EARTHING

H. M. PAI
 EARTHING
FOR
EQUIPMENTS
SUB - STATIONS
RESIDENTIAL PREMISES
RURAL AREAS

1985. H. M. PAI
EARTHING

By : H. M. PAI
B. Sc. Engg. ( Elec - Mech )
F. I. E. E
C. Eng. ( India )
General Manager,
Torrent Power Ltd.,
Jubilee House,
Shahpur,
Ahmedabad.
 INDEX

1. Terminology 1
2. Earthing and I.E. Rules 2
3. Earthing and grounding. 3
4. Nature of earth electrode resistance. 4
5. Measurement of earth resistivity. 5
6. Earth Electrodes. 6
7. Earth resistivity and gradient. 14
8. Earthing and Bonding 15
9. Sub-station earthing 17
10. General instruction for laying earthing grid. 22
11. Consumer installation earthing and protective multiple earthing. 23
12. Earthing in rural areas. 26
13. General question and answers. 27

APPENDIX

Extracts from IS 3043 pertaining to :-

Fig. 1. Effect of moisture on earth resistivity. 31
Fig. 2. Effect of salt on earth resistivity 32
Fig. 3. Fuse rating v/s earth circuit impedance 32
Fig. 4. Pipe electrode erection details. 33
Fig. 5. Earth electrode resistance details for various lengths. 34
Fig. 6. Plate electrode erection details 35
 PREFACE

There are many ways of protecting both the installation, user and operation staff
from the risk of electric shock of fire under fault condition. A shock risk arises when ever
accidental contact is made between the live conductor and exposed metal work. This risk
can be guarded against by efficient earthing. Fire risk in electrical installations also can
arise due to earth fault current, particularly if the earthing and bonding arrangements are
nor capable of carrying a sustained fault current without excessive heating. In outdoor
substations step and touch voltage can cause risk to life of operation staff if voltage
gradient is not kept within safe limits by a properly designed earthing grid.

It could be seen that efficient earthing is must as far as electricity is concerned.

The booklet on ‘Earthing’ covers all the essential points pertaining to the subject and it is
hoped the book will be found useful and informative by all concerned.

Thanks are due to the Management of the Ahmedabad Electricity Ltd., For the
encouragement given. 1-1-1985

H. M. PAI
 1. TERMINOLOGY.

Bond : To connect together electrically two or more conductors or

metals parts.

Dead : ‘Dead ’ means at or about earth potential and disconnected

from any live system.

Earth : A connection to the general mass of earth by means of an

earth electrode.

Earthed : An object is said to be ‘earthed’ when it is electrically

connected to an earth electrode.

Earth Electrode : A metal plate, pipe or other conductor connected to the

general mass of earth.

Earthing lead : The conductor by which the connection to the earth

electrode is made.

Potential gradient : The potential difference per unit length measured in the
direction in which it is maximum.

Resistance area of The area of earth within which practically the whole of the
an earth electrode : potential difference between the electrode and the general
mass of earth occurs when it is carrying fault current.

Step potential : The maximum value of the potential difference possible of

being shunted by a human body between two accessible
points on the ground separated by a distance of one pace
which may assumed as one meter.

Touch potential : The maximum value of potential difference between a point

on the ground and a point on an object likely to carry fault
current such that the points can be touched by a person.
 2. EARTHING AND I.E. RULES-SALIENT POINTS.
Rule 33.
In case of medium, High and Extra High Tension installations, a consumer
has to provide his own earthing system over and above terminal provided by the
supplier.

Rule 51 (D)
All metal work associated with the installation other than that designed to
serve as a conductor, be connected with earth.

Rule 61 (2)
Before supply is made ‘on’ all earthing system shall be tested to ensure
efficient earthing.

Rule 61 (5)
All earthing systems shall be tested for resistance on dry during the dry
season not less than once every two years.

Rule 61 (6)
A record of every earth test made and the result there of shall be kept.

Rule 66 (a)
Wherever conductors are enclosed in metal sheathing, the sheathing shall
be earthed.

Rule 66 (b)
The resistance of the earth connection should be low enough to blow fuse
trip breaker in the installation concerned.

Rule 88 (2)
Wherever guard wires are provided, these guard wires should be
connected with earth.

Rule 92 (2)
The earthing lead for any lightning arrestor shall not pass through any
iron or steel pipe, but shall taken as directly as possible from the lightning
arrestor to a separate earth electrode subject to the avoidance of bend wherever
practicable.
 3. EARTHING & GROUNDING.
3.1 Objective
Equipment earthing or grounding relates to the manner in which non-
electrical conductive material, which either encloses energized conductors or
adjacent there to is be interconnected and grounded. The basic objectives being
sought are the following :-

(a) To ensure freedom from dangerous electric shock-voltage exposure

to persons in the area.

(b) To provide current carrying, capability, both in magnitude and

duration adequate to accept the earth fault current permitted by the
protections system without creating a fire or explosive hazard to
building or contents.

(c) To contribute to superior performance of the electrical system by

isolating the defective equipment from the system.

It may not be out of place to clarify the difference between system

grounding and equipment grounding. Equipment grounding is explained in the
first para above. System grounding means a system of current carrying
conductors in which at least one conductor or point (neutral in case of star
winding of transformer or generator) is intentionally grounded, either directly or
through some impedance.

3.2 Voltage Exposure.

Electrical accident statistics clearly indicate that many fires and personal
injuries are caused as a result to current carrying parts coming in contact with
metallic parts which are expected to remain non-energized. Proper earthing or
grounding can avoid these mishaps.

The impendence of the grounding conductor must be low enough to

accept the full magnitude of earth fault current without creating a voltage drop
large enough to be dangerous. The grounding conductor must be capable of
conducting the full fault current without excessively raising the temperature of the
ground conductor or causing the expulsion of sparks or arcss that could initiate a
fire or an explosion.

3.3 Earthing and grounding

The terms earthing and grounding seemingly are almost alike, yet in fact
are not. The electrical system of an air craft in flight will have a ground bus,
grounding conductors etc. To suggest that ground and earth can be used
interchangeably is obviously in error. So, where equipment cannot refer to earth
potential while referring to voltage exposure magnitudes the term grounding is
proper. In air craft, the main body of this the reference ground as for as voltage
exposure magnitude is concerned and this has nothing to do with earth. So
grounding is the proper term here. Similarly to an electrician working on the tenth
floor of a modern steel structured building, the reference ground is the building
frame and other metal equipments there. What might be the potential of earth is
of negligible importance to this work on the tenth floor in short what is earthed
can be called as grounded, but what is grounded may not have anything to do
with earth.

4. NATURE OF EARTH RESISTANCE

4.1 Nature :

The earthing resistance of an electrode is made up of :-

a. Resistance of the metal electrode.

b. Contact resistance between the electrode and the soil.
c. Resistance of the soil, from the electrode surface outward to infinite
earth.

The first two resistances are very small and can be neglected for all
practical purposes.

Around the electrode, the soil resistance is the sum of the series
resistance of virtual shells of earth, located progressively outward from the rod.
The shell nearest the rod has the smallest circumferential area or cross section,
so it has the highest resistance. Successive shells outside this one have
progressively larger areas, and thus lower resistances. As a radius outward from
the rod increases to about 6 meters, the incremental resistance per unit of radius
decreases effectively to nearly zero.

