What is athletics?

Born in prehistory, athletics has evolved to include a hugely varied assortment of

athletic challenges for men and women of all ages. The complete list now includes track
and field events, road running races, cross country races, mountain running and race
walking events. But all thrive on the challenge of one's rivals and the joy of self
improvement.

Track and Field - intro

What is Track and Field?

You will find here a brief analysis and history for each of the listed events, some of the
major landmark achievements for that event, biomechanical information for the
practising athlete, and an "Is it for me" section, which gives you some ideas about what
it takes to do that particular discipline.

100 metres - 200 metres - 400 metres

800 metres - 1500 metres - Mile - 5000/10,000 metres
100 metres Hurdles - 110 metres Hurdles -
400 metres Hurdles - 3000 metres Steeplechase
Marathon
High Jump - Long Jump - Triple Jump - Pole Vault
Shot Put - Discus Throw - Javelin Throw - Hammer Throw
Decathlon - Heptathlon
4x100 metres Relay - 4x400 metres Relay

100 m - Introduction
relnews

 100 m - For the Expert

 100 m - Introduction
 100 m - Women Landmarks
 100 m - Men Landmarks
 100 m - Is it for me?

The shortest race in the outdoor timetable, the 100m sprint offers the purest expression
of human speed and has become one of the "blue riband" athletic events.
The race was initially run on grass or "cinders" tracks over the British distance of 100
yards (91.44 m) before Continental influence turned it into 100 metres. Sprinters started
from a standing position until 1887, when Charles H. Sherrill (USA) dug small foot holes
in the track and tried a crouch start, a technique which, with a few variations, is still in
use today.

The IAAF officially sanctioned the use of starting blocks in 1937.A year later the IAAF
stipulated that no official record shall be ratified without a wind gauge reading. The
maximum tailwind permitted has remained 2 metres/second.

Primitive experiments with electrical timing of sprint races date back to the first quarter
of the century. This technology improved to such an extent that the IAAF decided to
accept, from 1 January 1977, only electronically recorded times as world records.The
photo-finish camera (in use at the 1932 Olympic Games) has enabled very close races to
be judged fairly. Today's technology permits winning margins of as little as 1 thousandth
of a second to be visible on a photofinish print.The introduction of synthetic (all
weather) tracks has also helped improve sprint times.

The first world record for 100 yards set on a synthetic track was in 1963 by Bob Hayes
(9.1) while Jim Hines recorded a world record 9.9 for 100m at the 1968 Olympics in
Mexico.

100 m - For the Expert

relnews

 100 m - Introduction
 100 m - Is it for me?
100 metres
Development of performances

The development of performances in the 100 m sprint has shown a practically constant
level just under the 10.00 s mark for men and 11.00 s for women. This appears to be the
biologically achievable limit for human sprint performance.

Performance factors in sprinting

The sprinter’s goal is to develop the highest possible horizontal velocity. As an example
this velocity is developed in the 100m sprint within 43 - 46 strides (men) and 47 - 52
strides (women). A stride consists of a stance and a flight phase. The sprinter’s
horizontal propulsion is only produced during the stance phase. The push-off leg (see
figure) presses against the resistance of the floor in a backward-downward direction
("action") and the interactive forces result in the horizontal propulsion of the body in a
forward-upward direction ("reaction").

The stance phase is prepared during the flight phase. It is important that all forces
acting against the running direction (e.g. resisting movements) are minimized. During
the flight phase the legs must actively swing downwards - backwards because from a
subjective point of view it seems to the sprinter that the ground is coming towards him.
The braking forces are minimized because the backward swinging feet and the
"retreating" ground have approximately the same velocity.

There is only little time available for the sprinter to develop force during the stance
phase. The stance phase where the foot is on the ground is only 0.08 s - 0.09 s long in
the phase of maximum velocity. However, the greatest possible power must be produced
in this short time for forward propulsion. Forces of up to 3.5 times the body weight in
vertical direction and a single body weight in horizontal direction are acting during the
stance phase. This explains the great importance of strength in sprinting which is
comprised predominantly of maximum strength and speed strength.

However, stronger legs must also have a correspondingly strong upper body because
(according to biomechanical laws) the swinging arms must produce equal opposite
forces to those of the legs. This explains the generally very strong appearance of
sprinters.

The sprinting velocity is mathematically determined by the product of stride length

and stride rate. These two factors interact: after they have reached a certain level after
a phase of mutually increasing (in the first 50 m) an increase in either parameter will
result in a corresponding decrease of the other, i.e. if the sprinter increases his stride
length after 50 m then the stride rate must decrease and vice versa. The extent of these
changes varies individually depending upon physical capabilities, training level, form of
training and body build.

External influences in sprinting

The major factors influencing sprint performance are

- footwear
- track surface
- climatic conditions
- the rules

According to international rule the shoes worn in sprinting can have spikes up to 9 mm
long. As the sprinters run on the balls of their feet, the spikes located underneath this
part of the foot permit a more efficient transfer of force to the track. The foot should not
have much room to move inside the very light shoe (no socks). The transfer of force to
the track is more effective the thinner and harder the sole is so that the feeling for the
direct contact with the track is improved.

The track itself has definite performance influencing characteristics. An important

criterion for a "slow" or "fast" track is the level of deformation of the substrate. If the
substrate is harder the sprinter can transfer his force better and therefore, gets a better
propulsive reaction force. The decisive factors in evaluating a track are the thickness of
the artificial surface layer, the substrate material (asphalt or concrete) and the density
thereof. The features for the "fast" track in Atlanta were a 5 to 8 mm thick artificial
surface layer and suggest an extremely dense asphalt. Similar construction methods
have lead to similar conditions in Athens. Fast but hard tracks have the disadvantage
that the musculo-skeletal system is heavily loaded which often leads to overload injuries
which are especially prevalent in long distance events or in training.

