History Project

Topic:- Early Vedic Period (Rig Vedic Age)

Efforts by:- Som Dutt Vyas
Roll no. 21
B.A. LL.B. (Hons.)
1st Semester
2017-2022
MAHARASHTRA NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY
AURANGABAD

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

“It is not possible to prepare a project report without the assistance and encouragement of our
teachers , mentors and close ones. This one is certainly no exception.” On the very outset of this
report , I would like to extend my sincere and heartfelt obligation towards all the people who
have been a part of this project right from its inception. The writing of this project has been one
of the most significant academic tasks and without the support , patience , and guidance of the
people involved , this task would not have been completed. It is to them I owe my deepest
gratitude.
I am ineffably indebted to our Vice Chancellor (sir) Professor S. Surya Prakash sir, for his
conscientious guidance and encouragement to accomplish this project.
I hereby take this opportunity to add a special note of thanks for my English professor Miss
Deeksha Ingle ma’am who undertook to act as my mentor despite her many other academic and
professional commitments. Her wisdom, knowledge and commitment to the highest standards
inspired and motivated me. Without her insight , support , and energy , this project wouldn’t
have kick-started and neither would have reached fruitfulness.
I extend my gratitude to Maharashtra National Law University, Aurangabad for giving me this
opportunity to embark on this project.
I also acknowledge with a deep sense of reverence , my gratitude towards my parents and family
members , who have always supported me morally as well as economically.
I also feel heartiest sense of obligation to my library and staff members who helped me in
collection of data and resource material and also in its processing and drafting of the project.
I am thankful to all of my friends who directly or indirectly helped me to complete the project
report.
This project is dedicated to all those people , who helped me while doing this project.
Thanking you
Som Dutt Vyas
Student, MNLU-A
B.A. LL.B. (Hons.)
1st SEMESTER
(2017-2022 )

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Introduction

• After the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization, another glorious civilization flourished
in India. The people who were responsible for the evolution of this civilization called
themselves Aryas or Aryarns.

• Arya’ literally means the man of ‘noble character’, and the “free-born”. They belonged to
the group of people known as Indo-Europeans. They entered into India from the north-
west.

• They spoke the Indo-European languages from which modern languages like Sanskrit,
Persian, Latin, Greek, Celtie, Gothic have developed. Originally, the Aryans seem to
have lived somewhere in the area east of the Alps, known as Eurasia.

• The Vedic civilization is named after the Vedas, especially the Rig Veda, which is the
earliest specimen of the Indo-European language and the chief source of information on
the history of this period.

• The Vedic Civilization flourished along the river Saraswati, in a region that now consists
of the modern Indian states of Haryana and Punjab. Later, they moved into Indo-Gangetic
plains. They were mainly a cattle-keeping people, and were mainly in search of pastures.

• By 6th century B.C., they occupied the whole of North India, which was referred to as
Aryavarta. This period between 1500 B.C and 600 B.C is divided into the Early Vedic
Period or Rig Vedic Period (1500 B.C -1000 B.C) and the Later Vedic Period (1000B.C –
600 B.C).

• Many historians have given various theories regarding the original place of the Aryans,
however, largely accepted view is the Central Asian Theory given by Max Muller. It
states that the Aryans were semi-nomadic pastoral people around the Caspian Sea in
Central Asia.

• The holy book of Iran ‘Zend Avesta’ indicates entry of Aryans to India via Iran.
A section of Aryans reached the frontiers of the Indian subcontinent around 1500 BC
and first settled in Punjab and it is here, in this land, where the hymns of Rigveda were
composed.

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 • The Aryans lived in tribes and spoke Sanskrit, which belonged to the Indo-European
group of languages.

European Origin:

The early Aryans were familiar with certain animals such as goats, dogs, pigs, cows, horses etc.
and also with the trees like pine, maple, oak, willow, birch etc. which are found in Europe. This
led to Prof. Giles to suggest the European origin of the Aryans. It is generally believed that they
migrated to India and other parts of Asia from Europe.

It is difficult to locate the exact part of Europe where the Aryans originally lived before they
migrated elsewhere. According to Giles, Balkan countries were the original home of the Aryans.
The flora and fauna and the animals with which the early Aryans were familiar could be found in
the Balkan countries at that time.

Prof. Hist believes that the Aryans migrated from Lithuania Europe into Caucasus and from there
they entered into Iran. Again from Iran they entered into Punjab. This view is proved by the
discovery of Boghaz Koi inscription and the Tel-El- Amarna Letters in Western Asia.

