Chapter 8

The kidney, excretion and

osmoregulation
By the end o this chapter you should be able to:
a explain the need to remove nitrogenous
nitrogenous and c make drawings o sections o the kidney rom
other excretory products rom the body, and prepared slides;
review the ormation o urea;
d explain the unction o the kidney in terms o 
b describe the gross structure o the kidney excretion and osmoregulation, including the
and the detailed structure o the nephron role o ADH;
and associated blood vessels, using annotated
e discuss the clinical signicance o the presence
diagrams;
o glucose and protein in the urine.

Excretion The ormation o urea

Many o the metabolic reactions occurring in The human body is unable to store any excess
the body produce unwanted substances. Some o  protein that we eat. As many o us eat much more
these are toxic (poisonous). The removal rom the protein than we need, something needs to be done
body o these unwanted products o metabolism is with the excess. This happens in the liver, and it is
known as excretion. called deamination (Figure 8.1).
There are several excretory products ormed In deamination, excess amino acids (rom excess
in our bodies, but two are made in much greater protein) are broken down. The amino group is
quantities than the others
others.. These are carbon dioxide removed, and orms ammonia, NH3. The rest o 
and urea. the amino acid orms a keto acid, which can be
Carbon dioxide is produced continuously by
almost every cell in the body, by the reactions o 
amino acid R
aerobic respiration.
respiration. The waste carbon dioxide is
transported rom the respiring cells to the lungs,
in the bloodstream. It diuses rom the blood into H2N C COOH
the alveoli o the lungs, and is excreted in the air
that we breathe out. H
Urea, however, is produced in only one organ
 – the liver. It is ormed rom excess amino acids, deamination
and is transported rom the liver to the kidneys, in
ammonia keto acids
solution in blood plasma. The kidneys remove urea
(NH3)
rom the blood and excrete it, dissolved in water, as
urine.

changed to urea enter the Krebs lipids and

and excreted cycle and respired cholesterol

Figure 8.1 Deamination o excess amino acids.

161
 Chapter 8: The kidney, excretion and osmoregulation

respired to release energy or converted to at to be The kidneys

stored.
Ammonia is very soluble and very toxic, so it
cannot be allowed to remain in the body. Still in
the liver,
liver, it is combined with carbon dioxide to
orm urea, CO(NH2)2. Urea, although still toxic,
is much less soluble and much less dangerous than
ammonia. The liver releases urea into the blood,
where it dissolves in the plasma and is transported
all over the body. It is removed rom the blood as it
passes through the kidneys.
Figure 8.2 shows how ammonia is converted to
urea. This series o metabolic reactions is called
the ornithine cycle. Ornithine is an amino acid, but
not one that is used in making proteins. As you can
see, the ornithine cycle requires input o energy in
the orm o ATP.
ammonia
(NH3)
carbon dioxide
(CO2)
The two kidneys lie at the back o the abdominal
cavity
cavity (that is, close to the backbone). A long tube
runs rom each o them to the bladder (Figure
8.3). These are the ureters, and they carry urine
away rom the kidneys to the bladder, where it is
stored beore being expelled via the urethra.
Each kidney is supplied with blood though a
renal artery, which branches o rom the aorta. A
renal vein returns blood to the vena cava.
Figure 8.4 shows the gross structure o a human
kidney.. Kidney tissue is a deep,
kidney d eep, dark red. Seen
with the naked eye, the surace o a kidney section
shows it to be made up o an outer cortex and an
inner paler medulla. A whitish area, the pelvis, lies
in the centre o one edge.
vena cava
kidney
aorta
renal artery pelvis
renal vein ureter 

ornithine  ATP
 ATP
cycle
ornithine
bladder 

urethra
urea
CO(NH2)2
Figure 8.3 Position o the kidneys and associated
structures in the human body.
Figure 8.2 The ornithine cycle
cycle..

capsule
SAQ  pelvis
1 Aquatic organisms such as sh do not convert
cortex
the ammonia produced by deamination into
urea, but simply excrete it as ammonia into their
renal artery medulla
environment.
a Explain why it is possible or them to do this,
whereas terrestrial animals cannot.
b Suggest the advantages to aquatic animals o 
renal vein
excreting ammonia rather than urea.

