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Bitumen Safety Code
Bitumen Safety Code
3rd Edition
July 1990
Published on behalf of
No part of this book may be reproduced by any means, or transmitted, or translated into a machine
language without the written permission of the publisher.
Institute of Petroleum
Bitumen safety code-3rd. ed.
1. Bitumen. Safety measures
1. Title 11. Series
665.5388 90-20762
CIP
Printed and bound in Great Britain by Galliard (Printers) Ltd. Great Yarmouth
CONTENTS
Foreword
1. General Information
1.1 Scope and Applicability of the Code
1.2 Definition of Bitumen
1.3 Bitumen Emulsions
1.4 The Hazards
2. Health Protection
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Skin Bums
2.3 Bitumen Fumes
2.4 Hydrogen Sulphide
2.5 Skin Contact with Bitumen .
2.6 Health Surveillance
2.7 Classification. Packaging and Labelling
2.8 Addendum in Respect of Coal Tar Materials
3. Fire Prevention
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Control of Flammable Atmospheres
3.3 The Control of Sources of Ignition
3.4 Fire Precautions for Ancillary Petroleum Materials, or Fuels Associated with Bitumen Installations
4. Fire Fighting
4.1 Organisation
4.2 The Principles of Fighting Bitumen Fires
4.3 Tank Fires
4.4 Maintenance of Equipment
5. Manufacture
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Distillation Plants
5.3 Oxidation Plants.
5.4 Rundown Tankage
6. Blending
6.1 introduction
6.2 Batch-Blending
6.3 In-Line Blending
7. Storage
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Location. Spacing and Area Classification of Tanks
7.3 Tank Design Features Common to All Classes of Bitumen
7.4 Operations
7.5 Inspection
7.6 Maintenance and Tank Cleaning
10. Sampling
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Dip Sampling
10.3 Sample Valves
Appendices
A. Classification of Petroleum and its Products by the Institute of Petroleum
B. Recommended Bitumen Handling Temperatures
C. Glossary of Terms
D. The Application of Area Classification
E. Exposure to Bitumen by Skin Contact and Inhalation
F. References.
Figures
Tables
FOREWORD
This revision of the 1979 IP Bitumen Safety Code follows a comprehensive review of all aspects
involved in the safe handling of petroleum bitumens, including reported incidents. New information and
studies, forming the basis of the guidance developed in the course of this revision have shown that,
when there is overheating, the margin of safety can become dangerously small with some bitumen
grades. and that there is in all cases a need to ensure accurate control of the temperature in bitumen
tanks.
This update to the Code gives prominent attention to the measures that should be taken to minimise
the likelihood of a flammable condition in or around the vapour space of bitumen tankage and for the
control over potential sources of ignition, both electrical and non-electrical. This guidance should be
drawn to the attention of all with responsibility for the design, construction, maintenance and operation
of bitumen handling plant-both in the manufacturing and bulk distribution, but no less in the
commercial user section of the bitumen industry. where the conditions of close control may be less
easily attainable than is the case within the petroleum industry generally.
In addition to the particular focus on the aspects of flammability presented in Chapters 3, 5 and 7, the
other chapters of the 1979 Code have also been extensively reviewed and augmented as appropriate.
Attention should be drawn to the recommendations on health aspects and personal protection in
Chapter 2. to the product user guidance in Chapter 9 and to the expanded guidance on maintenance
and tank cleaning in Chapter 7, with its extended sections on safe entry conditions and the control of
hot work.
The Code gives for the most part recommendations for safe practice rather than a set of rigid rules. In
determining any required safe procedures, the effect of any unusual circumstance, on which it is
impossible to generalise, should receive due consideration. Although it is believed that adoption of the
Code's recommendations will help to reduce the risk of accident, the Institute of Petroleum cannot
accept any responsibility, of any kind, for damage or alleged damage arising or otherwise occurring in
or about premises. areas or vehicles to which this Code applies.
Statutory requirements exist in many countries and these should always be complied with.
This Code has been prepared by a Working Group reporting to the IP Safety Sub-Committee and will be
reviewed from time to time. It would be of great assistance in any future revision if users would send
comments or suggestions for improvement to:
GENERAL INFORMATION
1.1 SCOPE AND APPLICABILITY OF THE CODE
This Code covers safety in manufacture, storage. distribution and use of bitumen.
It applies generally to all grades of bitumen meeting internationally recognised specifications but where
advice is grade dependent as in the case of storage temperature guidance, it refers to bitumens
meeting the British Standard specifications referred to in 1.2.1 to 1.3 and Tables 1. 1 to 1.4. A similar
range of gradings is found in other national specifications, but care is necessary to ensure that any
other grade to which this particular advice is applied is equivalent to the British Standard reference
grade in all relevant respects.
This Code does not cover coal tars, coal tar derivatives, or mixtures of coal tar products with bitumens.
Although coal tars and derivatives can have applications similar to some bitumens. their chemical,
physical and in particular toxicological characteristics are very different.
With regard to the hazards related to their use they must therefore be treated separately.
Advice on safe handling of coal tar products and their mixtures with petroleum bitumens should be
obtained from their suppliers.
Bitumen is defined by the Institute of Petroleum and in BS 3690 as 'A viscous liquid or a solid,
consisting essentially of hydrocarbons and their derivatives, which is soluble in trichloroethylene, is
substantially non-volatile and softens gradually when heated. It is black or brown in colour and
possesses waterproofing and adhesive properties. It is obtained by refinery processes from petroleum.
It is also found as a natural deposit and as a component of naturally occurring asphalt in which it is
associated with mineral matter.'
'Bitumen' is defined in a similar manner in most parts of the world outside North America. So that un-
necessary confusion does not arise, it should be noted that in the UK the term asphalt is used for a
mixture of bitumen and mineral matter such as stone, sand and filler. However, in the USA. the term
asphalt is applied to the product defined in most parts of the world as bitumen.
When natural seepages of bitumen are intruded by fine mineral matter, they are referred to as natural
asphalts (asphalte).
Four principal types of bitumen are recognised. These are referred to as penetration grade. hard grade.
Oxidised grade and cutback bitumens.
