ADVANCED TRENDS IN CAD/CAM

The term CAD/CAM is a shortening of Computer-Aided Design (CAD)

and Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM). The term CAD/NC (Numerical Control) is
equivalent in some industries.
CAD/CAM software uses CAD drawing tools to describe geometries used by the CAM
portion of the program to define a tool path that will direct the motion of a machine tool to
machine the exact shape that was drawn.
NUMERICALLY-CONTROLLED MACHINES

Well before the development of Computer-aided design,

the manufacturing world adopted tools controlled by numbers and letters to fill the need
for manufacturing complex shapes in an accurate and repeatable manner. During the
1950's these Numerically-Controlled machines used the existing technology of paper tapes
with regularly spaced holes punched in them (think of the paper roll that makes an old-
fashioned player piano work, but only one inch wide) to feed numbers into controller
machines that were wired to the motors positioning the work on machine tools. The
electro-mechanical nature of the controllers allowed digital technologies to be easily
incorporated as they were developed.

By the late 1960's Numerically-Controlled machining centers were

commercially available, incorporating a variety of machining processes and automatic tool
changing. Such tools were capable of doing work on multiple surfaces of a workpiece,
moving the workpiece to positions programmed in advance and using a variety of tools -
all automatically. What is more, the same work could be done over and over again with
extraordinary precision and very little additional human input. NC tools immediately
raised automation of manufacturing to a new level once feedback loops were incorporated
(the tool tells the computer where it is, while the computer tells it where it should be).

What finally made NC technology enormously successful was

the development of the universal NC programming language called APT (Automatically
Programmed Tools). Announced at MIT in 1962, APT allowed programmers to develop
postprocessors specific to each type of NC tool so that the output from the APT program
could be shared among different parties with different manufacturing capabilities.
CAD & CAM TOGETHER AT LAST
The development of Computer-aided design had little
effect on CNC initially due to the different capabilities and file formats used by drawing
and machining programs. However, as CAD applications such as SolidWorks and
AutoCad incorporate CAM intelligence, and as CAM applications such as MasterCAM
adopt sophisticated CAD tools, both designers and manufacturers are now enjoying an
increasing variety of capable CAD/CAM software. Most CAD/CAM software was
developed for product development and the design and manufacturing of components and
molds, but they are being used by architects with greater frequency.
Today, over three-quarters of new machine tools incorporate
CNC technologies. These tools are used in every conceivable manufacturing sector,
including many that affect building technologies. CNC technology is related to Computer
Integrated Manufacturing (CIM), Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP) and other
technologies such as Group Technology (GT) and Cellular Manufacturing. Flexible
Manufacturing Systems (FMS) and Just-In-Time Production (JIT) are made possible by
Numerically-Controlled Machines.
Brief History of CAD / CAM development
The roots of today’s CAD/CAM technologies go back to the
beginning of civilization when graphics communication was acknowledged by engineers in
ancient Egypt. Orthographic projection practiced today was invented around 1800s. The real
development of CAD/ CAM systems started in 1950s. CAD/ CAM went through four major
phases of development in the last century. 1950s was known as the era of conceiving interactive
computer graphics. MIT’s Servo Mechanisms Laboratory demonstrated the concept of numerical
control (NC) on a three axis milling machine. Development in this era was slowed down by the
inadequacy of computers of that period for interactive use. During late 1950s the Automatically
Programmed Tools (APT) was developed and General Motors began to explore the potential of
interactive graphics.
1960s was the most critical research period for interactive computer
graphics. A sketchpad system was developed by Ivan Sutherland, which demonstrated the
possibility of creating drawings and altercations of objects interactively on a CRT (cathode ray
tube). The term CAD started to appear with word ‘design’ extending beyond basic drafting
concepts. General Motors announced their DAC-1 system and Bell Technologies announced
their GRAPHIC 1 remote display system.
During the 1970s, the research efforts of 1960s in computer
graphics had begun to be fruitful, and important potential of interactive computer graphics in
improving productivity was realized by industry, government and academia. 1970s is
characterized as the golden era for computer drafting and the beginning of ad hoc instrumental
design applications. National Computer Graphics Association (NCGA) was formed and Initial
Graphics Exchange Specification (IGES) was initiated.
 In 1980s new theories and algorithms evolved and integration of
various elements of design and manufacturing was developed. The major research and
development focus was to expand CAD/CAM systems beyond three-dimensional geometric
designs and provide more engineering applications.
In the present day, CAD/CAM development is focused on efficient
and fast integration and/or automation of various elements of design and manufacturing along
with the development of new algorithms. There are many commercial CAD/CAM packages
available for direct usages which are user friendly, very proficient and competent.
Some of the commercial packages in the present market are: -
 Autocad, Mechanical Desktop, etc. are some low end CAD software’s which are mainly
used for 2D modeling and drawing.