Climatic conditions can be very significant. Tail wind always assists in the 100 m
while head wind is always detrimental to performance. The 9.94 s over 100 m run by
Jim Hines (USA) in Mexico in 1968 benefited from a number of climatic factors: dry and
warm conditions, a reduced air resistance which corresponds to a wind assistance of
approximately 1.5 m/s (Mexico-City lies at an altitude of 2,240 m) and also a tail wind of
1.6 m/s.
The dimensions of the 100 m track are a width of 1.22 m and a length which can not
vary internationally by more than 2 cm. The height difference between start and finish
may be maximally 0.1%, i.e. 10 cm over a 100 m distance.

In the 100 m sprint the windmetre must operate for at least 10 s after the starting gun. A
record is no longer acknowledged if a tail wind of more than 2.1 m/s is recorded.
However, such a wind measurement provides no information about the wind at the start
or finish and therefore, has limited meaningfulness.

False starts controlled by special technical apparatus and measuring equipment in the
starting blocks are compulsory at international competitions. A start is regarded as false
if the reaction time is less than 0.12 s with an appropriate pressure upon the starting
block because it is assumed that this represents the natural time limit for information
processing from the ears to the muscles.

Biomechanical factors in the 100 m sprint

Each sprint is fundamentally divided into different phases:

1. The reaction phase at the start

2. The acceleration phase (increase in speed)
3. The phase of maximum speed (constant speed)
4. The deceleration phase (decreasing speed)
5. The finish

During the reaction phase the highly concentrated sprinter uses the resistance of the
starting blocks to initially accelerate from a complete rest position. An explosive force
production of the legs in a very short time is vital for a successful start. After the start
signal the sprinter must develop horizontal forces reaching up to 1.5 times body weight
in less than 0.4 s . The reaction time (the time between the start signal to the first
movement of the sprinter) is of relatively small importance to the overall result (the
reaction time has values of 0.12 to 0.18 s which constitutes only 1 to 2% of a 100 m
time). However, the desired psychological advantage at the beginning of the race can
last right through to the finish.

After leaving the starting blocks the sprinter increases his running speed in the
acceleration phase by continually increasing stride length and stride rate with a clear
forward lean position. During this phase men achieve stride rates of up to 4.6 strides per
second, women reach 4.8 strides per second. The length of the acceleration phase
increases at higher performance levels and this is the most important phase for the race
performance. Top sprinters reach their maximum speed after about 60 - 70 m (men)
and 50 - 60 m (women).

In the phase of maximum velocity (at 60 - 90 m) the sprinters cover a distance of

20 - 30 m at their highest speed. This is where the maximum speeds of 12 m/s (men)
and 11 m/s (women) are achieved. Stride length and stride rate vary amongst sprinters
and reach personal optimal ratios. Ground contact times decrease.

The final 10 - 20 m constitute the deceleration phase. Fatigue especially of the

central nervous system leads to a decreased stride rate which the sprinter attempts to
compensate with increased stride length. Some sprinters appear to get faster at the end
of a race which is only an illusion resulting from varying rates of fatigue. In recent years
it has, however, been noticeable that the maximum speed of top athletes can be
maintained with minor fluctuations until the finish. It remains unclear whether this is
the result of modified training.

The finish is the decisive stage of the race especially with minimal differences in ability.
Competition rules state that the time is based upon the trunk passing the finish line. A
strong forward lean is an advantage to a sprinter. This is achieved by flexing the hips
while simultaneously bringing back the arms. The forward lean can lead to forward
torque which the sprinter must compensate and which occasionally leads to falls after
the finish.

100 m - Introduction

relnews

 100 m - For the Expert

 100 m - Introduction
 100 m - Women Landmarks
 100 m - Men Landmarks
 100 m - Is it for me?

The shortest race in the outdoor timetable, the 100m sprint offers the purest expression
of human speed and has become one of the "blue riband" athletic events.
The race was initially run on grass or "cinders" tracks over the British distance of 100
yards (91.44 m) before Continental influence turned it into 100 metres. Sprinters started
from a standing position until 1887, when Charles H. Sherrill (USA) dug small foot holes
in the track and tried a crouch start, a technique which, with a few variations, is still in
use today.

The IAAF officially sanctioned the use of starting blocks in 1937.A year later the IAAF
stipulated that no official record shall be ratified without a wind gauge reading. The
maximum tailwind permitted has remained 2 metres/second.

Primitive experiments with electrical timing of sprint races date back to the first quarter
of the century. This technology improved to such an extent that the IAAF decided to
accept, from 1 January 1977, only electronically recorded times as world records.The
photo-finish camera (in use at the 1932 Olympic Games) has enabled very close races to
be judged fairly. Today's technology permits winning margins of as little as 1 thousandth
of a second to be visible on a photofinish print.The introduction of synthetic (all
weather) tracks has also helped improve sprint times.

The first world record for 100 yards set on a synthetic track was in 1963 by Bob Hayes
(9.1) while Jim Hines recorded a world record 9.9 for 100m at the 1968 Olympics in
Mexico.

100 metres Women Landmarks

First IAAF world record: 11.7 Stanislawa Walasiewicz POL 1934
First under 11 sec: 10.9 Renate Stecher GDR 1973
First under 11.00: 10.88 Marlies Oelsner-Göhr GDR 1977
First under 10.80: 10.79 Evelyn Ashford USA 1983
First under 10.50: 10.49 Florence Griffith Joyner USA 1988

Click here for CURRENT WORLD RECORD

Click here for ALL-TIME lists

Most durable world record: 10.49 Florence Griffith Joyner USA 1988 (19 years)
Most legal times under 10.80: Marion Jones USA 15 (as at 8 Dec 2002)

Superlatives
Most Olympic titles: 2 Wyomia Tyus USA 1964/1968; 2 Gail Devers USA 1992/1996
Most World titles: 2 Marion Jones USA 1997/1999
Youngest Olympic/World champion: Betty Robinson USA 1928 (16)
Oldest: Fanny Blankers-Koen NED 1948 (30); Gwen Torrence USA 1995 (30)
Three All-time greats
Wilma Rudolph (USA): Born with polio, she developed into a world record breaker
at 100 & 200m, winning easily at both events in the 1960 Olympics.
Evelyn Ashford (USA): At the highest world class level from 1977 to 1992 she was
Olympic 100m champion in 1984 and a world record breaker.
Florence Griffith Joyner (USA): Created a sensation in 1988 when she ran 10.49 for
100m, breaking the world record by 27/100ths, and won both Olympic sprints, the
200m in a world record.