Migration from Southern Russia:

Some historians held the view that the Aryans entered into India from the region of South
Russia. Brandenstain has suggested that the Aryans migrated to India from Kirghitz stepps in
Russia. The great Philologist, Schrader accepts South Russia as the original home of Russians
from where they migrated to different areas.

Indian Origin:

Some historians held the view that Aryans belonged to India. The Rig Veda refers to ‘Sapta
Sindhu’ land (of seven rivers) which was the name of Punjab. Subsequently it was called
“Panchanada” (land of five rivers). The flora and fauna with which the Aryans were familiar are
not found in Punjab. Again the fertility of Punjab must have attracted immigration. From the
linguistic view point Greek and Latin belong to Aryan group of Languages. These considerations
led the historians to believe that Aryans do not originally belong to India.

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From linguistic study it is proved that the Aryans migrated from Europe or Asia to India. For
example ‘Pider’ and ‘Mader’ in Parsi, ‘Pater’ and ‘Mater’ of Latin, “Father’ and ‘Mother’ of
English resemble with ‘Pitru’ and ‘Matru’ of Sanskrit. So the historians generally accepted the
view that Aryans migrated from Europe or Asia to India.

The Aryans first appeared in Iran on their way to India, where the Indo-Iranians lived for a long
time. From Rig Veda, which is the earliest specimen of Indo-European language we know about
the Aryans. The Rig Veda consists of ten mandalas or books. It is a collection of prayers offered
to Agni, Indra, Mitra, Varuna and other gods by various families of poets or sages.

Rig Veda has many things in common with ‘Avesta’ of Iran. The ‘Rig Veda’ and ‘Avesta’ use
the same names for several gods and even for several classes. Some Aryan names engraved in
the Kassite inscriptions of 1600 B.C. and the Mittani inscriptions of the fourteenth century B.C.
found in Iraq proves that from Iran a branch of the Aryans moved towards the west.

Home of the Aryans in India:

The Aryans appeared in India a little earlier than 1500 B.C. The earliest Aryans settled down in
eastern Afghanistan, Punjab, and fringes of Uttar Pradesh. The Rig-Veda mentioned the names
of some rivers of Afghanistan such as the river Kubha, and the river Indus and its five branches.
The earliest settlements of Aryans were confined to the valleys of the river Sindh and its
tributaries and of the Saraswati and the Drishadvati.

Though they were confined mainly in Punjab, yet their outer settlements reached to the banks of
the Ganga and the Yamuna. They named that region Madhya Desa. Gradually they occupied the
whole of Uttarapatha, the loan between Himalayas and the Vindhyas and from the western seas
to the east were called as Aryavarta.

The Vedas:

The Vedas form the oldest literary works of the Aryans and occupy a very distinguished place in
the history of the world literature. Vedas have been looked upon as the revealed words of God by
millions of Hindus. In course of many centuries Vedas had grown up and was orally handed
down from generation to generation. The Vedas were probably authored during 1800 BC and
600 BC. It consists of three successive classes of literary production.

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These three classes are:

(i) The Samhitas or Mantras—these are collections of hymns, prayers, charms, litanies,
sacrificial formulas.

(ii) The Brahmanas—a kind of Primitive theology and philosophy of Brahmanas.

(iii) The Aranyakas and Upanishads—they are partly included in the Brahmanas or attached
thereto and partly exist as separate work. They contain philosophical meditations of the hermits
and ascetics on soul, God, world & man.

There are four Samhitas which are different from one another.

These are:
(i) The Rigveda Samhita:
A collection of hymns. It has ten mandalas with a total of 1028 ‘Suktas’ or ‘stutis” for the
worship of gods like Indra, Surya, Agni, Yama, Varuna Ashwini, Usha etc.

(ii) Samaveda Samhita:

A collection of songs mostly taken from Rig Veda. It contained 1549 stutis. A special class of
priests known as “Udgator” were to recite its hymns.

(iii) Yajur Veda Samhita:

A collection of sacrificial formula. It has 40 mandals. There are two distinct forms of Yajur Veda
namely. “Sukla Yajur Veda” and “Krishna Yajur Veda”. The “Sukla Yajur Veda” contains the
genesis while the “Krishna Yajur Veda” describes the “Vasya” or the philosophy.

