulosum

____5. If you cut yourself and bacteria enter the wound, which of the following cells
would help get rid of the bacteria?

A. Merkel cells C. Langerhans cells

B. keratinocytes D. Melanocytes

QUIZ 3

Multiple Choice. Write the letter of your answer on the space provided before the
number.

____1. What is the skeletal system?

A. All the bones in the body

B. All the muscles and tendons
C. All the body's organs, both soft and hard tissue
D. All the bones in the body and the tissues that connect them

____2. How many bones are there in the average person's body?

A. 33 B. 206 C. 639 D. It varies by the individual.

____3. Which of the following statement is INCORRECT?

A. Bone is where most blood cells are made.

B. Bone serves as a storehouse for various minerals.
C. Bone is a dry and non-living supporting structure.
D. Bone protects and supports the body and its organs.

_____4. Which bone protects the brain?

A. Calcium C. The cranium

B. The cerebrum D. The cerebellum

_____5. Besides the brain, the skull also protects ...

A. the lung C. the diaphragm

B. the body's cells D. the sense organs

____6. The purpose of the rib cage is to...

A. protect the stomach

B. protect the spinal cord
C. protect the heart and lungs
D. provide an object to which the lungs can attach

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____7. What makes bones so strong?

A. Silica C. Cartilage
B. Blood and marrow D. Calcium and phosphorous

____8. What is the difference between cartilage and bone?

A. Bone is rubbery, and cartilage is firm.

B. Cartilage is rubbery, and bone is firm
C. Bone is a more primitive tissue than cartilage.
D. Bone is inside the body, and cartilage is outside.

____9. The hollow space in the middle of bones is filled with ...

A. Air C. blood
B. bone cells D. bone marrow

____10. What is the difference between compact bone and spongy bone?

A. They have different bone marrow.

B. They are made of different materials.
C. They have different sizes of bone cells.
D. They have different arrangement of bone cells.

ASSIGNMENT 1

Talk about the importance of exercising our muscles here on Earth. Have students
create a flyer about exercise and exercise equipment for the next space mission.

ASSIGNMENT 2

Label the parts of digestive system.

30 | P a g e
ASSIGNMENT 3

1. Ask the students to compose a short poem about how one’s lifestyle effect the
functioning of the respiratory and circulatory systems and let them recite their work
during an online class.

2. Ask the students to cut out different examples of unhealthy lifestyle from old
magazines or newspapers and let them create a collage out of the cut-outs on their
notebooks or journals.

Lesson 11
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Objectives

1. Illustrate and describe the parts and functions of the endocrine system, reproductive
system, and nervous system

2. Explain the roles of hormones in our body

3. Differentiate the male and female reproductive system

4. Describe adaptations in and survivals in animal

5. Discuss the animal structures needed for adaptation

6. Determine the disorders of the of the endocrine system, reproductive system, and
nervous system

7. Define sensory receptors, heredity and variation

8. Explain Mendelian principles using punnet square

9. Generalize the importance of affective domain in human development

Functions of Endocrine System

The endocrine system produces hormones that function to control and regulate many
different body processes. The endocrine system coordinates with the nervous system to
control the functions of the other organ systems. Cells of the endocrine system produce
molecular signals called hormones. These cells may compose endocrine glands, may
be tissues or may be in organs or tissues that have functions in addition to hormone
production. Hormones circulate throughout the body and stimulate a response in cells
that have receptors able to bind with them. The changes brought about in the
receiving cells affect the functioning of the organ system to which they belong. Many
of the hormones are secreted in response to signals from the nervous system, thus the
two systems act in concert to effect changes in the body.

Hormones

Maintaining homeostasis within the body requires the coordination of many different
systems and organs. One mechanism of communication between neighboring cells,