ureter 

Figure 8.4 A kidney cut in hal vertically

vertically..
162
 Chapter 8: The kidney, excretion and osmoregulation

The structure o a nephron Each nephron begins as a cup-shaped structure

Each kidney is made up o thousands o tiny
tubules called nephrons (Figure 8.5 and Figure
8.6). These are much too small to be seen with the
naked eye, and even with a microscope you will not
nd it easy to see them clearly.
clearly. This is because the
nephrons take a very winding route rom the outer
parts o the cortex to the pelvis, so that when a
kidney is cut through, the cut
cu t passes through tiny
bits o many dierent nephrons (Figure 8.7).
 
a nephron
cortex
medulla
pelvis
called a renal (Bowman’s) capsule. The renal
capsules o all the nephrons are in the cortex o 
the kidney. From the renal capsule, the tube runs
towards
towar ds the centre o the kidney, rst orming
orming
a twisted region called the proximal convoluted
tubule and then a long hairpin loop in the medulla,
the loop o Henlé. The tubule then turns back up
through the cortex and orms another twisted
region called the distal convoluted tubule. Finally, it
joins a collecting duct, which leads down through
the medulla and into the pelvis o the kidney. Here
the collecting ducts join the ureter.
ureter.
Blood vessels are closely associated with the
nephrons.. Each renal capsule is supplied with
nephrons
blood by a branch o the renal artery called an
aerent arteriole. This splits into a tangle o 
capillaries in the ‘cup’ o the renal capsule, called
a glomerulus. The capillaries o the glomerulus
rejoin to orm an eerent arteriole. This leads o 
to orm a network o capillaries running closely
alongside the rest o the nephron, beore linking

renal capsule proximal peritubular 

b distal
glomerulus convoluted capillaries
proximal convoluted eerent tubule
convoluted tubule arteriole
eerent
tubule
arteriole

aerent
arteriole

cortex

glomerulus

aerent
arteriole
rom renal
rom renal medulla artery
artery
to renal vein
descending limb o 
loop o Henlé

collecting
ascending limb o  duct
loop o Henlé loop o Henlé

vasa recta
collecting
pelvis
duct

Figure 8.5 a Section through a kidney to show Figure 8.6 The blood supply associated with a
the position o one nephron, b a nephron. nephron.
163
 Chapter 8: The kidney, excretion and osmoregulation

a b

renal glomerular capillary distal proximal collecting thin section o  thick section o  capillary
capsule containing red convoluted convoluted duct the loop o Henlé the loop o Henlé
blood cells and tubule tubule
podocyte cells microvilli

distal convoluted
tubule

Figure 8.7 a Photomicro

Photomicrograph
graph o a section through a renal capsule (× 165),
165), b photomicrograph o a
section through the medulla o a kidney (× 300), c interpretive drawings.

up with other capillaries to eed into a branch o  renal capsule epithelium
the renal vein. eerent
arteriole glomerular 
ltrate
Ultrafltration
Ultrafltration , as the name suggests, involves
ltration on a micro-scale. This process lters out
small molecules rom the blood and these pass into
aerent
the lumens o the nephrons. arteriole
Ultraltration
Ultraltrat ion happens in the renal capsules
(Bowman’’s capsules). The blood in the glomerular
(Bowman basement
capillaries is separated rom the lumen o the membrane
(blue line)
renal capsule by two cell layers and a basement
membrane (Figure 8.8). parts o podocyte cell
The rst cell layer is the lining, called the
endothelium, o the blood capillary. This, like Figure 8.8 A renal capsule (Bowman’s capsule).
164
 Chapter 8: The kidney, excretion and osmoregulation

that o most capillaries,

capillaries, has many small pores
in it through which plasma can seep out. Lying
closely against the endothelium is a basement
membrane, and against that is the layer o cells
making up the lining o the renal capsule. These
cells are called podocytes. ‘Pod’ means ‘oot’, and
these cells have a very unusual structure. They
have many projecting ngers (or eet) that wrap
themselves closely around the capillary loops o  (Figure 8.10). It is the basement membrane that
the glomerulus (Figure 8.9). Tiny slits are let
between the interlocking podocyte ngers.
The diameter o the aerent arteriole that
brings blood to the glomerulus is greater than
the diameter o the eerent arteriole that carries
it away. This results in a build-up o hydrostatic
pressure inside the glomerular capillaries
capillaries.. As a
result, blood plasma is orced out through the pores
in the capillaries
capillaries,, through the basement membrane
and then through the slits between the podocytes.
The fuid that seeps through, into the ca cavity
vity o 
the renal capsule, is known as glomerular fltrate
acts as the lter. In kidney dialysis or a person with
kidney ailure, the dialysis membrane carries out a
similar role to that o the basement membrane.
No cells can get through this lter.
lter. And not
quite all the components o blood plasma can
pass through, either. Large proteins with a relative
molecular mass o more than about 65 000 to
69 000 remain dissolved in the blood. Table 8.1
shows the composition o blood plasma and
glomerular ltrate.

