ACD2501 - Day 7 - Aircraft - Performance - Stability - Control PDF

PEMP
ACD2501
Aircraft Performance,
Performance Stability and Control
Session delivered by:

Mr Ramjan Pathan
Mr.
 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 1

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PEMP
ACD2501
Session Objectives
• Aircraft Performance:
–BBasics
i off performance
f ( t d state
(steady t t andd accelerated)
l t d)
– Performance characteristics of aircraft for (Civil –
passenger, cargo, Military
Military- fighter, bomber)
– Range, Endurance, Rate of climb, maximum Mach number
• Stabilityy and Control
– Basics of stability : CG location , AC, limits
– Longitudinal, Lateral control

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Performance Basics
Speeds : Maximum and Stall, Range,

and Rate of Climb

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Performance
• Performance: A measure of how well a device does

its job
• Airplane Performance Examples
– Speed ->
> how
ho fast/slow
fast/slo can it go?
– Rate of Climb -> how fast can it go up?
– Ceiling ->
> how high can it go?
– Range -> how far can it go?
– Endurance -> for how long can it fly?
– Takeoff/Landing -> how much runway does it need?
– Turning -> what is the minimum turn radius?

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Performance
• Helicopter Performance Examples

– Hover Capability
H C bilit -> how
h muchh weight i ht can it lift vertically?
ti ll ?
– Speed -> how fast can it go?
– Rate of Climb -> how fast can it go up?
– Ceiling -> how high can it go?
– Range
g -> how far can it ggo?
– Endurance -> for how long can it fly?

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Performance
• Aircraft performance is determined by following

• Mathematical
h i l Modeling
d li
– Computational Fluid Dynamics
– Classical
Cl i l aero/propulsive/mass
/ li / analyses
l
• Ground Testing
– Wind tunnel testing
– Static engine testing
• Flight Testing

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Steady level Flight

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Performance

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Performance

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Performance

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Performance

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Performance

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Stall Speed

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Stall Speed

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Stall Speed : Example

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Vmax : Maximum Speed

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Rate of Climb (ROC)

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ROC

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ROC

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ROC

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Typical ROC numbers
Ref : Performance Stability Dynamics and Control by Bandu Pamadi

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Turn Performance
• Airplanes turn by tilting the Lift vector, to give :

–HHorizontal
i t l component, t L * Sin
Si ( µ),
) ‘µ’
‘ ’ bank
b k angle
l
– Sharper the turn, larger the needed Lift Vector

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Turn Performance

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Turn Performance

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Range : How Far

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Range

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Range

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Range

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Range

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Range

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Range

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Range

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Stability
Longitudinal: Static, Dynamic

Lateral

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Stability Analysis
Elevator, Aileron & Rudder Fixed  These are at a fixed angle during the motion
Elevator, Aileron & Rudder Free  They are free to adjust as the motion goes on

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• Otto Lilienthal
– Determined of prop of cambered wings.
– Recorded materials, construction tech, handling char, aerodynamics
from over 2000 models
– His models were statically stable but with negligible control
• Octave Chanute
– Biplane and multiplane wings
– Wing controls and vertical tail
• Samuel Pierpont Langley

– Concluded that heavier than air flight was possible
– Analysed
Anal sed existing
e isting data and developed
de eloped his own
o n from his own
o n
experiments
– Developed and perfected unpiloted powered models
All these people had influence on the Wright Brothers’ design
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• The Wright Brothers finally succeeded where others

failed because of their dedicated scientific and engg
efforts. Some of their major accomplishments are;
– They designed and built a wind tunnel and balance system
to conduct aerodynamic tests. They developed a systematic
airfoil aerodynamic
y database
– They developed a flight control system with adequate
control capability
– They designed a lightweight engine and efficient propeller
– They designed an airplane with sufficient strength-to-
weight ratio,
ratio capable of sustained powered flight

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Equilibrium, Stability and Control
• Equilibrium : When all forces (Lift, Weight, Drag,

Thrust ) and moments about the cc.g g cancel out
• Stability : An airplane is said to be statically stable if,
following a disturbance
disturbance, forces and moments are
produced by the airplane which tend to reduce the
disturbance byy itself.
• Control : Forces and moments produced by pilot
inputs
p to bringg the airplane
p back to equilibrium
q after
disturbance.