 Unigraphics, Pro-E, Ideas, Mechanical Desktop, CATIA, Euclid, etc. These are higher
order modeling and designing software’s which are costlier and very efficient. The other
capabilities of these software’s are manufacturing and analysis.

 Ansys, Abaqus, Nastran, Fluent, CFX – These packages are mainly used for analysis of
structures and fluids. Different software’s are used for different proposes, like Fluent is
used for fluids and Ansys is used of structures.

 Alibre, Cyber-Cut, CollabCAD, etc. are the latest CAD/CAM software’s which focus on
collaborative design. Collaborative design is computer aided designing of multiple users
working at the same time.

Definition of CAD / CAM

Computer Aided Design – CAD
CAD is the technology concerned with the use of computer systems to assist in the creation,
modification, analysis, and optimization of a design. Any computer program
that embodies computer graphics and an application program facilitating engineering functions
in design process can be classified as CAD software.

The most basic role of CAD is to define the geometry of design – a mechanical part, a product
assembly, an architectural structure, an electronic circuit, a building layout, etc. The greatest
benefits of CAD systems are that it can save considerable time and reduce errors caused by
otherwise having to redefine the geometry of the design from scratch every time it is needed.
Advantages

 Speeds up design process

 More designs can be produced
 Improved design quality
 Greater accuracy
 Changes can be made quickly
 Information can be stored electronically and retrieved
 Can be sent internationally
 Can calculate mathematical information such as mass, volume or centre of gravity
 Designs can be used directly in marketing and publicity
 View in virtual reality

Disadvantages

 High Expense
 Requires large processor
 Operators need to be trained
Computer Aided Manufacturing – CAM

CAM is the technology concerned with the use of computer

systems to plan, manage, and control the manufacturing operations through computer interface
with the plant’s production resources.

One of the most important areas of CAM is numerical control

(NC). This is the technique of using programmed instructions to control a machine tool that cuts,
mills, grinds, punches or turns raw stock into a finished part. Another significant CAM function
is in the programming of robots. CIM is also a target of CAD/CAM.

Advantages

 Information stored electronically means batch production machines can be reset quickly
for next design

 Small changes in design can be implemented easily

 Greater productivity, especially if the machine works continuously

 Greater consistency of quality = fewer faulty goods

 Machines can work with chemicals

Disadvantages

 High set up costs

 Obsolescence

 May require heavy or costly maintenance

Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)

Definition
Computer Integrated Manufacturing, known as CIM, is the phrase used to
describe the complete automation of a manufacturing plant, with all processes functioning under
computer control and digital information tying them together. It was promoted by machine tool
manufacturers in the 1980's and the Society for Manufacturing Engineers (CASA/SME). Quite
often it was mistaken for the concept of a "lights out" factory. It includes CAD/CAM, computer-
aided design/computer-aided manufacturing, CAPP, computer-aided process planning, CNC,
computer numerical control machine tools, DNC, direct numerical control machine tools, FMS,
flexible machining systems, ASRS, automated storage and retrieval systems, AGV, automated
guided vehicles, use of robotics and automated conveyance, computerized scheduling and
production control, and a business system integrated by a common data base.

The heart of computer integrated manufacturing is CAD/CAM. Computer-

aided design(CAD) and computer-aided manufacturing(CAM) systems are essential to reducing
cycle times in the organization. CAD/CAM is a high technology integrating tool between design
and manufacturing. CAD techniques make use of group technology to create similar geometries
for quick retrieval. Electronic files replace drawing rooms. CAD/CAM integrated systems
provide design/drafting, planning and scheduling, and fabrication capabilities. CAD provides the
electronic part images, and CAM provides the facility for toolpath cutters to take on the raw
piece.

The computer graphics that CAD provides allows designers to create

electronic images which can be portrayed in two dimensions, or as a three dimensional solid
component or assembly which can be rotated as it is viewed. Advanced software programs can
analyze and test designs before a prototype is made. Finite element analysis programs allow
engineers to predict stress points on a part, and the effects of loading.