So, the first few centimeters away from the electrode are the most
important once, as far as reducing the electrode resistance is concerned. In high
soil resistivity locations, decreasing the soil resistivity in this small area round the
rod by chemical treatment, will be most useful in reducing the electrode
resistance.

Table 4.1 gives in detail the distribution of resistance percentage-wise up

to a distance of circle round the rod accounts for percent of the electrode
resistance,
 Table 4.1
Electrode resistance at a radius R cms from a 3 meter long- 16mm
diameter rod-total resistance at R = 7.6 meter = 100 %.

Distance from Electrode surface. Approximate percentage of

R=cm. Resistance.
3 25
6 38
9 46
15 52
30 68
150 86
300 94
460 97
610 99
760 100

4.2 Multiple Electrodes.

Multiple electrodes in parallel are used to get a lower resistance than
obtained by a single rod. Adding a second rod does not, however. Provide a
resistance than obtained by a single, unless the two are several rod lengths
apart. Normally the rods are placed one rod length apart i.e. if the first rod is of 3
meter. The next rod will be at least 3metres away from it. An experiment was
carried with 24 rods, rods being placed one rod length apart, in a line, hollow
triangle, circle, and square produced factors for each number as shown in table
4.2 where ‘ r ’ is the resistance of single rod. It was also found that placing rods
within the periphery of the circle, triangle and square did not appreciably reduce
the earth resistance blow that peripheral rods alone.
 Table 4.2
Resistance of single rod.
Multiplying factors for multiple rods.

Number of rod Total resistance in terms of ‘r’

2 0.58 r
3 0.43 r
4 0.34 r
8 0.21 r
12 0.15 r
16 0.12 r
20 0,1 r
24 0.09 r

So, if ‘ r ’ was 20 ohms, with 4 rods the total resistance will be 20 X 0.34 =
6.8 ohms and not 20 / 4 = 5 ohms Similarly with 20 rods it will be 2 ohms and not
20 / 20 =1 ohm.

5. MEASUREMENT OF EARTH RESISTIVITY

5.1 The resistivity of earth varies within wide limits between 1 to 10,000 ohm
meter, ( 1 ohm meter =100 ohm Cm ) and is decisive importance in all problem
involving earth as a return conductor. To measure earth resistivity, current is
passed between two electrodes fixed ground, the voltage is measured between
two intermediate Potential electrodes. Four terminal megger is used for this
purpose and the general arrangements of connections are as shown in Fig. 5.1.
 In most practical work, the value of earth resistivity over a fairly large area
is required. The electrodes therefore, should be spaced quite apart so that the
current distribution in soil is practically the same electrodes are considered as
points.

When resistivity is measured by different electrodes spacing there is

variation in the measured value of resistivity. This is due to the increased volume
and consequent variations in character of earth included in measurements.

5.2 Test locations and weather conditions.

In the evaluation of earth resistivity for substation and generating stations,

four or five test location shall be chosen to cover the whole site. This number
should be increased for c\very large station sires or if the test results obtained at
various locations show a significant difference, indicating variations in soil
formation.

In case of transmission lines, the measurements shall be taken along the

direction of the line, through out the length approximately once in every 4 KM.

The resistivity of earth varies over a wide range depending on its moisture
content. It is, therefore, advisable to conduct earth resistivity tests during the dry
season in order to get conservative results.
5.3 Formulae
The connections are done as shown in Fig 5.1.

Formula 1.

r = 192 S. R.
Where r : earth resistivity in ohm-cm.
S : Distance between electrodes in feet.
R : Megger reading in ohms.

Formula 2.

r = 2 TT S. R
Where r : earth resistivity in ohm-cm.
S : Distance between electrodes in meter.
R : Megger reading in ohms.

Formula 3.

In Formula 1 and 2, the depth ‘d’ is less than s/20 i.e. if S is 10 meter, ‘d’ is
50 cms or less. If ‘d’ is more than S/20, than formula to be used is as follows :-

r = 12.56 S R
1 + 2S - 2S

√ S2 + 4 d2 √ 4 S2 + 4 d2

Where
S: Distance between electrodes in meters.
d: depth of burial of electrodes in meters.
r: resistivity of soil ohm meter.
R: magger reading in ohms.
5.4 Test Procedure :

At the selected test site, the four electrodes are driven into the earth along
a straight line in the chosen direction at equal intervals ‘S’ as shown in Fig. 5.1.
The depth ‘d’ of electrodes in the ground can be of the order of say 10 to 15 cms
or more. It should be remembered that ‘S’ should be 20 ‘d’ or more, it ‘d’ say 15
cam, then ‘S’ should be 3 meters or more. The megger is placed on a steady and
level base. The connection P1. P2, C1 and C2 are made as shown in Fig. 5.1.
The readings on the megger are then taken while turning the crank at about 135
rev/min. Formula 1 or 2 can be used to get earth resistivity after getting reading
‘R’.

But if ‘S’ is less than 20 ‘d’, than formula 3 will have to be used.

5.5 Earth resistivity :

Earth resistivity for different types of soils may have values as shown in
table 5.1.

Table 5.1

Type of soil Earth resistivity in ohm-cms.

Marshy ground 220 - 270
Loan and clay 400 -15,000
Shalk 6000 - 40000
Sand 9000 - 80,000
Peat 20,000
Sandy 30,000 - 50,000
Rock 1,00,000

5.6 Resistance of electrodes :

Table 5.2 shows the approximate resistance in ohms for typical electrodes
in soil of resistivity 1,000 ohms-cm.
 Table 5.2
Electrodes. Resistance in ohms.
8’ × 5/8” dia Rod. 4.2
12’ × 5/8” “ 3.0
18’ Sq. CI plate. 6.0
24” “ 4.5
6’ × 1.1/4” dia pipe 4.75
6’ × 2” ‘ 4.43

For soils of other resistivity, the figures in tables 5.2 are multiplied by the
factor (Resisistivity/1000). Multiple electrodes are installed in almost all to get
lower resistance. Precautions should be taken in such cases as follows :-

Multiple rods or pipes should be separated by a distance not less than

their buried length.

Plates should not be less than 10 apart.

6. EARTH ELECTRODES.
6.1 Types :
Basically all group electrodes may be divided into group. The first group
comprises underground metallic systems, metal building frameworks, well
casings, steel piling and other underground metal structures installed for
purposes other than grounding. The second group comprises made electrodes
specifically designed for grounding purposes. The metal building comprises. The
metal building frames are normally attached by long anchor bolts to their
concrete foundation footing. The anchor bolts in concrete serve electrodes, while
the metal building frame is simply a grounding conductor.