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and between cells and tissues in distant parts of the body, occurs through the release
of chemicals called hormones. Hormones are released into body fluids, usually blood,
which carries them to their target cells where they elicit a response.
 Adrenal gland: the endocrine gland associated with the kidneys
 Down-regulation: a decrease in the number of hormone receptors in response to
increased hormone levels
 Endocrine gland: the gland that secretes hormones into the surrounding
interstitial fluid, which then diffuse into blood and are carried to various organs
and tissues within the body
 Exocrine gland: the gland that secretes chemicals through ducts that lead to
skin surfaces, body cavities, and organ cavities.
 Hormone: a chemical released by cells in one area of the body that affects cells
in other parts of the body
 Intracellular hormone receptor: a hormone receptor in the cytoplasm or nucleus
of a cell
 Pancreas: the organ located between the stomach and the small intestine that
contains exocrine and endocrine cells
 Parathyroid gland: the gland located on the surface of the thyroid that produces
parathyroid hormone
 Pituitary gland: the endocrine gland located at the base of the brain composed
of an anterior and posterior region; also called hypophysis
 Thymus: the gland located behind the sternum that produces thymosin
hormones that contribute to the development of the immune system
 Thyroid gland: an endocrine gland located in the neck that produces thyroid
hormones thyroxine and triiodothyronine
 Up-regulation: an increase in the number of hormone receptors in response to
increased hormone levels

Endocrine
Associated Hormones Effect
Gland

growth hormone promotes growth of body tissues

prolactin promotes milk production

Pituitary
(anterior)
thyroid-stimulating
stimulates thyroid hormone release
hormone

adrenocorticotropic
stimulates hormone release by adrenal cortex
hormone

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Endocrine
Associated Hormones Effect
Gland

follicle-stimulating
stimulates gamete production
hormone

stimulates androgen production by gonads in

luteinizing hormone males; stimulates ovulation and production of
estrogen and progesterone in females

antidiuretic hormone stimulates water reabsorption by kidneys

Pituitary
(posterior)
stimulates uterine contractions during
oxytocin
childbirth

thyroxine,
stimulate metabolism
triiodothyronine

Thyroid

calcitonin reduces blood Ca2+ levels

Parathyroid parathyroid hormone increases blood Ca2+ levels

aldosterone increases blood Na+ levels

Adrenal
(cortex)
cortisol, corticosterone,
increase blood-glucose levels
cortisone

Adrenal epinephrine,
stimulate fight-or-flight response
(medulla) norepinephrine

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Endocrine
Associated Hormones Effect
Gland

insulin reduces blood-glucose levels

Pancreas

glucagon increases blood-glucose levels

Endocrine Disorders and Diseases

 The most common endocrine disorder in the United States is diabetes.

 Diabetes is an endocrine disease in which one’s blood sugar levels are too high.
 Cushing’s disease is caused by high levels of cortisol.
 Gigantism is caused by high levels of the growth hormone.
 Hyperthyroidism is the condition caused by high levels of thyroid hormones while
hypothyroidism condition is the disease caused by low levels of thyroid
hormones.
 Hypopituitarism occurs when the pituitary gland produces abnormally low levels
of hormones.
 Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a condition when there is an
overproduction of the male hormone androgen in females causing
abnormalities in menstrual cycles, and at times, infertility.

Lesson 12

THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The Male Reproductive System

The testis produces sperm cells.

Scrotum Sac is the sac that holds the testis.

The Penis deposits sperm cells into the vagina during mating.

Vas deferens (Tube) is the Passage of sperm cells from testes to urethra.

Urethra is the passage of sperm cells and urine out of the body.

Glands

a. Seminal vesicle

b. Prostate gland

c. Bulbourethral gland (Cowper’s gland)

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The Female Reproductive System

Parts and Function:

The ovary produces egg cells.

The Oviduct serves as passageway of eggs from the ovary to the uterus, site of egg
fertilization.

Uterus is the site of egg implantation; serves as the place where fertilized egg develops.

The Vagina receives the penis of male during mating.

Diseases

Endometriosis

This happens when the same kind of tissue as the kind that lines the inside of your uterus
starts growing in areas other than the uterine lining. The condition is often painful and
can affect fertility. In fact, women who have trouble with conception are 6 to 8 times
more likely to have endometriosis than fertile women. Surgery or in vitro fertilization can
improve the odds of getting (and staying) pregnant.

Cervical Cancer

Cancer is not usually top of mind for young women, but this type -- caused by the human
papillomavirus (HPV) -- is a serious threat. Each year, more than 11,000 women get the
disease. Many are of childbearing age. The upside: Thanks to Pap smears, doctors can
find and treat it early. The downside: Many treatments cause infertility. If you get cervical
cancer, ask for options that will let you get pregnant later.

HIV

With today’s powerful medications, this disease can often be managed like a chronic
condition. Some people live so well with the virus that they want to have a baby.
However, HIV affects fertility in both men and women. Still, you can become a parent.
And with certain infertility treatments and a carefully managed pregnancy, the odds of
giving your baby the virus are low.

Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS)

Many women do not know they have this common cause of infertility until they try to
conceive. It is related to a hormone imbalance that affects ovulation and can lead to:

Cysts (fluid-filled sacs) on one or both ovaries

Irregular periods

High levels of hormones that can cause excess body or facial hair

Gonorrhea and Chlamydia

These sexually transmitted infections should be treated promptly. Be sure to see your
doctor if you sense something is not quite right below the belt. Untreated, gonorrhea and
chlamydia can cause pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), an infection in your reproductive
organs. It can lead to problems like:

 Infertility
 Blocked fallopian tubes
 Ectopic pregnancy (pregnancy outside the uterus

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 Lesson 13
NERVOUS SYSTEM

Functions of the Nervous System

1. Gathers information from both inside and outside the body -Sensory Function.
2. Transmits information to the processing areas of the brain and spine.
3. Processes the information in the brain and spine – Integration Function.
4. Sends information to the muscles, glands, and organs so they can respond
appropriately – Motor Function.
It controls and coordinates all essential functions of the body including all other body
systems allowing the body to maintain homeostasis or its delicate balance.

The Nervous System is divided into Two Main Divisions: Central Nervous System (CNS)
and the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Basic Cells of the Nervous System

Neuron
• Basic functional cell of nervous system.
 Transmits impulses (up to 250 mph)
Parts of a Neuron
1. Dendrite – receive stimulus and carries it impulses toward the cell body
2. Cell Body with nucleus – nucleus & most of cytoplasm
3. Axon – fiber which carries impulses away from cell body
4. Schwann Cells- cells which produce myelin or fat layer in the Peripheral Nervous
System
5. Myelin sheath – dense lipid layer which insulates the axon – makes the axon look
gray
6. Node of Ranvier – gaps or nodes in the myelin sheath. Impulses travel from
dendrite to cell body to axon

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Reflex Arc

Components of a Reflex Arc

A. Receptor - reacts to a stimulus

B. Afferent pathway (sensory neuron) - conducts impulses to the CNS

C. Interneuron - consists of one or more synapses in the CNS (most are in the spine)

D. Efferent pathway (motor neuron) conducts impulses from CNS to effector.

E. Effector - muscle fibers (as in the Hamstring muscle) or glands responds by

contracting or secreting a product.

Spinal reflexes - initiated and completed at the spinal cord level. Occur without the
involvement of higher brain centers.

Meninges are the three coverings around the brain and spine and help cushion,
protect, and nourish the brain and spinal cord.

• Dura mater is the most outer layer and it is very tough.

• Arachnoid mater is the middle layer and adheres to the dura mater and has web like
attachments to the innermost layer, the pia mater.

• Pia mater is very thin, transparent, but tough, and covers the entire brain, following it
into all its crevices (sulci) and spinal cord.

• cerebrospinal fluid, which buffers, nourishes, and detoxifies the brain and spinal cord,
flows through the subarachnoid space, between the arachnoid mater and the pia
mater

Regions of the Brain

Cerebellum – coordination of movement and aspects of motor learning Cerebrum –

conscious activity including perception, emotion, thought, and planning Thalamus –
Brain’s switchboard – filters and then relays information to various brain regions Medulla
– vital reflexes as heart beat and respiration Brainstem – medulla, pons, and midbrain
(involuntary responses) and relays information from spine to upper brain
Hypothalamus– involved in regulating activities internal organs, monitoring information
from the autonomic nervous system, controlling the pituitary gland and its hormones,
and regulating sleep and appetite

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Cerebrum

• Is the largest portion of the brain encompassing about two-thirds of the brain mass.

• It consists of two hemispheres divided by a fissure – corpus callosum.

• It includes the cerebral cortex, the medullary body, and basal ganglia.

• cerebral cortex is the layer of the brain often referred to as gray matter because it
has cell bodies and synapses but no myelin o The cortex (thin layer of tissue) is gray
because nerves in this area lack the insulation or white fatty myelin sheath that makes
most other parts of the brain appear to be white. o The cortex covers the outer portion
(1.5mm to 5mm) of the cerebrum and cerebellum o The cortex consists of folded
bulges called gyri that create deep furrows or fissures called sulci o The folds in the
brain add to its surface area which increases the amount of gray matter and the
quantity of information that can be processed.