Figure 8.9 A alse colour scanning electron
micrograph
microgr aph o podocyte cells (× 3900). The
podocytes are the blue cells, with their ‘ngers’
wrapped around the purple blood capillary.
Selective reabsorption
As you can see rom Table 8.1, glomerular ltrate
is identical to blood plasma minus most proteins
proteins..
It is thereore inevitable that it will contain many
substances that the body should keep, as well
as others that need to be got rid o. Selective
reabsorption, which happens as the ltrate fows
along the nephron, takes these wanted substances
back into the blood.
Most o this reabsorption takes place in the
proximal convoluted
convoluted tubule.
tubule. The walls o this part
o the nephron are made up o a layer o cuboidal
cells with microvilli on their inner suraces

Substance Concentration in blood plasma / g dm−3 Concentration in glomerular fltrate / g dm−3

water 90 0 90 0
inorganic ions 7.2 7 .2
urea 0.3 0 .3
uric acid 0.04 0.04
glucose 1.0 1 .0
amino acids 0.5 0 .5
proteins 80.0 0.05

Table 8.1 Comparison o the composition o blood plasma and glomerular ltrate.

165
 Chapter 8: The kidney, excretion and osmoregulation

pressure gradient

blood basement glomerular ltrate

plasma membrane in lumen o renal
capsule
capillary endothelium podocyte cell o 
with circular holes renal capsule wall

Figure 8.10 Ultraltration.

glomerular  tubule tight tissue fuid capillary

ltrate epithelium  junction

Key
mass fow co-transport o Na+ and glucose active transport o Na+ across the
across the inner membrane o the outer membrane o the epithelium
co-transport or 
epithelium o the proximal tubule o the proximal convoluted tubule
active transport

Figure 8.11 Selective reabsorption rom the proximal convoluted tubule.

166

(Figure 8.11). The cells ha have
ve tight junctions which
hold adjacent cells tightly together preventing any
water or mineral ions passing out o the nephron
between the cells. Because o these tight junctions,
movement o waterwater,, glucose, amino acids and
mineral ions has to take place across the cells
and through their plasma membranes and can,
thereore, be regulated.
Blood capillaries lie very closely against the
outer surace o the tubule. The blood in these
capillaries has come directly rom the glomerulus,
so it has much less plasma in it than usual and has
lost much o its water and many o the ions, small
proteins and other substances that it was carrying
as it entered the glomerulus. It still contains all its
cells, and its large soluble proteins.
The outer membranes o the cells o the
proximal convoluted tubule walls actively
transport sodium ions out o the cytoplasm. This
lowers the concentration o sodium ions inside the
cells.. As a result, there is a concentration gradient
cells
or sodium ions rom the contents o the tubule
(relatively
(relati vely high concentration) into the cytoplasm.
The sodium ions diuse down d own this gradient rom
the fuid inside the tubule into the cells, passing
through transporter proteins in their plasma
membranes.
There are several dierent varieties o these
transporters,, and each one transports something
transporters
else at the same time as sodium ions. They can
even do this against a concentration gradient. For
example,, a sodium ion diusing through one kind
example
o transporter might carry a glucose molecule with
it, up the concentration gradient or glucose. This
is called co-transport. The passive movement o the
sodium ion down its gradient provides the energy
to move the glucose molecule up its gradient. So,
indirectly,, the active transport o sodium ions out
indirectly
o one side o the cell provides the energy needed
to transport glucose molecules into the other side.
In this way,
way, all o the glucose in the proxim
proximal
al
convoluted
convolut ed tubule is reabsorbed into the blood.
Amino acids, vitamins, sodium ions and chloride
ions are also reabsorbed here.
The removal o all these solutes rom the
glomerular ltrate greatly increases its water
potential. But the water potential inside the
Chapter 8: The kidney, excretion and osmoregulation
cells in the nephron walls, and inside the blood
capillaries,, is decreasing as these solutes move
capillaries
into them. So a water potential gradient builds up. up.
Water molecules move down this gradient, out o 
the nephron and into the blood. About 65% o 
the water in the ltrate is reabsorbed here. As the
blood fows away, the water and other reabsorbed
substances are carried aw away
ay with it.
Surprisingly,, quite a lot o urea is reabsorbed
Surprisingly
too. Urea is a small molecule, which passes easily
through cell membranes. Its concentration in the
glomerular ltrate is considerably higher than in
the capillaries so it diuses passively through the
wall o the proximal convoluted
convoluted tubule and into
the blood. About hal o the urea in the ltrate is
reabsorbed in this way.
All o this reabsorption greatly
greatly decreases the
volume o the liquid remaining in the tubule. In an
adult human, around 125 cm3 of ltrate enters the
 proximal tubules each minute, and all but 45 cm3 is
reabsorbed.
SAQ 
2 Although almost hal o the urea in the
glomerular ltrate is reabsorbed rom the
proximal convoluted tubule, the concentration
o urea in the fuid that remains inside the
nephron actually increases. Explain why.
3 Explain how each o these eatures o the cells
in the walls o the proximal convoluted
convoluted tubules
adapt them or their unctions
unctions..
a microvilli
b large numbers o mitochondria.
The loop o Henlé
About one third o our nephrons have long loops
o Henlé, dipping down into the medulla o the
kidneys. The unction o these loops is to create
a very high concentration o sodium ions and
chloride ions in the tissue fuid in the medulla.
As you will see, this allows a lot o water to be
reabsorbed rom the contents o the nephron as
they pass through the collecting duct. This means
that very concentrated urine can be produced,
conserving water in the body and preventing
167
 Chapter 8: The kidney, excretion and osmoregulation

