지구물질과학

Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences,

Korea University
 Introduction
 All of the solid parts of the universe are composed of minerals

 Truly of fundamental importance in how we understand the

planet upon which we live,
 and in the ways in which the planet affects our activities.

 From this definition, it is apparent that mineralogy relates chemistry and physics
to geologic materials.
 Definition of Mineral
A mineral is a naturally occurring solid with a highly ordered atomic
arrangement and a definite (but not fixed) chemical composition.
It is usually formed by inorganic processes.

 Naming of a mineral: Commission on New

Minerals and Mineral Names (CNMMN)
which is part of the International
Mineralogical Association (IMA).

Quartz (Photo
by Chip Clark) http://www.ill.fr/dif/3D-gallery.html
 Example
• Water vs. Ice ?

• Obsidian (volcanic glass) ?

 Volcanic glass:
lacks a periodic arrangement of atoms, not crystalline.
Also, no definite chemical composition = rock

• Mineraloid : fulfills most of these requirements,

especially having definite chemical composition:
e.g., opal (SiO2nH2O)
 Definition of Mineral

(1) Naturally occurring - labs can now produce synthetic equivalents

(2) Homogeneous solid - solid substance that cannot be subdivided
into simpler chemical components
(3) Definite chemical composition - expressed by a chemical formula
(4) Highly ordered atomic arrangement - internal structure is
arranged in a geometrical pattern
(5) Formed by inorganic processes - others are called biogenic
minerals; e.g. calcite in a mollusk shell, pigeons make magnetite in
their brains, human teeth (apatite)
 Definition of Mineral

• Ordered atomic arrangement

The crystalline state of matter (i.e., a
geometric pattern or a framework).
When a natural substance lack order, then it is
termed amorphous.
Certain earth materials that are amorphous are
therefore, included in the definition of
mineraloid.

Examples :
coal, obsidian, allophane, amber; short range
order may be detected using a TEM. The
degree of ordering is extremely small.
 Definition of Mineral

• Inorganic compound:
Included in our definition are minerals produced through
biological processes. This process is termed biomineralization
and can be a major process for mineral formation.
Examples : calcite - clam shell
apatite - mammal bones
weddellite* - kidney stones
Ex) Natural substances such as amber, coal & petroleum; ?
 Definition of Mineral
• Homogeneous solid : a single,
solid substance (phase) which
cannot physically be separated
into simpler compounds.

• Rocks are usually aggregates of

minerals which can be physi-cally
separated from one another. (e.g.,
ice is mineral, water is not),

• Natural substances such as

mercury; Mineraloids.
 Definition of Mineral, Chemical composition
• a very common mineral found in nature is
quartz. It is composed of silica and oxygen
in a molar ratio of 1:2 and is represented by
the formula SiO2. Recall the gram-formula
weight of a compound is the sum of the
atomic weights,
(e.g., Si = 28 and O =16, therefore 28 + 2(16)
= 60 g or 1 mole of quartz).

Not always be fixed. The mineral olivine, for

example, may vary in composition from
Mg2SiO4 to Fe2SiO4.
However, the chemical variation occurs
between strict limits which must be obeyed
(i.e., (Mg, Fe)2SiO4 ). Any given
composition has a specific formula ( e.g.,
Mg1.8 Fe0.2SiO4).
Most Important Characteristics of Minerals:

Composition (kinds of atoms)

Structure (how these atoms are packed together)
A mineral is crystalline

Crystals are formed

by the repetition in 3-space of a unit of
structure. The extent or limit to which these
units go is the crystal surface.
The crystal surface is therefore, in part, related
to the shape of unit cell.

The morphology is also dependent upon the manner (i.e.,

rate) in which the crystal grows.
 Mineralogy

Study of minerals, specifically:

• composition
• structure (= arrangement of atoms)
• physical properties
• classification
• occurrence
• stability
 Sub-disciplines of Mineralogy

Mineralogy

Descriptive Mineralogy Crystal Chemistry

Physical properties Relates the chemical
(e.g. Crystal form, hardness, composition, the internal
color, specific gravity) structure, and the physical
properties of crystals

Classification Geologic Occurrence

~ 3800 species- each has a name Characteristic association
of a mineral (or mineral
paragenesis) in a well-defined
Crystallography geologic setting

Investigation of the
internal structure of crystals
 Mineralogy requires an understanding of:
• chemistry - elements, electronic structure, bonding, chemical analyses; forms of
crystals

• physics - physical properties (density, electrical properties, cleavage, hardness,

magnetic properties, etc.)

