Glossary G-1
A arctic and Antarctic Circles  Latitudes 66 1/2°N and 66 1/2°S,
abyssal ecosystem  The collection of organisms and the
conditions that exist in the deep portions of the ocean.
abyssopelagic zone  The pelagic environment from a depth of
4,000 m (13,000 ft) to 6,000 m (20,000 ft).
accretion  Natural or artificial deposition of sediment along a
beach, resulting in the buildup of new land.
activated-sludge sewage treatment  Method of treating
sewage in which some of the sludge is returned to aeration
tanks, where it is mixed with incoming wastewater to encourage
degradation of the wastes in the sewage.
active margin  See leading margin.
agar  Substance produced by red algae; the gelatin-like
product of these algae.
ahermatypic  Corals that do not build reefs.
air toxics  See hazardous air pollutants.
algae  Marine and freshwater organisms (including most
seaweeds) that are singlecelled, colonial, or multicelled, with
chlorophyll but no true roots, stems, or leaves and with no
flowers or Seeds.
algal ridge  A ridge of coralline algae that is found on the outer
edge of some coral reefs.
algin  A phycocolloid extracted from brown algae that is
widely used in food processing.
alluvial plain  Flat deposit of terrestrial sediment eroded by
water from higher elevations.
alpine tundra  The biome that exists above the tree line in
mountainous regions.
amphidromic point  Point from which cotidal lines radiate on
a chart; the nodal, or lowamplitude, point for a rotary tide.
amplitude  For a wave, the vertical distance from sea level to
crest or from undisturbed sea level to trough, or one-half the
wave height.
anaerobic respiration  The breaking down of organic matter
by organisms in the absence of oxygen. Also See aerobic
respiration.
andesite  A volcanic rock intermediate in composition
between basalt and granite; associated with subduction zones.
anoxic  Deficient in oxygen.
antarctic Circle  See Arctic and Antarctic Circles.
anthropogenic impact  Disturbance to the natural
environment caused by humans.
antinode  Portion of a standing wave with maximum vertical
motion.
aquaculture  The farming of marine, brackishwater, and
freshwater organisms. Also See mariculture.
aquiclude  An impervious confining layer of an aquifer.
aquifer  A porous layer of earth material that becomes
saturated with water.
aquitard  A partially permeable layer in an aquifer.
respectively, marking the boundaries of light and darkness
during the summer and winter solstices.
Aristotle’s lantern  The set of jaws and associated muscles
used by sea urchins to bite off food .
armored beach  A beach that is protected from wave and
water erosion by coarse-size lag deposits.
arrow worms (chaetognaths; phylum
Chaetognatha)  Planktonic invertebrates characterized by a
streamlined, transparent body.
artesian well  The result of a pressurized aquifer being
penetrated by a pipe or conduit, within which water rises
without being pumped.
artificial reefs  Human constructed reefs that attract marine
life.
asthenosphere  Upper, deformable portion of Earth’s mantle,
the layer below the lithosphere; probably partially molten; may
be site of convection cells.
atmospheric pressure  Pressure, at any point on Earth, exerted
by the atmosphere as a consequence of gravitational force
exerted on the column of air lying directly above the point.
atoll  Ring-shaped coral reef that encloses a lagoon in which
there is no exposed preexisting land and which is surrounded by
the open sea.
atom  The basic subunit of elements, composed of protons,
neutrons, and electrons.
autumnal equinox  See equinoxes.
auxospore  Naked cell of a diatom, which grows to full size and
forms a new siliceous covering.
B
back reef  The inner part of a barrier reef or an atoll.
backshore  Beach zone lying between the foreshore and
the coast, acted on by waves only during severe storms and
exceptionally high water.
bacterioplankton  Composed of members of the domains
Bacteria and Archaea.
baleen  Whalebone; horny material growing down from
the upper jaw of planktonfeeding whales; forms a strainer, or
filtering organ, consisting of numerous plates with fringed
edges.
bar  Offshore ridge or mound of sand, gravel, or other loose
material that is submerged, at least at high tide; located
especially at the mouth of a river or estuary or lying a short
distance from and parallel to the beach.
barrier island  Deposit of sand, parallel to shore and raised
above sea level; may support vegetation and animal life.
barrier reef  Coral reef that parallels land but is some distance
offshore, with water between reef and land.
basalt  Fine-grained, dark igneous rock, rich in iron and
magnesium, characteristic of oceanic crust.
bathymetry  Study and mapping of seafloor elevations and
the variations of water depth; the topography of the sea floor.
G-2 Glossary
bathypelagic  Oceanic zone from 1000–4000 m.
bathypelagic zone  The pelagic environment from a depth of
1,000 m (3,000 ft) to 4,000 m (13,000 ft).
beach  Zone of unconsolidated material between the mean
low-water line and the line of permanent vegetation, which is
also the effective limit of storm waves; sometimes includes the
material moving in offshore, onshore, and longshore transport.
beach face  Section of the foreshore normally exposed to the
action of waves.
benthic  Describes organisms that live on the bottom of
marine and freshwater ecosystems.
benthic ecosystem  A type of marine or freshwater ecosystem
consisting of organisms that live on the bottom.
benthic meiofauna  members of the deep-sea infaunal that
measure 2mm or less.
benthos  Organisms living on or in the ocean bottom.
berm  Nearly horizontal portion of a beach (backshore) with
an abrupt face; formed from the deposition of material by wave
action at high tide.
berm crest  Ridge marking the seaward limit of a berm.
big bang theory  The theory that a cosmic explosion produced
clouds of dust and gas from which the earth and solar system
originated.
bilateral symmetry  Having right and left halves that are
approximate mirror images of each other.
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)  The amount of oxygen
required by microbes to degrade organic molecules in aquatic
ecosystems.
biodegradable  Able to be broken down by natural biological
processes.
biogenous sediment  Sediment derived from organisms.
biological magnification  The increased concentration of non-
biodegradable chemicals in the higher levels of the food chain.
bioluminescence  Production of light by living organisms as a
result of a chemical reaction either within certain cells or organs
or outside the cells in some form of excretion.
biome  A kind of plant and animal community that covers
large geographic areas. Climate is a major determiner of the
biome found in a particular area.
bioremediation  Using living organisms to clean
contaminated water
bioturbation  Reworking of sediments by organisms that
burrow into them and ingest them.
bioturbator  A member of the infauna that moves sediment
while burrowing or feeding.
blade  Flat, photosynthetic, “leafy” portion of an alga or a
seaweed.
bleaching  The expulsion of zooxanthellae by reef corals in
response to stress.
boreal forest  A broad band of mixed coniferous and
deciduous trees that stretches across northern North America
(and also Europe and Asia); its northernmost edge is integrated
with the Arctic tundra.
bottom layer  See deep layer.
brachiopods  See lamp shells.
breaker  Sea surface water wave that has become too steep to
be stable and collapses.
breakwater  Structure protecting a shore area, harbor,
anchorage, or basin from waves; a type of jetty.
bryozoans  (phylum Ectoprocta or Bryozoa) Small, colonial,
encrusting invertebrates with delicate, often lace-like skeletons.
buttresses  A series of finger-like projections that alternate
with sand channels
by-catch  Non-target catch that is taken while fishing for other
species.
byssal threads  Strong fibers secreted by mussels for
attachment.
C
cadmium  toxic heavy metal that is present in the waste from
battery manufacturing.
calcium carbonate (CaCO3)  A mineral that is the major
component of the shell, skeleton, and other parts of many
organisms.
capillary wave  Wave with wavelength less than 1.5 cm in
which the primary restoring force is surface tension.
carapace  (1) The shield-like structure that covers the anterior
portion of some crustaceans. (2) The shell of sea turtles.
carbon dioxide (CO2)  A normal component of the Earth’s
atmosphere that in elevated concentrations may interfere with
the Earth’s heat budget; a colorless gas that is required in the
process of photosynthesis.
carrageenan  A phycocolloid extracted from red algae that is
widely used in food processing.
carrageenan  Substance produced by certain algae that acts
as a thickening agent.
cat’s-paw  Patch of ripples on the water’s surface, related to a
discrete gust of wind.
centrifugal force  Outward-directed force acting on a body
moving along a curved path or rotating about an axis; an inertial
force.
centripetal force  Inward-directed force necessary to keep an
object moving in a curved path or rotating about an axis.
cephalopods  (class Cephalopoda) Octopuses, squids, and
other molluscs that possess a foot modified into arms that
surround the head.
cetaceans  (order Cetacea) Marine mammals with anterior
flippers, no posterior limbs, and a dorsal fin: whales, dolphins,
and porpoises.
chaetognaths  Free-swimming, carnivorous, pelagic, wormlike,
planktonic animals; arrowworms.