dehydration. the nephron and into the surrounding tissues.

tissues. This
The rst part o the loop o Henlé is called increases the water potential o the fuid inside the
the descending limb and the second part is the nephron and decreases the water potential outside
ascending limb. These dier in their permeabilities it. Water
Water cannot pass out o the nephron at this
to water. The descending limb is water-permeable, point, because the walls are impermeable
imper meable to it.
while the ascending limb is impermeable
imper meable to water
water Now think about the descending limb. We have
(Figure 8.12). seen that its walls are permeable to water. As the
It is a bit easier to understand how it works i  fuid rom the proximal convoluted
convoluted tubule fows
you begin at the ‘wrong’ end – in the ascending through the descending limb, it passes through the
limb. The cells in the upper part o this limb tissues into which sodium and chloride ions have
actively transport sodium and chloride ions out o  been pumped. So there is a water potential gradient,
and water moves down this gradient rom inside
the descending limb into the tissues outside it.
The fuid that now begins to go up the ascending
limb is very concentrated – it has lost a lot o its
water,, so the concentration o the ions that remain
water
is large. This makes it relatively easy to pump these
ions out o the tubule as the fuid moves up.
Having the two limbs o the loop running next
ascending limb
descending
to each other like this,
this, with the fuid fowing down
limb (thick part) one side and up the other, enables
enables the maximum
active transport
concentration o solutes to be built up both inside
o Na+ and Cl –  and outside the tube at the bottom o the loop. It
is called a counter-current system.
The longer the loop o Henlé, the greater the
concentration o solutes that can be built up at
Water diuses the bottom o the loop. We have seen that about
out o the one third o our nephrons havehave long loops. In
descending
limb by
desert-living mammals, such as gerbils, almost all
osmosis. o the loops are very long. This is useul because,
as we shall see, the very low water potential that
they build up in the medulla helps water to be
conserved and not lost in the urine.
diusion o 
Na+ and Cl – 
Reabsorption in the distal convoluted
tubule and collecting duct
The fuid now continues along the nephron,
entering the distal convoluted tubule and nally
ascending limb
high concentration (thin part)
the collecting duct. The cells in the walls o the
o Na+ and Cl – in distal convoluted tubule actively transport sodium
the tissue fuid here
ions out o the fuid, while potassium ions are
Key actively transported into it.
active transport
osmosis As the fuid fows through the collecting duct,
du ct,
diusion down concentration gradient deep in the medulla, it passes through the same
regions as the deep parts o the loops o Henlé.
Figure 8.12 The loop o Henlé. The very low water potential in this region once
more provides a water potential gradient, so that
168