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Equilibrium, Stability and Control
• Stability and controllability are different

– St
Stability
bilit : If a system
t isi in
i equilibrium,
ilib i ability
bilit to
t maintain
i t i
that state
– Controllability : the ability to change the equilibrium state
• Very stable airplane will resist changes in it’s attitude
and hence,, will be difficult to control.
• Military airplanes, for which maneuverability is one
of the requirements, have lower levels of stability
than civil airplanes.
• Stability is desirable but not necessary in piloted
planes
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Stability
• An airplane may be stable under some conditions of
flight and unstable under other conditions.
• For instance, an airplane which is stable during straight
and level flight
g mayy be unstable when inverted,, and
vice versa.
– This stability is sometimes called inherent stability.
• Modern combat aircraft are deliberately made to be
inherently unstable, as this increases their
manoeuvrability (Eg TEJAS)
• This requires a sophisticated automatic artificial
stabilisation
bili i system, whichhi h has
h to be
b totally
ll reliable.
li bl
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Static Stability – 1 DOF

Statically stable. If the forces and
moments on the body caused by a
disturbance tend initially to return
the body toward its equilibrium
position, the body is statically
stable.
Statically unstable. If the forces
and moments are such that the
body y continues to move awayy from
its equilibrium position after being
disturbed, the body is statically
unstable.
Neutrally stable. If the body is

disturbed but the moments remain
zero, the body stays in equilibrium
and is neutrally stable
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Dynamic Stability
1. Dynamic stability deals with the time history of the vehicle’s motion after it
initially responds to its static stability.
2. Consider an airplane flying at an angle of attack (AOA) such that the
moments about the center of gravity (cg) are zero.
3. The aircraft is therefore in equilibrium at αe and is said to be trimmed, and αe
is called the trim angle of attack.
4 Now imagine that a wind gust disturbs the airplane and changes its angle of
4.
attack to some new value α . Hence, the plane was pitched through a
displacement (α - αe )
5. Three responses are possible
Aperiodic Damped Damped Oscillatory U d

Un-damped
d Divergent
Di t

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Stability
• For a successful flight :

– Ai
Airplane
l mustt be
b able
bl to
t achieve
hi equilibrium
ilib i flight
fli ht
– It must be manoeuvrable for wide range of velocities and
altitudes
• For these, aircraft must possess aerodynamic and
propulsive
p p controls
• Stability and control characteristics of an airplane are
referred to as handling characteristics

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Longitudinal Stability and Control
• Wing Contribution • Elevator Effectiveness

• Aft Tail Contribution • Elevator Trim
• Canard Configuration • Hinge Moment
• Fuselage Contribution
• Power Effects

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Pitching Moment Vs CL

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Degree of Longitudinal Stability

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Effect of CG movement

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Directional Stability and Control
• Following components contribute to instability

– Wing
Wi Contribution
C t ib ti
– Fuselage Contribution
– Nacells
• Following components contribute to instability
– Vertical Tail Contribution
– Rudder

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Roll Stability and Control
• Wing Dihedral • Ailerons

• Wing Sweep • Spoiler
• Position of Wings on
Fuselage
g
• Vertical Tail

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FLIGHT CONTROLS
Flight controls and instrument panels vary,

vary but have the same basic
functions.
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FLIGHT CONTROLS
Turning Left Turning Right
Movingg the yyoke LEFT or RIGHT moves the ailerons on the wings
g in
opposite directions. One moves UP as the other goes DOWN.
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FLIGHT CONTROLS
Pulling back on the yoke moves the elevator on the tail UP, moving
the
h airplane
i l nose UP to climb.
li b

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FLIGHT CONTROLS
Pushing forward moves the elevator DOWN,

DOWN moves the nose DOWN to
descend.
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FLIGHT CONTROLS
Brakes are
located at the
top or “toe”
of the pedal
Pilots use rudder pedals on the floor to move the rudder LEFT or
RIGHT to helpp the airplane
p turn.