• Medullary body – is the white matter of the cerebrum and consists of myelinated
axons or Commissural fibers – conduct impulses between the hemispheres and form
corpus callosum o Projection fibers – conduct impulse in and out of the cerebral
hemispheres o Association fibers – conduct impulses within the hemispheres.

• Basal ganglia – masses of gray matter in each hemisphere which are involved in the
control of voluntary muscle movements.

Lobes of the Cerebrum

• Frontal – motor area involved in movement and in planning & coordinating behavior.

• Parietal – sensory processing, attention, and language.

• Temporal – auditory perception, speech, and complex visual perceptions.

• Occipital – visual center – plays a role in processing visual information.

Special regions

• Broca’s area – located in the frontal lobe – important in the production of speech.

• Wernicke’s area – comprehension of language and the production of meaningful

speech.

• Limbic System – a group of brain structures (amygdala, hippocampus, septum, basal

ganglia, and others) that help regulate the expression of emotions and emotional
memory.

Peripheral Nervous System

Cranial nerves • 12 pair • Attached to undersurface of brain

Spinal nerves • 31 pair • Attached to spinal cord

Somatic Nervous System (voluntary)

• Relays information from skin, sense organs & skeletal muscles to CNS

• Brings responses back to skeletal muscles for voluntary responses

Autonomic Nervous System (involuntary)

• Regulates bodies involuntary responses

• Relays information to internal organs

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• Two divisions o Sympathetic nervous system – in times of stress and Emergency
response and Fight or flight or Parasympathetic nervous system – when body is at rest or
with normal functions and Normal everyday conditions.

Disorders of the Nervous System

• Epilepsy - common and diverse set of chronic neurological disorders characterized by

seizures. • Seizures - the physical findings or changes in behavior that occur after an
episode of abnormal electrical activity in the brain and are caused by abnormal
electrical discharges in the brain.

• Alzheimer’s Disease - a degenerative disease of the brain that causes dementia,

which is a gradual loss of memory, judgment, and ability to function. - the most
common form of dementia- affects an estimated 1 in 10 people over age 65.

• Multiple Sclerosis - an autoimmune disease that affects the brain and spinal cord
(central nervous system) - body's immune system eats away at the protective myelin
sheath that covers the axons of the neurons and interferes with the communication -
MS can affect vision, sensation, coordination, movement, and bladder and bowel
control.

• Parkinson’s Disease - disorder of the brain that leads to shaking (tremors) and
difficulty with walking, movement, and coordination. People with Parkinson's disease
have low brain dopamine concentrations.

• Shingles (herpes zoster) - painful, blistering skin rash due to the varicella-zoster virus,
the virus that causes chickenpox – the virus remains inactive (becomes dormant) in
certain nerves in the body. Shingles occurs after the virus becomes active again.

• Cerebral Palsy - group of disorders that can involve brain and nervous system
functions such as movement, learning, hearing, seeing, and thinking resulting from
damage to certain parts of the developing brain.

• Glaucoma - a group of eye conditions that lead to damage to the optic nerve due
to increased pressure in the eye - the eye’s drainage system becomes clogged so the
intraocular fluid cannot drain and as the fluid builds up, it causes pressure to build within
the eye. High pressure damages the sensitive optic nerve.

• Pink eye (Conjunctivitis) – infection of the conjunctiva of the eye

Lesson 14
SPECIAL SENSES
Major Sense Organs

Sensation and perception

 Vision – Eye
 Hearing – Ear
 Taste – Taste receptors (new)
 Smell – Olfactory system
 Skin – Hot, cold, pressure, pain

EYE

– the organ used to sense light

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Three layers

1. Outer layer consists of sclera and cornea.

2. Middle layer consists of choroid, ciliary body, and iris.

3. Inner layer consists of retina.

Functions of the major parts of the eye:

1. Sclera or Sclerotic Layer – (white of eye) a tough protective layer of connective

tissue that helps maintain the shape of the eye and provides an attachment for
the muscles that move the eye.
2. Cornea - the clear, dome-shaped part of the sclera covering the front of the eye
through which light enters the eye.
3. Anterior Chamber – a small chamber between the cornea and the pupil.
4. Aqueous Humor - the clear fluid that fills that anterior chamber of the eye and
helps to maintain the shape of the cornea providing most of the nutrients for the
lens and the cornea and involved in waste management in the front of the eye.
5. Choroid Layer - middle layer of the eye containing may blood vessels
6. Ciliary Body - the ciliary body is a circular band of muscle that is connected and
sits immediately behind the iris- produces aqueous humor, changes shape of lens
for focusing.
7. Iris - the pigmented front portion of the choroid layer and contains the blood
vessels it determines the eye color and it controls the amount of light that enters
the eye by changing the size of the pupil (an albino only has the blood vessels
not pigment so it appears red or pink because of the blood vessels).
8. Lens - a crystalline structure located just behind the iris - it focuses light onto the
retina.
9. Pupil - the opening in the center of the iris- it changes size as the amount of light
changes (the more light, the smaller the holes.)
10. Vitreous - a thick, transparent liquid that fills the center of the eye - it is mostly
water and gives the eye its form and shape (also called the vitreous humor).
11. Retina - sensory tissue that lines the back of the eye. It contains millions of
photoreceptors (rods for black & white and cones for color) that convert light
rays into electrical impulses that are relayed to the brain via the optic nerve.
12. Optic nerve - the nerve that transmits electrical impulses from the retina to the
brain

Common eye defects include the following:

 Myopia or nearsightedness where the eyeball is too long, or the cornea is too
steep; hyperopia or far sightedness where the eyeball is short or lens cannot
become round enough: cataracts where the lens becomes fogged;
 presbyopia where the muscles controlling the bulging of the lens become
weak as we age;
 nyctalopia or night blindness where vision is impaired in dim light and in the
dark due to pigment rhodopsin in the rods not functioning properly.

• There are three types of cones which distinguish the three colors – blue, red, green •
Fovea – point of central focus – great density of cones - center of the eye's sharpest
vision and the location of most color perception - the layers of the retina spread aside
to let light fall directly on the cones

EAR

Parts of the Ear

1. Outer Ear & ear canal – brings sound into eardrum

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 2. Eardrum – vibrates to amplify sound & separates inner and middle ear Middle
ear has 3 small bones or Ossicles = anvil, stirrup, stapes – amplify sound (small
bones) which vibrate sound
3. Eustachian tube – connects middle ear to throat and equalizes pressure on
eardrum
4. Cochlea – in inner ear – has receptors for sound & sends signals to brain via
Auditory Nerve

Process of hearing:

• Sound waves enter your outer ear and travel through your ear canal to the middle
ear.

• The ear canal channels the waves to your eardrum, a thin, sensitive membrane
stretched tightly over the entrance to your middle ear.

• The waves cause your eardrum to vibrate.

• It passes these vibrations on to the hammer, one of three tiny bones in your ear. The
hammer vibrating causes the anvil, the small bone touching the hammer, to vibrate.
The anvil passes these vibrations to the stirrup, another small bone which touches the
anvil. From the stirrup, the vibrations pass into the inner ear.

• The stirrup touches a liquid filled sack and the vibrations travel into the cochlea, which
is shaped like a shell.

• Inside the cochlea, a vestibular system formed by three semicircular canals that are
approximately at right angles to each other and which are responsible for the sense of
balance and spatial orientation. It has chambers filled with a viscous fluid and small
particles (otoliths) containing calcium carbonate. The movement of these particles over
small hair cells in the inner ear sends signals to the brain that are interpreted as motion
and acceleration.

Taste and Smell

Chemical Receptors Taste buds

• The mouth contains around 10,000 taste buds, most of which are located on and
around the tiny bumps on your tongue. Every taste bud detects five primary tastes: o
Sour o Sweet o Bitter o Salty o Umami - salts of certain acids (for example monosodium
glutamate or MSG)

• Each of your taste buds contains 50-100 specialized receptor cells.

• Sticking out of every single one of these receptor cells is a tiny taste hair that checks
out the food chemicals in your saliva.

• When these taste hairs are stimulated, they send nerve impulses to your brain.

• Each taste hair responds best to one of the five basic tastes. Smell Receptors or
Olfactory receptors

• Humans able to detect thousands of different smells

• Olfactory receptors occupy a stamp-sized area in the roof of the nasal cavity, the
hollow space inside the nose

• Tiny hairs, made of nerve fibers, dangle from all your olfactory receptors. They are
covered with a layer of mucus.