Continuous underground water or gas-piping system in general have a

resistance to earth of less than 3 ohm and that metal building frames, local
metallic under-ground piping system, metal well casings, and the like have small
distribution systems where the ground currents are of relatively low magnitude,
such electrodes are usually preferred because they are economical in first cost.
However, before reliance to earth be measured to ensure that some unforeseen
discontinuity has not seriously affected their suitability. Also care should be
exercised to ensure that all parts that might become disconnected are effectively
bonded together.
6.2 Made Electrodes :
Made electrodes may be subdivided into electrodes, steel reinforcing bars
in below ground concrete, buried strips or cables, grids plates, and
counterpoises. The type selected will depend upon the type of soil encountered
and the available depth. Driven electrodes are generally more satisfactory and
economical where bedrock is 3 meters or more below the surface, while grids,
buried strips, or cable are preferred for lesser depths. Grids are frequently used
for substation or generating stations to provide equipotential areas throughout
the entire station where hazards to life and property would justify the higher cost.
They also require the least amount of buried material for a given electrode
resistance. Buried plates have not been used extensively in recent years
because of the high cost as compared to rods or strips. Also when used in small
numbers they are the least efficient type of rods of made electrode. The
counterpoise is a from of buried cable electrode used to ground line towers and
structures.

When multiple electrodes are used spacing of less 3 meters do not

provide the most economical use of materials.

In selecting the number and size of grounding terminals their current

discharge limitations must be recognized, if these are exceeded the earth around
the electrode may be exploded by steam generation or may be dried out to the
extent of becoming non-conductive.

6.2.1 Driven Rod or Pipe.

Driven electrodes are normally rods Where soil conditions permit a few
deep rods are usually more satisfactory than a multiplicity of short rods, since the
soil resistivity generally decreases with depth due to the increased moisture
content.

6.2.2 Concrete – Encased Rods or Wires.

Concrete below ground level is a semi-conducting medium of about 3000

ohm cm resistivity at 20oC, or somewhat lower than the average earth resistivity.
Consequently in earth of average or high resistivity, the encasement of rod wire
electrodes in concrete result in lower resistivity than when a similar electrode is
placed directly into earth. This is due to a reduction of the resistance of the
material closest to the primary electrode, in much the same manner as chemical
treatment of the earth reacts near the electrode. While it is seldom justifiable to
excavate or drill holes for the placement of concrete for this purpose, the
widespread use of steel reinforcing bars in concrete foundations and footings
provides a ready-made supply of grounding electrodes at structures utilizing this
type of construction. It is only necessary to bring out an adequate electrical
connection from a main reinforcing of each footing for attach to the building
ground bus or structural steel.

A convenient meant for a connection is to tack- weld a short connecting

bar between one of the vertical reinforcing bars and one of the anchor bolts for
connection above the footing surface. The steel frame of a building, attached to
these anchor bolts, then becomes a highly effective grounding conductor, and is
used as a grounding bus in many industrial buildings.

Each such a footing electrode has resistance equal to or lower than that of
a given rod of equal depth, The large number of such footing inherent to building
will provide a net ground resistance considerably lower than that normally
provided by other made electrode methods, generally below 1 ohm and
frequently of the order of 0.25 ohm.

Steel rods in concrete in (irregular) excavations in rock or very rockly soil

have been found greatly superior to other types of made electrodes. The
principles governing this electrode type are that provide grounds for the majority
of the steel towers of high voltage transmission lines.

6.2.3 Buried strip, wire and Cable :

Where bedrock is near the surface, or where sand is encountered, the soil
is apt to be very dry and of high resistivity, and it is necessary to have an
earthing connection of considerable extent. Under conditions, buried metal strips
wires, or cable offer the most economical solution. Since the effectiveness of this
type of electrodes for lighting discharges is a function of its inductance, the use of
a number of a well-spaced shorter strips in parallel is preferable to one or more
long strips. The depth at which the strips are buried is not critical. Tests have
shown that the resistance decreases only about 5% when the burial depth is
increased from 0.50 meter to 1 meter based on uniform soil resistivity similarly
the effect of conductor size is extremely small.

6.3 Grid System :

Grid system usually extend over the entire station and may extend some
distance beyond fence. They consist of conductors buries a minimum of 0.5
meter in the ground, forming a network of square or rectangles. The spacing of
the grid conductors will very with the voltage class of the station, but cable
spacing of 3.0 to 3.7 meters are commonly used. All cable crossings should be
securely bonded and the structure. In rock grounds, where driven grounds are
impractical, it is sometimes more economical and desirable to use a grid system
in place of buried strips, in which case the cables are usually buried at a depth of
0.5 to 0.6 m.
 Where the enclosing fence is within the perimeter of the buried grid the
fence must be bonded to the grid to minimize the shock hazard from the touch
potential of person touching the fence and, of course, standing on the ground
which may be at a the perimeters of the grid the fence should be grounded to its
least 1.22 meter beyond to its own electrode system. Which will include a cable
buried in the earth approximately 0.91 meter outside the fence line, for the same
reasons as discussed.

Coarse cracked rock, usually granite, is normally spread all over the
surface of the soil within such a substation grid area, not for housekeeping
reasons, but to provide a high resistance surface treatment to reduce the hazard
from step potential to persons within this areas buring a severe fault.

6.4 Plates :
The preferred practice with plate electrodes is bury then on edge since
minimum of excavation is required and it is possible to obtain better contact with
the soil when backfilling. There appears to be little difference between the
effective resistance of horizontal and vertical plates. For commonly used plates
of 0.9 to 1.9 m2 the optimum burial depth is 1.50/2.4m.

6.5 Choice of Rods.

Ground rods are manufactured in diameters of 12.5 16.0 20.0 and 25.0
mm and in length of 1.5-12.5 m for most application, the diameters of 12.5, 16.0
and 20.0 mm in lengths of 3.5 and 5.0 are satisfactory. ISS specifies that rods of
steel or iron shall be at least 16.0 mm in diameter, and that rods of non-ferrous
materials shall not be less than 12.5 mm in diameter, Copper-clad steel, one of
the most common types of rods, permits driving to considerable depth without
destruction of the rod itself, while the copper coat permits direct-clad steel,
galvanized steel rods are available.

For ease of driving, some rods are available in sections. As each section
is driven toward ground level, another section is added by use of a coupling,
making a continuous conductor. A removable stud will take the driven blow and
avoid damage to the threads of the joint. For safety reasons, rods should be
driven so that no unguarded length remains above ground.

The effect of the rod diameter on the resistance of the connection to earth
is small. The diameter of the ground rod is determined mainly by the mechanical
rigidity required for driving. It is advantageous to select the smallest diameter rod
that meets the driving requirements. Average soil conditions will permit the use of
the 12.5 mm rod. The 16.00 mm rod can be driven in nearly all types of the soil,
and the 20.00 mm rod may be reserved for exceptionally hard driving conditions
or for deep driven rods.
 For ordinary soil condition, the 3 meter length of rod has become fairly
well established as a minimum standard length to meet the code requirement of
a minimum of 2.5 meter.

6.5.1 Methods Driving Rods.

Sledging requires a minimum of driving equipment, but may require
considerable time per food of rod. A modification of the sledging process,
consisting of a chuck and sliding hammer, permits the work to be carried on at a
level convenient to the worker with out a ladder or auxiliary platform. An
additional advantage is that the blow is delivered to the rod at a point not far from
the ground line, thus permitting rods to be driven to greater depths than would be
possible by hand sledging. If rods are to be driven on a comparatively large
scale, it is desirable to provide power driving equipment. Electric, pneumatic and
gasoline driven hammers are available, the first two requiring sources of power.
Regardless of the type of driven tool used, precaution should be taken to prevent
mushrooming of the head.