chemosynthetic (chemoautotrophic) prokaryotes  its density, causing it to rise. The rising fluid cools, becomes
Autotrophic bacteria (such as the sulfur bacteria) and archaea
that use energy by releasing it from particular chemical
compounds.
chitin  A complex derivative of carbohydrates that is the main
component of the skeleton of many animals.
chitons  (class Polyplacophora) Molluscs that have a shell
divided into eight overlapping plates.
chlorinated hydrocarbons  A class of pesticides consisting of
carbon, hydrogen, and chlorine; these pesticides are very stable.
chromosome  One of the bodies in a cell that carries the genes
in a linear order.
cilia  Microscopic, hairlike projections of living cells that beat in
coordinated fashion and produce movement.
circulation  Movement of air or water.
climax community  Last stage of succession; a relatively stable,
long-lasting, complex, and interrelated community of plants,
animals, fungi, and bacteria.
cluster  A group of galaxies. A cluster may contain thousands
of galaxies.
cnidarians  (phylum Cnidaria)  Invertebrates with
nematocysts and radial symmetry.
coast  Strip of land of indefinite width that extends from
the shore inland to the first major change in terrain that is
unaffected by marine processes.
coastal management  The use of coastal resources with the
intention of preserving them.
coccolithophorid  Microscopic, planktonic alga surrounded by
a cell wall with embedded calcareous plates (coccoliths).
cold seeps  Places where hydrogen sulfide and methane seep
out from the sea floor.
coliform bacteria  Any of the many types of bacteria that
commonly live in the colon, or intestines, of humans and other
animals.
colonial organism  Organism consisting of semi-independent
parts that do not exist as separate units; groups of organisms
with specialized functions that form a coordinated unit.
competitive exclusion principle  A theory that no two
populations of different species will occupy the same niche and
compete for exactly the same resources in the same habitat for
very long.
confined aquifer  An aquifer that is bounded on the top and
bottom by impermeable confining layers.
constant proportions, rule of  A principle that states that the
relative amounts of ions in seawater are always the same.
constructed wetlands  A complex of artificial marshes
designed to filter and decompose waste
continental drift  The movement of continental masses on the
surface of the earth.
contour  Line on a chart or graph connecting points of equal
elevation, temperature, salinity, or other property.
convection cell  Circulation in a fluid, or fluidlike material,
caused by heating from below. Heating the base of a fluid lowers
Glossary G-3
denser, and sinks, creating circulation.
convergent plate boundary  A boundary between two plates
that are converging or colliding with one another.
copepod  Small, shrimplike member of the zooplankton; in the
class. Crustacea.
copper  Toxic heavy metal that is released in wood treatment
and other industrial processes
coral knoll (pinnacle)  A column of coral within the lagoon of
an atoll.
coral reef ecosystem  A tropical, shallow-water, marine
ecosystem dominated by coral organisms that produce external
skeletons.
coral rubble  Coral fragments.
coralline algae  Red algae that deposit calcium carbonate in
their thallus.
coralline sponges  See sclerosponges.
corange lines  In a rotary tide, lines of equal tidal range about
the amphidromic point.
core  The innermost layer of the earth.
Coriolis effect  Apparent force acting on a body in motion,
due to the rotation of Earth, causing deflection to the right
in the  Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern
Hemisphere; the force is proportional to the speed and varies
with latitude of the moving body.
Coriolis effect  The tendency of objects moving large distances
on the earth’s surface to bend to the right in the Northern
Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.
cotidal lines  Lines on a chart marking the location of the tide
crest at stated time intervals.
counterillumination  The emission of light by midwater
animals to match the background light.
countershading  A color pattern that results in a dark back and
a light belly; most common in epipelagic fishes.
cratered coast  A primary coast formed when the seaward
side of a volcanic crater is eroded away or is blown away by a
volcanic eruption; opening the interior of the crater to the sea
and creating a concave bay.
cratons  Large pieces of Earth’s crust that form the centers of
continents.
crest  See berm crest, reef crest, wave crest.
crown-of-thorns sea star (Acanthaster planci)  A predator of
reef corals.
crude oil  Complex mixture of hydrocarbons that is refined to
make fuels, plastics, and other products.
crust  The thin, outer, solid surface of the Earth.
crustacean  Member of a class of primarily aquatic organisms
with paired jointed appendages and a hard outer skeleton;
includes lobsters, crabs, shrimps, and copepods.
crystal  A solid that consists of a regular pattern of molecules.
ctenophore  Transparent, planktonic animal, spherical or
cylindrical with rows of cilia; comb jelly.
G-4 Glossary
cultural eutrophication  The effect of human activities that
increase nutrient levels and biological productivity in a water
body..
curie temperature  Temperature at which the magnetic
signature is frozen into an igneous rock during cooling.
current meter  Instrument for measuring the speed and
direction of a current.
cusp  One of a series of evenly spaced, crescentshaped
depressions along sand and gravel beaches.
cyanobacteria  Member of the phytoplankton that can
dominate in open-ocean environments.
D dissolved in water rather than being in particles.
decay bacteria  Bacteria that breaks down organic matter.
declinational tide  See diurnal tide.
deep (bottom) layer  The deepest and coldest of the three
layers of the ocean.
deep scattering layer (DSL)  A sound-reflecting layer made
up of many types of organisms that migrate daily from the
mesopelagic zone to the epipelagic zone.
deep sea  The dark waters below the mesopelagic zone.
deep-sea gigantism  The phenomenon of some deep-sea
groups being giants compared to their shallow-water relatives.
deep-water wave  Wave in water, the depth of which is greater
than one-half the wavelength.
delta  Area of unconsolidated sediment deposits, usually
triangular in outline, formed at the mouth of a river.
demersal fish  Fish living near and on the bottom.
density  Property of a substance defined as mass per unit
volume and usually expressed in grams per cubic centimeter or
kilograms per cubic meter.
deposit feeder  An animal that feeds on organic matter that
settles on the bottom. Compare suspension feeder.
desert  A biome that receives less than 25 centimeters (10
inches) of precipitation per year.
desiccate  To dry out when exposed to air.
detritus  Any loose material, especially decomposed, broken,
and dead organic materials.
detritus  Particles of dead organic matter.
diatom  Microscopic unicellular alga with an external skeleton
of silica.
diatoms  (phylum Heterokontophyta, class Bacillariophyta)
Unicellular and eukaryotic autotrophs with a siliceous frustule;
mostly planktonic.
diffraction  Caused by the spread of wave energy sideways to
the direction of wave travel.
dinoflagellate  Member of the plankton. Some species are
photosynthetic and others are not.
dioxins  A general term for a group or family of chemicals
containing hundreds of members (some of which are toxic) that
are persistent in the environment and that are unintentionally
formed by-products of industrial processes that involve chlorine
and/or incineration.
dipole  A magnetic field like Earth’s, with two opposite poles.
discharge  The amount of water that passes a fixed point in a
given amount of time.
disperants  Chemicals added to a spill to break up surface oil
into small droplets.
dispersal  Migration of organisms from a concentrated
population into areas with lower population densities.
dissociation  The breaking up of a salt molecule into ions
when placed in water or other solvents.
dissolved organic matter (DOM)  Organic matter that is
dissolved oxygen (DO)  A measure of the amount of oxygen
that is dissolved in or carried in a given medium.
diurnal tide (declinational tide)  Tide with one high water
and one low water each tidal day.
divergent plate boundary  A boundary between two plates
that are diverging or moving apart from one another.
diversity  The total number of species inhabiting a particular
environment.
domestic sewage  Wastewater from homes and non-industrial
buildings. Compare industrial sewage.
domestic water  Water used for domestic activities, such as
drinking, air conditioning, bathing, washing clothes, washing
dishes, flushing toilets, and watering lawns and gardens.
downwelling  The sinking of surface water that is denser than
underlying water layers.
drift bottle  Bottle released into the sea for use in studying
currents; contains a card identifying date and place of release
and requesting the finder to return it with date and place of
recovery.
drift net  A fishing net that is allowed to drift for a long time
before it is pulled on board.
drift sector  See coastal circulation cell.
drowned river valley (coastal plain) estuary  An estuary that
is formed when sea level rose at the end of the last glacial age.
dugong  See sea cow.
dune coast  A primary coast formed by the deposition of sand
in dunes by the wind.
dynamic equilibrium  State in which the sums of all changes
are balanced and there is no net change.
