Cold Regions Science and Technology, 15 ( 1988) 295-310
Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam -- Printed in The Netherlands
A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF NEEDLE ICE
D,M. Lawler
School of Geography, The University of Birmingham, P.O. Box 363, Birmingham B 15 2 TT (U.K.)
(Received May 2, 1988; accepted May 4, 1988)
ABSTRACT
Needle ice, a form of columnar, near-surface, ice
segregation in soils, is increasingly becoming recog-
nized as an important factor in vegetation destruc-
tion, soil erosion, frost sorting, and periglacial
landform development in both cold and temperate
regions. With the resultant surge in multidiscipli-
nary interest, the reporting of needle ice research is
scattered through the geological, geomorphological,
botanical, ecological, agricultural, pedological and
engineering literature. This paper collects together all
this work into a 26 7-item bibliography, spanning the
period 1824-1988. A detailed regional-systematic
index is supplied to ease access to those items of most
relevance to a particular need. A call for further ref-
erences is issued, and comments on terminology are
made.
INTRODUCTION
"Needle ice" is the usual term applied to the "ac-
cumulation of slender, bristle-like ice crystals
(needles) practically at, or immediately beneath, the
surface of the ground" (Washburn, 1979, p. 92).
This form of ice segregation is commonly found
growing from the surface of moist, fine-textured, soil
during periods of sub-freezing air temperature. It is
often a diurnal phenomenon and a prominent fea-
ture of those areas which experience frequent freeze-
thaw cycles rather than prolonged cold. Apart from
polar and tropical environments, therefore, needle
ice occurs within reasonably well-defined environ-
mental limits throughout the world, particularly in
sub-arctic, alpine, and temperate areas (Lawler,
0165-232X/88/$03.50 © 1988 ElseVierScience Publishers B.V.
295
1988; Troll, 1944, 1958 ). An example of needle ice
is shown in Fig. 1.
Considerable work on the controls of needle ice
growth has been undertaken recently and we know
that at least three conditions must be satisfied be-
fore development begins (Outcalt, 1971 a, p. 395 ):
(1) an appropriately low equilibrium surface
temperature (T~s) to initiate ice nucleation;
(2) a sufficiently low soil water tension ( Wt ) for
ice segregation to take place (i.e. a suffi-
ciently high moisture content);
(3) a sufficiently fast migration of unfrozen
moisture to the freezing front, in order to
match the rate of latent heat loss at the plane
of segregation and so prevent the in situ
freezing of pore water.
For Outcalt's ( 1971 a) experimental plot in Van-
couver, Canada, T~s~<- 2 ° C and Wt ~<100 mm Hg.
Also, condition (3) can only be fulfilled if the soil
pore geometry is appropriate: small pores may lead
to too low hydraulic conductivities, yet in coarser
materials with large pores the vital suction poten-
tial necessary for water migration is often absent.
Meentemeyer and Zippin (1981) suggested that
optimum needle ice growth occurred in soils with
12-19% silt-clay. Particle size, though, can only ever
give an approximate indication of pore geometry.
SIGNIFICANCE OF NEEDLE ICE
A surge of multidisciplinary interest in needle ice
has taken place in recent years, not least because of
its many agricultural, engineering and geomorphol-
ogical implications. It can be destructive to vegeta-
tion (e.g. Troll, 1944, 1958 ), particularly seedlings
296
Fig. I. A sampleof needle ice taken from an unvegetatedhillslopenear Akrafjall,Reykjavik,Iceland. 12.12.82. Note the substan-
tial cap of displacedsoil (photographby A. Dugmore).
(Heidmann, 1976; Schramm, 1958). Also, within
geomorphology, needle ice has long been recog-
nized as an important disruptive process in soils.
Almost 140 years ago, Le Conte (1850b, p. 335)
stated that "it is sufficiently obvious that it is a
powerful agent of disintegration" and Tricart ( 1970,
p. 73 ) argues that "pipkrakes, or needle ice, are one
of the main causes of soil creep in a temperate cli-
mate". Consequently, frost heave, solifluction,
creep, and erosion of soils, due to the incorporation
and subsequent downslope transport of sediment by
needle ice, has attracted detailed study in many parts
of North America (Ireland et al., 1939; Meente-
meyer and Zippin, 1980), Europe (Czeppe, 1968;
Jeffries, 1982; Troll, 1944, 1958), Japan (Ellen-
berg, 1974), and Australasia (Gradwell, 1962; Jen-
nings, 1983; Soons and Rayner, 1968). Indeed,
Hursh (1949, p. 10) talks of needle ice being the
"principal cause of surface instability on bare soils
in the frost belt of the United States", although
French (1976, p. 33) maintains that "the impor-
tance of needle ice as a disruptive soil agent has
probably been underestimated". Needle ice devel-
opment has also been found to be an important
(often the prime ) mechanism of river bank erosion
or pre-conditioning (e.g. Lawler, 1986, 1987; Leo-
pold, 1973; McGreal and Gardiner, 1977). Fur-
thermore, periglacial geomorphologists have
demonstrated that, in arctic and alpine environ-
ments, "needle ice movement of material is a major
influence in the evolution of a wide spectrum of
frost-sorted periglacial forms" (Outcalt, 1973, p.
228), including soil/stone stripes and polygons
(Hastenrath, 1973a; Mackay and Mathews, 1975;
P6rez, 1984). In addition, needle ice has been ob-
served to cause extensive road damage (Beskow,
1935 ) and even lift bridge piers (Taber, 1918a).
BIBLIOGRAPHIC COMPILATION
With increasing recognition of its significance in
the landscape, it was thought timely here to gather