6.5.2 Connecting to Electrodes :

Connections to electrodes are usually made by one of the several means.
The first of these methods involves the use of mechanical (bolted) fittings, which
are readily available, simple to install, disconnect able for measurements of
resistance to earth, and have a long history of satisfactory usage. Although
corrosion has sometimes presented a problem, treatment of the joint as an
ordinary electrical connection in a corrosive environment eliminates most of the
problems in this respect. Mechanical connections should. If at all possible, be
accessible for inspection and servicing.

The second method, a thermite process of connecting to the electrode,

has increased in usage in recent years because of the savings in time and costs
when many connections must be made. This method provides a permanent
connection, eliminates contact resistance, is relatively corrosion free, and permits
the use of smaller cable because of the 450oC maximum temperature limitation.
It requires separate disconnection means, such as aboveground bolted joins, for
measurement of resistance to earth. It also requires a certain amount of training
and it cannot be used in the operation would interfere with nearly operations.

Utilities are experimenting currently with a third method involves the use of
a copper or copper0alloy connector which is squeezed onto both ground rod and
cable simultaneously by a hydraulic press. This method is economical, presents
most of the advantages of the thermite process, and eliminates most of the
objections to that process.

Other methods of joining, such as brazing or welding, are satisfactory is

properly done.
6.6 Measuring Electrode resistance :
Four terminal earth testing megger, commonly know as earth tester is
used for measuring the resistance of earth electrode. At the time of test, the test
electrode and current electrode are used for the test. These auxiliary electrodes
usually are of mild steel and have a diameter of 12.5 mm. these rods have to be
driven up to 1 meter into the ground. The connection are shown Fig. 6.1.

Distance between AB = Distance between BC = 15 meter. A, B and C

should be in a line while testing, sometimes, wandering of the instrument pointed
will be noted. This is due to stray currents in the soil. An increase or decrease of
the earth tester handle speed will cause this wandering to disappear. The tester
gives the earth electrode resistances reading directly in ohms.

7. EARTH RESISTIVIT AND EARTH GRADINT

Earth resistivity, as normally stared in ohm-meter or ohm-cm, (1 ohm m =
100 ohm cm), varies widely between different types of soil and is particularly
affected by the moisture high moisture content, this is because conduction in soil
is mainly of an electrolytic nature so that a high moisture content, in excess say
22 percent by weight, is required to give the minimum resistivity of a range,.
Ranges of approximate values for the various types of soil are shown in Table
7.1 Made-up ground is indeterminate and ground containing soluble salts, acid or
alkali, will have resistivity which varies widely with the amount and the below
about 22 percent by weight so it is essential to bury current-carrying electrodes at
such a depth that the surrounding soil not affected by seasonal variations,
particularly drying out during dry weather. In temperate climes, the variations, in
moisture content of the soil with seasonal changes occurs mainly at the change
to a depth of 1 meter; below this depth the moisture content and resistivity do not
change to a market degree. An earth electrode or mat should therefore be driven
or buried deep enough to be permanently in contact with moist should earth but
where this is not possible or, as in the case of a large earth mat too costly, a well-
distributed system of vertical rods, driven to a sufficient depth and bonded to the
earth grid, will usually suffice.

Table 7.2

Type of soil. Resistivity ohm - meter

Clay and loam 4 -150
Sandy clay 80 -200
Marsh peat 150 -200
Sand 90 -800
Rock and chalk Any value up to 1000

The minimum specific resistivity for clay/load of 4 ohm meter is the value
of 20OC. Increase of temperature may show a slight decrease in resistivity
provided local drying out at the electrode surface does not occur. However,
decrease in temperature of the same soil to- 5OC shows a very rapid rise in soil
resistivity to 50 ohm meter and at-20oC the same soil has a resistivity of 500
ohm meter. This is a further reason for placing earth electrodes at a sufficient
depth since, as with moisture variation, this will avoid an increase in resistivity
due to frost penetration of the earth.

Since earth resistivity measurements are normally made with small

currents, it is important to ascertain that larger currents, such as those which may
occur during due to a fault is of sufficiently short duration, but if it persists for
more than a second, the heat generated due to the contact resistance between
the electrode and the ground may dry out the earth in the vicinity of the electrode
causing a rise in earth resistance due to a reduction in moisture content.
Excessive drying out of the soil around an electrode may leave an air-space as a
result of earth shrinkage, giving defective and is, in any case, only however only
likely to occur with a fault current of long defective earth contact. This is
dangerous on low-voltage system since, with high voltage, spark over occurs
which does not lead to appreciable increase in earth current may also give rise to
a voltage gradient which exceeds the breakdown value of the earth adjacent to
the electrode, which depended, on the nature of the soil but is of the order of
some KV per cm. if this value is exceeded. Aces will start at the electrode
surface, effectively increasing the size of the electrode and reducing the voltage
gradient to a value which the earth can with stand. The number of electrodes to
be used for a given fault current and duration depends on the thermal capacity of
earth rods.
 A voltage gradient in the earth occurs when current from an electrode
flows through the earth resistance. It is theoretically infinite at the surface of the
electrode. Practically, a danger exists to persons or large animals, particularly the
latter due to their greater sensitivity and the greater distance apart of their legs, if
the potential difference at the ground surface is sufficient to pass a dangerous
current across the body from leg to leg. This potential difference, known as the
step voltage, because it is the voltage which a man would receive across the
body by taking a 1 meter step in a radial direction from the earth electrode,
depends on the current density at the step, the resistivity of the soil and the depth
of the electrode for rod or pipe electrodes. It has been shown that if the electrode
small it is therefore, a necessary precaution that earth connections on overhead
lines, whether an equipment or system earth should be by means of an insulated
conductor, form some point well pot of reach of man or animal to the actual
electrode whose top should be at least 0.5 meter, but preferably deeper below
ground level.

8. EARTHING AND BONDING OF EQUIPMETN AND

CABLES.
8.1 The equipment earth is the means of connection the outer casings or
supporting structures of all live equipment to the main body of earth and, in the
event of an earth fault within the equipment, it may have to carry the full phase
short circuit current. Equipment earthing is essential for the safety of operating
personnel, but particularly on an overhead line system. In underground
distribution networks all live equipment is metaclad line system and earthed, the
cables with their sheaths and sometimes amour, the switchgear wire that
transformers, the cables with their sheaths and sometimes armor, the switchgear
and the transformers, but this is not so no overhead systems without a
continuous earth wire, that is the majority of distribution network below 33 kv. In
this case the resistance of the return path for fault current may be high and a
dangerous voltage may exist on faulty equipment unless an additional parallel
return path is provided by the equipment earth. Bonding is the term for
connections made between the outer casing and supporting structures of all live
equipment, and of the earth electrode, in order to provide a low resistance path
for leakage current to the equipment earth and back through the main body of
earth to the system earth. This ensures adequate current to operate the
protective equipment and reduces the magnitude and duration of dangerous
voltages. Bonding conductors must be as short as possible and so arranged that
any fault current is diverted to them instead of flowing indiscriminately through
housing and support frames, since these normally have bolted connections in
their construction where local heating and sparking might occur.