E
ebb tide  Falling tide; the period of the tide between high
water and the next low water.
echolocation  Use of sound waves by some marine animals to
locate and identify underwater objects.
ecological niche  The full range of ecological characteristics
of a species, such as its feeding habits, specific habitat, and
reproductive strategy.

ecological succession  The regular replacement of species by
others in a given area.
eddy  Circular movement of water.
Ekman layer  The upper part of the water column that is
affected by wind.
Ekman spiral  In a theoretical ocean of infinite depth,
unlimited extent, and uniform viscosity, with a steady wind
blowing over the surface, the surface water moves 45° to the
right of the wind in the Northern Hemisphere. At greater depths,
the water moves farther to the right with decreased speed, until
at some depth (approximately 100 m), the water moves opposite
to the wind direction. Net water transport is 90° to the right of
the wind in the Northern Hemisphere. Movement is to the left in
the Southern Hemisphere.
Ekman transport  The movement of the Ekman layer 90° from
the wind direction.
El Niño  Wind-driven reversal of the Pacific equatorial currents,
resulting in the movement of warm water toward the coasts of
the Americas, so called because it generally develops just after
Christmas.
El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO)  Large-scale changes
in atmospheric and ocean current patterns in which, among
other things, warm surface water in the  Pacific  Ocean moves
further to the east than normal. El Niño refers specifically to the
warming of the surface water in the Eastern Pacific. Compare La
Niña.
electromagnetic spectrum  See electromagnetic radiation.
element  A form of matter consisting of a specific kind of atom.
emergent plants  Aquatic vegetation that is rooted on the
bottom but has leaves that float on the surface or protrude
above the water.
endangered species  Those species that are present in such
small numbers that they are in immediate jeopardy of becoming
extinct.
entrainment  Mixing of salt water into fresh water overlying
salt water, as in an estuary.
enzymes  Protein molecules that speed up the rate of specific
chemical reactions.
epicenter  Point on Earth’s surface directly above an
earthquake location, specified by identifying the latitude and
longitude of the earthquake. See also focus, hypocenter.
epifauna  Animals living attached to the sea bottom or moving
freely over it.
episodic wave  Abnormally high wave unrelated to local storm
conditions.
equator  0° latitude, determined by a plane that is
perpendicular to Earth’s axis and is everywhere equidistant from
the North and South Poles.
equatorial currents  Major ocean currents that move parallel
to the Equator.
equilibrium surface  The undisturbed surface of the water.
equinoxes  Days of the year when the  Sun stands directly
above the equator, so that day and night are of equal length
around the world. The vernal equinox occurs about March 21,
and the autumnal equinox occurs September 22–23.
Glossary G-5
escarpment  Nearly continuous line of cliffs or steep slopes
caused by erosion or faulting.
estuaries  Marine ecosystems that consist of shallow, partially
enclosed areas where freshwater enters the ocean.
euphausiid  Planktonic, shrimplike crustacean. See also krill.
euphotic zone  Depth of the water column where there is
sufficient sunlight for growth of photosynthetic organisms.
eustatic change  Global change in sea level that affects all of
the world’s coastlines.
eutrophic lake  A usually shallow, warm-water lake that is
nutrient rich.
eutrophication  The process by which increased inputs of
nutrients lead to an undesirable increase in algal growth.
evaporation  Process by which liquid becomes vapor. Returns
moisture to the atmosphere in the hydrologic cycle; water
warmed by the  Sun’s heat evaporates, becomes vapor or gas,
and rises into the atmosphere.
evaporative cooling  The lower speed and hence lower
temperature of molecules remaining in the liquid phase after
evaporation of the fastest molecules.
evapotranspiration  The process of plants transporting water
from the roots to the leaves where it evaporates.
exclusive economic zone (EEZ)  A zone 200 nautical miles
(370 km) wide along the coast where nations have exclusive
rights to any resource. It was initiated by the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).
extermination (extirpation)  The extinction of a species that
is caused by humans.
extinction  The death of a species; the elimination of all the
individuals of a particular kind.
extremophile  Microorganism that thrives under extreme
conditions of temperature, lack of oxygen, or high acid or salt
levels; these conditions kill most other organisms.
F
fault bay  A bay formed by faulting along a primary coast.
fault coast  A primary coast formed by tectonic activity and
faulting.
fecal coliform bacteria  Bacteria found in the intestines of
humans and other animals, often used as an indicator of water
pollution.
fetch  Continuous area of water over which the wind blows in
essentially a constant direction.
filter feeder  A suspension feeder that actively filters food
particles. Compare passive suspension feeder.
fjord  Narrow, deep, steep-walled inlet formed by the
submergence of a mountainous coast or by the entrance of the
ocean into a deeply excavated glacial trough after the melting
of the glacier.
fjord-type estuary  A deep, small-surface-area estuary with
moderately high river input and little tidal mixing.
flood tide  Rising tide; the period of the tide between low
water and the next high water.
G-6 Glossary
flushing time  Length of time required for an estuary to
exchange its water with the open ocean.
focus  The location of an earthquake within Earth. Focus is
specified by identifying latitude, longitude, and depth of the
earthquake. See also epicenter.
food chain  The series of organisms involved in the passage of
energy from one trophic level to the next.
foraminifera  Minute, one-celled animals that usually secrete
calcareous shells.
foraminiferans (forams)  (phylum Granuloreticulosa)
Protozoans with a calcareous shell, or test, and pseudopodia.
forced wave  Wave generated by a continuously acting force
and caused to move at a speed faster than it freely travels.
fore reef  The outer part of a barrier reef or an atoll.
foreshore  Portion of the shore that includes the low-tide
terrace and the beach face.
fracture zone   long, linear zone of irregular bathymetry of
the sea floor, characterized by asymmetric ridges and troughs;
commonly associated with fault zones.
free wave  Wave that continues to move at its natural speed
after its generation by a force.
freshwater ecosystem  Aquatic ecosystems that have low
amounts of dissolved salts.
friable  A soil characteristic that describes how well a soil
crumbles.
fringing reef  Reef attached directly to the shore of an island
or a continent and not separated from it by a lagoon.
frustule  Siliceous external shell of a diatom.
furns  A group of hydrocarbons that enter the marine
environment from land; they are toxic and may be carcinogenic.
G tablemount.
gabbro  A coarse-grained, dark igneous rock, rich in iron and
magnesium, the slowcooling equivalent of basalt.
galaxy  A huge aggregate of stars held together by mutual
gravitation.
gas exchange  The movement of oxygen and other gases
between the atmosphere and the ocean, or between the water
or atmosphere and living organisms, in which case it is often
called respiratory exchange.
generating force  Disturbing force that creates a wave, such as
wind or a landslide entering water.
genus  A group of similar species.
geomorphology  Study of Earth’s land forms and the
processes that have formed them.
geostrophic flow  Horizontal flow of water occurring when
there is a balance between gravitational forces and the Coriolis
effect.
global distillation  Evaporation and condensation of
substances on a global scale, leading to the net transport of
certain pollutants to the poles.