100 m - Men Landmarks

relnews

 100 m - Introduction

Landmarks
First under 11 sec: 10.8 Cecil Lee GBR 1892
First IAAF world record: 10.6 Donald Lippincott USA 1912
First under 10.5: 10.4 Charles Paddock USA 1921
First under 10.0: 9.9 Jim Hines USA 1968
Electronic timing:
First under 10.00: 9.95 Jim Hines 1968
First under 9.95: 9.93 Calvin Smith USA 1983
First under 9.90: 9.86 Carl Lewis 1991
First under 9.80: 9.79 Maurice Greene USA 1999

Click here for the CURRENT WORLD RECORD

Click here for ALL-TIME lists

Most durable world record:

10.2 Jesse Owens USA 1936 (20 years)
Most legal times under 10.00:
Maurice Greene 52 (as at 15 Apr 2008)

Superlatives
Most Olympic titles: 2 Carl Lewis 1984/1988
Most World titles: 3 Carl Lewis 1983/1987/1991 & Maurice Greene 1997/1999/2001
Youngest Olympic/World champion: Reggie Walker RSA 1908 (19)
Oldest: Linford Christie GBR 1993 (33)

Three all-time greats

Jesse Owens (USA): Won four gold medals at 1936 Olympics, including 100m.
Earlier he ran the first official 10.2, unbeaten as world record until 1956.
Bob Hayes (USA): Won 1964 Olympic title by two metre margin in world record
10.06 after astonishing wind-aided 9.91 semi on the cinder track. Retired at 21 to
become US football star.
Carl Lewis (USA): The most successful 100m competitor ever with five Olympic or
World titles between 1983 and 1991 ... and he was even greater as a long jumper!

200 m Introduction

relnews

 200 m Men Landmarks

 200 m Women Landmarks
 200 m Is it for me?
 200 m For the Expert
 200 m Introduction

This distance is similar to the ancient Greek sprint event the "stadion" (literally length of
the stadium), but it derives from a mile-based distance, the furlong, or one-eighth of a
mile.
In the USA, the 200m was run in a straight line until around 1960. A curve was only
included in Europe and at the Olympics, where the distance first appeared in 1900. The
200m with a full bend on a 400m track became universally accepted in 1958, when two
distinct sets of records began to be kept.

The 200m specialist must combine the basic speed of the 100m sprinter with a running
technique that allows him to cope with centrifugal forces when sprinting around the
bend. Times in a 200m straight race were estimated to be around 3 to 4/10ths of a
second faster than races including a bend.

200 m Men Landmarks

relnews

 200 m Introduction

200 metres Men Landmarks

First under 22 sec: 21.8 Luther Cary USA 1891
First official world record: 21.2 Willie Applegarth GBR 1914
First under 21 sec: 20.7 Jesse Owens USA 1936
First under 20.5: 20.4 Henry Carr USA 1963
First under 20 sec: 19.83 Tommie Smith USA 1968
First under 19:5 sec: 19.32 Michael Johnson 1996

Click here for current World record

Click here for ALL-TIME lists

Most durable world record: 19.72 Pietro Mennea (16 years)

Most legal times under 20.00: 25 Frank Fredericks NAM (as at 31 Dec 2003)

Superlatives
Most Olympic titles: 1 by 22 men; gold/silver by Andy Stanfield USA 1952/1956 & Carl
Lewis USA 1984/1988
Most World titles:
2 Calvin Smith USA 1983/1987
2 Michael Johnson 1991/1995
Youngest Olympic/World champion:Percy Williams CAN 1928 (20)
Oldest: Pietro Mennea 1980 (28); Michael Johnson USA 1996 (28);
Konstadínos Kedéris GRE 2001 (28)

Three all-time greats

Tommie Smith (USA): Won 1968 Olympic title in world record 19.83, two years after
clocking 19.5 on a straight track, a full half second inside previous record.
Pietro Mennea (ITA): His 19.72 when winning the World Students title in Mexico
City in 1979 stood until the Atlanta Olympics. He pipped Britain's Allan Wells for the
1980 Olympic crown.
Michael Johnson (USA): Won both his world titles by 0.33 sec, the biggest margin at
this level since Jesse Owens at the 1936 Olympics and went on to become the first man
to win double gold in the 200m and 400m at the Atlanta Olympics in 1996.

200 m Women Landmarks

relnews

 200 m Introduction

Landmarks
First under 24 sec: 23.6 Stanislawa Walasiewicz POL 1935
First under 23 sec: 22.9 Wilma Rudolph USA 1960
First under 22.5: 22.4 Chi Cheng TPE 1970
Electronic timing:
First under 22 sec: 21.71 Marita Koch GDR 1979
First under 21.70: 21.56 Florence Griffith Joyner USA 1988
First under 21:50: 21.34 Florence Griffith Joyner 1988

Click here for current World record

Click here for ALL-TIME lists

Most durable world record: 21.34 Florence Griffith Joyner USA 1988 (19 years)
Most legal times under 22.00: Merlene Ottey JAM 16 (including 1 indoors)

Superlatives
Most Olympic titles: 2 Bärbel Wöckel GDR 1976/1980
Most World titles: add 2 Allyson Felix USA 2005/2007
Youngest Olympic/World champion:Betty Cuthbert AUS 1956 (18)
Oldest: Merlene Ottey 1995 (35)

Three All-time greats

Fanny Blankers-Koen (NED): Made Olympic history by winning four golds at 1948
Olympics, including the 200m by a six metres margin. Set world records in eight
individual events.
Merlene Ottey (JAM): She won the first of seven Olympic medals way back in 1980;
was twice world 200m champion and has the most sub-22 sec marks to her name.
Marion Jones (USA): Holder of world age bests at 15 and 16, this talented basketball
player appeared lost to athletics until a fantastic return in 1997, aged 21. Her time of
21.62 winning at the World Cup in 1998 ranked her second fastest ever behind Flo Jo's
21.34 & 21.56 of 1988.