Bonding conductors and their joints must have adequate thermal capacity
for the estimated fault current and its duration. This latter is normally taken as 3
seconds, the same as the short-circuit time rating of switchgear and current
transformers. Copper strip used for bonding conductors in distribution system
are generally of following standard size.

(a) 4 cm by 5 mm (1.1/2 in by 3/16 in ) copper strip.

Main earth or common bonding bars in major substation. Individual

equipment bonding for main structures in substation at 33 KV and above.
HV cable bonding where cable sizes are large than 120 mm2. transformer
tank bonding above 500 KVA common bonding system in substation
where the fault level is above 75 MVA at 6.6 and 150 MVA at 11 KV.
Neutral bus bar on LV boards above 500 KVA.

(b) 2.5 cm by 3 (1 in by 1/8 in ) copper strip.

Bonding in small distribution where fault levels are less than 75 MVA at 11
KV or where the HV cables are 120 mm2 or less. Transformer tank
bonding below 500 KVA. HV and LV cable bonding, 70 mm2 or below. LV
disconnecting boxes, pillars, kiosks and auxiliary equipment in all
substations.

Danger points in equipment earthing which need special attention are

equipment operating handles such as that a section switch on an overhead line.
The danger here is that on earth fault may occur while the operator is opening or
closing the switch, either due to insulator failure on line or switch or to the
opening in error of an energized circuit resulting in an are to the structure. In
either case the steelwork of the tower, or the switch-operating mechanism, even
if separately earthed, may be raised to a sufficient voltage above earth to give a
dangerous step or touch voltage. If the operating handle is within an extensive
substation earth-grid area, step voltage should be within safe limits as else where
within the station perimeter, but for an isolated switch on an overhead line further
protection is necessary. This may consist of an insulating handle or, more
effectively, the bonding of the switch handle and associated mechanism to a
separate earth-met, buried horizontally as near the earth surface as is
practicable, at a position immediately below that at which the operator must
stand, while the tower steelwork, cross-arms, eat, is separately earthed. If an
earth fault occurs which raises the steelwork voltage above earth, the voltage
between an operator’s hand and feet will be negligible they are virtually
connected through a low resistance bond. Even this does not always ensure
sufficient protection and a portable steel mat which may spread on the earth and
bonded to the switch handle may prove to be necessary.

Metallic cable sheath, unless effectively earthed and bonded, may attain a
dangerous voltage due to insulation failure, charges due to electrostatic induction
and the flow of sheath current or the voltage rise, under conditions, of the station
earth to which must the sheath are connection. With cables that are lead-covered
and armored, the armoring must be adequately bonded to the lead sheath at the
point where connection to earth in made. The reason is to ensure that under fault
condition there is no voltage difference between armoring and sheath which
would cause arcing and subsequent pitting of the lead. At junction points
between lines and cable, the cable sheath or sheath in the case three cable in
trefoil must be bonded together and to the earth tower or pole. The base of the
sealing bell, which is bolted directly to the supporting structure, must be bonded
to the gland or plumbed to the lead sheath and connection to the tower or to the
earth wire of the pole. For a pole - mounted transformer the bonded and earthing
of the transformer taken and supporting structure must be quite separate from
the earth of the low-voltage line natural. Why this precaution is necessary with
pole transformer and not with other types of substation is the substation is the
difficulty of economically in rural areas a satisfactory low resistance earth at all
seasons.

Lighting arresters or surge diverters must be provided with as short, and

direct a path to earth as is possible by bonding the bases of the three arresters to
a separate earth electrode situated at the base of the supporting structure. This
electrode may how even, be paralleled with the main substation earth grid where
this is practicable. If the arresters are mounted on a steel structure, this may
provide a lower resistance path than copper strip. In which case the three
arresters and the earth electrode are bonded to it. The advantage of fitting
lighting arresters as close as possible to the equipment to be protected has led to
them being fitted on the top of transformer tanks where an earth terminal to
copper-plated earth pad should be provided for connection to the arresters in
addition to the normal earth terminal at the base of the tank. This is an advantage
as the transformer tank provides better conductivity than a separate earth
connection.

9. SUBSTATION EARTHING
The requirement for substation earthing are to dissipate to the earth a
large amount current, of the order of thousands of amperes, without heating and
consequent drying-out of the neighborhood of an earth electrode, and secondly
to control the potential gradient over the whole substation area and beyond so
that step-and-touch voltages nowhere exceed a safe value. In a substation of any
size, no single earth electrode will suffice to dissipate the fault current, so several
such electrodes spaced over the substation area would be the fault required,
interconnected below the earth surface by horizontal conductors and connection
to switchgear frames equipment casings system neutrals and lower footings.
Such an earth grid, as it is in effect, is an excellent earthing system so that a
multiple electrode system may prove to be very little better as regards earth
resistance and current dissipation. Than is the buried connecting network itself.
The earth grid or mesh electrode, covering as it does the whole substation area,
provides control of local potentials throughout the area so that dangerous step -
and torch voltages do not occur. These may be prevented by reducing the
spacing of conductors in the buried grid until a suitable distribution of voltage
over the area is achieved. The mesh electrode is normally constructed of
rectangular strip, copper of minimum size 2.5 cm by 3 mm or steel 5 cm by 5 mm
of length not exceeding 100 m beyond which consideration of impedance at Hz
indicates that no appreciable reduction is dissipation resistance would occur.
Since the efficient design of earth electrodes requires then to have largest
possible surface for a given amount of material, the long flat strip is most suitable
and is easily jointed to similar strips at right angles to from a mesh which may
vary from a minimum of two strips and two cross members around the perimeter
of the site to a theoretical maximum of a solid plate covering the whole area (Fig
9.1).

The dissipation resistance or earth resistance ® of such a mesh electrode

buried in homogenous soil is given with sufficient accuracy by the Laurent and
niemann equation.

R = P + P
4r L

This assumes that the voltage of the mesh electrode above the general body of
earth has two components P I due to the mesh regarded as a buried plate and
4r
P I due to the total length of buried conductor where
L
P = average earth resistivity, ohm m.

r = radius of a circular plate having the same area A as the mesh electrode.
= √ ( A / TT ) m

L = total length of buried conductor in the mesh excluding cross connectors in

meters.

Alternatively, it may be considered that the second term recognizes that

the resistance of the mesh is more that that of a soil plate of the same area, the
difference decreasing as the length of conductor increase becoming zero when L
is infinite and the solid plate condition is reached. In grid regions the sub soil may
have appreciably lower resistivity Ps than topsoil at the earth surface pt. in this
case both values of resistivity are used in equation.

Ps and P t used for the local voltage drop giving

R = Ps + Pt
4r L
 FIG.-9/1 Valves of the product of the coefficients Km and Kr for square mesh
electrodes with, different meshes.