water moves out o the collecting duct and into
the tissues around it. It moves into the blood
capillaries (the vasa recta) and is transported away
(Figure 8.13).
The loop o Henlé helps to conserve water.
The lower the water potential it can build up, the
greater will be the water potential gradient between
the fuid inside the collecting ducts and the tissues
outside the duct. This enables more water to be
drawn out o the collecting duct, resulting in a
smaller volume o more concentrated urine.
urine.
Osmoregulation
Osmoregulation is the control o the water content
o the body. This is a vital part o homeostasis,
and it involves the kidneys, the pituitary gland and
a part o the brain called the hypothalamus. It
works by means o negative eedback.
The hypothalamus contains sensory neurones
called osmoreceptors. They are sensitive to the
water potential o the blood that passes through
the hypothalamus.
hypothalamus. Their cell bodies produce a
hormone called anti-diuretic hormone, ADH. ADH
1 Tissue fuid with a
low water potential is
ound in this part o 
the medulla.
Key
pressure or mass fow
osmosis
Figure 8.13 Reabsorption
Reabsorption o water rom
rom the collecting duct.
Chapter 8: The kidney, excretion and osmoregulation
is a small peptide, made up o just nine amino acids.
However, the osmoreceptor cells don’t secrete
this hormone directly into the blood. Instead, the
ADH passes along their axonsaxons,, which terminate in
the posterior pituitary gland (Figure 8.14).
I the water potential in the blood is too low
(that is,
is, the blood does not contain enough water),
some o this ADH will be released rom the ends
o these axons, just like a transmitter substance
at a synapse. However, ADH is released into the
blood, not into a synaptic clet. The ADH is
thereoree secreted rom the posterior pituitary
thereor
gland, even though it was synthesised in the
hypothalamus.
We have seen that water is reabsorbed rom the
fuid in the nephron and back into the blood as
the fuid passes through the collecting ducts
ducts.. Water
Water
is drawn out o the collecting ducts by osmosis,
moving down its water potential gradient. The water
balance o the body can be controlled by adjusting
the water permeability o the plasma membranes
o the collecting duct cells. Make them more
permeable, and more water is reabsorbed and less
is lost in the urine. Make them impermeable and no
blood capillaries o 
the vasa recta
2 Water diuses out o the collecting
duct by osmosis when the
collecting duct wall is permeable to
water.
3 Water is collected and removed by
the capillaries o the vasa recta.
4 Urine with a very low water 
potential can be produced.
169
 Chapter 8: The kidney, excretion and osmoregulation

water is reabsorbed, so more is lost in the urine.

hypothalamus These cells are the target cells or ADH. ADH
molecules slot into receptors on their plasma
neurone membranes.. This causes little groups o protein
membranes
molecules in their cytoplasm, called aquaporins,
to move to the plasma membrane and insert
themselves into it (Figure 8.15). They orm channels
that allow water molecules to pass through.
So, with ADH in position, water can move
reely out o the collecting ducts and back into
posterior 
the blood. A smaller volume o urine is thereore
pituitary
ormed, which has a much lower osmotic potential
than blood plasma (hypertonic), and the body
hormone
secreted
conserves water.
Everything goes into reverse i the blood
contains too much water
water.. The osmoreceptors
o smoreceptors in
the hypothalamus are not stimulated, and so only
hormone in blood a little ADH is released into the blood. Much less
ADH binds to receptors in the plasma membranes
Figure 8.14 ADH is produced in the o the collecting duct cells, and the aquaporins
hypothalamus
hypothalam us and moves along axons to be move back into the cytoplasm. Now the walls
released into the blood rom the posterior o the collecting ducts are quite impermeable to
pituitary gland. water,, so most o the water in the fuid inside the
water
collecting ducts fows along and into the bladder.
Large volumes o dilute urine are produced.