• If a smell, formed by chemicals in the air, dissolves in this mucus, the hairs absorb it
and excite your olfactory receptors.

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• A few molecules are enough to activate these extremely sensitive receptors. •
Olfactory Hairs easily fatigued so you do not notice smells

• Linked to memories - when your olfactory receptors are stimulated, they transmit
impulses to your brain and the pathway is directly connected to the limbic system - the
part of your brain that deals with emotions so you usually either like or dislike a smell

• Smells leave long-lasting impressions and are strongly linked to your memories

• Much of what we associate as taste also involves smell – that is why hot foods “taste”
different than “cold” foods

Skin receptors:

Your skin and deeper tissues contain millions of sensory receptors.

Most of your touch receptors sit close to your skin's surface.

Light touch

• Meissner's corpuscles are enclosed in a capsule of connective tissue

• They react to light touch and are located in the skin of your palms, soles, lips, eyelids,
external genitals and nipples

• These areas of your body are particularly sensitive. Heavy pressure

• Pacinian corpuscles sense pressure and vibration changes deep in your skin.

• Every square centimeter of your skin contains around 14 pressure receptors Pain

• Skin receptors register pain

• Pain receptors are the most numerous

• Each square centimeter of your skin contains around 200 pain receptors

Lesson 15
HEREDITY AND VARIATION

Heredity
Heredity may be defined as the transmission of characters from one generation to
successive generations or from parents to their off spring.
Variation
- the visible differences between the parents and the offspring or between the
offspring or between the offspring of the same parents.
Some important terms used in Genetics:
a. Gene: It is a small segment of DNA, called cistron, which determines a character of
an organism.
b. Locus: The position of a gene on a chromosome is called locus.
c. Allele: One of the alternative forms of a gene. Within a population there may be
several alleles of a gene, each having a unique nucleotide sequence.
d. Genotype: The genetic composition of an organism, i.e. the combination of alleles it
possesses.

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e. Phenotype: The external appearance or observable characteristics of an organism is
called phenotype.
f. Homozygous: The individuals with two identical alleles of the same gene are called
homozygous.
g. Heterozygous: The individuals with two different alleles of the same gene are known
as heterozygous.
h. Mutation: Sudden heritable change in the genetic material of organisms is called
mutation.
i. Back cross: A cross between F1 hybrids and one of the two parents from which they
are derived is called back cross.
j. Test cross: The cross of F1 hybrids with the recessive parent is called test cross.
k. Dominant Allele: An allele which affects the phenotype of a heterozygous organism
just as much as when the organism is homozygous for this allele is called dominant
allele.
l. Recessive Allele: An allele affects only the phenotype of an organism when the
dominant allele is not present.

Punnett Square Definition

A Punnett square is a graphical representation of the possible genotypes of an offspring

arising from a cross or breeding event. Creating a Punnett square requires knowledge

of the genetic composition of the parents. The various possible combinations of their

gametes are encapsulated in a tabular format. Therefore, each box in the table

represents one fertilization events.

Sex-linked traits
Sex-linked traits are those whose genes are found on the X chromosome but not on the
Y chromosome. In humans the X chromosome is much larger than the Y chromosome
and contains thousands of more genes than the Y chromosome. For each of the genes
that are exclusively on the X chromosomes, females, who are XX, would obviously have
two alleles. Males, who are XY, would have only one allele. Thus females with one
recessive allele and one dominant allele, for a gene that is unique to the X
chromosome, will always display the dominant phenotype. However, a male with a
recessive allele for a gene unique to the X chromosome will always exhibit that
recessive trait because there is no other corresponding allele on the Y chromosome. In
humans, each of two different sex-linked genes has a defective recessive allele that
causes a disease. The diseases are hemophilia and colorblindness. In hemophilia, the
defective allele prevents the synthesis of a factor needed for blood clotting. In
colorblindness, the defective allele prevents a person from seeing certain colors.

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DNA Mutation

• DNA is the genetic material of organisms.

A DNA is a double helix molecule composed of two complementary strands of

deoxyribonucleotides units.

The complementary base pairs of the DNA are held by hydrogen bonds.

• The central dogma of the transfer of genetic information states that the sequence
involved in the expression of hereditary characteristics is from DNA to RNA to proteins. •
Genes are segments of DNA that may code for RNA or proteins.

• Most sequences of three bases in the DNA of a gene code for a single amino acid in
a protein.