For large-mesh electrodes, even if P t rises considerable, say 10 times

due to seasonal drying out of the earth surface, the total resistance change is not
great owing to the large value of L, but for smaller substations it may be of
importance. Where the subsoil resistivity is the greater, the first term of the
equation may become sufficiently large to make the local voltage drop term
negligible. The buried conductors are then likely to saturate the earth surface so
that only increase in the area of the mesh will lead to may considerable reduction
in the dissipation resistance.

A rough calculation of the length of buried conductor in a mesh electrode

of given area may be made by keeping the various voltages at the earth surface
within specified limits, the three voltage are :
 V step : The step voltage over a horizontal distance of one meter.

V touch : Here defined as the voltage between a structure earthed to

the mesh and a point on the earth surface one meter
away.

V mesh : A special case of touch voltage being the voltage from an

earthed structure to a point on the earth surface at the
centre of a rectangle formed by the mesh conductors.

Laurent has given the approximate value for the usual ranges of conductor size,
buried depth and spacing of mesh conductors for French practice as where I is
current flowing :

V step = 0.1 - 0.15 P i

V touch = 0.6 – 0.8 P i
V mesh =Pi

To earth per meter of buried conductor, touch voltage rather than step
voltage is taken as the basis of calculation since step voltage involves the
resistance to earth of two feet in series rather than in parappep for touch voltage,
thus limiting the body current for the formers, Assuming body resistance,
constant, ventricular fibrillation may be prevented by keeping the total energy
(joule) absorbed by the body during a shock to below given value tests in the
time range 0.03 s to 3 s. by a number of workers in several countries have led to
the conclusions by Dalziel that this threshold of energy, which will only cause
fibrillation in half of 1 percent of a large group of normal men is

Ib2 t = 0.027

Where Ib is the current (rms) through the body and t the time (second) or

Ib = 0.165
√t

The above expression shows the virtue of first of fast fault clearance in
raising the figure for safe body determined that the resistance of two feet in
series ( step contact ) is approximately 6 pt ohm and of the two feet in parallel (
touch contact ) approximately 1.5 pt ohm. Body and skin resistance varies
widely, from 500 to 3000 ohm, but a value of 1000 ohm is reasonable
considering the improbability that all the factors which contribute to shock
severity would have their most adverse value at a particular instant hence.
 E touch = (1000 + 1.5 pt ) IB

= ( 1000 + 1.5 pt ) 0.165

√t

= 165 + 0.25 P t
√t

Taking the value of for Emesh in place E touch since for most mesh
electrodes it is likely to be the greater.

E mesh = PI = 165 + 0.25 P t

L √t

L = PI √ t
165 + 0.25 pt

An estimation of l from this expression assumes idealized conditions such

as uniform soil resistivity, a symmetrical mesh electrode composed of squares of
uniform side and constant current to earth per unit length of mesh conductor. The
latter condition is not fulfilled even with a square means since the current which
flows is higher for conductors at the side than at the centre of the mesh electrode
and higher yet at the corners. Since the voltage gradients vary accordingly, any
reasonably accurate estimate of E mesh must take account of the position of a
given rectangle in the mesh as well as the number, dimensions and depth, of
buried of the mesh conductors. This to the use of two coefficients in the
expression of E mesh.

Emesh = Km Ki P t
L
Where Km is a coenfficient which taken into account the effect of number
n, spacing, D, diameter, d and depth of buried, h, of the grid conductors. It is
given by

Km = 0.366 log 10g ( D2 ) + 0.732 log 10 (3) (5) (7) etc.…

( 16 hd ) (4) (6) (8)

The number of factors in parentheses in the second term above being two
less than earth number of parallel conductors in the mesh, excluding cross-
connectors.

Kt is an irregularity correction factor to allow for non-uniformrmity of the

current to earth from different parts of the mesh. It conforms closely for
rectangular symmetrical mesh electrodes to an empirical relation.

Kt = 0.65 + 0.172n.
 Where n is the number of parallel mesh conductors.

Use of the above expression for Emesh permits a closer estimate of L in

order to keep the mesh voltage within safe limit, and a determination of the
coefficients for each rectangle in the will show whether the mesh voltage is likely
to be exceeded in any point.

The value of the Km Kt product as determined experimentally by koch are

shown by Fig. 9.1 for rectangular having 2.3 and 5 parallel conductors in one
direction, but the same tests show that a value as high as 2.25 is possible for the
same rectangle with an irregular spacing of the mesh conductors. However the
extent to which differences of potential occur between different parts of the mesh
electrodes in self, under fault conditioned, also depends on the points of
connection of machines, equipment and system neutrals, from which an earth
fault current may flow to the mesh conductors. As such equipment will normally
be earthed in the central part of the mesh rather than at the periphery, with
consequent rise in voltage at these points the general tendency for the earth
current per meter of mesh conductor to be greater with outer conductors will to
some extent be compensated.

The area of the substation itself may be made safer by the use of a
surface layer of crushed rock which has a much higher resistivity than soil exen
when wet. Special care may be required with per meter fencing which must be
connected throughout to the mesh electrode and with railway track which, being
earthed within the substation area, may convey the mesh electrode potential to a
distance where give a dangerous touch voltage to earth.

10. GENERAL INSTRUCTION FOR LAYING EARTHING

GRID.
10.1. When copper conductor is used for the grid the joints should be riveted
and sweated, brazed or bolted. Brazed joints with out mechanical
retentions should not be used.
10.2. if steel is used, all joints between themselves and grounding electrode
should be overlap welded. The length of welds should be at least double
the width of the strip.
10.3. joints in the earth bar between equipments, which may have to be opened
later for any construction purpose, should be of bolted type.
10.4. For protection against rust of buried welded joints, located in soil, the weld
should be coated with molted bitumen and covered with suitable taps. In
case of copper conductor, the joint faces to be tinned.
10.5. Tee overhead earth wires of transmission lines should be solidly
connection to the earthing grid.
10.6. Separate earthing electrodes should be provided for lighting arrestors,
coupling capacitors and transformer neutrals. These electrodes should
also be connected to the earthing grid.
10.7. Trenches dug for burying the earthing grid, should be filled with earth free
if stones. The filling should be carefully rammed.
10.8. All the covered by earthing grid should have crushed rock covering of at
least 7.5 cms thick to increase foot resistance of the operators. If the fence
is connected to the earthing grid, the crushed rock coverings should also
be provided outside along the periphery of the fencing.

11. CONSUMER INSTALLATION EARTHING AND

PROTECTIVE MULTIPLE EARTHING

11.1. While the responsibility for providing one earthing of a power installation is
that of the consumers, supply authorities have to provide second earthing facility
to comply with I. E. regulations in case of L.T. consumer, supply authority has to
provide earthing facility. The earliest methods of earthing was to connect the
consumer’s earth conductivity conductor to an earth electrode on the consumer’s
premises. Such direct driven rod. Buried plate or metallic water-pipe, most
frequently the latter. Such direct earthing may be entirely unsafe. Due to the fact
that either supply authority nor consumer are obliged to make a periodic check of
the electrode, and the use of plastic mains by water authorities is likely a to make
it less effective in the future. The fact that mains by do not accept the use of
water or gas pipes, either jointly or separately, as the earthing electrode makes is
incumbent on the supply authority to make alternatives to the direct earthing on
the consumer’s premises available, such cable-sheath earthing, continuous
earth-wire. Earth leakage circuit breakers and protective multiple earthing.