together the existing work on the controls and im-
pacts of needle ice by establishing a bibliography in
a readily accessible form. Only one other relevant
bibliography (Hole, 1970) is known to the author
and, although it proved useful for this work, it has
had limited circulation through the scientific com-
munity, it concentrates on only one aspect of the
problem (viz. needle ice damage to vegetation), it
is incomplete, it contains inaccuracies, and is now
out-of-date.
This literature search began with scrutiny of a
number of "periglacial" volumes (Embleton and
King, 1975; French, 1976; Ives and Barry, 1974;
P6w6, 1969; Washburn, 1973, 1979), the detailed
papers of Outcalt (1969 et seq.) and Soons (1962
et seq. ), the bibliographies of Hole (1970), John-
son (1952) and Walton (1980), and the classic
monograph by Troll (1944, 1958). Further refer-
ences to needle ice were discovered from the
CRREL TechnicalPublicationsvolume published by
the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Cold Regions
Research and Engineering Laboratory, and ab-
stracting journals such as Geo Abstracts and Mete-
orological and GeophysicalAbstracts, as well as those
serials specializing in "cold" regions. A computer
search of the "COLD" database at CRREL yielded
a small number of additional references. A useful
list of early work was found in McGee ( 1885 ).
The search yielded 267 references, dating from
1824 to 1988, which are set out alphabetically be-
low. Almost all items have been personally in-
spected by the compiler. It is interesting that the
literature of many disciplines is represented (e.g.
geography, geology, geomorphology, glaciology, pe-
dology, meteorology, ecology, agronomy and engi-
neering), confirming interdisciplinary interest. The
author would be grateful for notification of addi-
tional references, particularly to the Soviet and
Asian literature which is felt to be under-repre-
sented in the compilation.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC INDEX
Table 1 serves as a comprehensive regional and
systematic index to the needle-ice literature. This
recognizes that some scientists will be interested in
all observations within a given area, regardless of
297
emphasis or approach, whilst others will want to
isolate a subset of items dealing with a particular
implication (e.g. frost-sorting), growth site (e.g.
river banks), approach (e.g. experimental-plot
work), or emphasis (e.g. soil moisture). Different
compilers would no doubt choose different taxon-
omic frameworks but it is hoped that the existing
categories ease access to those papers of most rele-
vance to a specific need.
Table 1 also allows the identification of research
gaps and anomalies, complementary to those pin-
pointed by Lawler (1988) (i.e. needle-ice growth
rates, event frequencies, quantitative sediment-in-
clusion data, and the processes of sediment incor-
poration and transport by needle ice). For example,
( 1 ) few microclimatic investigations of needle-ice
development have been conducted outside Canada,
Japan and New Zealand; (2) despite numerous field
observations of needle ice on the African high
mountains, no work with experimental plots ap-
pears to have been undertaken here; (3) limited
growth-rate data are available for the southern
hemisphere; (4) the main laboratory simulations
have been achieved by scientists in the United
States, Japan and New Zealand; and (5) only Brit-
ish and American workers seem to have identified
needle ice as an important agent of river bank ero-
sion, although soil erosion by needle ice on hill-
slopes appears a more universally-recognized feature
(Table 1 ).
Although the row and column headings of Table
1 are designed to allow rapid entry to specific areas
of interest, scientists unfamiliar with the field will
probably find the general review by Washburn
( 1979 ) most useful as a starting point. Concise def-
initional comments can be found in French (1985).
A remarkable early explanation of the phenome-
non, anticipating many later findings, is provided
by Le Conte ( 1850a, 1850b). The physical controls
of needle ice growth are best discussed in Outcalt
( 1970b, 1971a, 1971b) and have subsequently been
modelled by Outcalt (1971c, 1973, 1979a). Inter-
esting laboratory simulations have been performed
by Higashi and Corte (1971), Meentemeyer and
Zippin (1981), Sayward (1979a) and Soons and
Greenland (1970). Steinemann (1953, 1955) has
considered needle ice crystallography. Still by far the
most comprehensive global review of the incidence
TABLE 1