1.2.1 Penetration Grade Bitumens
These are produced as residual products from the distillation of petroleum, subjected in some cases as
outlined in Chapter 5 to a partial oxidation process.
British Standard grades (see Table 1.1) are designated by a number representing the mid-point of the
penetration range and the suffix 'pen' and a similar range is to be found in other national
specifications. These bitumens are used principally for road surfacing but also for industrial applications
and roofing.
These are dispersions of bitumen in water, achieved by the use of emulsifying agents. They are used
largely for road surfacing applications. Types and grades typically in use in the UK are described by BS
434.
The precautions necessary to avoid the hazards associated with the handling of bitumens are described
in the following chapters.
They are considered first generally under the headings of Health Protection. Fire Prevention and Fire
Fighting, and then more specifically in relation to the various phases of bitumen handling. from its
manufacture through to its ultimate use.
(a)Loss by mass %(max) 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.0
(b)Drop in penetr.(min) 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 25 25
2
HEALTH PROTECTION
2.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter gives advice on the hazards associated with bitumen (defined as in Chapter 1) and the
personal protection and systems of work that should be considered to protect against these.
The main acute hazards to health arise out of the heating of the product for handling or use. Not
bitumen can give rise to serious bums, Heated bitumen evolves fumes and particularly if subjected to a
very high temperature, can evolve hydrogen sulphide, which can create a significant health hazard in
confined spaces such as tank ullages.
At ambient temperatures bitumen is normally solid and immobile and thus gives rise to. no acute or
chronic health hazards.
However chronic hazards can arise when bitumen is heated and fumes evolve and when bitumen is
mixed with other substances.
Bitumens contain polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in concentrations in the low percentage
range.
Some of these compounds with 4 to 6 fused rings and high boiling points have been demonstrated in
animal studies to have carcinogenic proprieties. These particular studies are known to be present in
bitumen in very small concentrations. It must however, be emphasised that the concentrations of PAHs
present in bitumen are several orders of magnitude lower than occur in coal tar products, which are
known to be carcinogenic.
Whilst bitumen which is solid at ambient temperatures is not believed to present any chronic hazard,
however when cut back with a diluent it should be regarded as posing a carcinogenic risk to the skin if
regular and repeated exposure were to take place over many years with poor personal hygiene. See
2.5.
Owing to the presence of the PAHs in the fumes given off when bitumen is heated, interest in the
chronic
toxicity of these fumes exists and this is discussed further below. See 2.3.
Modified Bitumens and Derivatives Bitumen is used in a number-of formulated products. e.g. in special
bitumens for particular applications, building products, preservatives and lubricants. Such formulations
require additional consideration owing to the toxicity of the components admixed and specific advice
on the hazards and precautions can only be obtained from the safety data sheet of the supplier.
Because of this it is recommended that correct identification of bitumen type and grade be made by
reference to the suppliers' data sheets before introduction in the work place so that the appropriate
precautions are established.
All bitumen is handled as a heated liquid at temperatures above 100oC at some stage during processing
and transportation and when it is being incorporated in a mix or preparation or used in its final
application. In its heated form it will adhere readily to any exposed part of the body, usually causing
bums before it cools or can be removed.
• Overalls which are designed to shed splashes and spills away from the body by means of
close-fitting cuffs and leg-ends capable of overlapping the foot wear, together with suitable face
and eye shield. The legs of overalls must be worn outside the boots.
• Heat-resistant gloves with close-fitting cuffs.
• Heat-resistant heavy duty boots with close fitting at the top. Boots are preferable to shoes, and
under no circumstances should light shoes, sandals etc be worn.
If there is a significant risk of splashing, the further additional items or protective clothing should also
be used:
• Full head and face protection with neck-flap fitting over the collar.
• A neck cloth.
When bitumen is heated. fumes comprising a mixture of particulate bitumen, hydrocarbon vapour and
hydrogen sulphide gas are given off. As a rule, when working in the open air, hydrogen sulphide is
unlikely to pose a risk to health. The hazard arises when hydrogen sulphide accumulates in confined
head spaces of heated tanks as a result of the reactions which have been outlined in 3.2.2.3.
This is dealt with in 2.4.
The evolution of the lighter hydrocarbons into head spaces means that these spaces can also contain
atmospheres which can be explosive. It is therefore necessary to protect individuals by the use of safe
systems of work, for which detailed guidance is given in Chapters 3 and 7.
As stated in 2. 1. small quantities of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are present in bitumen and
some of these have been shown to exhibit carcinogenic. potential in animal skin painting studies.
Whilst to date there is no conclusive evidence to suggest that bitumen fumes are carcinogenic, further
work is proceeding, and advice may have to be amended in light of this and other research work.
Nevertheless, bitumen fumes can cause irritation to the respiratory system and for this reason an
occupational exposure limit was introduced.
Bitumen fumes therefore pose hazards to the skin and respiratory system. The fumes emitted increase
rapidly when bitumen is subjected to unnecessarily high tem peratures. Care should be taken to
prevent overheating and to minimise skin contact by the use of appropriate personal protective
equipment and attention must be paid to occupational exposure limits.
In the UK there is an Occupational Exposure Standard (OES) which is directly applicable to bitumen
which has not been admixed with any other material. This is the OES for 'Asphalt, Petroleum Fumes'
which is published in the Health and Safety Executive's current annual Guidance Note EH40 1990
'Occupational Exposure Limits', which quotes the following figures:
OES - 5 Mg/M3 8-hour time-weighted average
Short Term* - 10 Mg/M3 10-minute time-weighted average
A reference method by which such levels can be assessed has been published as Part III of the
CONCAWE Report 6/84 'Review of Bitumen Fume Exposure and Guidance on Measurement'. The
procedure, which is complex. first uses the ultra fine composite biter incorporated in a personal
sampler to determine total particulate matter (TPM). which will include aerial dust and other mineral
material. This is then solvent extracted to determine the benzene soluble material (BSM), which gives
the Asphalt Petroleum Fume equivalent. It has been noted in EH40, paragraph 20 that for a single sub-
stance. control to the OES, or below it. can be regarded as adequate control of exposure to inhalation.