(iv) Atharva Veda Samhita:

A collection of songs and spells. It has twenty mandalas with 731 ‘stutis’. It deals with magic,
hypnotism, enslavement through mantra. It is regarded on a lower level than the other three
Vedas. These four samhitas formed the basis of four Vedas.

Every work belonging to the second and third classes of Vedic literature viz, the Brahmanas, the
Arayakas and the Upanishads, is attached to one or another of these samhitas and is said to
belong to that particular Veda.

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The Authorship of the Vedic Literature:

The Hindus have a belief that the hymns were merely revealed to the sages and not composed by
them. .For this Vedas are called “apaurusheya’ (not made by man) and ‘ritya” (existing in all
eternity). The ‘Rishis’ to whom they are ascribed are known as Mantradrasta’. (Who received the
mantra by sight directly from the Supreme Creator).

Vedangas:

Besides the Vedas, there is another class of works whose authorship is ascribed to human beings.
They are known as Sutras or Vedangs. There are six vedangas. They are six subjects. These are
siksha (pronounciation), chhandas (metre) Jyotisha (astronomy), Kalpa (ritual), Vyakarana
(grammar), Ninukta (explanation of words).

Indian Culture in the Rig Vedic Age:

Although the Rig Veda deals with devotional work of religious nature, yet it gives a vivid picture
of the early Vedic civilization. The Vedic Civilization is best understood from the social life,
political organisation, economic life and religious beliefs.

 Political Organisation

 Administrative Divisions:
The lowest unit of the Rig-Vedic society was the patriarchal family. A number of
families bound together by ties of blood formed a clan, several class formed a
district, and a number of districts composed a tribe, the highest political unit.
From the Rig Veda we come to know about some administrative units termed as
‘grama’, ‘vis’, and the ‘jana’.
The ‘grama’ consisted of several families. It was under a headman known as
‘gramani’. During war or battle he used to lead the soldiers from his village. He
attended the meetings of the ‘Sabha’ and ‘Samiti’. Several villager formed a ‘vis’.
It was placed under a ‘visapati’. He was a military leader.
A group of ‘vishes’ formed a ‘jana'(tribe) whose members were bound together
by real or supposed ties of kinship. ‘Gopa’ was the head of one ‘jana’. Rig Veda
mentions about various tribes such as Bharatas, Matsyas, Krivis, Tritsus. But the
tribes which acquired great importance are the Purus, Trigvasas, Yadus, Aus and

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 Drahyus. Several janas formed a ‘janapada’ or ‘kingdom’. The ‘Rajan’ or the king
was the head of the Janapada.
 Form of Government:
Monarchy was the normal form of Government. Kingship was hereditary. But
there was a sort of hierarchy in some states, several members of the royal family
exercising the power in common. There were references of democratic form of
government and their chiefs were elected by the assembled people.
 The King:
The kingdom was small in extent. The king enjoyed a position of pre-eminence in
the tribe. Kingship was hereditary. He was anointed by the priest as king in the
‘Abhishka’ Ceremony. He wore gorgeous robes and lived in a splendid palace,
gaily decorated than a common building. The king had the duty to protect the life
and property of his people. He was required to be ‘Indra’ in valour, ‘Mitra’ in
kindness and ‘varuna’ in virtues.
The sacred duty of the king was the protection of the tribes and the territory and
maintenance of priests for the performance of sacrifices. Maintenance of law and
order was his principal duty. He maintained justice with the help of Purohitas. He
collected tributes known as “Bali” in kind from his subjects.
 Officials:
In the work of administration the king was assisted by a number of functionaries
like the Purohita (priest), the senani (general) the Gramani (village headman) and
the spsa (spies). Purohita was the most important officer of the state.
 The Army:
The army was mainly consisting of Patti (infantry) and Rathins (chariots). The
weapons used by the soldiers were bows, arrows, swords, axes and spears. These
weapons were made up of irons. The soldiers were organised into units known as
Sardha, Vrata and gana.
 Popular Assemblies:
The Rig Veda mentions the names of two popular assemblies known as Sabha and
Samiti. Though the king enjoyed substantial power yet he was not an autocrat. In
the work of administration he consulted these two bodies and act according to
their decision. Sabha was a select body of elders. The head of the sabha was
known as ‘Sabhapati’.
The Sabha advised the king on administration. It also functioned as a court of law
and tried the cases of criminals and punished them. The Samiti was the most
popular assembly and included common people. The head of Samiti was known

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 as ‘Pati’ The Samiti mainly dealt with the political business of the state. It also
used to elect the king. In the early Vedic Age the Sabha and Samiti had a
commendable role to play as the political organisation of the aryans.