Cable-sheath earthing is common in urban areas where the method of

distribution is by underground cable of paper instated lead covered type and
where the service mains and main cable have plumbed joints. The consumer’s
continuity earthy is then connected directly to the lead sheath of the cable,
providing a low impedance path back to the supply transformer where the lead
sheath is earthed to the same earth electrode as the system neutral. This method
of earthing is reliable and effective, giving loop impedance as low as 0.5 ohm, so
that a prospective fault current of say 500 A is possible, which ensures speedy
operation of the fuse on the affected circuit in the consumers installation. The
plumbed joint is, however the highest standard of jointing and the most costly so
that is has given way to joint boxes with mechanical clamps which do not provide
a sufficiently reliable low resistance contactor. But where plumbed joints exist
throughout, cable sheath earthing is an economical arrangement since the lead
sheath serves its primary purpose of preventing the ingress of moisture to the
paper-insulation cable so that its use as an earth conductor is a bonus.
 Continuous earth-wire provision was used extensively in rural areas where
earth electrode resistance is high. A separate continuous earth wire was run as
the lowest conductor on the poles, below the phase and neutral conductors, and
the consumer continuity earths all connected to it to provide a low impedance
path for earth-fault current back to the supply transformer. The only risk involved
in this otherwise satisfactory arrangement is the breakage of the earth wire,
which could possibly remain undetected for some time since there are no
monitoring facilities. This and the extra capital cost of the fifth wire in each
distributor limited the system to short distributors with a high consumer density, if
the earthing cost per consumer were to be economic. Eventually the
development of the protective multiple earthing system made the provision of a
separate earth conductor unnecessary so this system is likely to be obsolescent
or used only in cases of special difficulty Figure 11.1 shows the path for earth
fault current (a) for a single-phase consumer installation with an continuous
earth-wire system of earthing. In the former case-electrode resistances of both
the consumer and the substation earths in series, while in the latter no earth
electrode resistance is involved.

The earth leakage circuit-beaker has the advantage over the more
common fuse link that a return path of low impedance, where is required to carry
the heavy fault current needed to blow a fuse, is now necessary. Instead of fuses
in the main and sub circuits of the consumers installation a miniature circuit
breaker is inserted, the operating coil of which trips the circuit-breaker when a
predetermined level of earth leakage current is reached. The trip coil us either of
high resistance (voltage operated) of low resistance (current operated),
connected between the frame of the equipment to be protected and the supply
neutral of the consumer’s earth electrode. This may provide a relatively high
resistance earth since a the consumer’s earth electrode. This may provide a
relatively high resistance earth since a rated tripping current of 0.5. A is usual
and breakers with tripping current down 25 mA are available. Against the
advantage of operation on small earth fault current must be set the extra cost of
the circuit breaker and the fact that it normally protects only against an earth fault
and that over current tripping facilities, are needed to protect against both phase
to-phase faults.

11.2. Protective Multiple Earthing (P.M.E.) or M.E.N. (Multiple Earthing of the

Neutral) has been made possible by the relaxation of the restrictions regarding
the earthing of the neutral of a 3 phase, four-wire supply, Originally earthing was
permitted at one point only.
FIG. 11-1(c)

L line. CCE consumer’s continuity earth.

N neutral. BN bonding to other neutrals.
EW earth-wire. BC Bonding on consumer’s premises.
SA supply authority’s meter. Etc. CEF consumer’s fortuitous earth.
FA faulty apparatus.

Fig. 11.1 paths of fault current for an earth fault in consumer’s installation
(a) With earth electrode on consumer’s premises (b) with consumer’s continuity
earth connected to supply authority’s earth-wire or cable-sheath and (c) with
protective multiple earthing were too strangest to encourage the general adoption
of the system.
 However approval is now given and, since, then M.E.N. systems have
grown rapidly. In this system Fig 11.1 (c) where the neutral provides the return
path of low impedance for earth-fault current, there are two sources of danger of
an open-circuited neutral connection and a rise a in voltage of the neutral due to
a local phase-to-earth fault. These dangers are mitigated by two requirements,
firstly that the neutral shall be earthed not only at the supply end but also at the
end of the distributor, and secondly that all metalwork within a consumer’s
premise shall be bonded together and to the neutral. The former requirement
ensures that, in the event of a broken neutral conductor, both part remain
effectively earthed and the latter that in the event of a voltage rise of the neutral,
possible theoretically up to the phase voltage of the system, all metal in a
consumer’s premises is at the same potential so that it is possible for a person to
make contact both with the neutral and with the whole body of earth. This
neglects the apparently dangerous possibility of contact of contact outside
equipotent cage of metal work, such as to damp stone floors, etc. but although
special precautions any need to be taken in certain industrial and commercial
premises, premises, there is no evidence of danger to the public from the
system. It is evident, however that the neutral bonding in the consumer’s
premises be through.

It is probable that extensive adoption of M.E.N in distribution results in a

lowering of the overall neutral to earth resistance by interconnection of the
neutral on previously separate distribution systems, by the fortuitous earth at
each consumer’s premises and by the connection to the neutral of the street
lighting standard. This lowering of the neutral-to earth resistance leads directly
corresponding reduction in the possible voltage rise which might occur on the
metal work in a consumer’s premises and has apparently made the theoretical
safety hazard negligible.

The advantage of P.M.E. are that it is possible for a supply authority to

provide to all consumers a safe and efficient system of earthing at a lower cost
than by any other means. It also leads to the adoption on underground
distribution system of new design of cable which save as much as 20 percent on
the materiel by providing three shaped cores in the cable with a concentric
neutral conductor consisting of a wave-would wire sheath which facilitates
jointing. This can result in system where cable and installation costs will be
reduced by quarter.

12. EARTHING IN RURAL AREA.

12.1 Rural Electrification :
With the advent of five year plan, electrification of rural areas has been
going on in a big way since 1951. In India we have about 576,000 villages and in
1947 practically none of these were electrified. As at March, 1985 all most
370,000 villages, covering about 70% of the population, have electrified. At the
same time, all sorts of electrical gadgets have started making their appearances
in villages. Since in villages, ready medical aid is scarce, the safety pertaining to
electricity has to be given top priority. Proper earthing of all equipments is of
paramounts importance also, since inspection of these earthing arrangements
may not be done at regular intervals, proper care should be taken at the vary
beginning that the earthing resistance remains low during all seasons.

12.2 Methodology :
The different methods of earthing available (a0 pipe type earthing (b) plate
type earthing and (c) combination of (a) & (b) under normal soil resistance
condition any of these methods give satisfactory low earth resistance. However
in some areas, these methods have failed to provide a safe value of earth
resistance, where the terrain may be rocky, black cotton soil or dry sandy soil.
Because public safety is involved, some efforts are make to bring down this earth
resistance.

The most common method used is to treat the soil with salt, charcoal and
soft coke to being down the earth resistance. These conventional methods are
effective in sandy gravel or rock, whose resistivity may be and where between
500 to 1000 ohm meter. Injection of chemicals such as silicate gels, copper
ferricynide gels, acrylamide and methylene bisarcylamide have been tried with
great success in developed countries and these maintain low earth resistivity for
long time. We cannot think of using treatment in India as cost is prohibitive.