No ADH – no
no wa
wate
terr re
reab
abs
sor
orpt
ptio
ion
n ADH – wa
wate
terr rea
eabs
bsor
orpt
ptio
ion
n

 Aquaporin protein channels

are inserted into the plasma
membrane and allow water 
to diuse.

large volume o  small volume o 

urine with high urine with low
water potential water potential

Figure 8.15 ADH and water reabsorption.

reabsorption.
170
 Chapter 8: The kidney, excretion and osmoregulation

SAQ 
4 The graph shows the relati
relative
ve concentrations o  I water fows into an impermeable tube like a
our substances in the glomerular ltrate as it hosepipe, it fows out o the ar end at the same
passes along a nephron. rate as it fows in. However, this clearly does not
happen in a nephron. Suggest an explanation or or
100
the shape o the graph.
  e
   h
6 Make a copy o Figure 7.1 on page 141, but
   t
  n
  a
do not include the text. Instead, write in your
   h
urea
   t   e own text to explain how negativ
negativee eedback
  r   l 10
  e  u
   t   s
  a  p controls the water content o the blood. You
You
  e
  r   a
  c
  g   l K+ should make clear where the receptors are,
  s   a
  e  n what the eectors are and how inormation
  m  e
   i   r
   t   e
   f   h is communicated between the receptors and
  o   t 1
  r   n Na+ eectors.
  e   i
   b  n
  m   o
  u   i
   t glucose 7 The table shows the percentage o nephrons that
  n  a
  r
   /   t
  n  n have
ha ve long loops o Henlé in ve mammals, and
  o  e
   t   c
   i
  n also the maximum concentration o the urine
  a
  r   o 0.1
   t   c
  n
  e
that they can produce.
  c
  n
  o
   C Mammal Percentage o   Maximum
amino
acids long loops concentration
0.01
proximal loop o  distal collecting o urine
convoluted Henlé convoluted duct
tubule tubule
(arbitrary units)
beaver 0 0.96
a What is unusual about the y
the y-axis
-axis o the
graph? Why is it shown this way? desert mouse 10 0 9.2
b Take each curve in turn, and explain why it is human 14 2.6
this shape.  jerboa 33 12.0
5 The graph shows the rates at which fuid fows pig 3 2.0
through dierent parts o a nephron.
160 a Describe any relationship that you can
see between the percentage o long loops
80 o Henlé and the environment in which a
mammal lives.
40
   1
  – b Describe any relationship that you can see
  n
   i
  m between the percentage o long loops o 
   3 20
  m
  c
Henlé and the maximum concentration o 
   /
  e
   t 10 urine produced.
  a
  r c Suggest reasons or the relationships you have
  w
  o
   l 5 described.
   F

2.5

1.25
proximal loop o  distal collecting
convoluted Henlé convoluted duct
tubule tubule

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 Chapter 8: The kidney, excretion and osmoregulation

Using urine or diagnosis
It is much easier to collect a urine sample rom
a person than to collect a blood sample. Simple
tests on urine can give early indications o health
problems, which can then be investigated more
thoroughly. Dipsticks can be used to test or a
range o dierent substances, including glucose
and protein.
The presence o glucose in urine indicates that
a person may have diabetes – a disorder in which
the normal blood glucose control mechanisms do
not work properly. This is described in Chapter
10. Normally,
Normally, all the glucose rom the glomerular
ltrate is reabsorbed
reabsorbed into the blood as it passes
through the proximal convoluted tubules, so there
will be none at all in the urine. However
However,, i blood
glucose concentration rises too high, it is not
possible or all o the glucose in the ltrate to be
reabsorbed, and some will remain in the urine.
The presence o protein in urine may indicate
that something is wrong with the kidneys. Most
protein molecules are too large to pass through
the basement membrane that acts as the lter
between the capillaries and the lumen o the renal
capsule.. It is not uncommon or there to be small
capsule
amounts o protein in urine or short periods o 
time – or example, ater vigorous exercise, or i 
someone has a high ever – but large amounts,
or the persistent presence o protein, will require
more investigation. They may mean that there
is a disease aecting the glomeruli, or that there
is a kidney inection. Protein in the urine is also
associated with high blood pressure
pressure,, which in turn
increases the risk o heart disease.

