Module I

Nature and Scope of Animal Life

At the end of this module you are expected to:

1. Define the basic concepts and scope of zoology
2. Summarize the steps of the scientific method
3. Understand the origin, chemical basis, and attributes of life.

A. Definition and Scope of Zoology

There are quite several definitions and concepts regarding zoology. But before we
take a look at the definition, let us first understand the root terms used which are zoion
and logus. In this case, zoion means animal while logos means study.
In this case, an animal refers to any living organism which feeds on organic matter
that moves, eats, and reacts through its senses. Hence, zoology is defined as the
scientific study of animals. In broader knowledge, we can directly infer that zoology is
the branch of biology that studies the animal kingdom, including the structure,
embryology, physiology, evolution, classification, behavior, and distribution of all
animals, for both living and extinct, and how they interact with their ecosystem.
We human beings are vitally interested in our nature and in the living things which
surround us. The study of life is the literal meaning of the term biology and zoology as
taken as being synonymous with animal biology. The study of animal life is a natural
human activity, for a man himself can be fully understood only in his setting within the
entire range of animal life. Also, whether the object of study is a jellyfish, an elephant,
or a dinosaur, any progress in understanding one sheds light on all.
Zoology is primarily concerned with defining the nature of each kind of animal and
its interactions with plants and microbes as well as with other animals. Moreover, it is
also concerned with the relationship of animals and communities of animals to the
environment. It also deals with the history of animals in conjunction with the history of
Earth. In addition, it is concerned with the origin and development of each animal.
Modern zoology has no strict limits in that animals may be studied in all their
manifestations from the invisible to the gigantic, as individuals and as infinitely
complex webs of interrelated forms, as life now present and as the life of the past. As
such, it includes a study of the properties of matter because all living things are

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made up of Earth’s common chemical elements. At this level of organization, the
physics and chemistry of individual cells can be investigated and taught without regard
for the boundaries between the plant and animal kingdoms. This is the true province of
biology. However, at a higher level, whole organisms and their component tissues,
botany, and zoology are at least as different as physics and chemistry. However,
no matter how difficult it may be to define in practice, modern zoology ranges from the
analytical study of cells to the study of the organs, and the growth maintenance activities
of all members of the animal kingdom.
Zoology is a home for physiologists, biochemists, and medical scientists who
wish to fit their discoveries into the panorama of a past reaching back to a time when the
earth was young and related to an unfolding story of the emergence and evolution of
animals with the changing earth.
Because we are animals, zoology has universal warmth of appeal that is not
found in other sciences. This is because the goal of the zoologist is to understand his
nature. In addition, it aims to understand the history and origin of life and
ultimately to provide sufficient self-knowledge to control the destiny of human
beings as dependents on a finite world. We alone among the animals are consciously
aware of space and time and to be curious about our place within them and why we exist.
Zoology is simply the outcome of our irrepressible urge to find the answers to
these questions.

Branches of Zoology

General Branches
Anatomy The study of the internal structure of animals
Cytology The study of cell structure, its organelles, and their functions
The relationship between the organisms and their
Ecology
surrounding environments
Embryology The study of the development of eggs after fertilization
The study of the origin of animals and their adaptation to their
Evolution
environments over time
Genetics The study of heredity and its variations
Histology The study of the structure and functions of tissues
Morphology The study of the form and structure of animals
Neonatology The study of newborn animals to the age of two months
Paleontology The study of fossils and extinct animals
The study of the functions and mechanisms of biotic
Physiology
organisms
Taxonomy The study of the classification and the naming of organisms

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Zoogeography The study of the distribution of animals all over the world
Applied Branches
Apiculture The rearing of honey bees
Aquaculture The breeding of aquatic animals
Dairy Science The study of breeding and rearing of milk yielding cattle
The study of artificial synthesis of new genes and subsequent
Genetic Engineering
alteration of the genome of an organism
Pisciculture The culturing and rearing of fish
Poultry The breeding and rearing of chicks
Sericulture Raising silkworms for the production of raw silk
Vermiculture The rearing of worms
Veterinary The study of breeding, rearing, and treatment of diseases in
Science/Medicine animals