12.3 Soil treatment :

Any soil treatment we apply in India has to fulfill the following
requirements.

(a) It should not be costly.

(b) If should be easily applicable.
(c) It should not cause corrosion of the electrode.
(d) It should be capable of absorbing water and retaining the same for
long time.

(e) Once embedded, it should remain permanently.

(f) If should have low resistivity.

One of the substance which fulfills most of the above mentioned

requirements is Bentonite. The minerals in Betonies are : Montmorillonite, lllite
and kaolinite. Bentonite, when suspended in water, swells to several times its
original volume. It can also retain moisture for long time. As far as electrical
conductivity is concerned, sodium based bentonite is superiod to calcilm based
one. It does not corrode iron or zinc, but if bentonite is mixed with 5% chloride to
improve electricity, it may become corrosive.

From a long point of view, bentonite treated soil round the earth electrode
in rural areas, seems to be the most suitable for our country.

13. GENERAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS.

Q.1. What is the minimum size of earthing lead for any installation ?
A. 3.00 mm2 if of copper and 6mm2 if of galvanized iron or steel. The actual
size depends on maximum fault current which the lead is expected to
carry. Time rating is generally 30 seconds.

Q.2. What is the effect of temperature on soil resistivity ?

A. Temperature has some effect on soil resistivity but is important only near
and below freezing point, necessitating installation of earth electrode at
depths to which frost will not penetrate. Below 0oC, the resistivity
increases sharply.

Q.3. Which sites are most suitable for installing earth electrode ?
A. In order preference, they are as follows :-
(a) Wet marshy ground and grounds containing refuge, such as ashes,
cinders and bring waste.
(b) Clayey soil mixed with shall quantity of sand.
(c) Damp and wet sand pit.

Q.4. What is the effect of moisture on soil resistivity ?

A. Below 22 percent of moisture, the resistivity in creases sharply, Beyond 22
percent it remains low and practically same value as at 22 percent
moisture for any higher water contact.

Q.5. What is the minimum size of earth electrode ?

A. If of steel or galvanized iron-16 mm in dia. If of copper ; 12.5 mm in dia.

Q.6. What is the minimum size of pipe electrode ?

A. For steel or minimumiron-38 mm internal dia. For cast iron :100 mm
internal dia.

Q.7. What is the minimum length of rod and pipe electrode ?

A. The is the length shall not be loss than 2.5 meters.
Q.8. What to do is rock is encountered within 2.5 meters ?
A. The rods can be buried inclined but inclination should be more than 30o
from the vertical.

Q.9. What is the minimum size for strip or conductor electrodes

A. Copper strip-25 mm*1.6 mm – Galvanized iron or steel. 25 mm * 4 mm if
round conductors are used :-

Copper : 30 mm2 Cross section area.

Galvanized iron or steel. 6 mm 2 cross section area.

Q.10. What is the minimum length for buried conductors ?

A. 15 meters.

Q.11. What is the minimum depth of trench for buried conductor ?

A. Not less than 0.5 meters.

Q.12. What is minimum size, thickness and depth for plate electrode ?
A. Minimum size : 60 cm × 60 cm
Thickness Copper 3.15 mm. Steel or galvanized iron 6.3 mm.
Depth Plates to be buried vertically with top edge at a depth not less
than 1.5 meter from ground surface.

Q.13. If plates are be connected in parallel to reduce earth resistance what

should be minimum separation distance ?

A. 8 meters.

Q.14. What is the minimum cross sectional area for main earthing ring of any
installation ?

A. 75 mm.

Q.15. If soil is artificially treated to earth low resistance, at what interval the
treatment has to be repeated ?

A. For clay and load once in 8 or 10 years. For sand and porous soil, once in
2 has years.

Q.16. What is the necessity to provide earthing grid in outdoor substation ?

A. Mainly this the to control the step and touch voltage i.e. for safety of
personal.
Q.17. Where the resistivity of earth is fluctuating as per season where the earth
grid is located, how many earth electrodes are required to supplement the
grid ?

A. If 20 mm dia 3 meter long rods are used, then number of rods required are
obtained by dividing maximum earth fault current by 500. if earth fault
current is 11000 amps, then rods required 11,00 % 500 =22.

Q.18. What should be the total earth resistance in substation generation station?
A. The resistance should be less than 1.0 ohm.

Q.19. What is the maintenance for earth electrode at substations and generation
stations?

A. (a) Periodic visual inspection –say once in 3 months to detect any signs of
deterioration.
A. (b) Neighboring soil the earth electrodes shall be kept moist.
A. (c) The resistance test to be carried, if possible, every year and record to
be kept test once in two years is a must as per I.E. Rules.
A. (d) If test show high resistance, immediate action to be taken to rectify.

Q.20. What is the minimum earth resistance required for distributors substations
and H.T. consumer substation ?

A. Resistance in the 2 to 5 ohms range are generally found suitable.

Q.21. What is the maximum per missile current density for an earth electrode ?
A. The is the maximum permissible meter is obtained by the following
formula :-

I = 7.57 × 103 A/m2

√Pt
Where t = duration of earth fault in seconds.
P= earth resistivity per ohm-meter.

The magnitude of earth fault current divided by I obtained as per the

formula, gives the minimum cross section of the earth electrode required.

Q.22. What is the size of earth bus and conductors to be used in Sub-station
and Generation Station ?
A. The size depends upon the magnitude and duration of earth fault
current and is obtained by the following equation.

(a) Tor sweated and riveted joints :

A = 0.0054 I √ t

(b) For brazed joints

A = 0.0044 I √t

Where A = cross sectional area in sq. mm.

I = amount of current flow in amps and
t = duration of current flow in amps.

ISS 3043 recommends that ‘t’ should be taken as 30 seconds. In that

case cross section of main earth bus will be as follows :-

A = 0.0296 I mm2 for sweated, riveted and bolted joints.

A = 0.024 I f mm2 or brazed joints.
 REFERENCE.

1. Electric supply –Transformer and distribution.

By F. D. De. La Chard- Longman London.

2. Electrical Installation Technology and Practice.

By J. D. PADDOCK

The English language Book Society. HODDER & STOUGHTON O.B.

3. Substation Design & Equipment.
By P. V. Gupta and P.S. Satnam.
Dhanpat Rai & Sons –Delhi.

4. Earth resistivity Testing analysis.

P.K. Patni.
Vidyut Bharati, Pages 115 to 112 –July-Sept, 1981.

5. Earth Resistivity of earth resistance and resistivity by means of an Earth

Tester.
S.B. CHAURASHIYA.
Vidyut Bharati, Pages 314 to 318 –July-Sept, 1981.

6. Earthing in Rural areas.

O.P Arora.
Vidyut Bharati, Pages 119 to 124 July-Sept, 1980.

7. IS. 3043- Code of Practice for Earthing.

8. Earthing-Publication No 213 A, B.I.C C. LTD, London.

9. Grounding of Industrial and Commercial Power System.

IEEE. Std. 142-1982.

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