Global Positioning System (GPS)  A worldwide radio-
navigation system consisting of twenty-four navigational
satellites and five ground-based monitoring stations. GPS
uses this system of satellites as reference points for calculating
accurate positions on the surface of Earth with readily available
GPS receivers.
Gondwanaland  An ancient landmass that fragmented to
produce Africa, South America, Antarctica, Australia, and India.
graben  A portion of Earth’s crust that has moved downward
and is bounded by steep faults; a rift.
granite  Crystalline, coarse-grained, igneous rock composed
mainly of quartz and feldspar.
gravity wave  Water wave form in which gravity acts as the
restoring force; a wave with wavelength greater than 2 cm.
great circle  The intersection of a plane passing through the
center of Earth with the surface of Earth. Great circles are formed
by the equator and any two meridians of longitude 180° apart.
great ocean conveyor  A global circulation pattern in which
water cycles throughout the ocean basins.
green algae  (phylum Chlorophyta)  Seaweeds in which
chlorophyll is not masked by other pigments.
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)  Solar time along the prime
meridian passing through Greenwich, England; also known
asUniversal Time or Zulu Time.
groin  Protective structure for the shore, usually built
perpendicular to the shoreline; used to trap littoral drift or to
retard erosion of the shore; a type of jetty.
groundwater  Water that infiltrates the soil and is stored in the
spaces between particles in the Earth.
group speed  Speed at which a group of waves travels (in deep
water, group speed equals one-half the speed of an individual
wave); the speed at which the wave energy is propagated.
guyot  Submerged, flat-topped seamount. Also known as a
gyre  Circular movement of water, larger than an eddy; usually
applied to a bigger system.
H
habitat  Place where a plant or animal species naturally lives
and grows.
habitat restoration  The recovery of stressed or destroyed
habitats.
hadopelagic (hadal pelagic) zone  The pelagic environment
below 6,000 m (20,000 ft).
half-life  Time required for half of an initial quantity of a
radioactive isotope to decay.
harmful algal bloom (HAB)  Term used to describe both toxic
and nuisance phytoplankton blooms.
harmonic analysis  Process of separating astronomical tide-
causing effects from the tide record, in order to predict the tides
at any location.

heat capacity  The amount of heat that must be added to a
substance to raise its temperature by a given amount, which
reflects the substance’s ability to store heat.
heat capacity  The quantity of heat required to produce a
unit change of temperature in a unit mass of material.  See also
specific heat.
heavy metals  A group of toxic metals: mercury, lead, and others.
hemoglobin  A blood protein that transports oxygen in many
animals.
hermaphrodite  An organism that has both male and female
gonads.  In simultaneous hermaphroditism sperm and eggs
can be produced at the same time; in sex reversal, or sequential
hermaphroditism, an individual begins life as a male but changes
into a female ( protandry) or as a female but changes into a male
( protogyny).
hermatypic coral  Corals that build coral reefs.
high water  Maximum height reached by a rising tide.
higher high water  Higher of the two high waters of any tidal
day in a region of mixed tides.
higher low water  Higher of the two low waters of any tidal
day in a region of mixed tides.
holdfast  Organ of a benthic alga that attaches the alga to the
sea floor.
holoplankton  Organisms living their entire life cycle in the
floating (planktonic) state.
hook  Spit turned landward at its outer end.
hot spot  Surface expression of a persistent rising plume of hot
mantle material.
hydrocarbons (HC)  Group of organic compounds consisting
of carbon and hydrogen atoms that are evaporated from fuel
supplies or are remnants of the fuel that did not burn completely
and that act as a primary air pollutant.
hydrogen  An element that is one of the constituents of water,
organic matter, and many other chemicals. Hydrogen gas (H2) is
composed of two hydrogen atoms.
hydrogen bond  In water, the weak attraction between the
positively charged hydrogen end of one water molecule and the
negatively charged oxygen end of another water molecule.
hydrogen sulfide (H2S)  The gas that is produced in anoxic
sediments.
hydrologic cycle  Movement of water among the land, oceans,
and atmosphere due to vertical and horizontal transport,
evaporation, and precipitation.
hydrothermal vent  Seafloor outlet for high temperature
groundwater and associated mineral deposits; a hot spring.
hypocenter  See focus.
hypothesis  A logical statement that explains an event or
answers a question that can be tested.
hypoxic  Having low oxygen levels in the water; organisms
may find survival in a hypoxic environment difficult or
impossible.
hypsographic curve  Graph of land elevation and ocean depth
versus area.
Glossary G-7
I
incidental catch  The portion of any catch or harvest taken in
addition to the targeted species.
incineration  Method of disposing of solid waste by burning.
Indo-West Pacific region  The tropical Indian and western and
central Pacific oceans.
industrial sewage  Wastewater from industries. Compare
domestic sewage.
industrial water uses  Uses of water for cooling and for
dissipating and transporting waste materials.
inertia  The property of matter that causes it to resist any
change in its motion.
infauna  Animals that live buried in the sediment.
inner core  The innermost region of Earth. It is solid and
consists primarily of iron with minor amounts of other elements
that likely include nickel, sulfur, and oxygen.
in-stream water uses  Use of a stream’s water flow for such
purposes as hydroelectric power, recreation, and navigation.
internal wave  Wave created below the sea surface at the
boundary between two density layers.
international date line  An imaginary line through the Pacific
Ocean roughly corresponding to 180° longitude, to the east of
which, by international agreement, the calendar date is one day
earlier than to the west.
interstitial water  The water contained between sediment
particles.
intertidal (littoral) zone  The area between the highest and
lowest tide.
intertidal volume  In an embayment, the volume of water
gained or lost owing to the rise and fall of the tide.
ion  Positively or negatively charged atom or group of atoms.
irrigation  Adding water to an agricultural field to allow certain
crops to grow where the lack of water would normally prevent
their cultivation.
island arc  A curved chain of volcanic islands that form along
a trench.
isostasy  Mechanism by which areas of Earth’s crust rise or
subside until their masses are in balance, “floating” on the mantle.
isotope  Atoms of the same element that have different
numbers of neutrons.
J
jetty  Structure located to influence currents or to protect the
entrance to a harbor or river from waves (U.S. terminology). See
also breakwater, groin.
K
kelp  Any of several large, brown algae, including the largest
known algae.
kelp  Brown algae characterized by their large size and
complexity. Some, like the giant kelp, form dense kelp beds or
kelp forests.
G-8 Glossary
keystone predator  A predatory species whose effects on
its community are proportionately much greater than its
abundance.
kinetic energy  Energy produced by the motion of an object.
krill  Small, shrimplike crustaceans found in huge masses in
polar waters and eaten by baleen whales.
L west. Together with latitude, it specifies the location of a point
lag deposits  Large particles left on a beach after the smaller
particles are washed away.
lagoon  Shallow body of water that usually has a shallow,
restricted outlet to the sea.
lamp shells (brachiopods; phylum Brachiopoda)  by the longshore current.
Invertebrates that have a lophophore and a shell that consists of
two valves.
Langmuir cells  Shallow wind-driven circulation; paired helixes
of moving water form windrows of debris along convergence
lines.
larva  Immature juvenile form of certain animals.
latent heat of evaporation  The amount of heat energy that
is needed to evaporate a substance, that is, to change it from a
liquid to a gas.
latent heat of melting  The amount of heat energy needed to
melt a substance, that is, to change it from a solid to a liquid.
latitude  Distance north or south of the equator. Latitude
is the angle between the equatorial plane and a line drawn
outward from the center of Earth to a point on the surface of
Earth. Latitude varies from 0° to 90° north of the equator and 0°
to 90° south of the equator. Together with longitude, it specifies
the location of a point on the surface of Earth.