Once a part has been designed, the graphics can be used to program the
tool path to machine the part. When integrated with an NC postprocessor, the NC program that
can be used in a CNC machine is produced. The design graphics can also be used to design tools
and fixtures, and for inspections by coordinate measuring machines. The more downstream use
that is made of CAD, the more time that is saved in the overall process.
 Generative process planning is an advanced generation of CAD/CAM.
This uses a more powerful software program to develop a process plan based on the part
geometry, the number of parts to be made, and information about facilities in the plant. It can
select the best tool and fixture, and it can calculate cost and time.

Flexible machining systems (FMS) are extensions of group technology

and cellular manufacturing concepts. Using integrated CAD/CAM, parts can be designed and
programmed in half the time it would normally take to do the engineering. The part programs
can be downloaded to a CNC machining center under the control of an FMS host computer. The
FMS host can schedule the CNC and the parts needed to perform the work.

Computer integrated manufacturing can include different combinations

of the tools listed above.

The Issues

One of the key issues regarding CIM is equipment incompatibility and

difficulty of integration of protocols. Integrating different brand equipment controllers with
robots, conveyors and supervisory controllers is a time-consuming task with a lot of pitfalls.
Quite often, the large investment and time required for software, hardware, communications, and
integration cannot be financially justified easily.

Another key issue is data integrity. Machines react clumsily

to bad data, and the costs of data upkeep as well as general information systems departmental
costs is higher than in a non-CIM facility.

Another issue is the attempt to program extensive logic to

produce schedules and optimize part sequence. There is no substitute for the human mind in
reacting to a dynamic day-to-day manufacturing schedule and changing priorities.

Just like anything else, computer integrated manufacturing is

no panacea, nor should it be embraced as a religion. It is an operational tool that, if implemented
properly, will provide a new dimension to competing: quickly introducing new customerized
high quality products and delivering them with unprecedented lead times, swift decisions, and
manufacturing products with high velocity.
Control System Of Computer Integrated Manufacturing
 Development of an Integrated Information Model for Computer Integrated
Manufacturing

Introduction

CIM provides methods and tools to integrate new and/or

existing CIM components. The integration involves data exchange among these
components in an efficient and effective manner. The key benefit of integration in a
manufacturing system is to consistently deliver the right information to the right
components at the right time, regardless of their physical location. Many concepts for
integration of manufacturing systems have been published and implemented by
companies like IBM [1], Siemens, DEC, and so on. They usually offer complete
solutions based on their and their partners products. However, manufacturing
companies often use a variety of CIM components that are not designed to
communicate well with each other.

This paper discusses the problems and a method for integrating

components by using three sample applications.

Sample Applications

Three applications were selected to study their databases and

the data flow between the applications. All applications are primarily used for
planning of manufacturing layouts and products. The first application is a facility
layout planning software (QSOM - Quantitative Systems for Operations Management)
that employs the CRAFT algorithm to determine the best possible layout of
departments. Layouts generated by a facility layout software are frequently used in
simulation programs for further optimization. A simulation software, SIMAN, was
chosen. However, a simulation also might be used by other components like product
and process designers, production managers. An educational version of an MRP [2]
package (MRP-DSS) will also provide information for the two other applications.

All three applications do not have explicit interfaces for

communication, although the MRP package offers ASCII file import and export
functions.
 Figure 1: Dataflow between Selected Applications.

Figure 1 shows roughly dataflow that might occur between these applications. Based
on production volume information and flow costs between departments (or
workstations) the facility layout program develops the optimal layout. The simulation
uses the new distances (rectilinear or euclidean) together with the sequences steps
from the MRP software to determine throughput time or other relevant information.

An integration of these three or any other components brings up several

problems, like:

o Location of components (single or multi-platform)

o Location of data (centralized, distributed)
o Data storage (flat files, DBMS)
o Data transportation (local, network)
o Translation of data in unified format (semantic)
o Version management (up-to-date information)

Before addressing the above points we will try to come up with an appropriate
representation or schema for the integration.
Federated Database Systems

The data used by each application can be represented with a data modeling technique
(e.g., Entity Relationship Diagrams). Actually all applications can be treated somehow
as databases, however, the data may not be accessed and maintained as easy as with a
traditional database system. The collection of cooperating but autonomous database
systems (DBS) is often referred to as federated database system (FDBS). An
interesting and comprehensive survey of FDBS can be found in [3].