However due to fluctuations in the work place it is considered it will be prudent to attempt to reduce
exposure below that figure.
Such a reduction is a function of the ventilation and the avoidance at all times of excessive
temperature levels, and the practical guidance given in 2.3.1 and in the sections on user application
considerations in Chapter 9 should be carefully evaluated. See Note to 9. 1.
Where it is necessary to derive user working limits for mixtures containing other components it should
be remembered that the occupational exposure standard for Asphalt, Petroleum Fumes can only be
applied to the bitumen particulate matter of the mixture in the air.
Other limits may be applicable to other components. For example, if bitumens which have been cut
back with kerosine are to be sprayed, it would be necessary to consider the exposure to bitumen
particulate matter in the aerosol and to apply the OES for Asphalt, Petroleum Fumes to this. Similarly,
it would be appropriate to consider a limit for hydrocarbons, e.g. White Spirit for the kerosine vapour
phase. Where other solvents are employed a similar procedure should be followed.
It should be borne in mind that current and future work on bitumen fumes may result in a change in
the quoted occupational exposure limits.
As noted in 2.3, hydrogen sulphide can concentrate in the confined vapour spaces of bitumen storage
tanks and lethal concentrations can occur.
The odour threshold of hydrogen sulphide is well below 1 ppm. However. the familiar *bad eggs* odour
cannot be relied upon to warn of the presence of dangerous concentrations because the gas rapidly
deadens the sense of smell even concentrations of 20 ppm, well below hazardous level.
Prolonged exposure to concentrations above 50 ppm produces irritation of the eyes and mucous
membranes of the nose, throat and lungs.
Exposure for 30 minutes or so up to a concentration of 200 ppm can be tolerated without serious con-
sequences but should be avoided. See below.
Any exposure to concentrations above 500 ppm can result in death and at levels above 700 ppm
unconsciousness and collapse can occur in seconds.
In the UK the Occupational Exposure Standard quoted in the Health and Safety Executive*s Guidance
Note EH40 for hydrogen sulphide is as follows:
- 10 ppm (14 mg/m3) 8 hour time-weighted average (OES)
- 15 ppm (21 mg/m3) 10 minute time-weighted average (MLL)
2.4.1 Respiratory Precautions
Despite possible dangerous concentrations within tanks, experience has shown that the risk is low
when pumping, gauging or sampling tanks since measurements taken a foot or more from hatch
openings have shown dilution to below hazardous levels. Nevertheless, tank tops and particularly the
region around dip holes and tank vents should be regarded as hazardous areas and personnel should
be informed of the potential hazard.
Systems of work should be instituted that require personnel to stand upwind and with their faces at
least two feet away from such sources of exposure during operational activities. They should also be
advised to avoid breathing vapours, particularly when opening dip holes or hatch covers.
Persons in the vicinities of tanks or tank cars being loaded or filled with bitumen should stand upwind
of vents and other openings so as to minimise their exposure to the vapours discharged.
Manual gauging or sampling from the tank top should be discouraged, and for general safety reasons
preference given to automatic level-indicators. See 7.3.4 and 7.3.11. As noted in 7.4.6, access by
personnel to the roofs of hot bitumen tanks should be forbidden during product movement into or out
of the tanks concerned.
There is not normally sufficient hydrogen sulphide to cause harm in the vicinity of open air work with
bitumen but, where there is any doubt. tests for hydrogen sulphide concentration should be carried out
and appropriate pre cautions taken.
All persons who may be required to administer such treatment should receive adequate training in its
procedure. A suitable guidance leaflet written by the Resuscitation Council (UK) is available from the
British Heart Foundation, 102 Gloucester Place, London W1H 4DH.
Apparent death from hydrogen sulphide is not irreversible since prompt and efficient artificial
respiration may restore life.
The function of the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), a part of the World Health
Organisation is to review, summarise and evaluate the strength of evidence for the carcinogenicity in
experimental animals and humans for a wide range of agents, and conditions of exposure. The use of
animal studies allows a much wider range of exposure conditions and concentrations to be explored
outside the range of human exposure.
The results of such studies in which solutions of bitumens in organic solvents (such as benzene,
toluene and acetone), when painted on to the skin of animals have given rise to skin tumours have led
IARC in its Monograph 35 to conclude that:
'There is sufficient evidence for the carcinogenicity of extracts of steam-refined bitumens, air-refined
bitumens, and pooled mixtures of steam-and-air refined bitumens in experimental animals.
There is inadequate evidence that bitumens alone are carcinogenic to humans.
There is no inconsistency between the above state ments for the reasons outlined in the paragraph
above and this is made clear by IARC in the preamble that precedes their monographs, which states:
…..'The Monographs represent the first step in carcinogenic risk assessment, which involves
examination of all relevant evidence that. under certain conditions of exposure, an agent could alter
the incidence of cancer in humans. The second step is quantitative risk estimation, which is not
usually attempted in the Monographs. Detailed, quantitative evaluations of epidemiological data may
be made in the Monographs, but without extrapolation beyond the range of the data available.
Quantitative extrapolation from experimental data to the human situation is not undertaken.
These Monographs may assist national and international authorities in making risk assessments and
in formulating decisions concerning any necessary preventative measures……'
These qualifications by IARC on the use of their evaluations clearly indicate than an agent. which is, is
probably, or is possibly carcinogenic to humans, does not necessarily present an actual risk to
humans. Further assessment, including consideration of possible exposure, is needed in order to reach
a conclusion on actual risk.
However IARC also take the view that 'in the absence of adequate data on humans, it is reasonable, for
practical purposes. to regard chemicals for which there is sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in
animals as if they present a carcinogenic risk to humans'. On this premise it may be taken as prudent
in the handling and use of bitumen to avoid intimate and prolonged skin and body contact with the
material where this could occur. In the case where bkumens are handled hot, the possibility of heat
bums and the consequent measures that are taken to protect against this act as a very effective
deterrent to repeated skin contact though good personal hygiene in respect of hands and inner clothing
should always be
maintained in the course of work.