• crystallography - the structure of minerals - internal & external; geometry and

trigonometry; symmetry

• mineral genesis - environments of formation (e.g., ocean floor vs. subduction zone)

• determinitive mineralogy - physical and chemical testing; analytical equipment

• classification schemes

• interrelationships between humans and their natural environment

 And a rock is …

• Rock: solid mass of

mineral, or mineral-like
matter that occurs
naturally on a planet.

• Rocks made up of
minerals – that still have
their mineral properties
Geologic Processes
Mineralogy
 Scope

Geochemistry Petrology Geophysics

Abundance, distribution, Conditions of origin, Physical properties
and exchange of elements synthetic minerals of minerals

Structural Geology
and Tectonics Mineralogy Meteorites and
Planetary Studies
Lattice defects,
faulting and folding Geologic history
of other planets

Environmental Geology Economic

and Mineralogy Geology
Land use and civil engineering Mineral deposits
 Why :
Why do present-day earth scientists study mineralogy ?
◦ Minerals are the basic building blocks of all rocks.
◦ Many minerals have economic value.
◦ Many minerals are important in modern industry, health and
political activities.
◦ A knowledge of mineralogy is required for an understanding of
rocks, and hence for an understanding of how the earth and
other planets operate.
Virtually all aspects of geology are fundamentally tied to
mineralogy.
◦ Geochemistry of fluids -- tied to equilibrium chemical reactions
with minerals
◦ Geophysics -- properties of rocks ultimately related to the physical
properties of minerals. etc, etc.
Azurite ? Malachite ?
 Brief History of Mineralogy

 Agricola: His account summarized a great deal of previous observations that

formed the foundation for the emergence of mineralogy as a science. These
included mineral properties such as color, transparency, luster, hardness,
flexibility and cleavage.

 Nicolaus Steno (a Dane) showed that the angles between crystal faces of
certain minerals were always the same. Steno was observing a fundamental
result of the ordered atomic arrangement of minerals. This observation became
known as Steno's Law.
Properties primarily controlled by atomic
arrangement and bonding:
hardness habit double refraction
tenacity density magnetic attraction
striations
 Brief History of Mineralogy
 Carolus Linnaeus put forth one of the first systems for
classification of minerals based on external form. There was a
growing need to develop methods to systematically describe and
identify minerals and mineral properties for industrial purposes.

 Rene Hauy proposed that crystals could be made up of identical

integral molecules or building blocks. These integral units were
visualized as too small to be seen with the naked eye, but combined
to yield the external morphology of crystals.
 Brief History of Mineralogy

 Johan Hessel, a German physician and mineralogist, derived in 1830 the

fact that geometric constraints limit the number of crystal classes to exactly
32, and that only twofold, threefold, fourfold and sixfold axes of rotational
symmetry are possible in minerals.

 Max von Laue passed a narrow beam of X-rays through a crystal of

copper sulfate and history was made. The resultant spots which showed up
on a photographic plate placed behind the crystal could only be interpreted
as the result of the X-rays being diffracted by a regular arrangement of
atoms with spacings comparable to the wavelength of the X-rays (i.e.,
Angstroms).

 W.H. and W.L. Bragg determined the first crystal structure by X-ray
techniques. The precise positions of atoms in crystal structures and the
distances between atoms were determined for the first time.
 Brief History of Mineralogy
• Electron Probe Microanalyzer (EPMA) in the 1960's
determination of the chemical composition of a single crystal
over areas no greater than a few micrometers became possible.
• Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), a cousin of the
microprobe, has made high magnification observation of
crystals routine. Even more impressive are the images resulting
from high-energy.
• Transmission Electron Microscopes (TEM) instruments which
provide resolution down to the Angstrom scale.
Classification of Minerals
 Minerals are chemical compounds