Laurasia  An ancient landmass that fragmented to produce
North America and Eurasia.
lava coast  A primary coast formed by active volcanism
producing lava flows that extend to the sea.
lead  Toxic heavy metal that can cause nervous disorders and
death.
leading margin (active margin)  The edge of the overriding
plate at a trench or subduction zone.
leeward  Shelter; the part or side sheltered from wind or
waves.
lichen  The organism that results from the symbiosis of a
fungus and an autotroph such as a green alga.
light-year  The distance light travels in one year. A light-year is
equal to 9.46 x 1012 km, or 5.87 x1012 mi.
limiting factor  The primary condition of the environment that
determines the population size for an organism.
limiting resource  An essential factor whose short supply
limits the growth of a population.
limnetic zone  Region that does not have rooted vegetation in
a freshwater ecosystem.
lithosphere  A combination of the crust and outer layer of the
mantle that forms the plates that move over the Earth’s surface.
littoral zone  Region with rooted vegetation in a freshwater
ecosystem.
longitude  distance east or west of the prime meridian.
Longitude is the angle in the equatorial plane between the
prime meridian and a second meridian that passes through a
point on the surface of Earth whose location is being specified.
Longitude may be specified in one of two ways; either from 0° to
360° east of the prime meridian, or 0° to 180° east and 0° to 180°
on the surface of Earth.
longshore current  Current produced in the surf zone by the
waves breaking at an angle with the shore; the current runs
roughly parallel to the shoreline.
longshore transport (littoral drift)  Movement of sediment
loran  Navigational system in which position is determined
by measuring the difference in the time of reception of
synchronized radio signals; derived from the phrase “longrange
navigation.”
low water  Lowest elevation reached by a falling tide.
lower high water  Lower of the two high waters of any tidal
day in a region of mixed tides.
lower low water  Lower of the two low waters of any tidal day
in a region of mixed tides.
low-tide terrace  Flat section of the foreshore seaward of the
sloping beach face.
lunar month  Time required for the Moon to pass from one
new Moon to another new Moon (approximately twenty-nine
days).
M
macrofauna  Large animals that feed on meiofauna.
macroplankton  The component of the plankton that consists
of large organisms 2 to 20 cm in size.
main thermocline  See thermocline.
male parasitism  The permanent attachment of a male to a
female in some deep-sea fishes.
mammals  (class Mammalia)  Vertebrates that have hair and
mammary glands.
manatee See sea cow.
mangrove swamp ecosystems  Marine shoreline ecosystems
dominated by trees that can tolerate high salt concentrations.
mantle   (1) The semiliquid region between the crust and core
of the earth. (2) The outer layer of tissue that secretes the shell
of molluscs.
mariculture  The culture of marine and brackish-water
organisms. Also See aquaculture.
marine ecosystems  Aquatic ecosystems that have high salt
content.
marine protected areas  Areas established for the
protection and management of ecologically significant marine
environments.

marsh  Area of grasses and reeds that is flooded either
permanently or for a major part of the year.
maximum sustained yield  Maximum number or amount
of a species that can be harvested each year without steady
depletion of the stock; the remaining stock is able to replace the
harvested members by natural reproduction.
mean Earth sphere depth  The depth below sea level of the
surface of the solid Earth if it was perfectly smooth with no
variation in elevation. This is 2403 m (7884 ft) below present sea
level.
mean ocean sphere depth  The depth of the ocean if the solid
Earth was perfectly smooth with no variation in elevation. This is
2646 m (8682 ft).
Mediterranean shrublands  Coastal ecosystems characterized
by winter rains and summer droughts that are dominated by
low, woody vegetation with small leaves.
meiofauna  Microscopic animals that live on the bottom; often
used as a synonym of interstitial fauna.
Mercator projection  A map projection in which the surface
of Earth is projected onto a cylinder. Distortion is great at high
latitudes and the poles cannot be shown. Mercator projections
are frequently used for navigation because a straight line drawn
on them is a line of true direction or constant compass heading.
mercury  Toxic heavy metal used in the production of chlorine
and plastics.
meridian  Circle of longitude passing through the poles and
any given point on Earth’s surface.
meroplankton  Floating developmental stages (eggs and
larvae) of organisms that as adults belong to the nekton and
benthos.
mesenterial filament  Any of the long, thin tubes attached
to the gut of corals and other cnidarians that are involved in
digestion and absorption.
mesopelagic  Oceanic zone from 200–1000 m.
mesopelagic zone  The pelagic environment from a depth of
approximately 100 to 200 m (350 to 650 ft) to 1,000 m (3,000 ft).
mesosphere  Either the layer of the atmosphere above the
stratosphere extending from about 50–90 km, or the region of
the mantle beneath the asthenosphere.
metabolism  All the chemical reactions that take place in an
organism.
metamorphosis  A marked change in form during
embryological development.
methane (CH4)  An organic compound produced by living
organisms that is a greenhouse gas.
methyl mercury  Mercury combined with organic chemicals
that accumulates in the food chain and is highly toxic.
microherbivore  Small invertebrates like snails, chiton,
crustaceans, and polychaete worms.
microplankton  Net plankton, composed of individuals from
0.07–1 mm in size but large enough to be retained by a small
mesh net.
minus tide  Low-tide level below the mean value of the low
tides or the zero tidal depth reference.
Glossary G-9
mixed layer  See surface layer.
mixed semidiurnal tide  A tidal pattern with two successive
high tides of different heights each day.
mixed tide  Type of tide in which large inequalities between
the two high waters and the two low waters occur in a tidal day.
Mohorovičić discontinuity (Moho)  Boundary between crust
and mantle, marked by a rapid increase in seismic wave speed.
molecule  Two or more atoms chemically bonded to form a
stable unit.
mollusks  Marine animals, usually with shells; includes mussels,
oysters, clams, snails, and slugs.
moraine  Glacial deposit of rock, gravel, and other sediment
left at the margin of an ice sheet.
N
nannoplankton  Plankton that passes through an ordinary
plankton net but can be removed from the water by centrifuging
water samples.
natural selection  A process that determines which individuals
within a species will reproduce more effectively and therefore
results in changes in the characteristics within a species.
nautical mile  Unit of length equal to 1852 m, or 1.15 land
miles or 1 minute of latitude.
neap tides  Tides occurring near the times of the first and last
quarters of the  Moon, when the range of the tide is least.
nebula  A large dense cloud of gas and dust in space.
nemerteans  See ribbon worms.
nitrogen (N2)  An element that is one of the constituents of
proteins. Nitrogen gas (N2) is composed of two nitrogen atoms.
nitrogen fixation  Process of using nitrogen gas as a source of
inorganic nitrogen.
node  Point of least or zero vertical motion in a standing wave.
non-biodegradable  Unable to be broken down by bacteria or
other organisms.
nonpoint source  Diffuse pollutants, such as agricultural
runoff, road salt, and acid rain, that are not from a single,
confined source.
northern coniferous forest  See Boreal forest.
nudibranchs  Soft-bodied, gastropod mollusks; sea slugs.
nutrient  In the ocean, any one of a number of inorganic or
organic compounds or ions used primarily in the nutrition of
primary producers; nitrogen and phosphorus compounds are
examples.
O
ocean acidification  Decrease of seawater pH as a result of
increased carbon dioxide.
offshore  Direction seaward of the shore.
offshore current  Any current flowing away from the shore.
G-10 Glossary
oligotrophic lakes  Deep, cold, nutrient-poor lakes that are
low in productivity.
operculum  The tough lid that closes the shell opening of
many gastropods when the body is withdrawn; the flap of bony
plates that covers the gills of bony fishes.
orbit  In water waves, the path followed by the water particles
affected by the wave motion; also, the path of a body subjected
to the gravitational force of another body, such as Earth’s orbit
around the Sun.
ostracods  A group of crustaceans abundant in the
mesopelagic that look like tiny clams with legs.
outer core  A region surrounding the inner core. It is liquid and
consists primarily of iron with minor amounts of other elements
that likely include nickel, sulfur, and oxygen.
overturn  The sinking of surface water that has become more
dense than the water below.
oxygen  An element that is one of the constituents of water,
organic matter, and many other chemicals. Oxygen gas (O2),
composed of two oxygen atoms, is needed for respiration and is
produced by photosynthesis.
oxygen minimum zone (OMZ)  Zone in which respiration and
decay reduce dissolved oxygen to a minimum, usually between
800 and 1000 m.
oxygen sag  The decline of oxygen downstream.