In situations in which bitumens are made less viscous by the addition of a diluent e.g. kerosine or
another solvent, the possibility for biological accessibility is enhanced. when such diluted bitumens, or
bitumens in emulsified form, are sprayed or encountered in the form of a mist or aerosol, there is, in
addition to the risk of inhalation. a high probability of skin, contact directly or via contaminated
clothing. Appropriate systems of work and personal protective equipment should therefore be provided
to protect persons where intimate contact with bitumen might arise from its use with diluents or in
spraying operations where the temperatures do not preclude the possibility of skin contact. See 2.5. 1.
In the UK the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations only require health surveillance
when an identifiable disease is known and some method of predicting the cause of symptoms can be
detected.
In the case of mineral oil products identified as having carcinogenic potential, self-examination on a
regular basis is appropriate and any skin abnormalities such as irritation, redness, discoloration,
cracking, swelling or warty growths should be immediately reported to a physician.
Individuals who have come into contact with bituminous products regularly and who have changed jobs
or have retired should be advised to continue this self examination as a matter of prudence.
Bitumen at ambient temperature is not classed as dangerous for supply under the Classification,
Packaging and Labelling legislation. However, when bitumen is ad-mixed with diluents to such an
extent that the bitumen may be regarded as bioavailable, consideration must be given to its
classification under the current regulatory regime.
This Code limits its guidance to the handling of penetration, hard and oxidised grade bitumens, and
cutbacks made up with a petroleum diluent such as kerosine.
However, as stated in 2. 1, coal tar materials and other non-petroleum compounds can be added to
some bitumens. Although often grouped with bitumen because of their use in similar applications such
as road dressing, roofing, etc, coal tars and pitches are very different in their chemical and
toxicological characteristics, and are not to be confused with bitumen either when used alone or if
blended with bitumen.
This difference is due to their mode of origin, in respect of which the BS 3690 'Bitumens for Building
and
Civil Engineering: Part 3' gives the following definitions:
• Pitch. The black or dark brown solid or semi-solid residue remaining after the partial
evaporation or fractional distillation of crude tars produced wholly or substantially as a
by-product in the carbonisation of coal at temperatures in excess of 600oC.
• Refined tar. Tar prepared from the pitch and oil fractions resulting from the distillation of crude
tars produced wholly or substantially as a by-product in the carbonisation of coal at
temperatures exceeding 600oC.
• BS 3690 Part 3 then gives standards in respect of a series of pitch-bitumen and tar-bitumen
mixes for use in road surface dressing, in which these contain 20 to 25% by mass of pitch. and
30 to 55% of refined tar, with the remainder being made up of penetration grade bitumen
complying with BS3690 Part 1. See Table 1.1. Like bitumens, these mixtures are designated by
the grade suffixes 'pen' and 'secs', and to avoid confusion the following fuller review is offered:
Coal tar and pitch have been listed by the Health and Safety Executive as carcinogenic in their
cautionary guidance MS(B)4 'Skin Cancer caused by Pitch and Tar', which users are required to follow.
In this respect, the presence of small quantities of 4-6 ring polycyclic aromatic compounds in bitumen
was mentioned in 2.3. Analytical data for this were provided to IARC for their review of bitumen
(Wallcave et al 1971). This showed, in a comparison of these data for a number of petroleum bitumens
with comparable analyses for coal tar and pitch, that the content of 4-6 ring polycyclic aromatics of
these latter was some three orders (1000s) higher than for the bitumens.
It is for this reason that when coal tar or pitch, or mixtures of these with bitumens, as in BS 3690 Part
3, are used, the safety data sheets of the suppliers should be followed.
In the case where bituminous type materials of unknown or uncertain origin are to be used, and confir-
mation that they are not wholly of petroleum bitumen origin cannot be obtained, through loss of
labelling etc., it would be prudent to follow the health guidance of the previous IP Bitumen Safety Code
(1979), and handle them in the same way as coal tar products.
It has also been noted in 2.1 that toxic hazards can arise when bitumens contain diluent fluxes such as
coal tar naphtha, tar flux oil or creosote. Creosote normally contains toxic phenolic compounds, which
are readily absorbed through the skin, and these fluxes also contain polycylic aromatic compounds. It
is therefore necessary for suppliers of products containing such materials to distribute appropriate
safety data sheets, and for users of cutback which may contain components of unknown origin to
exercise due caution in respect of their handling and contact with the body.
FIRE PREVENTION
3.1 INTRODUCTION
When handling petroleum products the risks of fire should be minimised by limiting, as far as is
reasonably practicable. the extent of production of flammable atmospheres and by avoiding sources of
ignition in areas where flammable atmospheres might be present.
Small quantities of the vapours of hydrocarbons in air can form a flammable mixture which can be
ignited by a flame, hot surface or heating element, spark or other source of ignition. This is true of the
vapours that can collect in the confined ullage space of a storage tank, or other enclosed container
containing heated bitumen.
Hydrocarbon vapour becomes flammable when its percentage in air reaches as low a figure as about
1% by volume; below this the mixture is said to be 'too lean to burn', or 'below the lower flammable
limit'; and this flammability continues-often with explosive potential in the confined space of a
tank-until the percentage of vapour reaches a higher level in air of about 8% volume. When it is said to
be 'above the upper flammable limit ', or 'too rich to burn'.
The normal procedure for the control of flammable atmospheres is based on the classification of the
product being handled, using the Institute of Petroleum system of classification (see Appendix A) or
equivalent and then to apply layout, construction, and operational codes as appropriate to the product
class. In the use of this classification a most important factor in determining the design and layout as
well as operational precautions is the subdivision of the Classes II and III according to whether they
are to be stored or handled at temperatures below (subdivision (1)). or above die flashpoint (sub-
division (2)).
In the case of bitumen, this procedure is directly applicable only to cutback grades. See 3.2. 1.
Alternative approaches are necessary for bitumens other than cutback grades. See 3.2.2.
3.2.2.1 Non-cutback Bitumens Handled in the Open Air. Because of good natural dispersion by wind
displacement in open air, the flammable atmospheres that may accumulate over a period of time in the
confined head space of an enclosed heated tank do not normally persist when these heated products
are handled in well ventilated open air locations.