Two-way, regional-systematic, index of the needle-ice literature (reference numbers refer to items in accompanying bibliography)

Aspect addressed N. America and Greenland Central and South Europe Africa Asia Australasia Not specific
America and to one region
Canada U.S.A. Greenland Antarctica British Continental
Isles Europe, Iceland
and Middle East

Implications
Frost-sorting/ 2,80, 18,49,59, 256 32,110,252 103, 14,67,119,132, 34,107~ 44, 26 t20,209,
heaving 106, 81,85,86, 130, 146,198,206,234 163, 221 240,241,
165, 108,121, 131,166 244, 244,245
181, 222 245,
227, 265
254,
255
River bank erosion 153, 155, 41,71, 208
260 104,
117,
148,
149,
150,
151,169
Soilerosion 21,73 28,58,123, 112 20,94, 42,43,68,70,74, 69,95, 44, 6,75,77, 16.120
127,135, 104, 126,173,244,245 107 221 78,79,
153,170 124, 133,229,
125,247 231,233,
267
Solifluction 244,245 13,107, 53 116
244,
245
Soil or stone 160, 12,59,135 32,87,88,97,99, 8,30, 11,197,198 69,95, 44 6~23,77,
stripes/ 161, 100,110, 111, 102, 98,101, 133,195
polygons 162, 112,157,193,223 104,137 163,
165, 244,
254, 245
255
Vegetation damage 21,22 81.109,121. 89,99,100.111, 52 114,146,244,245. 34,98, 53 75,76.78, 120. 178.
135,222 1t2,194,246,266 246 101, 79 244, 255
107,
244.
245
Growth sites
Gullies 127 20, 72, 126
94
Hillslopes 180, 28, 58, 86, 112 124,125, 42,43,74,173,204, 34, 95, 44,53, 38,39,228, 120
182, 127,170, 247 212,238,259, 261, 163 115 229,231,
227 201,218 262 232,233,
267
Hummocks 59,135 50,90 39
Riverbanks 153,155,260 41,71, 152
104,117,
140,141,
148,149,
150,151,
169
Road-cuts/ditches 12, 24, 123, 14, 192, 225, 259, 214
127,134, 263
153,168,
174,182
Vegetal matter 1,24,33,56, 4,5,6, 31,118,225 33,262
153,253 60, 113,
172
Volcanic soils 160, 112,158 11 264
161
Other (e.g. rock, 222 60, 83,
spoil heaps) 84, 136,
200,210
Nature of study
Experimental plot 106, 12, 49, 86, 256 193,194 166 43,70 53,66, 105,229, 35
180, 179,201 122, 231,232,
181, 138, 233
183, 144,
227 145
Field study 21,73, 1, 12, 58, 19 32, 110, 111, 193, 20,40, 43, 74, 118, 119, 69, 95, 44,66, 6, 23, 75,
160, 127,153, 194,223 117,148, 173,174,193 101 214 76, 77, 78,
161, 170,179,215 149,150, 105,229,
180, 151 231,233
183,
227

(continued)

bO
Table 1 (continued)

Aspect addressed N. America and Greenland Central and South Europe Africa Asia Australasia Nol specific
America and to one region
Canada U.S.A. Greenland Antarctica British Continental
Isles Europe, Iceland
and Middle East