Animal Specific Branches

Acarology The study of ticks and mites
Carcinology The study of crustaceans
Conchology The study of molluscan shells
Entomology The study of insects
a. Coleopterology -beetles
b. Dipterology -all types of flies
c. Hemipterology -true bugs or Hemiptera
d. Isopterology -termites
e. Lepidopterology -butterflies and moths
f. Melittology/Apiology -bees
g. Myrmecology -ants
h. Orthopterology -grasshoppers, crickets
i. Trichopterology -caddisflies
j. Vespology -wasps
Helminthology The study of parasitic worms
Herpetology The study of reptiles
Ichthyology The study of fish
Malacology The study of mollusks
Mammalogy The study of mammals
Nematology The study of nematodes
Ophiology The study of snakes
Ornithology The study of birds
Organ-related Branches
Angiology The study of blood vessels
Cardiology The study of the heart
Chondrology The study of cartilage
Craniology The study of skulls

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Dermatology The study of skin
Endocrinology The study of endocrine glands
Hematology The study of blood
Hepatology The study of the liver
Kinesiology The study of the movement of muscles
Myology The study of muscles
Nephrology The study of kidneys
Neurology The study of the nervous system
Odontology The study of teeth and gums
Ophthalmology The study of eyes
Osteology The study of bones
Rhinology The study of noses
Splanchnology The study of visceral organs
Syndesmology The study of bony joints and ligaments
Trichology The study of hair
Urology The study of excretory organs
Health and Disease-Related Branches
Actinobiology The study of the effects of radiation on organisms
Cryobiology The study of the effects of low temperatures on organisms
Ethology The study of animal behavior
Etiology The study of the cause of disease
Gerontology The scientific study of aging
Immunology The study of immunity to disease
Oncology The study of tumors
Oology The study of eggs
Pathology The study of disease
Pharmacology The study of synthesis and effects of medicine on organisms
Phenology The study of the effect of seasonal changes on animals
The study of abnormal growth of the embryo or fetal
Teratology
malformations
Toxicology The study of poisons and narcotics in animals

B. Science and Scientific Method

Science is a systematized and logical approach to discover how things in our
universe work. As such, we can also define science as the body of knowledge
accumulated through discoveries about all the things in the universe. Furthermore, the
word science is derived from the Latin word "scientia” which is directly transcribed to
knowledge that is based on demonstrable and reproducible data. Hence, we can say
that science covers general truths or the operation of general laws, especially when
acquired and tested by the scientific method.

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 In this case, the scientific method is a method of research with defined steps that
include experiments and careful observation. It was used even in ancient times, but it
was first documented by England’s Sir Francis Bacon (1561–1626) who set up
inductive methods for scientific inquiry. Furthermore, the scientific method consists of a
series of well-defined steps. If the hypothesis (a suggested explanation for an event), is
not supported by experimental data, a new hypothesis can be proposed.

Figure 1. The scientific method consists of a series of well-defined steps. Retrieved

September 16, 2020, from https://cnx.org/contents/

Table 1. Steps in Scientific Method with Their Descriptions

Scientific Method Description

Observation and ask a The scientific method starts when you ask a
question question about something that you observed. This

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 may answer the How, What, When, Who, Which,
Why, or Where? In this stage, you may start
identifying what will be the problem to be
investigated.
For example, One Monday morning, a student
arrives at class and quickly discovers that the
classroom is too warm. That is an observation that
also describes a problem: the classroom is too
warm. The student then asks a question: “Why is the
classroom so warm?”

A hypothesis is an educated guess about how

things work. It is an attempt to answer your question
with an explanation that can be tested. To solve a
problem, several hypotheses may be proposed.
Proposing a hypothesis
For example, “The classroom is warm because no
one turned on the air conditioning.” or “The
classroom is warm because there is a power failure,
and so the air conditioning doesn’t work”

Once a hypothesis has been selected, you can

now make a prediction. A prediction is similar to a
hypothesis but it typically has the format “If . . .
Make a prediction based then . . . .”
on the hypothesis
For example, the prediction for the first hypothesis
might be, “If the student turns on the air conditioning,
then the classroom will no longer be too warm.”

Your experiment tests whether your prediction is

accurate and thus your hypothesis is supported or
not. Your experiment needs to be a fair test. You
conduct a fair test by making sure that you change
Do experimentation to test only one factor at a time while keeping all other
the prediction conditions the same.
To test the first hypothesis, the student should find
out if the air conditioning is on. Consequently, to test
the second hypothesis, the student should check if
the lights in the classroom are functional.

Analyze your data and Once you are done with your experiment, you

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draw your conclusion. collect your measurements and analyze them to see
if they support your hypothesis or not. From there,
you may now draw your conclusion based on your
gathered results.
For example, if the air conditioning is turned on but
does not work, there should be another reason, and
the first hypothesis should be rejected. On the other
hand, if there is no power failure and the lights are
functional, then the second hypothesis should be
rejected.