3.2.2.2 Non-cutback Grades in Confined Storage in Heated Tankage. Under such confined conditions
flammable atmospheres can occur:
(i) in tanks when storage temperatures exceed the maxima recommended in Appendix B.
(ii) in some oxidised grade production plant rundown tank vapour spaces at temperatures below the
maxima recommended in Appendix B,
(iii) in tanks where misting has occurred due to splash filling,
(iv) in tanks where contamination with lower flash point materials has occurred.
(v) in the vicinities of vents from any such tanks.
In an attempt to better understand and control these occurrences. it is important to be aware of which
are grade related. so that the objective stated in 3.1 of limiting the development of a flammable
atmosphere and, if this is not practicable. other measures such as the control of ignition sources can
be effective.
3.2.2.3
The factors underlying the evolution of such flammable vapours have been increasingly researched
with the following broad behavioural patterns becoming noted:
(i) Bitumens under the influence of heat can be prone to the gradual evolution into the confined
space of a tank of vapour consisting, in variable proportions according to type of methane, 'other
hydrocarbon' (typically in the C2 but extending in some cases to the C5 range), carbon monoxide,
carbon dioxide, water vapour, and in some cases hydrogen sulphide (the reason for safeguarding
against the presence of this toxic material in some tank spaces-see Chapter 2).
(ii) The degree of the thermal activity that produces these combustible vapours is grade relevant.
Under heat there is less activity with the 'straight' penetration and hard grade residue
bitumens, compared to a significantly greater finding in respect of the oxidised grades, coupled
with the higher temperatures at which they are stored. The reactions occurring in the air
oxidation process result in newly blown material being more reactive and susceptible to thermal
after-cracking. This potential for thermal cracking of freshly air blown bitumen is observed also
in the monitoring of tank vapour spaces and has been found to decrease with time. as when the
product is transferred from the initial tank to a second tank even when both are held at the
same temperature.
These differences have been taken account of in Chapter 5 Manufacture, in distinguishing between the
precautions that should be taken in respect of rundown tanks that receive product direct from the
manufacturing step and in particular for the oxidised grades, compared to downstream oxidised grade
tanks and all categories of tankage for the non-oxidised grades.
3.2.2.4
It should, however. be recognised that for all grades of bitumen, flammable atmospheres can also
develop in poorly ventilated spaces by overheating the product locally by a hot fire tube heating unit
operating in an un-agitated tank or on which a heavy coke build up has been allowed to occur.
For this reason the necessity of accurate control of temperature in the heating of bitumen tanks has
been stressed in Chapters 7 and 9.
Because of these factors, it is necessary to consider carefully the second principle expressed in 3.1 and
control all possible sources of ignition, both electrical and non-electrical. and avoid their presence in
the vicinity of heated bitumen tanks and their vents and other openings.
These sources of ignition are outlined in 3.3. and include the case where pyrophoric carbonaceous
deposits form on wall and roof areas of a tank.
Where there is a possibility of the presence of a flammable atmosphere also occurring with such
grades. special arrangements may have to be made to avoid such a condition. See 3.3.5, 5.4.2, 5.4.3,
5.4.4 and 7.3.8.
The ignition source control area to be designated in the work permit should include:
For detailed examples of a work permit, see the IP Refining or Marketing Safety Codes. These also
provide guidance for the correct use of portable gas detection equipment.
Heavy, higher boiling petroleum materials such as residual fuel oils and bitumens tend to have auto
ignition temperatures considerably lower than those of lower flash point such as kerosine or gasoline.
Thus for the former there is a convergence between flash point and ignition temperature such that
heated local surface temperatures can result in ignition taking place without a source of ignition being
present.
Auto-ignition of bitumen can thus occur when it is exposed to the air at temperatures which, depending
upon grade, can be as low as 250oC. Leaks and other exposures of bitumen to air at such temperatures
should therefore be avoided, particularly where other flammable materials are present.
3.3.6
In process plant and tank vapour spaces likely to contain pyrophoric deposits special care is necessary
to avoid the simultaneous occurrence of flammable atmospheres and the conditions necessary for
self-heating of the deposits and to determine with which grades of bitumen there is a probability of
these two circumstances becoming coincident, with the consequence of fire or explosion.
It has already been indicated in 3.2.2.3 that the probability of the development of an atmosphere in
the flammable range in a heated bitumen tank is likely to be associated with the receipt of freshly
blown oxidised grades into rundown tanks.
Recent research into the behaviour of the deposits laid down in tanks of different bitumen grades gives
evidence pointing to the likelihood of the deposits that occur in this class of tankage becoming
susceptible to over heating in the presence of air at temperatures below those at which deposits from
other grades of bitumen have been found to become active. This research is further reported on under
Chapter 5 Manufacturing (see 5.4 Rundown tankage), together with the recommended precautions that
should be taken.
3.4.1
Diluents such as kerosine used in the blending of cutback bitumens produced to BS 3690 specifications
normally have a flash point which, since they will be stored at temperatures well below this, will place
them in the Class II(1) range. For their handling see 7.2.3. If other diluents are used, their flash points
also should be taken into consideration in accordance with Appendix A, since. if this places them into
the Class I category, more stringent precautions will be necessary.
3.4.2
A variety of liquid fuels are used for heating purposes in bitumen facilities handling bulk bitumen. Fuels
such as industrial distillate grades are stored and handled in the Class II(1) or III(1) condition, i.e. at
temperatures below their flash points. The same comments as for 7.2.3 will apply.
In larger installations residual (black oil) fuel oils may be used, which fall into the Unclassified category
of Appendix A. and should be stored and handled at temperatures below their flash points.
However, attention has been drawn in Appendix A to the fact that such residual fuels in the confined
circumstances of a heated storage tank can (as in the case of bitumens as noted in 3.2.2) give rise to
the slow evolution of flammable vapour, accumulation of which in the vapour space cannot be detected
or predicted by flash point test.
The head space of such heated fuel tankage should for prudence and in accordance with 7.2.1 for
bitumens in the Unclassified Class be given an area classification of Zone 0, with a Zone 1 radius of 1.5
m surrounding all vents and other tank openings. This zoning will apply to all electrical equipment in
accordance with Appendix D. and non-electrical sources of ignition should be excluded.
