DMTS

Final Control

Data Acquisition & Control

Lec – 8
Process Control Instrumentation Technology by Curtis
Chap - 7

Lt Col Dr Nauman Razzaq 1

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Final Control Operation

• The function of final control element is to

translate low-energy control signal into a
level of action commensurate with the
process to be controled
• Final control operation involve the steps
necessary to convert the control signal into
proportional action on the process itself.
• Typical conversion of a process controller
signal to a control function can be
converted into the steps shown in figure
Lt Col Dr Nauman Razzaq
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Final Control Operation

3

Signal Conversions 4 to DC Motor

20 mA
▫ If a valve control element is to be
operated by an electric motor
actuator, then a 4 to 20mA dc
control signal must be modified to High
Voltages
operate the motor.
▫ Signal conversion process
required to develop special Valve
electronic devices that provide
high energy output under the
Increase or
control of a low energy input.
decrease flow
▫ This is generally described by the rate
term industrial electronics.

Lt Col Dr Nauman Razzaq

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Final Control Operation

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Actuator:
Control Element: The actuator is a translation of
the control signal into an action
• Final control element has
on the control element.
direct influence on the process
dynamic variable and is
designed as an integral part of
the process.
• If flow is to be controlled, then
the control element, a valve,
must be built directly into the
flow system.
• Fig shows a control system to
control the degree of baking of
cracker determined by the
cracker color.
Lt Col Dr Nauman Razzaq
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Signal Conversions
• The principal objective of signal conversion is
to convert the low energy control signal to a high
energy signal to drive the actuator.
• Controller output signals are typically in one of the
three forms
▫ Analog Signal (4 to 20mA)
▫ Pneumatic Signal (3 to 15 psi or 20 to 100 kPa)
▫ Digital Signal (usually TTL level voltages)

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Signal Conversions
Analog Electrical Signals
• Relays:
▫ A common conversion is to use the controller signal to
activate a relay when a simple On/Off or two position
control is sufficient.
▫ In some cases, the low current signal is insufficient to
drive a heavy industrial relay,
 Amplifier is used to boost the control signal.
 Use solid state relays, the solid state relay is usually
implemented using SCRs and TRIACs.
• Amplifiers:
▫ High power ac or dc amplifiers often can provide the
necessary conversion of the low energy control signals to a
high energy form.
▫ These amplifiers may be used for motor control, heat
control, light level control, etc.
Lt Col Dr Nauman Razzaq
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Analog Electrical Signals
Example: A magnetic amplifier requires a 5 to 10-V input signal from
a 4 to 20mA control signal. Design a signal conversion system to
provide this relationship.
Solution:
• To convert the current
signal into voltage we
use 100Ω resistor.
• Then the 4 to 20 mA
becomes 0.4 to 2.0 V.
• Vout=KVin+VB (linear eq)
• Vout=3.125Vin+3.75
• Vout=3.125(Vin+1.2)

Lt Col Dr Nauman Razzaq

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Signal Conversions
Digital Electrical Signals
• ON/OFF control
▫ In many cases the control algorithm is accomplished by simple on
or off.
▫ In this case the computer/controller can simply load a latched
output line with a 1 or 0.
• DAC
▫ When the digital output must provide smooth control, as it does in
valve positioning, the computer must provide an input to a DAC
that then determines an appropriate analog output.
• Direct Action:
▫ As new methods of final control have been developed that can be
actuated directly by the computer. Like stepper motor can be
interfaced easily to the digital signals.
▫ Special integrated circuits are made that reside within the final
control element and allow the digital signal to be connected
directly.

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Digital Electrical Signals

•

0 V for a 0000 input to 9.375 V for a 1111 input.

Heater: 0-24V, => Gain=2.56 (24/9.375) and ΔV=1.6
P=V2/R

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Signal Conversions
Pneumatic Signals
Principles:
• In a pneumatic system, information is carried by the
pressure of gas in a pipe.
• If we have a pipe of any length and raise the pressure of
gas in one end, this increase in pressure will propagate
down the pipe until the pressure throughout is raised to
the new value.
• The pressure signal travels down the pipe at a speed of
sound in the gas. (i.e. 330 m/s or 1083 ft/s).
• Pneumatic signals are carried with dry air as the gas
• Generally, signal information are adjusted to lie within
the range of 3 to 15 psi (20 to 100kPa).