400 m Introduction

relnews

 400 m Introduction
 400 m Women Landmarks
 400 m Men Landmarks
 400 Is it for me?
 400 m For the Expert

A distance related to the quarter-mile which is 440 yards or 402.34 metres. This race is
probably best described as an endurance-sprint.
The 400m has achieved notoriety as a "man killer" because it is physiologically
impossible to run at close to top speed for longer than 30 to 35 seconds before oxygen
debt sets in and muscles "fill" with lactic acid. 400m runners must have good basic
speed, they must be able to judge pace and they must learn to ignore pain!

The 400m has been run in lanes from start to finish, like the shorter sprints, at the
Olympic Games since 1912.The great improvements in this event, although partly
explained by the introduction of synthetic tracks in the late sixties, is mostly due to the
development of highly intensive training programmes which successfully build both
speed and strength. Although 400m runners were traditionally divided into
200m/400m and 400m/800m types, it is the "pure" sprinters like Michael Johnson
who now dominate the event.
400 m Women Landmarks

relnews

 400 m Introduction

Landmarks
First under 54 sec: 53.9 Maria Itkina URS 1955
First under 53/52 sec: 51.9 Sin Kim Dan PRK 1962
First under 51/50 sec: 49.9 Irena Szewinska POL 1974
First under 49 sec: 48.94 Marita Koch GDR 1978
First under 48 sec: 47.99 Jarmila Kratochvílová TCH 1983

Click here for current World record

Click here for ALL-TIME lists

Most durable world record: 47.60 Marita Koch 1985 (22 years)
Most times under 49.00: Marita Koch 15

Superlatives
Most Olympic titles: 2 Marie-José Pérec FRA 1992/1996
Most World titles:
2 Marie-José Pérec FRA 1991/1995
2 Cathy Freeman (AUS) 1997/1999
Youngest Olympic/World champion:Monika Zehrt GDR 1972 (19)
Oldest: Jarmila Kratochvílová 1983 (32)

Three all time greats

Irena Szewinska (POL):A seven-time Olympic medallist, including victories in the
1968 200m and 1976 400m, she revolutionised the event by reducing the world record
from 51.0 to 49.9 in 1974.
Marita Koch (GDR): Her world record of 47.60 remains unapproached, as does her
tally of fast times. Lost only two 400m races in eight years and was Olympic champion
in 1980.
Marie-José Pérec (FRA): A great championship competitor, winner of two world
titles and the 1992 and 1996 Olympic crowns. Like Michael Johnson she also won
double gold at the Atlanta Olympics in 200m and 400m.
Main
also called track-and-field sports or track and field

a variety of competitions in running, walking, jumping, and throwing events.

Although these contests are called track and field (or simply track) in the United States, they are
generally designated as athletics elsewhere. This article covers the history, the organization, and
the administration of the sports, the conduct of competitions, the rules and techniques of the
individual events, and some of the sports’ most prominent athletes.

Track-and-field athletics are the oldest forms of organized sport, having developed out of the
most basic human activities—running, walking, jumping, and throwing. Athletics have become
the most truly international of sports, with nearly every country in the world engaging in some
form of competition. Most nations send teams of men and women to the quadrennial Olympic
Games and to the official World Championships of track and field. There also are several
continental and intercontinental championship meets held, including the European,
Commonwealth, African, Pan-American, and Asian.

Within the broad title of athletics come as many as two dozen distinct events. These events,
generally held outdoors, make up a meet. The outdoor running events are held on a 400-metre or
440-yard oval track, and field events (jumping and throwing) are held either inside the track’s
perimeter or in adjacent areas.

In many parts of the world, notably the United States, Canada, and Europe, the sport moves
indoors during the winter; because of limited space, some events are modified and several are
eliminated altogether.

Also within the general scope of track-and-field athletics come separate but related competitions
that are not contested on the track. Cross-country running competition is carried out on various
types of countryside and parkland. Marathons and races of other long distances are run on roads,
and the long-distance race walks are contested on measured road courses. The rules followed by
all organized competitions are established and enforced by the International Association of
Athletics Federations (IAAF) and its member body from each nation. The IAAF also ratifies all
world records.

Learn more about "athletics"

History

Origin and early development

There is little in the way of definitive records of athletics’ early days as organized sport.
Egyptian and Asian civilizations are known to have encouraged athletics many centuries before
the Christian era. Perhaps as early as 1829 bc, Ireland was the scene of the Lugnasad festival’s
Tailteann Games, involving various forms of track-and-field activity. The Olympic Games of
Greece, traditionally dated from 776 bc, continued through 11 centuries before ending about ad
393. These ancient Olympics were strictly male affairs, as to both participants and spectators.
Greek women were reputed to have formed their own Heraea Games, which, like the Olympics,
were held every four years.

Athletics as practiced today was born and grew to maturity in England. The first mention of the
sport in England was recorded in 1154, when practice fields were first established in London.
The sport was banned by King Edward III in the 1300s but revived a century later by Henry
VIII, reputed to be an accomplished hammer thrower.

Modern development
The development of the modern sport, however, has come only since the early 19th century.
Organized amateur footraces were held in England as early as 1825, but it was from 1860 that
athletics enjoyed its biggest surge to that date. In 1861 the West London Rowing Club organized
the first meet open to all amateurs, and in 1866 the Amateur Athletic Club (AAC) was founded
and conducted the first English championships. The emphasis in all these meets was on
competition for “gentlemen amateurs” who received no financial compensation. In 1880 the
AAC yielded governing power to the Amateur Athletic Association (AAA).