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Stick Force
• Force exerted by pilot to move the control

surface
f
– Stick Force Gradients
• Trim Tabs

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Stability and Control
 Inherently stable airplane

returns to its original condition
after being disturbed. Requires
less effort to control
 Center
C t off Gravity
G it concerns:
 Unable to compensate with
elevator in pitch axis
 Weight and Balance becomes
critical – taught in a coming
lecture

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Control Surfaces and their Function

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Control Surfaces and their Function

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Subjects involved in Flight Dynamics

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Inverted Flight

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Aerodynamic Surfaces

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Aerodynamic Surfaces
B727 Spoilers
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Stability & Control

 The 3 axes of motion: roll, Pitch
pitch, yaw
Yaw
Roll
yaw

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Roll Control

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Phugoid Motion
• Phugoid mode is a lightly damped long period oscillation.
• The incidence is almost constant and the aircraft varies altitude
at constant energy, trading potential for kinetic and back again

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Trim and Stability

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Stability and Moment coefficient variation

• How the moment coefficient CM varies with angle-of-attack
determines the stability of the aircraft

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Effect of C. G. Position on Stability

• If the c.g. is forward of the aerodynamic centre, dMcg/dα will
be negative and the aircraft will therefore be statically stable.
• If the
th c.g. isi aft
ft off the
th aerodynamic
d i centre,
t dMcg/dα
dM /d will ill be
b
positive and the aircraft will therefore be statically unstable.
• If the c.g.
g is at the aerodynamic
y centre,, dMcg/dα
g will be zero
and the aircraft will therefore be neutrally stable.

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Forces and Locations Conventional A/c
Assuming T, D and ZT and ZD are small

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Forces and Locations Conventional A/c

• L is bigger than D and T so it is a fair to drop the last 2 terms
giving.
• Using non-dimensional coefficients and defining tail volume

ratio as
Typical
yp values for Tail volume ratio

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Typical Values for Tail Volume Ratio
Note : For Trim,

LHS should be zero
This equation can answer the questions

• “What is the lift required at the tailplane for trim.” or
• “Calculate
“C l l the h elevator
l angle
l required
i d for
f trim.”
i ”

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Longitudinal Stability
lift
down lifft
ght
weig
• Static stability (tendency to return after control input)
– up elevator increases downward lift, angle of attack increases;
– lift increases, drag increases, aircraft slows;
– less
l downward
d d lift,
lift angle
l off attack
tt k decreases
d (nose
( drops).
d )

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ACD2501
Aside: CG and Center of Pressure Location
lift
down lifft
• Aft CG increases speed:

– the tail creates less lift (less drag);
– the tail creates less down force (wings need to create less lift).
– This
Thi also
l decreases
d stall
t ll speedd (lower
(l angle
l off attack
tt k req’d).
’d)

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Longitudinal Modes

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Lateral Stability
Lateral static stability : refers to the ability of the aircraft to generate a yawing
moment to cancel disturbances in sideslip V
Question : Which direction should the yawing moment act to align the aircraft with
th l it vector
the velocity t ?
Original Flight Direction

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Typical Experimental results

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Lateral Stability
• It is the ability of the aircraft to recover from a roll

without pilot’s intervention
intervention.
If the wing is tilted upwards

Dihedral is good for from root to tip, it has a
lateral stability. dihedral.

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Anhedral
If the wing dips down from root

Anhedral is bad for to tip, it has an anhedral.
lateral stability.

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Not all of Dihedral !!
Note the large

g anhedral on IL76 IAF Gajaraj;
j j;
this is common on high wing planes
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What happens when the aircraft undergo a ACD2501
roll?
Lift
Lift
A portion of the lift

is pointed sideways.
The vehicle moves
laterally.
This is called sideslip.

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During sideslip, a relative wind flows from ACD2501
right to left
This wind has

a component normal
to the wing on
the right, viewing
A downwash occurs from the front.
on the left wing, This is an upwash.
reducing lift. The upwash increases
lift on the right wing.
As a result, the aircraft rights itself,

and recovers from the roll.

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Effect of Dihedral

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Effect of Side force

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Dutch Roll

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Effect of Vertical Fin on Rolling

• Vertical Fin is used to stabilize the aircraft’s direction
– This is often referred to as ‘weather
weather cock
cock’ behaviour
• This force however induces a rolling movement as
acts Ff over the c.gg location

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Load Factors due to Banking
• Figure reveals an important fact about turns— that the load factor increases at
a terrific rate after a bank has reached 45° or 50°.
• If the load factor at 60° bank is 2 G’s, then at 80° bank it is more than 5G’s.
• The wing must produce lift equal to these load factors if altitude is to be
maintained.
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V-g Diagram
• Aircraft’s operational envelope is presented as V-g diagram

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The price paid for a large static stability

margin
• The aircraft may become sluggish, hard to maneuver.