Report the results of your study/experiment.

Established if your hypothesis is correct.

Established your Results If your experimental results do not support the

hypothesis, the hypothesis may be modified and
additional experiments may be done to test the new
or revised hypothesis.

C. Attributes of Life
All living organisms share several key functions and characteristics that when
viewed together, these aspects serve to define life. These attributes separate living
organisms from abiotic or non-living components. As such, activities of all living
organisms are contained in tiny structural and functional units called "cells”.

1. Growth - simply means an "increase in volume" of living organisms resulting from the
production of newly formed structures which varies in the form being inherited
and others resulting from the responses to the environment.
2. Reproduction - is the ability to produce and replicate one's self. It is also considered
as the process by which new individuals or offspring are produced from their
parents.
3. Sensitivity or Responsiveness to stimuli - living organisms can respond to certain
conditions in their environment and various stimuli from the environment.
Moreover, there are two major types of response. A positive response is when
an organism moves towards a stimulus while a negative response is the
movement of an organism away from a certain stimulus.

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 a. Chemotropism - response to chemicals
b. Geotropism - response to gravity
c. Hydrotropism - response to water
d. Phototropism - response to light
e. Thigmotropism - response to touch/stimulus

4. Metabolism - is referred to as the sum total of all biological reactions that take place
within the body of a living organism. Metabolism takes place because the body
needs to repair damaged cells, reproduce new protoplasm, and for normal
maintenance
Types of Metabolism
a. Catabolism - breaking down processes such as cellular respiration and digestion
b. Anabolism- building up processes such as nutrition and photosynthesis

Some Important Biochemical Reactions

a. Cellular respiration - the “energy-releasing process” of organisms
b. Photosynthesis - referred to as the “energy-harnessing process” in plants
c. Digestion - the conversion of larger molecules into smaller molecules
5. Movement - is the ability to move either in a stationary phase or through locomotion.
Let us also keep in mind that living systems and their parts show precise and
controlled movements arising from within the system.
6. Homeostasis - or the “steady state”, the ability of an organism to maintain constant
internal conditions within a narrow range almost constantly, despite
environmental changes
7. Adaptation to the environment - organisms can adapt to their environment. They
may be able to do this because of natural selection, changing their properties by
mutation, and by exhibiting homeostatic response in every environmental
condition that affects them.
8. The complexity of organization - Organisms is highly organized, coordinated
structures that consist of one or more cells. Even very simple, single-celled
organisms are remarkably complex wherein inside of each cell, atoms make up
molecules. These in turn make up cell organelles and other cellular inclusions.
Tissues, in turn, collaborate to create organs (body structures with a distinct
function). Organs work together to form organ systems.

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Figure 2. The biological levels of organization of living things. (credit “organelles”:
modification of work by Umberto Salvagnin; credit “cells”: modification of work by Bruce
Wetzel, Harry Schaefer/ National Cancer Institute; credit “tissues”: modification of work
by Kilbad; Fama Clamosa; Mikael Häggström; credit “organs”: modification of work by
Mariana Ruiz Villareal; credit “organisms”: modification of work by “Crystal”/Flickr; credit
“ecosystems”: modification of work by US Fish and Wildlife Service Headquarters; credit
“biosphere”: modification of work by NASA), Retrieved Sept. 15, 2020, from
courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology1/

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D. Origin of Life
The fossil record reveals that life existed 3.8 billion years ago therefore, the origin of
the earliest form of life can be estimated at approximately 4 billion years. The first
living organisms were protocells, autonomous membrane-bound units with a complex
functional organization that permitted the essential activity of self-reproduction. The
primitive chemical systems that we have described lack this essential property. The
principal problem in understanding the origin of life is explaining how primitive chemical
systems could have become organized into living, autonomous, self-reproducing cells.

a. Two views of philosophies that explain the origin of life:

a.1. Vitalistic View - explains that the responsibility for the existence of life on our
planet is a mysterious force
a.2. Mechanistic View - explains that the existence of life originated from the series
of physical and chemical reactions that occurred in the early times

b. Theories on the Origin of Life

b.1. Interplanetary theory - explains that life came from other planets
b.2. Cosmozoa theory - explains that life came from outer space
b.3. Theory of Divine Creation - explains that life was a creation of God
b.4. Theory of Spontaneous Generation - explains that life could be produced
from non-living matter like maggots from decaying meats, mice from neglected
garbage, frogs from mud, eels from the bottom of the river.
b.5. Biogenesis theory - explains that life came from pre-existing life
b.6. Abiotic or Abiogenesis theory - explains that life came from non-living matter
such as elements and other compounds.