• Chemical compound: stable combination of

elements, electrically neutral

• Stoichiometry: ratio of elements in a ideal

mineral

• Example: the stoichiometry of quartz is Si and

O in a 1:2 ratio (SiO2)
Classification of Minerals
Classification of Minerals
Non-silicates : Chemical Composition ?
Classification of Minerals
 Mineral Structures
Silicates are classified on the basis of Si-O polymerism

The culprit: the [SiO4]4- tetrahedron

Silicate Mineral : Diverse structure
 Spheres of Earth

Atmosphere (gaseous envelope that encircles the Earth)

- contains the air we breathe
Biosphere (the zone where life exists)
- protection from solar radiation
- consists of parts of the lithosphere,
hydrosphere, and atmosphere

Hydrosphere (dynamic mass of liquid, vapor, solid water)

- oceans (97% water)
- glaciers
- lakes
- groundwater
http://pubs.usgs.gov/publications/text/understanding.html

Lithosphere (cool & rigid)

- sphere of rock
- includes the crust and upper mantle

Asthenosphere (hot & weak)

- within the mantle, up to 700 km deep
 Structure of Earth

(1) Inner core: solid Fe-rich zone

with a radius of ca. 1228 km; Fe
alloys (S, O, Ni, Si, C)

(2) Outer core: molten metallic

zone ca. 2260 km thick

(3) Mantle: solid siliceous layer;

variable thickness with a max.
of ca. 2480 km

(4) Crust: outer skin; solid

siliceous material;
5-40 km thick

http://mediatheek.thinkquest.nl/
%7Ell125/en/fullstruct.htm
 The Earth’s Interior

Mantle:
Peridotite (ultramafic)
Upper to 410 km (olivine  spinel)
 Low Velocity Layer 60-220 km

Transition Zone as velocity increases ~ rapidly

 660 spinel  perovskite-type

 SiIV  SiVI
Lower Mantle has more gradual
velocity increase
Major subdivisions of the Earth. Winter (2001)
An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic
Petrology. Prentice Hall.
 The Earth’s Interior

Core:
Fe-Ni metallic alloy
Outer Core is liquid
No S-waves
Inner Core is solid

Major subdivisions of the Earth.

Winter (2001) An Introduction to
Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology.
Prentice Hall.
 The Pressure Gradient

• P increases = rgh
• Nearly linear through mantle
– ~ 30 MPa/km
– » 1 GPa at base of ave crust
• Core: r incr. more rapidly
since alloy more dense

Pressure variation with depth. From Dziewonski

and Anderson (1981). Phys. Earth Planet. Int., 25,
297-356. © Elsevier Science.
 The Geothermal
Gradient

Estimated ranges of oceanic and

continental steady-state geotherms to a
depth of 100 km using upper and lower
limits based on heat flows measured
near the surface. After Sclater et al.
(1980), Earth. Rev. Geophys. Space
Sci., 18, 269-311.
 Example

• Diamond and Graphite;

are two minerals with
chemical composition = C
(carbon)

• Different arrangement of atoms,

therefore much different
physical properties.
Structure of Earth; Composition
Klein (2002) Manual of Mineralogy.
22nd Ed. John Wiley, p. 41
23rd Ed., p. 92
Klein (2002) Manual of Mineralogy.
22nd Ed. John Wiley, p. 441
23rd Ed., p. 435
Igneous
Bowens Reaction Series
•Olivine, pyroxene,
•Hornblende, biotite
•Plagioclase, orthoclase
•Muscovite, quartz
Volatile Loss - Sulfur on Fumarole
Weathering
Sedimentary

Low-temperature
•Calcite, dolomite
•Clays, zeolites
•Hematite, silica
Evaporate Deposits
Metamorphic
Hydrothermal
USE
A few of the many mineral products in the typical home
 Use of Minerals

• Soil - to grow food, lumber, and cotton

• Energy - fossil fuels and uraniam
• Steel, aluminum, copper …all other metals
• Diamond, sulfur, fertilizers - all from non metals
• Glass, plaster, concrete, porcelain
• Plastic, rubber, nylon, solvents, chemicals, medicines
 Use of Minerals & Rocks

• Arrowheads and spear points from flint or obsidian

 Early prehistoric hunters
• Metals smelted from ore minerals  automobiles
• Ultra-pure silicon from quartz sand grains
 computer manufacture
• Crushed rocks  lie beneath highways and buildings
Calcite
END