P physiographic map  Portrayal of Earth’s features by
paleomagnetism  Study of ancient magnetism recorded
in rocks; includes study of changes in location of Earth’s
magnetic poles through time and reversals in Earth’s
magnetic field.
Pangaea  An ancient landmass that consisted of all of the
present-day continents; it fragmented into Laurasia and.
Gondwanaland.
Panthalassa  The large ocean that surrounded the
supercontinent Pangaea and that was the ancestor of the
modern Pacific Ocean.
parallel  Circle on the surface of Earth parallel to the plane of
the equator and connecting all points of equal latitude; a line of
latitude.
partially mixed estuary  One with a strong net seaward
flow of fresh water at the surface and a strong inward flow of
seawater at depth.
passive continental margin  A continental margin that is
located at the “trailing edge” of a continent and as a result shows
little geological activity. Compare active continental margin.
passive margin  See trailing margin.
PCBs  See polychlorinated biphenyls.
pelagic  Those organisms that swim in open water.
pelagic ecosystem  A portion of a marine or freshwater
ecosystem that occurs in open water away from the shore.
pelagic organisms  Organisms that live in the water column,
away from the bottom, including the plankton and nekton.
pelagic zone  Primary division of the sea, which includes the
whole mass of water subdivided into neritic and oceanic zones;
also pertaining to the open sea.
period  See tidal period, wave period.
periphyton  Attached organisms in freshwater streams and
rivers, including algae, animals, and fungi.
permafrost  Permanently frozen ground.
persistent pollutant  A pollutant that remains in the
environment for many years in an unchanged condition.
pesticide  A chemical used to eliminate pests; a general
term used to describe a variety of different kinds of pest
killers, such as insecticides, fungicides, rodenticides, and
herbicides.
petroleum  Complex mixture of hydrocarbons that is refined
to make fuels, plastics, and other products.
pheromone  A chemical produced by one animal that changes
the behavior of another.
phosphorus (P)  An element that is essential to life.
photic zone  Layer of a body of water that receives ample
sunlight for photosynthesis; usually less than 100 m deep.
photophore (light organ)  An organ that produces
bioluminescence.
photosynthesis  Manufacture by plants of organic substances
and release of oxygen from carbon dioxide and water in the
presence of sunlight and the green pigment chlorophyll.
perspective drawing.
phytoplankton  Free-floating, microscopic, chlorophyll-
containing organisms.
picoplankton  The component of the plankton that consists
of extremely small organisms, 0.2 to 2 microns (μm) (0.0002
to 0.002 mm) in size ; they are too small to catch in a standard
plankton net.
pillow basalt  Rounded lava flows on the sea floor.
pinniped  Member of the marine mammal group that is
characterized by four swimming flippers; for example, seals and
sea lions.
pioneer community  The early stages of succession that begin
the soil-building process.
plankton  Tiny aquatic organisms that are moved by tides and
currents.
planula  The ciliated larva of cnidarians.
plate tectonics  The concept that the outer surface of the
Earth consists of large plates that are slowly moving over the
surface of a plastic layer.
plunger  A type of breaker that forms on narrow, steep beach
slopes.
pneumatocyst  A gas-filled bladder in seaweeds.
pogonophorans  See beard worms.
point source  Pollution that can be traced to a single source.

polar easterlies  Winds blowing from the poles toward
approximately 60°N and 60°S; winds are northeasterly in the
Northern Hemisphere and southeasterly in the Southern
Hemisphere.
polar reversal  The periodic reversal of Earth’s magnetic field
where the north magnetic pole becomes the south magnetic
pole and vice versa.
polar wandering curve  A plot of the apparent location of
Earth’s north magnetic pole as a function of geologic time.
Polaris  Also known as the North Star, is located less than 1°
from the celestial pole, a line corresponding to the extension of
Earth’s axis of rotation into the sky from the north geographic
pole. The angular elevation of Polaris above the horizon
corresponds to the latitude of an observer in the Northern
Hemisphere.
pollutants  Artificial substances that decrease the quality of
the environment.
pollution  Any addition of matter or energy that degrades the
environment for humans and other organisms.
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)  A group of chlorinated
hydrocarbon pollutants.
polyculture  A system of agriculture that mixes different plant
species in the same plots of land.
polyp  Sessile stage in the life history of certain members of
the phylum  Coelenterata (Cnidaria); sea anemones and corals.
porosity  A measure of the size and number of spaces in an
aquifer.
potable waters  Unpolluted freshwater supplies suitable for
drinking.
practical salinity units (PSU)  A measurement of seawater
salinity based on electrical conductivity, numerically equivalent
to parts per thousand.
prairies  Temperate grasslands.
precipitation  Falling products of condensation in the
atmosphere, such as rain, snow, or hail; also the falling out of a
substance from solution.
pressure  The weight exerted over a unit area of surface. This is
equal to 1 atmosphere (14.7 lb per square inch) at the sea surface
and 1 atmosphere plus the pressure exerted by the water
column, which is 1 atmosphere per 10 m (33 ft) of depth.
primary coast  Coastline shaped primarily by terrestrial
processes rather than marine processes.
primary production  Amount of living matter, or biomass, that
is produced by photosynthetic or chemosynthetic organisms,
usually expressed in grams of carbon per volume of seawater.
primary sewage treatment  Process that removes larger
particles by settling or filtering raw sewage through large
screens.
primary succession  Succession that begins with bare mineral
surfaces or water.
prime meridian  Meridian of 0° longitude, used as the origin
for measurements of longitude; internationally accepted as the
meridian of the Royal Naval Observatory, Greenwich, England.
Glossary G-11
profile  A graph that shows changes in temperature, salinity, or
any other parameter with depth.
progressive tide  Tide wave that moves, or progresses, in a
nearly constant direction.
progressive wind wave  Wave that moves, or progresses, in a
certain direction.
projection  A system of projecting lines of latitude and
longitude onto a plane surface to create a map with specific
physical properties; See also Mercator projection.
pteropod  Pelagic snail whose foot is modified for swimming.
P-wave (or primary wave)  A type of seismic wave in which
material is alternately compressed and stretched in the direction
of propagation of the wave.
R
radar  System of determining and displaying the distance of an
object by measuring the time interval between transmission of
a radio signal and reception of the echo return; derived from the
phrase “radio detecting and ranging.”
radial symmetry  Having similar parts regularly arranged
around a central axis.
radioactive  Describes unstable nuclei that release particles
and energy as they disintegrate.
radiolarians  Single-celled protozoans with siliceous tests.
radiometric dating  Determining ages of geologic samples by
measuring the relative abundance of radioactive isotopes and
comparing isotopic systems.
radula  The ribbon-like band of teeth of molluscs.
range  See tidal range.
rare  Species that are at risk of extinction, but not in immediate
danger.
recharge zones  Areas where surface water filters into an
aquifer.
red tide  Red coloration, usually of coastal waters, caused
by large quantities of microscopic organisms (generally
dinoflagellates); some red tides result in mass fish kills, others
contaminate shellfish, and still others produce no toxic effects.
reef coast  A secondary coast formed by reefbuilding corals in
tropical waters.
reef crest  Highest portion of a coral reef on the exposed
seaward edge of the reef.
reef flat  Portion of a coral reef landward of the reef crest and
seaward of the lagoon.
reef slope  The outer, steep margin of a coral reef. Also See fore
reef.
refraction  The change in the direction of a wave as it moves
into shallow water.
reservoir  A source or place of temporary residence for water,
such as the oceans or atmosphere.