The first meet in North America was held near Toronto in 1839, but it was the New York
Athletic Club, formed in the 1860s, that placed the sport on a solid footing in the United States.
The club held the world’s first indoor meet and helped promote the formation in 1879 of the
National Association of Amateur Athletes of America (NAAAA) to conduct national
championships. Nine years later the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) took over as national
governing body, amid reports that the NAAAA was lax in enforcing amateurism.

Athletics was well established in many countries by the late 1800s, but not until the revival of the
Olympic Games in 1896 did the sport become truly international. Although begun modestly, the
Olympics provided the inspiration and standardizing influence that was to spread interest in
athletics worldwide. In 1912 the International Amateur Athletic Federation (IAAF) was
founded, and by the time that organization celebrated its 75th anniversary in 1987 it had more
than 170 national members. Its rules applied only to men’s competition until 1936, when the
IAAF also became the governing body of women’s athletics.

Major international competitions before World War II included the Olympics, the British
Empire Games, and the European Championships, but after the war athletics experienced its
greatest period of growth, taking root especially in the developing countries. By the 1950s
world-class athletes from African, Asian, and Latin American nations were enjoying great
success at international meets.

Organization and tournaments

Top-level competition in athletics is still restricted to the amateur athlete, although the
definition of “amateur” continues to evolve. The IAAF over time has reduced its definition of an
amateur athlete to the simplest possible terms: “An amateur is one who abides by the eligibility
rules of the IAAF” is the complete rule, allowing for change whenever the federation alters any
of its other rules.

Until the 1980s the IAAF attempted to keep its athletes from benefiting financially from the
sport. This was always a struggle, however, as star athletes and eager meet promoters managed
to circumvent the rules. So did entire nations: eastern European countries provided government
aid to athletes, other countries encouraged military personnel to concentrate on track-and-field
training, and U.S. athletes received college scholarships in return for their skills.

Financial aid was made acceptable in the 1980s through the use of trust funds. Athletes were
permitted to accept payment for appearing in competition, for performing well, for appearing in
television commercials, or for other sport-related activities. The money was placed in trust;
training expenses could be charged to the fund, with the remaining funds, if any, going to the
athlete on retirement from competition. Some athletes were reported to have made several
hundred thousand dollars a year under the new system.

The primary functions of the IAAF are to maintain a set of rules that are uniform throughout the
world, to approve world records for outdoor and indoor competition, and to promote
international athletics. While continuing to administer athletics competition in the Olympic
Games, the IAAF began its own quadrennial World Championships in 1983, established World
Cup competitions, and established walking, cross-country, marathon and other road races, indoor
track and field, and junior competitions.

Each IAAF member nation has its own set of rules and maintains its own set of records in line
with international guidelines. The amateur athletic federations of individual countries conduct
their own national championships.

In the United States, for example, The Athletic Congress (TAC) alone has the power to select
international teams (except for the Olympic team, which is under the jurisdiction of the United
States Olympic Committee), to establish rules, and to accept or reject records. It also conducts
the national championships and other competitions. Meets in which participation is restricted to
college or university athletes usually are governed by the rules of the National Collegiate
Athletic Association (NCAA), National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA), or one
of two junior (two-year) college groups. Most secondary schools in the United States come under
the aegis of the National Federation of State High School Athletic Associations.

The details of the conduct of athletics competitions vary with the location and the level and type
of meet. To a great degree the basic sport has been standardized by the rules of the IAAF.
Outdoor track events take place on the 400-metre (about 440-yard) oval running track. Track
compositions differ greatly. Once almost all tracks were of natural materials (dirt, clay, cinders,
and crushed brick being the most common), but all major competition tracks now are made of
synthetic materials. The synthetic track provides more consistent and faster footing in all weather
conditions. Field event performers also benefit from improved footing; jumpers and javelin
throwers perform on the same materials used for synthetic tracks, while the throwers of the shot,
discus, and hammer work in circles made of concrete.

Indoor track meets adapt themselves to widely varying and often limiting conditions. Tracks
range in size generally from 150 to 200 metres or 160 to 220 yards and have synthetic surfaces
over wood. Some tracks have banked curves, others are unbanked. Cross-country running
utilizes any terrain that is available—parks, golf courses, farmland. The prescribed IAAF
distance in international races for men is approximately 12,000 metres (7.5 miles) and for
women 4,000 metres (2.5 miles). Road events include walking, marathon, and other road runs of
widely varying distances.

Meets

Equipment
Every event has items of equipment that are essential to the conduct of the event. All athletes, for
example, require shoes that give traction and protection with minimum weight. Other items of
equipment include the starting blocks used by sprinters and hurdlers, hurdles, vaulting poles,
and the implements employed in the various throwing events.

Timing and measurements

Exacting timing and measurement of performances are a vital part of athletics, not only to
determine winners at the meet in question but also to provide marks that can be compared for
record purposes. Fully automatic timing, using photography, is required for world records and all
major competitions. Timing, once done in fifths of a second and then in tenths, now is done in
hundredths of a second. By rule, an aiding wind of more than 2 metres per second (4.473 miles
per hour) nullifies a record time in distances up to 200 metres. Metric measurements are required
for both track and field events, even in the United States. The only English-measure distance that
remains popular is the one-mile run. With the 1987 inauguration of the World Indoor
Championships, the IAAF began accepting indoor records.

Presentation

Athletics meets differ greatly in presentation. The typical school, university, or

club meet is of one-day duration. Conference meets generally last two days, while national
championships require three to four days to accommodate large numbers of athletes. The
Olympic Games and World Championships are scheduled for eight days of
athletics competition.

All track events begin with the firing of a gun. In races of one lap or less the runners remain in
their marked lanes for the entire distance. In longer events the runners may ignore the lane
markers and run as close to the inside edge of the track as is prudent. The runner whose torso
reaches the winning line first is the winner.

Field events have two types of qualifying competitions. In the smaller meets all participants are
allowed three attempts, with the top six to nine athletes getting three more. In the larger meets
there is a qualifying round from which about 12 athletes advance to the finals, at which stage the
remaining competition proceeds in the same manner as in the smaller meets. The exceptions in
field event competition are the vertical jumps—the high jump and pole vault. Jumpers are given
three tries at each height; three consecutive misses cause elimination.