E. The Chemical Basis of Life

Elements in various combinations comprise all matter, including living things. Some
of the most abundant elements in living organisms include carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen,
oxygen, sulfur, and phosphorus. These form the nucleic acids, proteins,
carbohydrates, and lipids that are the fundamental components of living matter.
Biologists must understand these important building blocks and the unique structures of
the atoms that make up molecules, allowing for the formation of cells, tissues, organ
systems, and entire organisms.

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 E.1. Organic and Inorganic Compounds
The early Earth was believed to be a very hot ball of gas composing of free
atoms distributed into layers according to weight. At its most fundamental level, life is
made up of matter thus, elements are unique forms of matter with specific chemical and
physical properties that cannot be broken down into smaller substances by ordinary
chemical reactions. On the other hand, compounds are substances that contain atoms
of two or more different elements and these atoms are chemically joined together.
In this case, organic compounds are any of a large class of chemical compounds
in which one or more atoms of carbon are covalently linked to atoms of other elements.
Examples of these compounds that are found in living organisms are sugars, lipids,
and amino acids. On the other hand, inorganic compounds are the type of
compounds that any substance in which two or more chemical elements (usually other
than carbon) are combined and often in definite proportions. The major organic
compounds found in living organisms are water (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), and
oxygen (O2).
E.1. A). Water
Water is one of the most abundant molecules and the one most critical to life on
our planet. Approximately 60–70 percent of the human body is made up of water.
Without it, life as we know it simply would not exist. Below are the properties of
water:
a.) Water is polar. Water molecules are polar, with partial positive charges on the
hydrogen, a partial negative charge on the oxygen, and a bent overall structure.
This is because oxygen is more electronegative, meaning that it is better than
hydrogen at attracting electrons.
b.) Water is an excellent solvent. Water has the unique ability to dissolve many
polar and ionic substances. This is important to all living things because, as
water travels through the water cycle, it takes many valuable nutrients along with
it.
c.) Water has a high heat capacity. It takes a lot of energy to raise the
temperature of a certain amount of water by a degree, so water helps with
regulating temperature in the environment. For example, this property allows the
temperature of water in a pond to stay relatively constant from day to night,
regardless of the changing atmospheric temperature.

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d.) Water has a high heat of vaporization. Living organisms use water’s high heat
of vaporization to cool off. Water is converted from its liquid form to steam when
the heat of vaporization is reached. Since sweat is made mostly of water, the
evaporating water absorbs excess body heat, which is released into the
atmosphere. This is known as evaporative cooling.
e.) Water has cohesive and adhesive properties. Water molecules have
strong cohesive forces due to their ability to form hydrogen bonds with one
another. Cohesive forces are responsible for surface tension, the tendency of a
liquid’s surface to resist rupture when placed under tension or stress. Water also
has adhesive properties that allow it to stick to substances other than itself.

These cohesive and adhesive properties are essential for fluid transport in
many forms of life. For example, they allow nutrients to be transported to the top
of a tree against the force of gravity.
f.) Water is less dense as a solid than as a liquid. As water freezes, the molecules
form a crystalline structure that spaces the molecules further apart than in liquid
water. This means that ice is less dense than liquid water, which is why it floats.

E.1. B). Carbon

Cells are made of many complex molecules called macromolecules namely
proteins, fats and lipids, nucleic acids (RNA and DNA), and carbohydrates.
These macromolecules are a subset of organic molecules (any
carbon-containing liquid, solid, or gas) that are essentially important for life. The
fundamental component for all of these macromolecules is carbon. The carbon
atom has unique properties that allow it to form covalent bonds to as many as
four different atoms, making this versatile element ideal to serve as the basic
structural component, or “backbone,” of the macromolecules.
Therefore, we consider Carbon as a versatile molecule for the following
reasons:
a. Carbon is an extremely versatile atom in forming covalent bonds with
other atoms.
b. Carbon can form single, double, or even triple bonds
c. Carbon can also form chains, branched chains, and even rings.
d. All sorts of functional groups can be attached to the hydrocarbon
backbones.