Figure 2: Federated Database System with 3 Components

.

The key concepts of FDBS are autonomy of components and partial, controlled
sharing of data (Figure 2). There is usually no centralized control mechanism in a
federated architecture because the component databases control the access to their
data. Whatever a component database wants to share goes into the federated schema
and is accessible for other components.

Figure 3 exhibits an extended five-level schema architecture [3] of an FDBS used in

this paper, that is derived from the ANSI/SPARC three-level data description
architecture. The local schema represents the data in locally stored format. The
component schema translates the local schema into an application independent form
(ERD, IDEF1.X). Whatever wants to be shared from the component schema with
other applications is defined in the export schema. All export schemata together
become the federated schema.
 Figure 3: Five-Level Schema Architecture.

Although the federated schema is not located on one particular (centralized) machine,
it is still possible to visualize the federated schema by querying all connected
applications for their export schemes. Each application stores locally on what other
information it depends on.

Data Processing

To transform data from one schema to another as well as handling requests from other
applications we need the help of four processors:

1. Access Processor Provides access to application dependent data storage (e.g.,

flatfile DB, relational DB)
2. Translating Processor Translates data of local application (usually output) into
convenient format for other applications (e.g., final department layout into
rectilinear or euclidean distance between department centroids)
3. Construction Processor Prepares data in a way that it can be transformed into
another schema. The construction processor does not modify the data as the
translating processor does (e.g., it makes sure that the correct syntax and
semantic for the next schema is used)
4. Filter Processor Verifies queries and commands from other applications.
Controls access from other components. Enforces semantic integrity. The Filter
Processor maintains also information about access rights, export schema, and
version history.
 Figure 4: Using Construction Processor to Create the Export Schema (right) from
Component Schema (left)
.

The component schema of the facility layout application’s data is given in Figure 4 as
an IDEF1.X diagram. The small arrows indicate whether the attribute is an input or
output from the layout process. In this example, other

applications (e.g., SIMAN) are interested in the distances between departments.

Sample Configuration

Figure 5 provides a sample configuration with processors and schemes for the facility
layout and simulation application. We wish to use the distances from the generated
layout in the simulation.
 Figure 5

Figure 5: Sample Configuration of Layout-Facility and Simulation Components.

It is assumed that all applications or their data can be connected. The communication
adapter enables access through a network system. There are several options for
network access; the connection might be realized in the TCP/IP by using the file
transfer protocol (ftp).

There are two basic methods to achieve data consistency

when processing and transporting data in an integrated system [4]: a pull system that
requires the receiver to ask the sender for data, or a push system, in which the sender
initiates the transfer. A pull system is used for this FDBS to keep the version
management simple. Otherwise, a receiver will get a new edition of any modified data
regardless of need.
 Figure 6 shows how the communication sequences between the two applications just
for transferring the distances. Since this facility layout tool does not provide any data
about distances between departments, it is necessary to translate the output file. The
translating processor therefore determines the x/y coordinates of the department
centroids and computes the distances between all departments. The data is then
transferred to the requesting application together with additional information about the
data’s version and modification date/time. The receiver verifies the syntax and
semantic of the data and updates the Integration DB (IDB) accordingly. Since there
may be some more data necessary for the SIMAN experimental file, we have to
distinguish between the user’s and SIMAN’s experimental file. The Integration DB
provides the building rules for the construction processor and merges both files into
SIMAN’s experimental file. This mechanism enables us to disregard data from any
other system.

Figure 6: Transactions between Facility Layout and Simulation Component

.
Summary

The development of an FDBS is integrate existing CIM components by using a

bottom-up development process. The components used in this paper do not support
any kind database management. The integration of those components into a federation
may be done by using two general approaches [3]:

 Migration of the files to a DBMS

 Extend the file system to support DBMS-like features

Both migration and extension of the file system are costly solutions and actually
depend on existing capabilities of the components. Problems may occur when the
federated schema becomes too large. The schema might be split up into smaller
federated schemes (loosely coupled FBDS).

Pragmatic Applications
It might be more prudent for a company to begin the process of
computer integration with CAD/CAM and an integrated business data base. There are many
reliable and proven CAD/CAM software packages available, as there are integrated business
software systems. Taking small steps instead of a wholesale CIM approach is advisable.

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