Although athletics is basically an individual sport, team scoring is sometimes

important. Dual meets are always scored, but there are no official scores for multi-team
international meets, such as the Olympic Games. Conference and national meets among
universities also are scored officially. The points allotted to individual events and places vary
from meet to meet. A national competition may award 10 points for first place, 8 for second, and
so on. Similarly, an international dual meet awards 5 points for first place, 3 for second, 2 for
third, and 1 for fourth. The team with the highest point total wins the meet. Cross-country meets
always are scored, with the winner getting 1 point, second place 2 points, etc., the low score
winning.

Runners have a chance to compete year-round. The indoor season lasts from January through
March; the outdoor competition lasts until June for schools and colleges, with the higher-level
individual competitors participating in track through September. In the United States autumn is
given over to cross-country running. International cross-country is held in winter.

Conflicts and controversies

Athletics, occupying centre stage at all international games, generates its share of
conflicts. Until the IAAF’s trust-fund system there was continual concern about athletes earning
money by violating rules. From about 1970 the question of drug usage has been a major issue.
Athletes are forbidden to use a number of drugs that are said to improve performance. Testing
for such use is required at the major meets, and, while the great majority of athletes tested are
found to be free of banned drugs, each year a small number of athletes are found guilty of
violating the drug rule and are suspended from competition, usually for 18 months. Most
frequently the violators have used anabolic steroids in an attempt to increase muscle size and
strength.

Events

As many as 25 events may make up a men’s meet; women compete in a few less. The men’s
track events at championship meets generally include the 100-, 200-, 400-, 800-, 1,500-, 5,000-,
and 10,000-metre runs; the 3,000-metre steeplechase; the 110- and 400-metre hurdles; and the
400- and 1,500-metre relays. The field events usually include the high jump, pole vault, long
jump, triple jump, shot put, discus throw, hammer throw, and javelin throw. The decathlon,
combining 10 track-and-field events, is also featured. Women run much the same schedule, with
a 100-metre hurdles event instead of 110 metres. They compete in the heptathlon (seven events)
rather than the decathlon. Women walk up to 20,000 metres and men up to 50,000 metres.

Learn more about "athletics"

Middle-distance running

The longer the race, the more endurance is needed. The middle-distance events,
in this discussion, range from 800 to 2,000 metres. Some authorities regard the 3,000-metre race
as middle-distance.
Middle-distance runners usually are able to perform well at either the shorter or the longer
distances. Racing tactics, including pacing, are more important at these than at any other
distances. Even though it is no longer a championship event, the mile is still a glamour event.
The first athlete to run a mile in less than four minutes—Roger Bannister of England in 1954—
captured world attention. A “sub-four” is still a notable time, even though it is now routinely
accomplished by the world’s top runners. Other great middle-distance runners include Paavo
Nurmi (Finland), who won both the 1,500 (the metric “mile”) and 5,000 metres on the same day
in the 1924 Olympics, Sebastian Coe (U.K.), who won two Olympic gold medals at 1,500
metres and two silver at 800 metres, Noureddine Morceli (Algeria), who won two world
championships and an Olympic gold medal in the 1,500 metres, and Hicham El Guerrouj
(Morocco), who set outdoor and indoor world records in the 1,500 metres and the mile. Two
Soviet women created memorable middle-distance records. Tatyana Kazankina won five world
records, while Lyudmila Bragina established eight. Mary Decker Slaney (U.S.) also won
consistently at the middle distances.

Long-distance running

There is some difference of opinion over the dividing line between middle-
distance and long-distance runs. The long-distance events considered here are those ranging from
3,000 metres upward; they include the marathon, steeplechase, cross-country, and road runs.
The marathon is the longest event for which the IAAF keeps records. Speed
becomes an even less important factor in the longer runs, pace and endurance correspondingly
more so. The longer the run, the less likely the burst of speed known as the “finishing kick” at
the end of the race.

Runners may also overlap the long- and middle-distance events. Nurmi, Gunder Hägg (Sweden),
and Said Aouita (Morocco) all set world records at both 1,500 and 5,000 metres. Nurmi won at
all distances longer than 1,000 metres except the marathon.
Distance runners provide the most prolific record setters, including Nurmi, Ron Clarke
(Australia), Kip Keino (Kenya), Haile Gebrselassie (Ethiopia), and Emil Zátopek
(Czechoslovakia), the last of whom performed the remarkable feat of winning the
marathon and the 5,000- and 10,000-metre races at the 1952 Olympic Games. The longer races
for women have been slow to develop, but a number of runners have been able to compete at
various distances, including Ingrid Kristiansen (Norway).

The steeplechase combines long-distance running with hurdling, each runner being required to
clear seven water jumps and 28 hurdles in a 3,000-metre course. Although hurdling is an
important aspect of the event, by far the greatest need is the ability to run the distance.
Steeplechase competitors are often specialists, but there are examples of fine distance runners
who have successfully overcome more experienced hurdlers. Henry Rono (Kenya), one of the
most successful at the steeplechase, also held world records at 3,000, 5,000, and 10,000 metres.
The marathon was a key event at the first modern Olympic Games in 1896, and it has become a
major attraction of the Olympics and other international contests. The race originally
commemorated the feat of a Greek soldier who in 490 bc supposedly ran from Marathon to
Athens to bring news of the Greek victory over the Persians. At 26.22 miles (42,186 metres)
the marathon is the longest race of the track meet. Hannes Kolehmainen
(Finland) and Zátopek are two of the more memorable marathoners.

Hurdling

The hurdling events combine sprinting with negotiating a series of obstacles

called hurdles. Men run the 110-metre high hurdles over 10 barriers 106.7 cm (42 inches) high
and 9.14 metres (10 yards) apart. The 400-metre intermediate hurdles also covers 10 hurdles, but
91.4 cm (36 inches) in height and 35 metres (38.29 yards) apart. Women now run both the 100-
metre high and 400-metre hurdles. A hurdler may knock down any number of hurdles but is
disqualified if he runs out of his lane or uses his hands to knock over hurdles. The object is to
make the hurdling action smooth and rhythmic so as not to disrupt forward progress.