Laboratory 108,109 65, 27,33,64,

simulation 122, 66,116.147,
145, 171.215,
248, 216.217.
264 232,235.
236.240,
249
Review/general 28,33,153, 251 52 246 29,45,47,
168 57,58,62.
63,92,120,
t28,134,
152.167,
168,199,
202,205,
222,241,
243,244.
245,246,
257,258
Study discusses
Altitudinal limits 36,96,97,99,100, 11,82,220 34,95, 36 152,244,
112,158 98,101 245.246
Definitions 51 51 14,51.63.
91,114.120.
178,182,
222,240.
244,245.
250,256,
258
Event frequency 22, 80, 179, 201 40,148, 74 34,244, 77,79,105 152
160, 166 245
165,
180,
181,
227
Growth rate 180. 170 148,151 67 53. 77,105, 152, 171.
181 66, 232 216.232
122,
138,
145,
264
M icroclimatology 160, 170,179 256 112,193 148,151 31,74,118,146 69 9, 53, 232,233 232
165, 66,
180, 122,
181, 144,
182, 145,
183, 214
184,
189
Photograph / 80, 12, 18, 58, 256 99, 112, 193, 223, 3,102, 14, 31, 67, 74, 82, 34,69, 3, 9, 75, 76, 77, 29, 33, 116,
illustration 160, 81,109,127, 258 104,113, 114,118,119,142, 95, 101, 53,65, 105,133, 179,189,
161, 134,135, 131,148, 143,212,244,245, 107 66, 232 202,208,
162, 153,170, 151,167, 246 122, 216,232,
180, 174,175, 177 138, 235,240,
181, 179,182, 145, 244,245,258
182 201,202, 214,
211,218,222 226,
237
Seasonality 21 256 112 42,74,139 152
Sediment content 22, 24, 33, 127, 194 104,137, 74, 119, 143, 174, 53,66, 6, 77, 79, 16, 29, 66,
161, 153,168, 148,150, 192,197,198,220, 221, 229,233 116,152,
180, 170,179 151 225, 235,236,238, 264 171,232,236
182 259,263
Soil moisture 22, 80, 49, 81, 170, 193,194 148,151 14 138, 75,79 171,216,232
180, 179,201 214,
182, 248,
183, 264
184,
227
Soil temperature 2,22, 170 193 148,151 31 69 66, 75, 76, 78, 171,232
80, 138, 233
180, 145
182,
183,
186,
227
Soil texture 161, 170 256 112,193,194 148,151, 74,143 265 66, 75, 76, 79, 147,171,232
180 166 138, 232
145
302

TABLE 2

Needle-ice terminology

Term Example source (s)

1. English
Columnar ice Haasis (1923)
Fibrous ice Czeppe (1960)
Frost pillars Anon (1928)
Glacial grass Baranov ( 1949 ); Dylikowa and Olchowik-Kolasifiska ( 1956 )
Ice capillary columns Bouyoucos and McCool (1928)
Ice columns Abbe ( 1905 ); Anon ( 1928); Bouyoucos and McCool ( 1928); Le Conte
( 1850a, 1850b); Nimmo (1928)
Ice crystals Argyll ( 1880a, 1880b); Hursh ( 1949); Leopold ( 1973); Wolman (1959)
Ice filaments Barrett ( 1880); Broun ( 1880); Fisher ( 1880a); Schramm (1958)
Ice needles Gradwell ( 1955, 1960, 1962 ): Hayward and Barton ( 1969 )
Ice palisades Bunt (1954)
Ice pillars Yamada et al. ( 1955); Zotov (1940)
Icy columns Le Conte (1850a, 1850b)
Mushfrost Mriller ( 1937 ); Outcalt ( 1969 ); Steinemann ( 1953 )
Needle ice Beaty ( 1974); Mackay and Mathews ( 1975); Outcalt ( 1971 a); Soons ( 1967a);
Taber ( 1918a )
Needle-like crystals Bouyoucos and McCool ( 1928 )
Needles of ice Abbe ( 1905 )
Pinnacles of ice Scaetta (1933) (in Troll, 1958)
Prismatic ice crystals Zeuner ( 1949 )
Spewfrost Ireland et al. (1939)
Stalactite frost Hale ( 1951 ); Post and Dreibelbis ( 1942 )
Vertical needle crystals Domby and Kohnke ( 1955 )
2. Finnish
Rouste Kokkonen ( 1926); Troll ( 1944, 1958)
3. f'rench
Aiguilles de glace Hamelin and Clibbon ( 1962); Scaetta (1933)
Glace fibreuse Aubert de la Riie ( 1959 ): Troll ( 1973 )
4. German
Barfrost Dylikowa and Olchowik-Kolasifiska ( 1956 ); Troll ( 1944 )
BiJrsteneis Troll ( 1944 )
Effioreszenzeis Troll (1944)
EigentiJmlichen "Reif" Strive (1932)
Eisbuendel Koch ( 1987); Wagener (1877)
Eisfilamente Fukuda ( 1936); Kokkonen ( 1926); Troll (1944)
Eiskrystalle Koch (1877)
Eisnadeln Koch ( 1877 ); Kokkonen ( 1926 ); Wagener ( 1877 )
Haareis Troll ( 1944, 1973)
Haarfrost Mfiller ( 1937); Troll (1944)
Kammeis Furrer ( 1957); Heine ( 1977 ); Mohaupt ( 1932); Miiller ( 1937); Troll (1944)
Nadeleis Troll ( 1944, 1973)
Stcngeleis Rossmann ( 1937); Troll (1944)
5. Japanese
Shimobashira Ellenberg ( 1974 ); Fujita et al. ( 1937 ); Horiguchi ( 1967 ); Wagener ( 1877 )
6. Polish
L6d wloknisty (fibrous ice) Dobrowolski ( 1923 ); Dylikowa and Olchawik-Kolasifiska (1956)
7. Russian
Druza Baranov ( 1949 ) (in Soons and Greenland, 1970 )
Ledyanye stebelki Dylikowa and Olchawik-Kolasifiska ( 1956 )
8. Spanish
Hielo acicular Schubert(1985)
9. Swedish
P ipkrake/pipkrakar Hesselman ( 1907); H/Sgbom ( 1914); Rapp ( 1970); Rapp and Rudberg (1960)