 Social Life:
 Family:
The family was regarded as the social and political unit. It was the nucleus of the
social life of the early Aryans. The father was the head of the family and he was
known as “grihapati”. The Aryans had joint families. The father had great
authority over the children. Though the father was kind and affectionate yet at
times he became cruel towards his children. From Rig-Veda we come to know
about a father who blinded his son for his extravagance.
 Position of Women:
In the early Vedic age women enjoyed an honored place in the society. The wife
was the mistress of the household and authority over the slaves. In all religious
ceremonies she participated with her husband. Prada system was not prevalent in
the society. Sati system was also not prevalent in the Vedic society.
The education of girls was not neglected. The Rig-Veda mentions the names of
some learned ladies like Viswavara, Apala and Ghosa who composed mantras and
attained the rank of Rishis. The girls were married after attaining puberty. The
practice of ‘Swayamvara’ was also prevalent in the society. Monogamy was the
general Practice.
Polygamy was, of course, practiced and it was confined only to kings and chiefs.
Remarriage of widows was permitted. The women were not independent persons
in the eye of the law. They had to remain under the protecting care of their male
relations.
 Dress and Ornaments:
The Aryans wore dresses made from cotton, wool and deer skin. The garments
consisted of three parts—an undergarment called ‘nivi’, a garment called ‘Vasa’
or ‘Paridhan’ and a mantle known as ‘adhivasa’, ‘atka’ ‘dropi’. The garments
were also embroidered with gold. Both men and women wore gold ornaments.
The women used ear-rings, neck-lace, bangles, anklets. These ornaments were
sometimes studded with precious stones. Both men and women oiled and combed
their hair which war plaited or braided. The men kept beard and moustache but
sometimes also shaved them.

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 Food and Drink:
The Aryans ate both vegetable and animal foods. Rice, barley, bean and sesamum
formed the staple food. They also ate bread, cake, milk, ghee, butter, and curd
together with fruits. Fish, birds, goats, rams, bulls and horses were slaughtered for
their food. Slaughter of cow was prohibited. They also drank intoxicating liquor,
known as sura, a brandy made from corn and barley and the juice of soma plant.
 Amusements:
Rig Vedic people spent their leisure time in various amusements like gambling,
war—dancing, chariot racing, hunting, boxing, dancing and music. Women
displayed their skill in dancing and music. Three types of musical instruments like
percussion, string and wind were used by the singers.
 Morality:
The morals of women were of high standard. But the standard of morality of men
was not very praiseworthy. Polygamy was practiced by men. Great respect and
affection was shown to guests. The people hated seduction and adultery. There
was a class of women known as hetairai and dancing girls whose morality was
probably not above reproach.
 Education:
In the Rig-Vedic age great importance was given to education. There were
Gurukulas which imparted education to the disciples after their sacred-thread
ceremony. Entire instruction was given orally. The Vedic education aimed at
proper development of mind and body. The disciples were taught about ethics, art
of warfare, art of metal and concept of Brahma and philosophy, and basic
sciences like agriculture, animal husbandry, and handicrafts.
 Caste System:
In the early Vedic age there was no caste system. Member of same family took to
different arts, crafts and trades. People could change their occupation according to
their needs or talents. There was hardly any restriction in intermarriage, change of
occupation. There, was no restriction on taking of food cooked by the sudras. A
late hyman of the Rig-Veda known as Purushasukta refers to four castes. But
many scholars reject the theory that caste system existed in Rig Vedic age.
According to them Purushasukta is a late hymen and caste system was never rigid
and hereditary.

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 Economic Life:

 The Village:
In the Rig Vedic Age people lived in villages. The houses were made of wood and
bamboo. They had thatched roof and clay floors. The hymns of Rig-Veda refer to
Pura. It seems that Puras were fortified places and served as places of refuge
during danger of invasion.
There was absence of word nagara (city) in the hymns of Rig-Veda. Gramani was
the chief of the village. He looked after the affairs of the village, both civil and
military. There was another officer known as Vrajapati who led Kulapas or heads
of families to battle.
 Agriculture:
Reference in Rig-Veda shows, that agriculture was the principal occupation of the
people. They ploughed the field by means of a pair of oxen. Rig-Veda even
mentions that twenty four oxen were attached to a plough share at the same time
to plough the land. The ploughed land was known as Urvara or Kshetra. Water
was supplied into the fields by means of irrigation canal. Use of manure was
known to them. Barley and wheat were mainly cultivated. Cotton and oil seeds
were also grown. Rice was perhaps not extensively cultivated. Agriculture was
their main source of income.
 Domestication of animals:
Besides agriculture, cattle breeding were another means of living. There are
prayers in the Vedas for Gosu (cattle). Cows were held in great respect. Cows
were symbols of wealth and prosperity of the Aryans. Sometimes cow was the
medium of exchange. The Aryans had also domesticated animals like horse,
draught OX, dog, goat, sheep, buffalo and donkey.
 Occupation:
Apart from agriculture and animal husbandry Aryans had also other occupation.
Weaving was the most important occupation. We learnt about weavers of wool
and cotton together with the workers in the subsidiary industries of dying and
embroidery. The carpenters built houses, chariots, wagons and supplied household
utensils and furniture.
Then there were blacksmiths who supplied various necessaries of life, from fine
needles and razors to the sickles, ploughshares, spears and swords. The gold
smiths made ornaments like ear-rings, bangles, necklaces, bands etc. The leather-

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 workers made bow-strings and casks for holding liquor. The physicians cured
diseases. The priests performed sacrifices and composed hymns and taught them
to the disciples.
 Trade and Commerce:
There were trade and maritime activity. Sometimes traders made journey to
distant lands for larger profits in trade. There was probably commercial
intercourse with Babylon and other countries in Western Asia. The principal
media of trade was barter. Cow was used as unit of value. Gradually pieces of
gold called “mishka” were used as means of exchange. Trade and commerce was
regulated and managed by a group of people called “Pani”.
 Transport and Communication:
The chief means of transport by land were rathas (Chariots) and wagons drawn by
horses and oxen. Riding on horseback was also in vogue. Travelling was common
though roads were haunted by taskara (highway men) and forests were infested by
wild animals.
 Religious Condition:
 The religious life of the Aryans was simple and plain. They worshipped various
manifestations of nature such as the sun, the moon, the sky, the Dawn, the thunder, the
wind and the Air. Vedic hymns were composed in praise of nature.

 The earliest religious ideas of the Aryans were those of a primitive

animism where the focus was around them, which they could not control
or understand, were invested with divinity and were personified as male
or female gods

• The Vedic Aryans were primarily worshippers of nature.

• The early gods of the Aryans, like those of the Greeks, were
atmospheric gods and predominantly male. There was no fixed order of
seniority among the gods.

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• In the traditional classification of gods, there has been a three-fold
division.
(1) Terrestrial Gods in which Prithvi, Brihasapati, Agni and rivers are
important.
(2) Intermediate or Madhyamsthana gods in which Indra, Prajanya and
Rudra are prominent.
(3) Celestial or Dyusthana gods, among which Varuna, Usha, Surya,
Savitri and Vishnu are important.

• Among these gods, Indra was the god of strength, foremost in battle,
always ready to demolish dragons and demons. He has been called
‘Pirrandar’ or ‘breaker of ports.’ He is also the god of rain and thunder.
Rowdy and amoral, Indra is described as fond of feasting and drinking.
The largest number of hymns, 250 in number, were addressed to Indra.

• To Agni, 200 vedic hyms were addressed. He dominated the domestic

hearth and marriages were solemnised in the presence of fire. Fire was
the purest of the five elements and was held in particular esteem. Fire
also acted as a kind of intermediary between the gods on the one hand
and the people on the other. The oblations offered to Agni were supposed
to be carried in the form of smoke to the sky and thus transmitted to the
gods.

• Varuna, the upholder of cosmic order, personified waters. Whatever

happened in this world was thought to be the reflection of his desires. Of
all the Aryan gods, Varuna was ethically the highest. Varuna was so pure
and holy that performances of sacrifice would ensure his disfavour. He
abhorred sin or that which was not conformable to ‘rita.’

• Surya (sun), Savitri (god to whom the famous gayatri mantra is

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addressed) and Pushan (guardian of roads, herdsmen and straying cattle)
were the principal solar deities.

• Sonra was originally a plant from which a patent drink was produced
which was consumed only at sacrifices and which caused the most
invigorating effects. The god Sonia was identified with this intoxicating
juice.

• Yama was the god of death and held a prominent place.