High hurdlers need excellent speed, most champions also being good sprinters. An outstanding
example is Harrison Dillard (U.S.), who won the 100-metre flat race in the 1948 Olympics and
the high hurdles in the 1952 Games. Intermediate hurdlers also combine speed with hurdling
ability. Glenn Davis (U.S.), who won both the 1956 and 1960 Olympics, was a world-record
breaker on the flat as well as over the hurdles. Edwin Moses (U.S.) virtually revolutionized the
event with his unusual 13-stride (between hurdles) technique. He also won two Olympics and
achieved a winning streak lasting nearly 10 years.

Relays

The relays involve four runners per team, each member carrying a baton for 25 percent of the
total distance before passing it to the next team runner. Two events, the 4 × 100- and 4 × 400-
metre relays, are standard. They are included both in low-level dual meets and in the Olympic
Games and the IAAF World Championships. Speed is essential in both events, and the ability to
pass the baton well is especially crucial in the shorter event, where each runner covers 100
metres. Exchanging the baton while running about 25 miles per hour brings to the event a quality
of suspense. Many races have been won or lost by the quality of baton passing. Other relay
events—the 4 × 200-, 4 × 800-, and 4 × 1,500-metres—are run much less frequently.

Walking
This event, also called race walking, is relatively minor. Aside from the Olympic and other
multinational competitions, it is seldom a part of track meets. Olympic competition is over
20,000 and 50,000 metres, while other distances are used in individual competitions.

Jumping

Men and women compete in four jumping events: the high jump, long jump, triple jump, and
pole vault.

The high jump

There is one basic rule for high jumping: the jumper must leave the ground from
one foot, not two. The object is to clear a thin bar perched atop two standards, and the jumper
remains in the competition as long as he does not have three consecutive misses. Jumpers may
enter the competition at any height above the minimum height and are allowed to pass any height
as the bar is raised to new levels. Inflated or foam-rubber landing pits have replaced dirt and
sawdust pits. The modern pits are of value because jumpers often land on the back of the
shoulders and neck.

Jumping styles evolved in the 20th century with techniques called the scissors, eastern cut-off,
western roll, and straddle (or belly roll) preceding the Fosbury flop. Named for its inventor,
Dick Fosbury (U.S.), the 1968 Olympic champion, the flop involves an approach from almost
straight ahead, then twisting on takeoff and going over headfirst with the back to the bar. Charles
Dumas (U.S.), a notable example of the straddle jumpers, in 1956 became the first man to clear 7
feet (2.13 metres). Valeriy Brumel (U.S.S.R.) held the high-jump record for 10 years using the
straddle jump. A woman jumper, Iolanda Balas (Romania), achieved remarkable feats in the
event, establishing 13 world records and a winning streak of 140 meets.

The pole vault

Pole-vaulting is conducted along the lines of the high jump; i.e., vaulters attempt
to vault over a crossbar placed on uprights, they have three tries at each height, and they land in
an inflated or composition pit.

The vaulter runs down a runway for about 45 metres (150 feet) carrying a pole. After planting
the end of the pole in a box that is sunk below ground level, the vaulter leaves the ground and
pulls himself upward until he is almost doing a handstand on the pole. He twists as he nears the
crossbar and arches over it feetfirst and facedown.

The first poles, of solid ash, cedar, or hickory, were heavy and cumbersome. Once the bamboo
pole was introduced in 1904, it was quickly adopted. Records set with bamboo lasted until 1957,
when records were set with an aluminum pole and a steel pole; these were followed by the
fibreglass pole in the 1960s.

The dominant vaulter of the bamboo era was Cornelius Warmerdam (U.S.), who scored six
world records; he was the first vaulter to go over 15 feet (4.6 metres), and he set a record of 15
feet 7.75 inches that lasted for 15 years. The constant improvement of fibreglass poles helped
vaulters such as Sergey Bubka (Ukraine) push the record over 20 feet in the 1990s. In the 1990s
the IAAF added women’s pole vault to the competition roster, and Stacy Dragila (U.S.) became
the event’s first women’s world and Olympic champion.

The long jump

Long jumping, formerly called broad jumping, is the least complicated of the
field events. Speed is the most essential ingredient for a successful jump. Jumpers make their
approach down the runway at nearly top speed, plant a foot on the takeoff board, and leap into
the air. A legal jump requires that no part of the forward foot extend beyond the board. The most
popular long-jumping style is called the “hitch-kick,” in which the runner seemingly walks in air.

Three distinct landmarks stand out in the history of long jumping. The first of
these was the achievement of Jesse Owens (U.S.), who on May 25, 1935, jumped 8.13 metres
(26 feet 8.25 inches), a record that endured for 25 years. The second was Bob Beamon’s (U.S.)
leap of 8.90 metres (29 feet 2.5 inches), a jump that exceeded the old world record by 55 cm
(21.5 inches). The third feat came in 1991, when Mike Powell (U.S.) broke Beamon’s 23-year
record with a jump of 8.95 metres (29 feet 4.5 inches).

Notable among the women jumpers are Heike Drechsler (Germany) and Jackie Joyner-Kersee
(U.S.), both of whom leaped over 7 metres (23 feet).

The triple jump

Once known as the hop, step, and jump, the triple jump includes three distinct segments of
action. The jumper comes down the runway and bounds off a takeoff board, similar in style to
but a little slower than long jumpers. The first segment involves the jumper executing a hop by
landing on the same foot from which he took off. Then he takes a step, landing on the other foot,
and concludes with a jump into the sand pit.

Among the outstanding competitors, Adhemar da Silva (Brazil) won two Olympics and set five
world records; Jozef Schmidt (Poland), also a two-time Olympic champion, set a record in 1960
of 17.03 metres (55 feet 10.5 inches) and was the first to go over the 17-metre barrier; and
Viktor Saneyev (U.S.S.R.) had three world records and three Olympic wins and one second
place. Women began competing in the triple jump in the mid-1980s.