Summary
Excretion is the removal o the waste products o metabolism, some o which are toxic, rom the
•
body.. The main excretory products o mammals are carbon dioxide (rom respiration)
body respiration) and urea
(rom the deamination o excess amino acids). Deamination occurs in the liver,
liver, and urea is produced
via the ornithine cycle
cycle..
The kidneys are supplied with blood through the renal arteries, and the renal veins deliver blood to
•
the vena cava. Each kidney contains many tubules called nephrons. Blood is delivered to the renal
capsule o each nephron in an aerent arteriole, which orms a glomerulus in the cup o the capsule.
A narrower vessel, the eerent arteriole, takes blood away.
Ultraltration occurs as fuid is orced, under pressure,
Ultraltration pressure, rom the capillaries o the glomerulus,
•
through the endothelium o the capillary, through the basement membrane o the renal capsule, and
between the podocytes. The lter is the basement membrane. Only small molecules can pass through,
so all blood cells and large molecules (including almost all proteins) remain in the blood.
As the ltrate fows through the proxi
proximal
mal convoluted tubule,
tubule, all the glucose, most o the water and
•
a high proportion o ions such as sodium and chloride are reabsorbed into the blood. Some o this
occurs by diusion, and some by active transport. Glucose is moved by co-transport (indirect active
transport) along with sodium ions
ions..
A counter-current mechanism builds up a high concentration (low water
water potential) in the tissues
•
surrounding the loop o Henlé. The collecting ducts run through these areas, so water tends to move
out o the collecting ducts by osmosis, down a water potential gradient.
The permeability o the collecting duct walls is aected by ADH, a hormone secreted by the
•
posterior pituitary gland when the concentration o the blood is too high. ADH makes the walls
more permeable,
permeable, so more water is reabsorbed and small quantities o concentrated urine are excreted.
The presence o glucose in urine indicates the possibility o diabetes, and the presence o protein may
•
indicate disease aecting the glomeruli.

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 Chapter 8: The kidney, excretion and osmoregulation

Questions
Multiple choice questions
1 Humans excrete nitrogen in the orm o urea because it is:
A more toxic and more alkaline than ammonia.
B less soluble than ammonia and less toxic.
C an extremely soluble gas.
D able to maintain the pH o the blood.
2 Which o the ollowing statements
statements about urea synthesis is correct?
A It is made in the kidney in the ornithine cycle rom deaminated amino acids and carbon dioxide
dioxide..
B It is produced rom excess amino acids alone.
C It does not require energy to combine
co mbine ammonia and carbon dioxide
dioxide..
D It is made in the liver in the ornithine cycle rom deaminated amino acids and carbon dioxide.
3 The diagram below represents a kidney tubule
tubule.. Where in the tubule is the most glucose reabsorbed?

A B
C

4 The diagram below shows a nephron o a mammalian kidney.

kidney.

A B
C

Which o the labelled structures has walls that have variable

variable permeability to water and so aect the
nal concentration and volume o the urine excreted?

continued ...

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 Chapter 8: The kidney, excretion and osmoregulation

5 The diagrams below shows the nephrons o three dierent mammals: the house mouse which can
survive with a water supply every ew days, the beaver which has a large supply o water and the
kangaroo rat which can live in the desert without drinking water at all.

1 2

Which o the ollowing correctly identies the nephron o each animal?

House mouse Beaver Kangaroo rat

A 2 1 3

B 1 2 3

C 3 2 1

D 3 1 2

6 The diagram below shows a glomerulus and Bowman’s

Bowman’s capsule o a mammalian nephron.

I
aerent II
arteriole

capillaries
o glomerulus

glomerular ltrate

Which o the ollowing correctly identies the diameter o vessel I and the process shown at II?

I II
A wider than aerent arteriole ultraltration
B narr
narro
ower tha
than
n aer
aeren
entt arte
arterrio
iole
le ulttra
ul ral
ltr
tra
atio
ion
n
C narr
narro
ower th
than
an a
aer
eren
entt art
arter
erio
iole
le sele
select
ctiv
ivee rea
reabs
bsor
orpt
ptio
ion
n
D wider th
than a
aerent arteriole selective reabsorption continued ...

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 Chapter 8: The kidney, excretion and osmoregulation

7 A unction o the loop o Henlé is to:

A vary its permeability to maintain the water potential o the body.
body.
B actively transport glucose rom the lumen to the capillaries
capillaries..
C concentrate sodium ions in the medulla.
D absorb water
water rom the collecting duct.
8 Proteins larger than relative
relative molecular mass 68 000 are not ltered rom the glomerulus into the
space o the Bowman’s
Bowman’s capsule because:
A the gaps in the endothelium o the capillary are very small.
B the slit pores o the podocytes are 25 nm wide.
wide.
C the basement membrane acts a dialysing membrane.
membrane.
D the ltration pressure is high.
9 The micrograph
micrograph shown below is a cross-section o the cortex o the kidney.
kidney.
Which o the labelled structures correctly identies a distal convoluted tubule (DCT)?
(DCT)?