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Signal Conversions
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Pneumatic Signals
Amplification:
• A pneumatic amplifier, also
called a booster or relay,
raises the pressure or air
flow volume by some linearly
proportional amount from
the input signal.
• If the booster has a pressure
of gain 10, the output would
be 30 to 150psi for an input
of 3 to 15 psi.

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Signal Conversions
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Pneumatic Signals
Flapper System:

• It is also called nozzle/baffle system

• It convert signal from pressure to mechanical motion and vise
versa
• If the flapper moves down and closes off the nozzle opening so
that no air leaks, the signal pressure will rise to the supply
pressure.
• As the flapper moves away, the signal pressure will drop
because of the leaking gas.
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Signal Conversions
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Pneumatic Signals
Current to Pressure Converters:
• It is also know as I/P converter.
• The I/P converter gives us a linear way of
translating the 4 to 20 mA current into 3
to 15 psi signal.
• There are many designs for these
converters, but the basic principle almost
always involves the use of a
nozzle/flapper system.

• The current through a coil produces a

force that will tend to pull the flapper
down and close off the gap.
• A high current produces a high pressure
so that the device is direct acting.
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Actuators

• If a valve is used to control fluid flow, some

mechanism must physically open or close the valve.

• If a heater is to warm a system, some device must

turn the heater on or off or vary its excitation.

• Types Of Actuators
▫ Electrical
▫ Hydraulic
▫ Pneumatic
▫ Shape memory alloys
▫ Piezoelectric

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Actuators
• Shape Memory Alloy:
• Shape memory alloys (SMAs) are metals that
"remember" their original shapes.
• The input thermal energy triggers a phase transition in
the alloy, which results in the shape recovery of a
previously deformed state.

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Actuators

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Actuators
• Piezoelectric:
• The piezoelectric effect is a property of certain materials in which
application of a voltage to the material causes it to expand.
• Very high voltages correspond to only tiny expansions. As a result,
piezoelectric actuators can achieve extremely fine positioning
resolution, but also have a very short range of motion.

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Electrical Actuators
• Linear Actuators
▫ Lead Screw
▫ Solenoid
• Electric Motors
▫ DC Motors
▫ AC Motors
▫ Stepper Motors

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Linear Actuator
A linear actuator is an actuator that
creates motion in a straight line, as
contrasted with circular motion of a
conventional electric motor.

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Linear Actuator
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Solenoid:

• Solenoids consist of an electromagnetically inductive coil, wound

around a movable steel or iron slug (plunger).
• The coil is shaped such that the plunger can be moved in and out of
the center, altering the coil's inductance and thereby becoming an
electromagnet.
• Solenoid is used when a large, sudden force must be applied to
perform some job (turn on/off a pneumatic valve)
• Figure on right side: A solenoid is used to change the gears of a two
position transmission.
Lt Col Dr Nauman Razzaq
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Electrical Motors
• Electrical motors are devices that accept electrical input and
produce continuous rotation.
• There are numerous cases where electrical motors are employed as
actuators in a process control.
• Various types of motors used
▫ DC Motors
 Series Field
 Shunt Field
 Compound Field
▫ AC Motors
 Induction Motor
 Synchronous Motor
▫ Stepper Motor
Lt Col Dr Nauman Razzaq
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DC Motors:
• The rotation of dc motor is
produced by the interaction of
two constant magnetic fields.
• A permanent magnet (PM) and a
current through coil of wire
contained within the PM field.
• The coil of wire called
armature.
• The coil is connected to current
source through slip rings and
brushes (called a commutator)
• Slip rings are split so that the
current reverses direction as the
armature rotates.

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Wound Field DC Motors

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• Many motors use electromagnetic instead of
PM to provide the static field.
• The coil used to produce this field is called the
field coil. This kind of dc motor is called
wound field motor.
• The current for this field coil can be provided
by placing the coil in series with the armature
or in parallel (shunt).
• If the field is composed of two windings, it is
known as compound dc motor.
• Characteristics of these types are as under.
▫ Series Field: large starting torque but
difficult to control.
▫ Shunt Field: smaller starting torque, but
good speed-control characteristics.
▫ Compound Field: starting torque and
speed-control capability fall predictably
between the series and shunt field.
Lt Col Dr Nauman Razzaq
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AC Motors
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• It commonly consists of two basic
parts, an outside stationary stator
having coils supplied with alternating
current to produce a rotating magnetic
field, and an inside rotor attached to
the output shaft that is given a torque
by the rotating field.
• There are two main types of AC motors,
depending on the type of rotor used.
▫ Induction motor: The magnetic field
on the rotor of this motor is created by
an induced current.
▫ Synchronous motor: The magnetic
field on the rotor is either generated by
current delivered through slip rings or
by a permanent magnet.