For other general guidance on the design, location etc of fuel oil tanks. the IP Marketing Safety Code
may be consulted.
(i) The UK Liquefied Petroleum Gas Industry Technical Association (LPGITA) Codes of Practice:
• LPGITA COP 1: 'Installation and maintenance of bulk LPG storage at consumer 'premises' Parts
I, II, and III
• LPG1TA COP 7: 'Storage of full and empty LPG cylinders and cartridges'.
• LPG1TA COP 22: 'LPG piping system design and installation'.
(ii) The following UK Health and Safety Executive publications may also be consulted:
• HSE Guidance Note CS4 (June 1986): 'The keeping of LPG in cylinders and similar containers'
(HMSO).
• HS(G)34: 'The storage of LPG at fixed installations' 1987. (Replaces earlier publication CS5 and
HS(G)15, and covers fixed storage vessels larger than 150 litres (50 kg) capacity'.
FIRE FIGHTING
4.1 ORGANISATION
Site Managers should seek the cooperation of local fire brigades when planning their fire fighting
procedures.
The extent of provision of designated fire fighters and of fire fighting facilities at the site should take
into account the call-out response to be expected from the local fire brigade.
This planning should be carried out in conjunction with the initial planning of the site layout, as
adequate access will be needed such that mobile appliances can be deployed or concentrated at the
location of the fire and in the best position for the attack to be mounted bearing in mind variations in
wind direction. This access will also serve as means of escape in the event of fire out break.
Based upon these plans, a concisely expressed set of emergency procedures should be available and
familiar to all personnel employed at the site.
Simple notices should be posted at main access points within and around the site, indicating the
actions to be taken both on discovering a fire and on hearing the fire alarm.
Emergency telephone numbers should be posted prominently at communication centres within the site.
These should be updated when necessary and checked frequently for accuracy.
4.1.2 Training
All personnel employed at the site, including drivers, should have instruction and regular drills both in
emergency procedures and in first attack fire fighting. They should be familiar with all the types of fire
extinguisher provided.
Any designated fire fighters at the site should have frequent training and practice in main attack fire
fighting. The local fire brigade should be asked to cooperate in this.
There should be participation in joint exercises with the local fire brigade.
The characteristics of bitumen which are most significant in determining the approaches to be taken
when fighting bitumen fires are that:
• when on fire bitumen becomes a mobile liquid which can readily flow, spreading the fire.
• large bitumen fires can be difficult to extinguish because of the high heat content of the liquid.
• direct application of water to the surface of a bitumen pool under fire conditions produces a
froth of bitumen due to expansion of the water to steam which is likely to boil-over, spreading
the fire and endangering personnel. Straight water jets should never be used, and application of
water should only be by fog or spray nozzle.
• the un-burnt bitumen liquid can be heated by the fire to a temperature well above its
auto-ignition temperature, making it necessary not only to extinguish the flames and cool the
surroundings but also, in order to avoid re-ignition, to cool the product bulk before leaving it in
contact with air.
• bitumen bums with a dense brown or black smoke, severely reducing visibility downwind of the
fire.
The strategy to be applied when fighting a bitumen fire depends very much upon the quantity of
bitumen involved in the fire.
- Warehouses, package filling sheds and open storage spaces for packages-two foam or two dry
powder extinguishers per 230 M2 of floor area.
- Offices and stores for dry goods-one water extinguisher, per 90 M2 of floor area.
- Pump-houses - two foam, two dry powder, two vaporising liquid, or two C02 extinguishers per 45 M2
of floor area. One extinguisher to be located at each end of the pump-house. Where a low pressure
steam main is available the provision of steam lances is recommended.
- Rail and road vehicle loading/un loading racks one foam or one dry powder extinguisher per group of
up to two loading/ unloading points.
- Electrical switch houses-one vaporising liquid or one carbon dioxide extinguisher per 45 M2 of floor
area.
- Ship discharge and small craft loading/discharging berths - two foam or one dry powder extinguisher
per group of loading or discharge points.
All portable extinguishers should he located conveniently for access and all permanently located extin-
guishers should be made conspicuous by coloured background panels, both to assist in visual
identification and to aid checking against loss. The above scale is subject to there being a minimum of
two extinguishers at any single location irrespective of its size, in case the first fails to operate.
Where low pressure steam is available, steam lances may be provided to extinguish small fires and
avoid ignition at persistent leaks in hot process areas.
In the case of a fire in the vicinity of live electrical equipment, water, aqueous foam or steam should
not be used until such time as the power supply can be cut off.
The normal procedure should be to cut off the power supply and then to use the extinguishing agent
most appropriate to what is burning. Dry powder may be used on electrical fires, but can cause
damage to the equipment.
Table 4.1. Selection of portable fire extinguishers for different types of fire
In the larger plant areas and on jetties, the portable extinguishers should be backed up by wheeled
extinguishers (typically 50 kg) in numbers appropriate to the size of the operation. Access routes for
these must be kept clear.
Immediate application of the above equipment by plant personnel well trained in its use can often
prevent the escalation and spread of a small fire.
A fire in a tank usually starts as an internal explosion and, if the roof remains largely intact and the
appropriate service facilities exist, can often be extinguished by injection of steam or inert gas into the
vapour space.
Extinguishing a major fire in bulk bitumen tankage can be extremely hazardous to fire fighters, unless
they are fully aware of the principles entailed in 4.2, and the fire attack should only commence when
all concerned are aware of the hazards involved.
Water spray, when used properly, is the best medium for fighting large, open, bitumen pool fires, as
for example a fire in a tank where the roof has largely blown away, and straight water jets should not
be employed.
Fog or diffuser nozzles should be used where their 'throw' will be sufficient. These should be directed
so as to allow the water droplets to land gently on to the bitumen surface. If it is not practicable to
reach the fire using fog or diffuser nozzles, high pressure water jets should be directed into the air
upwind of the fire so that the water falls as droplets through the flames on to the bitumen surface.
Foam may also be used, again subject to attainable reach, as an alternative to spray or fog as a means
of gently applying water cooling to the fire.