of needle ice is Troll ( 1944, 1958 ), while a further
examination of spatial patterns and seasonal inci-
dence, including a world m a p of sightings, an alti-
tude-latitude zonation, and a regional database of
locatable observations, can be found in Lawler
(1988).
NEEDLE-ICE TERMINOLOGY
It should be noted that "needle ice" (as first
coined by Taber ( 1918a) ) is known by m a n y dif-
ferent names in other languages (Table 2), and this
is well discussed by Dylikowa and Olchowik-Ko-
lasinska (1956). " P i p k r a k e " is the Swedish word
(from "pipa" meaning " p i p e " and "krake" mean-
ing "weak and thin" (Hillefors, 1976)) but often
appears throughout the European literature. Other
c o m m o n terms include " k a m m e i s " ( G e r m a n ) ,
"glace fibreuse" (French), "shimobashira" (Japa-
nese), with " m u s h f r o s t " and even "spewfrost" ap-
pearing occasionally in North American writings
(Table 2 ). Although Troll ( 1958, p. 24) noted that
"pipkrake" had taken preference in the interna-
tional literature, there is now a distinct tendency for
"needle ice" to become prominent. This develop-
ment ought perhaps to be encouraged as "pip-
krake", with its " p i p e " connotations, may
misleadingly imply a hollow structure to the needle
ice crystals. It is also suggested that the term "ice
needles" be used sparingly, because of the possibil-
ity of confusion with either atmospheric ice parti-
cles or needle-shaped ice crystals that can result from
the freezing of solutions previously spiked with
"antifreeze" from the blood of polar fish: both types
of research paper were included in the results of a
search of the " C O L D " database using the keyword
"ice needles"!
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am very grateful to the following people who
supplied useful references for this bibliography:
Prof. A. Corte (Instituto Argentino de Nivologia y
Glaciologia), Prof. S. Hastenrath (University of
Wisconsin, Madison), Dr. P.J. Jarvis (University
of Birmingham), Dr. W.C. Mahaney (York Uni-
303
versity, Toronto), Prof. V. Meentemeyer (Univer-
sity of Georgia), Dr. M. Menor (CRREL), Prof. S.I.
Outcalt (University of Michigan), Mr. J.M. Say-
ward (formerly o f C R R E L ) , and Dr. D.W.H. Wal-
ton (British Antarctic Survey). The help of the staff
at the libraries of the University of Birmingham and
the Cold Regions Research and Engineering Labo-
ratory at Hanover, N.H., and the word-processing
by Miss Lynn Ford, is also greatly appreciated.
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