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 E.2. The DNA as the Blueprint of Life
DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid is the genetic material found in all living organisms,
ranging from single-cell bacteria to multicellular animals. It is found in the nucleus of
eukaryotes and some organelles such as chloroplasts, and mitochondria. DNA is
considered the blueprint of life because it contains the instructions needed for an
organism to grow, develop, survive and reproduce. Analogous to infrastructure's
blueprint, which serves as an informational map that guides and directs the construction
of buildings, the DNA directs the construction of cells up to the fully developed
organisms by leading the process of protein synthesis. Moreover, to explain the
information flow in an organism, Francis Crick proposed the language of life also known
as the Central Dogma of Molecular Biology (after the discovery of DNA double-helix
structure) which explains how the genetic material (DNA) is transcribed into mRNA
(RNA) which is then translated into functional products (proteins) that make up all living
organisms
The central dogma suggests that DNA contains the information needed to make all
of our proteins, and that RNA is a messenger that carries this information to the
ribosomes which serve as factories in the cell where the information is ‘translated’ from a
code into the functional product. In this case, the process by which the DNA instructions
are converted into the functional product is called gene expression.

Further, the central dogma proposed

by Crick in 1958 is comprised of three (3)
major processes including Replication,
Transcription, and Translation.

Figure 1.3. The Central Dogma of

Molecular Biology. Retrieved February 7,
2021, from
https://www.yourgenome.org/facts/what-is-
the-central-dogma

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Guide Questions 1

Answer the following to check what you learned from the discussion so far.
Check your answer from the provided answer key at the end of this unit.

1. What is Zoology?
2. The scientific method consists of a series of well-defined steps. What are these
steps?
3. What is the sequence that represents the hierarchy of biological organization
from the least complex to the most inclusive level?
4. Why does DNA is considered "the blueprint of life"?

Answer to Guide Questions 1

1. Zoology is defined as the scientific study of animals. In broader knowledge, we

can directly infer that zoology is the branch of biology that studies the animal
kingdom, including the structure, embryology, physiology, evolution,
classification, behavior, and distribution of all animals, for both living and extinct,
and how they interact with their ecosystem.

2. a.) Observation, b.) Ask a question, c.) Proposing a hypothesis, d.) Make a
prediction based on the hypothesis, e.) Do experimentation to test the prediction,
f.) Analyze your data and draw your conclusion, g.) Established results

3. Organelles - Cells - Tissues - Organs - Organ System - Organisms- Populations -

Communities - Ecosystems - Biosphere

4. DNA is considered the blueprint of life because it carries the genetic blueprint of a
cell and carries instructions for the functioning of the cell for an organism to grow,
develop, reproduce, and other functions for them to survive.

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Key Points

1. Zoology is defined as the scientific study of animals. It encompasses the

structure, embryology, physiology, evolution, classification, behavior, and
distribution of all animals, for both living and extinct, and how they interact
with their ecosystem.
2. Science is a systematized and logical approach to discover how things in our
universe work. As such, we can also define science as the body of
knowledge accumulated through discoveries about all the things in the
universe.
3. There are 7 attributes or characteristics of life. This includes; growth,
reproduction, sensitivity or responsiveness to stimuli, metabolism, movement,
adaptation to the environment, and complexity of the organization.
4. Some of the most abundant elements in living organisms include carbon,
hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and phosphorus. These form the nucleic
acids, proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids that are the fundamental
components of living matter.
5. Water is one of the more abundant molecules and the one most critical to life
on our planet. Properties of water includes; high heat capacity, high heat of
vaporization, a polar compound, an excellent solvent, less dense as a solid
than as a liquid, and water has cohesive and adhesive properties.
6. Cells are made of many complex molecules called macromolecules which
are a subset of organic molecules that are essentially important for life. The
fundamental component for all of these macromolecules is carbon.
7. DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid is the genetic material found in all living
organisms, ranging from single-celled bacteria to multicellular mammals. It is
found in the nucleus of eukaryotes and some organelles such as
chloroplasts, and mitochondria.

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References and Supplementary Materials
Books

1. Campbell, S. 2013. Essential Biology. Singapore: Pearson Educ, Inc.

2. Hickman, et.al. 2014. Integrated Principles of Zoology. New York: McGraw-Hill
3. Miller. 2013. Zoology. New York: McGraw-Hill
4. Sherwood. 2013. Animal Physiology. Cole Cengage. Australia
5. Reiss, K. 2019. General Zoology. Retrieved from
https://legacy.cnx.org/content/col11672/1.1

Supplementary Videos
1. DNA: The promise and the life. Retrieved September 15, 2020, from
https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL2DB303D66887991C
2. DNA replication: 3D. Retrieved February 7, 2021, from
https://youtu.be/TNKWgcFPHqw
3. From DNA to Protein | 3D. Retrieved February 7, 2021, from
https://youtu.be/gG7uCskUOrA

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