Fire fighting foams break down rapidly when applied to hot bitumen surfaces and it is necessary to
make a correct choice of foam type, namely fluoroprotein or FFFP foam, because of their better
resistance to burn back. Nevertheless the use of foam can help to ensure that the water used is well
dispersed, thereby reducing the risk of froth-over, particularly where access for water spray to the
burning surface is hindered, as in the case where part of the tank roof is remaining in place, or
buckling of the shell has occurred. Because of possible froth formation, the foam application should be
at lower than normal rates and it is recommended that it be introduced at a low rate of about 1 to 2
litres/min water per M2 of surface area. This is about 20 to 50% of the rates as shown in Appendix 8 of
the IP Refining Safety Code for general petroleum fires.
Whichever means is used, the water as foam or spray should he applied only intermittently to the
burning bitumen pool surface and application should be temporarily and immediately discontinued at
the first sign of froth-over.
An indication of this can be the appearance of white smoke, and personnel should be always alert and
prepared to shut off the application and move quickly back from the area. When frothing subsides, the
foam or spray application may be, resumed and continued carefully, repeating this process until
extinction has been reached.
Throughout such operations it is important to permit only the minimum number of persons required to
man the appliances to be in the fire area.
Where, in addition to the above main operations there is additional water capacity available. this can
be used as cooling water from straight hose streams played on to the shell to cool down the hot
surface, provided such streams can be controlled so as not to enter the tank. Cooling water can also be
employed to protect adjacent tanks or other property. In order to protect an adjacent tank against
heat radiation from a burning tank, Appendix 9 of the IP Refining Safety Code recommends the wetting
of the shell surface facing the fire (i.e. half of the total circumference) in accordance with the formula
water quantity = 0.5x3.14D M3/h i.e. 1.6 D M3/h where D is the diameter in metres. Thus a 40 m
diameter tank would require 63 M3/h of water. This recommendation is valid for bitumen tankage.
Table 4.2. Recommended minimum. provision of portable fire extinguishers in between handling and
associated locations
Location Extinguishers
Unit of Number per
Function Area Unit Area** Type
Product warehouse, package filling shed 230 M2 Foam or
or open package-storage area floor area 2 dry powder
Offices and stores for dry goods 90 M2 Water
floor area 1*
Pump-house (pumps mainly electr. driven) 45 m2 Dry powder,
floor area 2 BCF, BTM or CO2
Electrical switch house 45 m2 BCF, BTM or
floor area 1* CO2
Road or rail loading gantry group of up to Foam or
2 loading points 1* dry powder
Ship or small craft berth product transfer Foam or
connection station 2 dry powder
Road vehicles transporting bitumen per vehicle 1* Foam or
dry powder
Mobile cutback spray-vehicles per vehicle 2 Foam or
(one on each side) dry powder
*There should be a minimum of two extinguishers provided, however small the area.
** The number refers to circa 10 kg portable units.
• an adequate supply of water at a sufficient pressure to provide for the extinction of the largest
tank surface fire likely to occur and for the simultaneous protection of adjacent property. See
recommended application rates in 4.3 above.
• an adequate supply of hoses, branches, fog nozzles and foam makers.
• adequate stocks of foam. The strong recommendation for fluoroprotein or FFFP foam in 4.3
should be noted.
These provisions may be made by the local fire brigade. The extent to which they are made by the site
management will depend upon the availability of local fire brigades or mutual assistance fire fighting
schemes.
As a general rule, site managers should discuss their main attack fire fighting needs with local fire
brigades before finalising their own provisions. It is particularly important to ensure that:
• fire hose and fire hydrant couplings conform to local fire brigade standards.
• foam supplies and foam making equipment are compatible between the plant and the local fire
brigade. See above for foam type.
Checks should be made to ensure that the site drain age facilities are adequate to avoid flooding by fire
fighting water.
All fire fighting equipment should be available for immediate use in the event of an outbreak of fire. It
should be maintained in first class working order and restored to this condition immediately after use.
Fixed fire fighting equipment should be examined and tested by competent inspectors at regular
intervals (not exceeding six months). The results of such examinations and tests should be entered in
a register kept for the purpose.
All fire extinguishers should be subject to scheduled examination, testing and maintenance procedures.
This should include routine discharge and refill of the extinguishing media. Records of testing,
examination and maintenance should be kept and the date of last examination marked on the
extinguisher.
It is recommended that some form of seal, which has to be broken on discharge, be fitted to each fire
extinguisher when it is reconditioned and that any extinguisher found with its seal broken should be re-
conditioned without delay.
5
MANUFACTURE
5.1 INTRODUCTION
General recommendations for safety in design, layout, operation and maintenance of oil processing
units are given in the IP Refining Safety Code. The present chapter deals only with the special features
recommended to safeguard against the hazards of bitumen during its manufacture by distillation or
oxidation, including its receipt into rundown tankage.
Operators of manufacturing plants should refer also to Chapters 2, 3, 4, 7 and 10.
5.3.9 Operation
The most critical period will be during start-up, and a thorough check on the absence of water in the
various sections of the plant, including the air supply system, is essential.
Personnel should not be permitted on the oxidising column or beneath it during start-up or during a
process upset, and steady state conditions should be awaited. As noted in 5.3.8, critical valves on air,
top steam and water spray injection should be operated remotely during the start-up or in emergency.
The check for water should include checking that water and steam jackets on compressors and pumps
are not leaking into the process system, and that the absence of water from a drain valve is not a
result of that point having become blocked.
When air is cut off at the end of the run, top steam should be applied sufficient to again ensure that
the vapour space is purged and its content displaced as the unit is pumped out.
5.3.12
The required blowing time in the continuous oxidation process will be a function of oxidation vessel
size, feed rate and composition, and blowing temperature. A maximum operating temperature is
generally regarded as being 26WC, and cooling systems are generally brought into operation at about
250oC.