• Rudra was a remote god, dwelling in mountains and generally an object

of fear. But he was the guardian of healing herbs.

• Tvastri was the Vedic vulcan god.

• Aryanyani was the guardian of forests and Vayu, the wind-god.

• Besides this, the cosmos, was also personified by large variety of

celestial beings.

• Some female gods like Ushas and Aditi are also mentioned, but they are
far less important than the male gods.

• Ushas was the goddess of appearance of dawn and Aditi was the mother
of all the gods. Demi-gods were Gandharvas, Maruts and Vishvedevas.

• The dominant mode of worshipping gods was through the recitation of

prayers and offering of sacrifices. Prayers were of more importance

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during this period and were made both collectively and individually.
Originally, every tribe or clan had a special god and prayers were offered
in chorus by members of the whole tribe.

• There were no temples and no idol worship during the early Vedic
period.

• God’s favour could also be won through sacrifices. A number of

domestic and public sacrifices are mentioned in the Rigveda.

• Agni and Indra were invited to partake of sacrifices made by the whole
tribe (Jana).

• Offerings of vegetables, barley, etc. were made to gods.

• In Rigveda times, the process was not accompanied by any ritual or

sacrificial formulae. Magical power of the words was considered not so
important as it came to be in later Vedic times.

• Real development of a sacrificial cult took place in the second phase of

Aryan expansion in India.

• Motive for worship was mainly for material gains such as praja
(children), pasu (cattle), food, wealth, health, and for ending miseries of
existence not spirtual uplift.

• The number of hymns attributed to different Vedic gods are, Indra:

250; Agni: 200; Soma: 120; Varuna: 12; Surya: 10; Pushan: 08; Vishnu:
06; Rudra: 03; Mitra: 01.

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Conclusion

The early Vedic period is marked by the infiltration of Aryan peoples into the Indian sub-
continent and their interaction with the Dravidian people. Aryans spread into the Ganges River
valley about 1000 B.C.E. About that time, they developed the use of iron tools and weapons.
They used iron axes to clear forests for agriculture; and as their agricultural practices flourished,
their population grew immensely. As their populations grew, their political structure evolved
also. The local chiefdoms became kingdoms ruled by kings in permanent cities. These kings
depended on the services of professional administrators to handle the day to day tasks of
governance. Still, they did not establish large states. Only in the 4th century B.C.E. did any
Aryan state equal the size of Harappan society.
During the early Vedic age, the Aryans placed substantial reliance on sacrifice of animals to their
gods. It was believed that during sacrifice, the gods visited earth, and joined worshipers in eating
and drinking. Since the presence of the gods was deemed beneficial, sacrifice became almost
non-stop. A proper household would have the Brahmins offer sacrifices not less than five times
per day; a process that was expensive and time consuming.
In time, the practice grew old and the people disenchanted. A number of people began retreating
to the woodlands to live as hermits and contemplate the relationship between people, the world,
and the gods. A number of them were inspired by Dravidian practice. The Dravidians had
worshiped spirits associated with fertility and the generation of new life. They had also believed
that human souls took on a new physical form after death, either as another human, or even as a
plant or animal.
The combination of Dravidian and Aryan religious ideas culminated in the Upanishads, (literally,
"sitting in front of," as a student sits in front of a master to receive instruction,) a group of
religious works that appeared over a period of time. The Upanishads taught that individual
humans were in fact part of a greater universal soul known as the Brahman. The Brahman was
unchanging and universal, whereas human existence was in a constant state of flux. The
individual soul lived in a cycle of reincarnation, in which he would die and be reborn as another
person, animal, or plant. This reincarnation was known as karma. This cycle was not completely
desirable, as it involved a continuation of the suffering and death all humans encountered. The
ultimate goal was to break the cycle and enter into a permanent union with Brahman, sort of a
"heavenly state."
The teachings of the Upanishads either purposely or inadvertently justified the caste system, as
one in a higher caste was believed to have lived a virtuous life in his previous existence, and vice
versa. They spoke against gluttony, vice, materialism and failure to consider one’s relationship
with Brahman; and also encouraged personal integrity. A healthy respect for all living things,
animal and human, was also encouraged. Even though animals represented souls who had
suffered from their past life, they should not be caused additional suffering; therefore a
vegetarian diet became the norm for all who practiced the religion.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

 www.culturalindia.net

 www.historydiscussion.net

 www.iasscore.in

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