• Transcription is the process by which the information in a strand of DNA is copied into
a new molecule of messenger RNA (mRNA).

• There are three major types of RNA in the cell and their functions:

1. mRNA carries the information from DNA to the ribosomes.

2. tRNA translates the genetic message carried by the mRNA through protein
synthesis.

3. rRNA forms the structural component of the ribosome.

• Ribosomal RNA serves as the site for attachment of mRNA and tRNA and for protein
synthesis

• Translation is a process which the order of bases in mRNA of amino acids is

synthesized/converted/decoded into a protein. It occurs in a ribosome of the
cytoplasm. • A mutation is a change in the base sequence of DNA. Mutations may
affect only one gene, or they may affect whole chromosomes.

• Mutations in eggs or sperm may affect future generations by transmitting these

changes in the offsprings. Mutations in non-sex (somatic) cells only are not hereditary. •
When DNA from two different species are joined together, it is called recombinant DNA.
This process uses restriction enzymes to cleave one organism’s DNA into fragments and
other enzymes to splice the DNA fragment into a plasmid or viral DNA.

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Nitrogenous base

- a molecule that contains nitrogen and has the chemical properties of a base.
The nitrogenous bases in DNA are adenine (A), guanine (G), thymine (T), and
cytosine (C). The nitrogenous bases in RNA are the same, with one exception:
adenine (A), guanine (G), uracil (U), and cytosine (C).

EXERCISE 1

Name that Gland Instructions: Use the word bank to answer each question.

1. I live deep within the brain. I am only about the size of a pea, but I’m very powerful. I
make the hormones that help you grow, and I control the activity of other glands too.
Who am I?

2. I am shaped like a bowtie or a butterfly. I’m found in your neck. I make the hormones
that help you stay alert and full of energy. Who am I?

3. I am the largest gland in the body. I produce the hormone called insulin that helps
glucose, the sugar in your blood, enter the cells of your body. I work closely with the
digestive system. Who am I?

4. We come in a pair, one on top of each kidney. We produce hormones that help you
to act fast when you are in trouble or under stress. We’re triangular in shape. Who are
we?

5. We are a set of four tiny glands that work with the thyroid to control the amount of
calcium in the blood. Who are we?

6. In girls, we are the ovaries. In boys, we are the testes. We are involved in all the
changes of puberty (when kids begin to become adults). Who are we?

Adrenal glands Pancreas Parathyroid

Pituitary gland Reproductive glands Thyroid gland

EXERCISE 2

Matching: Male reproductive organ (Some may be used more than once and others
not at all.) Write the letter on the space provided in each number.

a) Bulbourethral b) Ductus deferens c) Gland d) Ejaculatory duct

e) Epididymus f) Prepuce g) Prostate h) Urethra

i) Scrotum j) Seminal vesicle k) Testes

____ 1. Conveys sperm from the testes to the urethra

____ 2. Controls the temperature of the testes

____ 3. Very sensitive part of the penis that contains lots of nerves

____ 4. Secretes an alkaline fluid that neutralizes the acids in the female vagina

____ 5. Tube that conveys the semen out of the penis

____ 6. Secretes mucus that lubricates the urethra and clears out any urine

_____7. AKA the foreskin

_____8. Primary organs of male reproduction

_____9. Removed during a circumcision

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Matching: Female reproductive organ (Some may be used more than once and others
not at all.) Write the letter on the space provided by each number.

a) Cervix b) Clitoris c) Endometrium d) Fallopian tubes

e) Fimbriae f) Hymen g) Labia h) Ovary

i) Uterus j) Vagina

____1. Chamber that houses the developing fetus

____2. Canal that receives the penis during coitus
____3. Usual site of fertilization
____4. Dilates to approximately 10 cm during labor
____5. Erects during sexual stimulation
____6. Duct through which the ovum travels to reach the uterus
____7. The membrane that partially closes the vagina and is usually broken during the
first coitus
____8. Primary female reproductive organ
____9. It moves to create fluid currents that draw the ovulated egg into the uterine tube
____10. Opening of the uterus
____ 11. Latin for lips; layers of skin that protect the opening to the vagina

EXERCISE 3

There are three different kinds of neuron or nerve cell. Match each kind with its function.