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Stepper Motor
• A stepper motor is a rotating machine that actually
completes a full rotation in sequence, through a
series of discrete rotational steps
• Each step position is an equilibrium position in
that, without further excitation, the rotor position
will stay at the latest step
• Continuous rotation can be achieved by the input of
a train of pulses, each of which causes an advance of
one step
• The rotational rate is determined by the number of
steps per revolution and the rate at which the pulses
are applied

Lt Col Dr Nauman Razzaq

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Stepper Motor
• Most of the stepper motor use a
rotor of magnetic material with a
certain number of teeth

• This rotor is driven by a phased

arrangement of coils with a
number of poles so that the rotor
can never be perfect alignment
with the stator (as shown in fig.)

• The direction of rotation of

stepper motors can be changed
by changing the order of poles
activation and deactivation.
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Stepper Motor
• Considered a stepper motor is in
equilibrium and no motion
occurs (as shown in the fig.)
• It has 90o rotation per step
• The rotor is PM that is driven by
a particular set of
electromagnets

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• Switch sequencer will direct the switches through a sequence

of positions as the pulses are received
• The S1 and S2 switches change the polarities of the
electromagnet.
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Pneumatic Actuators
•29 The principle is based on the concept of pressure as force per
unit area.
• If we imagine that a net pressure difference is applied across a
diaphragm of surface area A, then a net force acts on the
diaphragm given by

F = A ( p1-p2 )
▫ p1-p2 = pressure difference (Pa)
▫ A= diaphragm area (m2)
▫ F= force (N)

• The force can be doubled for a given pressure by double the area
of diaphragm.
• The most common type of pneumatic actuator is control valves.
Lt Col Dr Nauman Razzaq
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Pneumatic Actuators
•

(∵ Hooke’s law: F=K.X )

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Pneumatic Actuators
•

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Hydraulic Actuators
•

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Hydraulic Actuators
•

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Hydraulic Actuators
Hydraulic
34
servos:
• Some times a low-energy
controller output can be used to
control the position of large loads.
• In this system, high pressure
hydraulic fluid can be directed to
either sides of a force piston,
which causes motion in either
direction.
• The direction is determined by the
position of a control valve piston
in the hydraulic servo valve.
• The position of this valve piston
can be controlled by a linear
motor driven by the output of an
amplifier and error detector.

Lt Col Dr Nauman Razzaq

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Control Element
Mechanical Type

Solid Material Hopper Valves

An example of a
mechanical
control element
in the form of a
hopper valve and
conveyor

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Control Element
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Paper Thickness

 A continuous-operation paper-thickness-controlling
system using mechanical final control elements.
Lt Col Dr Nauman Razzaq
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Control Element (Electrical Type)

 Basic control system for motor

speed using a tachometer to
sense the motor speed.  Control of heat into a reaction
vessel through an electrical
power amplifier.

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Control Element (Fluid Valves Type)

• Most of the industries require the control of fluid
processes.
• Many fluid operations require regulation of such
quantities as density and composition, but by far
the most important control parameter is flow
rate.
• Regulation of flow rate emerges as the regulatory
parameter for reaction rate, temperature,
composition, or a host of other fluid properties.

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Fluid Valves
•

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Fluid Valves
•

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Fluid Valves
•

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Fluid Valves
•

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Fluid Valves
Control Valve Types:
• The different types of valves are classified
by a relationship between the valve stem
position and the flow rate through the
valve.
• For control-valve characteristic it is
assumed that the stem position indicates
the extent of the valve opening and that
the pressure difference is determined by
the valve alone.
• Fig shows a typical control valve using a
pneumatic actuator attached to drive the
stem and hence open and close the valve.

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Fluid Valves
•

(Rangeability)

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Fluid Valves
•

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