G-12 Glossary
residence time  Mean time that a substance remains in a given
area before being replaced, calculated by dividing the amount of
a substance by its rate of addition or subtraction.
respiration  Metabolic process by which food or food-storage
molecules yield the energy on which all living cells depend.
respiration  The process that organisms use to release
chemical bond energy from food.
restoring force  Force that returns a disturbed water surface to
the equilibrium level, such as surface tension and gravity.
retina  The light-sensitive part of the eye.
ria coast  A primary coast formed when rising sea level, caused
by the melting of glaciers and ice sheets following the last ice
age, flooded coastal river valleys.
ridge  Long, narrow elevation of the sea floor, with steep sides
and irregular topography.
rift valley  Trough formed by faulting along a zone in which
plates move apart and new crust is created, such as along the
crest of a ridge system.
rift zone  A region where the lithosphere splits and separates,
allowing new crustal material to intrude into the crack or rift.
rip current  Strong surface current flowing seaward from
shore; the return movement of water piled up on the shore by
incoming waves and wind.
ripple  A small wave.
rise  Long, broad elevation that rises gently and generally
smoothly from the sea floor.
rotary standing tide  Tide that is the result of a standing wave
moving around the central node of a basin.
runoff  The water that moves across the surface of the land
and enters a river system.
S
saline brines  Waste from desalination plants that are used
to obtain fresh water from seawater and a major source of
pollutant in the Persian Gulf and other coastal regions.
salinity  Measure of the quantity of dissolved salts in seawater.
It is formally defined as the total amount of dissolved solids
in seawater in parts per thousand (‰) by weight when all the
carbonate has been converted to oxide, all the bromide and
iodide have been converted to chloride, and all organic matter is
completely oxidized.
salinization  An increase in salinity caused by growing salt
concentrations in soil.
salmon ranching  Practice in which cultured juvenile salmon
are released into fresh water and allowed to migrate to sea so
they can be harvested later when they return as adults.
salps  (class Thaliacea) Pelagic tunicates with a transparent,
cylindrical body, sometimes forming long colonies.
salt  A substance that consists of ions that have opposite
electrical charges.
salt budget  Balance between the rates of salt addition to and
removal from a body of water.
salt marsh  A relatively shallow coastal environment populated
with salt-tolerant grasses. These are often found in temperate
climates. They are extremely productive biologically and extend
the shoreline seaward by trapping fine sediment.
saltwater intrusion  The movement of saltwater into aquifers
near oceans when too much water is pumped from aquifers.
Sand Cay  A small sand island.
sand spit. See spit.
satellite navigation system  An accurate and sophisticated
navigational aid.
savanna  Tropical biome having seasonal rainfall of 50 to 150
centimeters (20–60 inches) per year. The dominant plants are
grasses, with some scattered fire- and drought-resistant trees.
scarp  Elongated and comparatively steep slope separating flat
or gently sloping areas on the sea floor or on a beach.
seas  A wave that has a sharp peak and a relatively flat wave
trough. Seas are found in areas where waves are generated by
the wind.
sea cow (dugong, manatee)  Large herbivorous marine
mammal of tropical and subtropical waters; includes the
manatee and the dugong.
sea  Same as the ocean; subdivision of the ocean; surface
waves generated or sustained by the wind within their fetch, as
opposed to swell.
sea stack  Isolated mass of rock rising from the sea near a
headland from which it has been separated by erosion.
seawater  Water from the ocean.
seafloor spreading  Movement of crustal plates away from the
mid-ocean ridges; process that creates new crustal material at
the midocean ridges.
seagrasses  Grass-like flowering plants such as eelgrass that are
adapted to live at sea.
secondary coast  Coastline shaped primarily by marine forces
or marine organisms.
secondary sewage treatment  Process that involves holding
the wastewater until the organic material has been degraded by
bacteria and other microorganisms.
secondary succession  Succession that begins with the
destruction or disturbance of an existing ecosystem.
sediment  Particulate organic and inorganic matter that
accumulates in loose, unconsolidated form.
seiche  Standing wave oscillation of an enclosed or
semienclosed body of water that continues, pendulum fashion,
after the generating force ceases.
seismic sea wave  See tsunami.
seismic tomography  The use of seismic data to produce
computerized, detailed, threedimensional maps of the
boundaries between Earth’s layers.
seismic waves  Elastic disturbances, or vibrations, that are
generated by earthquakes.
semiconfined aquifer  An aquifer through which water can
pass in and out .

seral stage  A stage in the successional process.
sere  A stage in succession.
sessile  An organism that lives attached to the bottom or to a
surface.
sewage sludge  A mixture of organic material, organisms, and
water in which the organisms consume the organic matter.
sewage treatment  Process where the harmful effects of
sewage are reduced by treating it before it is discharged.
shallow-water wave  Wave in water whose depth is less than
one-twentieth the average wavelength.
shore  Strip of ground bordering any body of water and
alternately exposed and covered by tides and waves.
sidereal day  Time period determined by one rotation of Earth
relative to a far-distant star, about four minutes shorter than the
mean solar day.
sill  Shallow area that separates two basins from one another
or a coastal bay from the adjacent ocean.
sirenians (sea cows; order Sirenia)  Marine mammals with
anterior flippers, no rear limbs, and a paddle-shaped tail.
slack water  State of a tidal current when its velocity is near
zero; occurs when the tidal current changes direction.
sludge  Concentrated wastes extracted from sewage during
sewage treatment.
soft bottom  Any bottom composed of sediment instead of rock.
solar day  Time period determined by one rotation of Earth
relative to the  Sun; the mean solar day is twenty-four hours.
solstice  Times of the year when the Sun stands directly above
23 1/2°N or 23 1/2°S latitude. The winter solstice occurs about.
December 22, and the summer solstice occurs about June 22.
solute  Any material dissolved in a solvent.
sphere depth  Thickness of a material spread uniformly over a
smooth sphere having the same area as Earth.
spore  Minute, unicellular, asexual reproductive structure of an
alga.
spreading center  Region along which new crustal material is
produced.
spreading rate  The rate at which two plates move apart.
Spreading rates are generally between about 2 and 10 cm (0.8
and 4 in) per year.
spring tides  The tides with a large tidal range; they occur
around the times of full or new moon. Compare neap tides.
spring tides  Tides occurring near the times of the new and full
Moon, when the range of the tide is greatest.
squids  Cephalopods of the midwater community that usually
have photophores.
standing wave  Type of wave in which the surface of the water
oscillates vertically between fixed points called nodes, without
progression; the points of maximum vertical rise and fall are
called antinodes.
steppe  A grassland.
stipe  Portion of an alga between the holdfast and the blade.
Glossary G-13
stock  The size of a population.
storm berm  See winter berm.
storm center  Area of origin for surface waves generated by
the wind; an intense atmospheric low-pressure system.
stormwater runoff  Stormwater that runs off of streets and
buildings and is often added directly to the sewer system and
sent to the municipal wastewater treatment facility.
subduction zone  Plane descending away from a trench and
defined by its seismic activity, interpreted as the convergence
zone between a sinking plate and an overriding plate.
sublimation  Transition of a substance from its solid state to its
gaseous state without becoming a liquid.
submerged plants  Aquatic vegetation that is rooted on the
bottom and has leaves that stay submerged below the surface
of the water.
subsidence  The sinking of a landmass.
subtidal zone  The bottom above the continental shelf.
succession  Regular and predictable changes in the
structure of a community, ultimately leading to a climax
community.
successional stage  A stage in succession.
summer berm  A seasonal berm that is built by low-energy
waves during the summer and removed by high-energy waves
in the winter.
summer solstice  See solstice.
surface (mixed) layer  The upper layer of water that is mixed
by wind, waves, and currents.
surimi  Refined fish protein that is used to form artificial crab,
shrimp, and scallop meat.
suspension feeder  An animal that feeds on particles
suspended in the water.  Compare deposit feeder, filter feeder,
passive suspension feeder.
sustainable development  Using renewable resources in
harmony with ecological systems to produce a rise in real
income per person and an improved standard of living for
everyone.
swamp  Area of trees that is flooded either permanently or for
a major part of the year.
swash  The up-rush of water onto the beach from a breaking
wave.
S-wave (or secondary wave)  A type of seismic wave in which
material is sheared from side to side, perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of the wave.
sweeper tentacle  A type of tentacle in corals that is used to
sting neighboring colonies.
swell  A wave with a flatter, rounded wave crest and
trough.  Swells are found away from the area where waves are
generated by the wind.
swell  Long and relatively uniform windgenerated ocean waves
that have traveled out of their generating area.
swim bladder  The gas-filled sac in the body cavity of bony
fishes that is involved in the adjustment of buoyancy.