Kind of neuron Function

A. Sensory
___1. The nerve cell that carries impulses from a sense receptor to the
neuron
brain or spinal cord.

B. Relay
___2. The nerve cell that connects sensory and motor neurons.
neuron
C. Motor ___3. The nerve cell that transmits impulses from the brain or spinal
neuron cord to a muscle or gland.

QUIZ 1

Match the descriptions in the table below with the terms in the list.

A. Synapse B. Axon C. Myelin sheath D. Nerve impulse

E. Sense receptor F. Response G. Reflex H. Cell body

I. Dendrite J. Nerve K. Neurotransmitter L. Axon terminal

.............................. 1. The long fiber that carries the nerve impulses

.............................. 2. A bundle of axons

.............................. 3. The connection between adjacent neurons

............................... 4. The chemical secreted into the gap between neurons at a

synapse.

............................... 5. A rapid automatic response to a stimulus

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............................... 6. The covering of fatty material that speeds up the passage of nerve
impulses

.................................7. The structure at the end of an axon that produces

neurotransmitters to transmit the nerve impulse across the synapse

................................ 8. The high-speed signals that pass along the axons of nerve cells.

................................ 9. The branching filaments that conduct nerve impulses towards the
cell.

................................ 10. The sense organ or cells that receive stimuli from within and
outside the body.

................................ 11. The reaction to a stimulus by a muscle or gland.

................................ 12. The part of the nerve cell containing the nucleus.

QUIZ 2

Use the information below to answer the following questions.

XH- X chromosome with normal dominant allele (no hemophilia) Xh - X chromosome

with recessive hemophilia allele Y - Y chromosome (does not contain comparable
gene) XB - X chromosome with normal dominant allele (not colorblind) Xb - X
chromosome with recessive colorblind allele Y - Y chromosome (does not contain
comparable gene)

1. Write the genotypes for the following phenotypes of red-green color blindness.

a. normal male _____________

b. normal female carrying no colorblind alleles (Homozygous) _____________

c. colorblind male _____________

d. normal female carrying the colorblind allele (Heterozygous) _____________

e. colorblind female _____________

2. XBXB x XbY

a. What proportion/percent of the male children are colorblind? _____________

b. What proportion/percent of the female children are colorblind? ___________

3. XBXb x XBY

a. What proportion of the male children are colorblind? ___________

b. What proportion of the female children are colorblind? _________

QUIZ 3

Answer each question using a word from the word bank. Then, for extra credit,
unscramble the highlighted letters to reveal the hidden word!

1. The endocrine system has eight _ _ _ _ _ _.

2. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ are chemical messengers produced by the glands.

3. The hormone _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ is responsible for the fight or flight response.

4. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ is the hormone that helps control your blood sugar levels.

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5. The _ _ _ _ _ _ _ gland is shaped like a butterfly.

6. FREEBIE! The p i n e a l gland helps make melatonin.

7. The four glands that help control the calcium levels in your blood are called the _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ glands.

8. When the pancreas doesn’t produce insulin, the result is a disease called _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_.

9. When it’s time for boys and girls to begin _ _ _ _ _ _ _, the pituitary gland gets the ball
rolling.

10. A doctor who specializes in treating people with hormone problems is called an _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _.

Adrenaline diabetes endocrinologist

Glands hormones insulin

Parathyroid pineal puberty

thyroid

Word Bank

Highlighted letters: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Unscrambled word: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

ASSIGNMENT 1

Answer the following questions:

1. The CNS is composed of the _____________________________________________________

2. What is the function of the brain? _________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

3. What is the function of the spinal cord? ____________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

4. The PNS has two divisions – the sensory and motor division.

a. What is the function of the sensory division? _______________________________________

b. What is the function of the motor division? ________________________________________

5. The motor division is composed of the ____________________________________________

6. What does the somatic nervous system control? ___________________________________

7. What does the autonomic nervous system control? ________________________________

8. The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is further divided into two divisions –
sympathetic and parasympathetic division. What’s the difference between these two
subdivisions? _______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________

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ASSIGNMENT 2

Answer the following questions using the knowledge of sex linked traits.

1. What is a sex-linked trait?

2. Why must males inherit colorblindness or hemophilia from their mothers?

3. Why is colorblindness or hemophilia more common in males than in

Solve using a Punnet square

1. A woman who is a carrier marries a normal man. Show the cross.

a. How many children will have the disease?
b. What is the sex of the child with the diseases

ASSIGNMENT 3

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