Throwing

The four standard throwing events—shot, discus, hammer, and javelin—all involve the use of
implements of various weights and shapes that are hurled for distance.

The shot put

The putting action is best described as shoving the shot, because the rules require that the arm
may not extend behind the shoulders during the putting action. The spherical shot is made of
metal. The men’s shot weighs 7.26 kg (16 pounds) and is 110–130 mm (4.3–5.1 inches) in
diameter. Women put a 4-kg (8.82-pound) shot that is 95–110 mm (3.7–4.3 inches) in diameter.

The putter must launch the shot from within a ring 2.135 metres (7 feet) in diameter and so must
gather momentum for the put by a rapid twisting movement. Shot-putters are among the largest
athletes in track and field, the most massive ranging from 250 to 300 pounds (113 to 136 kg).
Beginning in the 1950s, weight training became a major part of a shot-putter’s training
program. In that same period the O’Brien style of putting was popularized, with outstanding
results. Developed by Parry O’Brien (U.S.), the style involved a 180-degree turn (rather than
the usual 90-degree turn) across the ring, getting more speed and momentum into the action.
O’Brien was the best exponent of the style, winning three Olympic medals (two gold) and raising
the record from 17.95 metres (58 feet 10.75 inches) to 19.30 metres (63 feet 4 inches).

Some athletes have turned to a style in which the putter spins one and a half turns before
releasing the shot, a technique developed by Brian Oldfield (U.S.).
The discus throw

Discus throwing is considered by many the classic event of athletics, the Greek
poet Homer having made references to discus throwing in the 8th century bc. Modern male
athletes throw a 2-kg (4.4-pound) platelike implement from a 2.5-metre (8.2-foot) circle. The
discus is launched after the thrower, starting at the back of the circle, has completed one and a
half turns. The women’s discus weighs 1 kg (2.2 pounds).

Legendary among discus throwers are the feats of Al Oerter (U.S.), the first to throw over 200
feet (61 metres). He won an Olympic gold medal at the 1956 Games as a 20-year-old and at each
of the following three Games as well. He also set four world records. A standout among women
throwers was Faina Melnik (U.S.S.R.), who set 11 world records.

The hammer throw

The implement used in the hammer throw is not a conventional hammer but a metal ball at least
110 mm (4.3 inches) in diameter attached to a wire, the whole implement being a minimum of
1,175 mm (46.3 inches) in length and weighing a minimum of 7.2 kg (16 pounds). The handle at
the end of the wire opposite from the ball is gripped by the thrower and released after three or
four body turns have developed maximum centrifugal force. The throwing circle is slightly
smaller than that of the discus. Women’s hammer throw was introduced into international
competition in the 1990s. The hammer used by women is slightly shorter and weighs a minimum
of 4 kg (8.8 pounds).

American athletes of Irish birth or descent totally dominated the event from the 1890s to the
1930s and included John Flanagan, who unofficially set 17 world records and won three
Olympic gold medals (1900, 1904, and 1908). After the passing of the Irish dynasty, the power
shifted to the eastern Europeans. Among them was Yury Sedykh (U.S.S.R.), who won at the
1976 and 1980 Olympics and raised the record from 80.32 metres (24.5 feet) to 86.74 metres
(26.4 feet).

The javelin throw

Javelin throwing involves a spearlike implement that is hurled with an over-the-

shoulder motion at the end of an approach run. It is a direct descendant of spear-throwing
contests, introduced in the Olympics of 708 bc. The men’s javelin weighs about 800 grams (1.8
pounds) and must be at least 260 cm (8.5 feet) long. The women throw a javelin that must weigh
at least 600 grams (1.3 pounds) and be at least 220 cm (7.2 feet) long. It is the only throwing
event not using a circle. The javelin is not required to stick but must land point-first for a valid
throw.

Throwers from Finland have historically been a force in the event. Matti Järvinen, a Finn,
established 10 world records and improved the record by 6.22 metres, finally reaching 77.23
metres (253 feet 4.5 inches) in 1936. As records continued to be broken, there was less and less
space within the stadium to throw the javelin safely. Terje Pedersen (Norway) broke the 300-foot
(91.44-metre) barrier in 1964, and by 1984 Uwe Hohn (East Germany) had thrown a prodigious
104.80 metres (343.8 feet), a throw so great that it influenced a change in the design of the
javelin to keep it within the safe confines of the field. Beginning in 1985, throwers used a javelin
that, at the same weight, was designed to reduce the length of the throw by 9 to 12 metres (30 to
40 feet). The design of the women’s javelin was changed after successive world records pushed
close to 80 metres (262.5 feet) in the late 1980s.

Decathlon and heptathlon

Both men and women participate in multi-event competitions, the men in the 10-
event decathlon and the women in the 7-event heptathlon, which superseded the earlier
pentathlon. The competitions, which require a two-day schedule, are held basically at
international meets and national championships. In the United States they also are scheduled in
many college conference championships.

Each athlete is given points for performance in each event, with more points awarded for better
marks. The athlete with the most total points wins.

Men compete in five events each day, doing consecutively the 100 metres, long jump, shot put,
high jump, and 400 metres on the first day and the 110-metre hurdles, discus throw, pole vault,
javelin throw, and 1,500-metre run in that order on the second day. Women do, in order, the 100-
metre hurdles, high jump, shot put, and 200 metres on the first day, followed by the long jump,
javelin throw, and 800 metres on the second day.

Jim Thorpe, the great all-around American athlete, won the first decathlon, taking the 1912
Olympic Games contest, and for many years it was mostly an American event. Bob Mathias
(U.S.) won his first decathlon at age 17 in 1948 and repeated it four years later. Another two-
time winner was Daley Thompson of England, victorious in 1980 and 1984. Notable in the
heptathlon was Jackie Joyner-Kersee, a record setter and winner at the 1987
World Championships and 1988 Olympics.