G-14 Glossary
T tissue  A group of cells specialized for one function.
taiga  Biome having short, cool summers and long winters with
abundant snowfall. The trees are adapted to winter conditions.
temperate deciduous forest  Biome that has a winter-
summer change of seasons and that typically receives 75 to
150 centimeters (30–60 inches) or more of relatively evenly
distributed precipitation throughout the year.
temperate grasslands  Areas receiving between 25 and 75
centimeters (10–30 inches) of precipitation per year. Grasses are
the dominant vegetation, and trees are rare.
temperate rainforest  Areas where the prevailing winds bring
moisture-laden air to the coast.  Abundant rain, fertile soil, and
mild temperatures result in a lush growth of plants.
terranes  Fragments of Earth’s crust bounded by faults, each
fragment with a history distinct from each other fragment.
tertiary sewage treatment  Process that involves a variety of
different techniques designed to remove dissolved pollutants
left after primary and secondary treatments.
theory  A tested, reliable, and precise statement of the
relationships among reproducible observations.
thermal pollution  Waste heat that industries release into the
environment.
thermocline  Water layer with a large change in temperature
with depth.
thermohaline circulation  Ocean circulation that is driven
by differences in water density, due to variations in water
temperature and salinity, rather than by the wind or tides.
threatened species  Those species that could become extinct
if a critical factor in their environment were changed.
tidal bore  High-tide crest that advances rapidly up an estuary
or river as a breaking wave.
tidal current  Alternating horizontal movement of water
associated with the rise and fall of the tide.
tidal datum  Reference level from which ocean depths and
tide heights are measured; the zero tide level.
tidal day  Time interval between two successive passes of
the  Moon over a meridian, approximately twenty-four hours
and fifty minutes.
tidal period  Elapsed time between successive high waters or
successive low waters.
tidal range  Difference in height between consecutive high
and low waters.
tide  Periodic rising and falling of the sea surface that results
from the gravitational attractions of the Moon and Sun acting on
the rotating Earth.
tide pool  A depression that holds seawater at low tide.
tide table  A table that gives the predicted time and height of
tides for particular points along a coast.
tide wave  Long-period gravity wave that has its origin in the
tide-producing force and is observed as the rise and fall of the
tide.
tintinnids  Ciliates that secrete vase-like cases, or loricas.
tombolo  Deposit of unconsolidated material that connects an
island to another island or to the mainland.
topography  General elevation pattern of the land surface (or
the ocean bottom).  See also bathymetry.
total maximum daily loads (TMDL)  The amount of a
particular pollutant that a water body can receive from both
point and nonpoint sources.
trade winds  Steady winds that blow from east to west toward
the  Equator, replacing the hot air that rises at the  Equator.
trailing margin (passive margin)  The continental margin
closest to the mid-ocean ridge.
transform fault  A large horizontal displacement in the mid-
ocean ridge.
transform plate boundary  A boundary between two plates
that are sliding past one another. This boundary is marked by a
transform fault.
transgenic  Describing an organism that contains hereditary
material from another organism incorporated into its genetic
material.
transpiration  Process by which plants return moisture to air.
Plants take up water through roots and lose water through pores
in their leaves. An actively growing plant daily transpires five to
ten times as much water as it holds at one time.
transplantation  The intentional introduction of a species.
transverse ridge  Ridge running at nearly right angles to the
main or principal ridge.
trematodes  See flukes.
trench  A narrow, deep depression in the sea floor.
trickling filter system  A secondary sewage treatment
technique that allows polluted water to flow over surfaces that
harbor microorganisms.
triploid  Condition in which cells have three sets of
chromosomes.
trophic cascade  When changes in the abundance of an
organism result in changes at other trophic levels of the food
chain.
trophic level  A stage in the energy flow through ecosystems.
trophic pyramid  The pyramid-like relationship found in the
pyramids of biomass, energy, and numbers of organisms in a
food chain.
tropical dry forest  Regions that receive low rainfall
amounts, as little as 50 centimeters (20 inches) per year, and
are characterized by species well adapted to drought. Trees of
tropical dry forests are usually smaller than those in rainforests,
and many lose their leaves during the dry season.
tropical rainforest  A biome with warm, relatively constant
temperatures where there is no frost. These areas receive more
than 200 centimeters (80 inches) of rain per year in rains that fall
nearly every day.
Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn  Latitudes 23 1/2°N and 23
1/2°S, respectively, marking the maximum angular distance
of the Sun from the equator during the summer and winter
solstices.

trough  Long depression of the sea floor, having relatively
gentle sides; normally wider and shallower than a trench. See
also wave trough.
tsunami (seismic sea wave)  Long-period sea wave produced
by a submarine earthquake, volcanic eruption, sediment slide,
or seafloor faulting. It may travel across the ocean for thousands
of miles unnoticed from its point of origin and build up to great
heights over shallow water at the shore.
tube foot  Any of the external muscular extensions of the
water vascular system of echinoderms.
tubular eyes  Specialized eyes of many midwater animals that
allow acute upward or downward vision.
tundra  A biome that lacks trees and has permanently frozen
soil.
turf algae  Small, fleshy or filamentous seaweeds.
U wave crests or two successive wave troughs.
unconfined aquifer  An aquifer that usually occurs near the
land’s surface, receives water by percolation from above, and
may be called a water table aquifer.
Universal Time  Solar time along the prime meridian passing
through Greenwich, England; also known as Greenwich Mean
Time (GMT) or Zulu Time.
V westerlies  The winds that blow from west to east at middle
vadose zone  A zone above the water table and below the
land surface that is not saturated with water.
vernal equinox  See equinoxes.
vertebrates  Animals with backbones or a spinal column.
vertical migrations  The process where organisms swim up at
night to feed in the rich surface areas and descend during the
day.
W zonation  Parallel bands of distinctive plant and animal
water budget  Balance between the rates of water added and
lost in an area.
water column  The vertical column of seawater that extends
from the surface to the bottom.
water diversion  The physical process of transferring water
from one area to another.
water mass  A body of water that can be identified by its
temperature and salinity.
water scarcity  When annual water supplies drop below 1,000
m3 per person.
water shed  All the land drained by a stream or river.
water stress  When annual water supplies drop below 1,700
m3 per person.
water table  The top of the layer of water in an aquifer.
wave  Periodic disturbance that moves through or over the
surface of a medium with a speed determined by the properties
of the medium.
Glossary G-15
wave cancellation  Occurs when the crest of one wave meets
the trough of another, and the sea surface ends up intermediate
between the two.
wave crest  Highest part of a wave.
wave height  Vertical distance between a wave crest and the
adjacent trough.
wave period  Time required for two successive wave crests or
troughs to pass a fixed point.
wave ray  Line indicating the direction waves travel; drawn at
right angles to the wave crests.
wave shock  The intensity of the impact of a wave.
wave steepness  Ratio of wave height to wavelength.
wave reinforcement  Occurs when two waves collide to
produce a higher wave.
wavelength  Horizontal distance between two successive
weathering  The physical and chemical break down of
materials; involved in the breakdown of parent material in soil
formation.
well-mixed estuary  Is one in which there is strong wind-
driven and tidal mixing. The salinity of the water in the estuary
is relatively constant with depth and decreases from the ocean
to the river.
latitudes.
wetlands  Areas that include swamps, tidal marshes, coastal
wetlands, and estuaries.
windward  The side that faces the prevailing wind.
winter solstice  See solstice.
Z
zenith  Point in the sky that is immediately overhead.
associations found within the littoral zones and distributed to
take advantage of optimal conditions for survival.
zone of aeration  Shallow layer of soil containing both air and
water where plants get most of their moisture.
zone of saturation  Lower soil layers wall all soil pores are
filled with water zooplankton  Weakly swimming microscopic
animals.
zooxanthellae  Symbiotic microscopic organisms
(dinoflagellates) found in corals and other marine organisms.
Zulu Time  Solar time along the prime meridian passing
through Greenwich, England; also known as Greenwich Mean
Time (GMT) or Universal Time.