10 Even though glucose is ltered out o the glomerulus it is not ound in urine in mammals.
This is because:
A glucose is actively reabsorbed with sodium ions in the proxi
p roximal
mal convoluted tubule.
tubule.
B glucose is actively reabsorbed in the loop o Henlé.
C the glucose enters the eerent arteriole rom the Bowman’s capsule.
D glucose is used in respirat
respiration
ion in the nephron.

continued ...

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 Chapter 8: The kidney, excretion and osmoregulation

Structured questions
11 a Draw a large labelled diagram to illustrate the detailed structure o a nephron o a
mammalian
mammali an kidney. [6 marks]
b On the diagram, indicate:
i the direction o movement o small molecules in the glomerulus
ii the movement o sodium ions in the loop o Henlé
iii the direction o increasing osmotic potential
iv counter-current fow
v the direction o fow o water i ADH is present. [5 marks]
c Give three eatures o the proximal convoluted
convoluted tubule necessary or its role in
selective reabsorpti
reabsorption.
on. [3 marks]
d Give one eature o the collecting duct which allows it to control the water content
o the body
body.. [1 mark]
12 The electron micrograph below is o a section o a part o the kidney nephron unit.

II

III

a Suggest which region o the kidney is shown on the micrograph.

micrograph. Give a reason or
your answer. [2 marks]
b Identiy the structures labelled I to III. [3 marks]
c Make a drawing
drawing o the structure labelled I at a magnication o ×2. [3 marks]
d Suggest a reason or the dierences observed between structure II and III. [2 marks]
e The table below shows the amounts o some substances in both blood plasma
and urine. [1 mark]

Substance Percentage in plasma Percentage in urine Increase

water 90 95 -
protein 8 0 -
glucose 0 .1 0 -
urea 0.03 2 6 7×
Na+ 0 .3 2 0 .3 5 1×

i Explain wh
whyy there is no protein or glucose in urine. [2 marks]
ii What is the role o sodium ions in the unctioning o the kidneys? [1 mark]
continued ...

176
 Chapter 8: The kidney, excretion and osmoregulation

  Copy the graph below, and draw the curves or urea and glucose in various parts
o the nephron. [2 marks]

  n
  o
   i
   t
  a
  r
   t
  n
  e
  c
  n
  o
   C

proximal distal loop o  collecting

convoluted convoluted Henlé duct
tubule tubule

13 The gure below shows a section through the wall o the proximal convoluted
convoluted tubule
o a kidney nephron as seen under the electron microscope.

a Copy the diagram above. On your diagram label the ollowing structures:
microvilli,
microvilli, tight junction, capillary
capillary,, mitochondrion, lumen [3 marks]
b i Wha
Whatt is the main process which occurs in the proximal convoluted tubule? [1 mark]
ii State how the ollowing assist in the process named in b i:
mitochondria, tight junction, capillary
capillary,, micro
microvilli
villi [5 marks]
c Briefy describe how glucose, small proteins, sodium ions and water are taken up
rom the lumen o the tubule into the peritubular capillaries
capillaries.. [4 marks]
d Wha
Whatt is the clinical signicance o the presence o glucose in urine? [2 marks]

continued ...

177
 Chapter 8: The kidney, excretion and osmoregulation

Essay questions

14 a Describe how ultraltration occurs in the Bowman’s

Bowman’s capsule to orm glomerular
ltrate. [7 marks]
b Explain how the Bowman
Bowman’’s capsule is adapted or ltration o the blood. [3 marks]
c i Identiy three substances which are ltered into the glomerular ltrate
ltrate.. [3 marks]
ii Outline one possible cause or the presence o proteins in the urine. [2 marks]
15 a What do you understand by the term ‘excretion’? Explain the importance o 
removing nitrogenous waste rom the body
body.. [3 marks]
b Briefy describe wh
why
y and how urea is ormed in mammals
mammals.. [6 marks]
c Describe the roles and adaptations o the ollowing blood vessels in the kidney
nephron.
i aerent and eerent arterioles
ii capillaries around the nephron
iii vasa recta [6 marks]
16 a With the aid o a diagram, explain the role o the loop o Henlé in water
conservation. [7 marks]
b Describe how the kidney produces urine that is hypertonic to blood plasma. [6 marks]
c A student observes that when he drinks coee while studying, he has to urinate
more than i he drinks the same volume o water. Suggest an explanation or
this observation. [2 marks]

178