The tail will resist the pilot’s attempt to change the
aircraft “angle of attack.”
• A large tail adds to aircraft weight, and cost.
• A smaller tail will require
q a longg fuselage(“
g ( a longg
enough crowbar!”) to generate enough of a pitching
moment to bring the nose up or down.
• Tail generates drag, including wave drag!

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Horizontal Tail in Steady Level Flight needs ACD2501
to produce a download to balance all

moments.
Tail Lift
Aircraft c.g.
The wing produces a counterclockwise moment about the c.g.

The tail will have to produce a clockwise moment about the c.g.
These two moments (i.e. force times distance) must roughly balance.
The wing has to generate enough lift to overcome the weight + Tail lift
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Relaxed Static Stability
• For improved maneuverability, some fighter aircraft

sacrifice
ifi the
h static
i stability
bili margin.
i
• Some fighter aircraft are statically unstable.
• Their nose will continue to pitch up, the lift will
continue to go up when a upward gust is encountered.
Result: A/C will stall,
stall flip over.
over
• These aircraft must be actively controlled by the pilot,
or an onboard computer
computer.
• Redundant computer systems are present in case a
computer based flight control fails.
fails
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Directional Stability
Freestream comes from pilot’s
right side, due to cross wind. The force on the tail
I causes nose to rotate to left
It l f causes the aircraft
viewed from the top. to rotate back to
original direction.
A cross wind may cause the nose to rotate about the vertical axis,
changing the flight direction.
direction
The vertical tail behaves like a wing at an angle of attack,
producing a side force, rotates the aircraft to its original direction.
All of this occurs without pilot action or intervention.
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Why twin tail?
• Some fighter aircraft have twin tails.

• Eachh off the
h tails
il may beb small,
ll reducing
d i radar
d cross
section.
• Alternatively,
Alt ti l twice
t i th surface
the f means twice
t i th
the
amount of side force that can be generated, giving
good directional control.
control
• Disadvantage: Cost of manufacturing, weight go up.

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Twin Fins for Directional Stability

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Directional Control
• Adverse aileron yaw

• The aileron that moves downward creates lift and
induced drag.
• Induced dragg ppulls the nose of the airplane
p around in the
direction opposite the way the airplane should turn.

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Directional Control
• Rudder
• Rotates the airplane about its vertical axis (Yawing)
• Also provides
pro ides a form of roll control because
beca se the application of
rudder causes yaw which will induce a roll.

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Lateral Stability
• If one wing is lowered (e.g. by turbulence), the

airplane sideslips.
sideslips
– The lower wing has a greater angle of attack (more lift).
– This raises the lower wing.
g

100
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Directional Stability
• As the airplane turns to the left (e.g. in turbulence),

the vertical stabilizer creates lift toward the left.
left
– The airplane turns to the right.

101
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Session Objectives
Following Topics were covered in this lecture

• Aircraft
Ai f Performance:
f
– Basics of performance (steady state and accelerated)
– Performance
P f characteristics
h t i ti off aircraft
i ft for
f (Ci il –
(Civil
passenger, cargo, Military- fighter, bomber)
– Range,
g , Endurance,, Rate of climb,, maximum Mach number
• Stability and Control
– Basics of stabilityy : CG location , AC, limits
– Longitudinal, Lateral control

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ACD2501
Thank you !

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PEMP

Session delivered by:

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 1

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 2

Speeds : Maximum and Stall, Range,

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 3

• Performance: A measure of how well a device does

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 4

• Helicopter Performance Examples

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 5

• Aircraft performance is determined by following

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 6

Steady level Flight

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 7

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 8

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 9

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 10

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 11

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 12

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 13

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 14

Stall Speed : Example

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 15

Vmax : Maximum Speed

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 16

Vmax : Maximum Speed

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 17

Vmax : Maximum Speed

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 18

Vmax : Maximum Speed

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 19

Vmax : Maximum Speed

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 20

Vmax : Maximum Speed

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 21

Rate of Climb (ROC)

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 22

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 23

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 24

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 25

Typical ROC numbers

Ref : Performance Stability Dynamics and Control by Bandu Pamadi

• Airplanes turn by tilting the Lift vector, to give :

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 27

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 28

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 29

Range : How Far

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 30

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 31

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 32

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 33

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 34

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 35

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 36

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 37

Longitudinal: Static, Dynamic

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 38

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 39

• Samuel Pierpont Langley

• The Wright Brothers finally succeeded where others

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 41

Equilibrium, Stability and Control

• Equilibrium : When all forces (Lift, Weight, Drag,