Cooling can be by reducing feed inlet temperature, by internal cooling coils within the oxidiser vessel,
or by circulation through an external cooling system. Should it not be possible to control temperature
by these means, the spray water system may be applied to the surface of the bitumen, so that the
vaporisation of the droplets cools the contents of the oxidiser; as an alternative recourse may be had
to a reduction or shutoff of the oxidising air while maintaining the other means of cooling. If the
oxidising air is shut off, cooling with water spray cannot be safely used, since the loss of the air
bitumen turbulence may result in localised surface bitumen solidification and the accumulation of
water, which could be dangerous.
In such a situation, the water spray and oxidising air should both be shut off, with top steam on until
the vessel content cools to a safe temperature by normal heat loss.
The term 'rundown tank' is used to distinguish between tanks connected directly to receive newly
produced product from the manufacturing plant, and other tanks with no such connection which are
involved in the subsequent transfer through the distribution chain to the eventual storage of the bulk
user.
Rundown tankage has many requirements in design and operation etc in common with other bitumen
tankage, and these are covered in Chapter 7. This section, in accordance with the scope defined in 5.1
will consider the additional requirements that may be required either for all rundown tankage
operations or for those of a particular class such as the oxidised grades.
Those factors that are common to all rundown situations will be considered first, taking into account
the
significance of the background provided in Chapter 3.
Protective measures should therefore be incorporated into design and operating procedures to
minimise these risks.
These should include wherever possible a positive pressure differential between the two sides of heat
exchange facilities such that if a leak occurs it will be from the bitumen side to the volatile side rather
than the converse.
5.4.3
The following further provisions will depend upon whether the bitumen concerned is residual or
oxidised.
5.4.3.1 In Distillation Plant Bitumen Rundown Tanks Regular checks should be made for leakage on
the run down heat exchange equipment (see above).
Whilst small amounts of volatile hydrocarbons, probably arising as described in 3.2.2.3 from thermal
decomposition downstream of the distillation plant, are often detectable in the vapour spaces of
distillation plant bitumen rundown tanks, these are not normally sufficient to produce flammable
atmospheres in the tank vapour space provided that the rundown temperatures do not exceed the
maxima recommended in Appendix B.
It is not normally necessary therefore, in the case of distillation plant rundown tanks, to provide for
continuous displacement of flammable atmospheres. As a safeguard however, against product
contamination by volatile materials or excessive rundown temperatures, provisions should be made for
occasional purging with steam or inert gas.
Continuous purging of vapour spaces with steam or inert gas is undesirable because it can promote the
development of pyrophoric deposits and, unless special provisions are made to dispose of the
continuously vented vapours, these can lead to environmental nuisance.
5.4.3.2 In Oxidation Plant Bitumen Rundown Tanks Flammable atmospheres can be detected in some
oxidation plant bitumen rundown tanks at temperatures below the maxima recommended in Appendix
B. These could be due to the greater potential of freshly blown bitumens, compared to other grades, to
evolve flammable vapours that has been described in 3.3.2.3 (a reactivity that declines with time, as
after transfer to subsequent tankage) rather than to the carryover of unstripped light material from the
blowing process, or from heat exchanger leakage (5.4.2), though neither can be discounted.
Recent research in the laboratory has also shown that some deposits taken from the vapour space of
oxidised grade rundown tanks can become incandescent when heated in air at temperatures below
230oC, which is the recommended limit for storage of these grades. A temperature of 225oC was
observed in this experiment, whereas deposits from tankage on other grades and on downstream
oxidised grade tanks have shown no such activity at temperatures below 250oC.
5.4.4
For this reason, and to provide an appropriate factor of safety, it is recommended that controlled
oxygen depletion be applied to the vapour spaces of any oxidation plant bitumen rundown tanks likely
to be operated at temperatures in excess of 200oC. For oxidation plant bitumen rundown tanks not
likely to be operated at temperatures above 200oC provision should be made for occasional purging
with steam or inert gas.
For the details of how oxygen depletion control should be applied, reference should be made to 7.3.8.
5.5
Where water cooling is applied to a rundown stream, the pressure on the bitumen side should be
greater than on the water side to avoid water ingress and possible serious froth-over in the rundown
tank. See 7.3.9. The use of air-fin coolers can avoid this water contamination potential, but there is a
risk of plugging at low through put.
5.6
The unplugging of heat exchanger or cooler tubes or piping should be treated with great care. See
8.11.
6
BLENDING
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Most grades of bitumen are for convenience produced by the blending of two or more 'base grade'
components to achieve the required product specification. Cutback bitumens are produced as described
in 1.2.4 by blending penetration grades with lower viscosity, volatile diluents
such as kerosine.
The various blending methods used can be categorised either as batch blending or as in-line blending.
Blending entails the bringing together of streams with different temperatures and different physical
properties.
It is therefore essential that the systems, including pipelines, manifolds and valves, be designed so
that as far as practicable streams cannot be accidentally mixed or routed to wrong destinations and
water cannot be introduced. Where misrouting is possible, unused connections should be blanked off
and the line-up should be carefully checked before any blending operation. During the blending
operation, strict control should be exercised. This applies particularly in cutback blending where volatile
diluents are involved.
6.2.1 General
In this method predetermined batches of the blending components are transferred either separately or
simultaneously into the blending/storage tank, where they are mixed until a homogeneous composition
has been achieved.
Blending in the tank should be by pumped circulation through a submerged jet nozzle or by using
mechanical mixers inside the tank. Air injection should not be used for mixing bitumens.
If jet nozzles are applied inside the tank they should only be operated when sufficiently submerged to
avoid a jet of liquid splashing upwards from the surface.
Propeller type mixers in the tank should only be operated when the blades are covered by at least
500mm of liquid.
During mixing/circulation of a blending tank no personnel should go on to the tank roof. If access is
essential for obtaining samples or for manual gauging, the mixing/circulation should be temporarily
stopped.
STORAGE
7.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter gives recommendations for safety in the construction, operation and maintenance of fixed
installations for the storage of bitumens, cutback bitumens and cutback diluents. Typically such storage
tanks will comprise a vertical cylindrical shell with a conical roof that is self draining. At stationary
bitumen user plants, hot bitumens are usually stored in insulated horizontal cylindrical or rectangular
tanks.
This guidance is grouped as follows:
7.2 Factors taking into account the class of bitumen in order to determine the location, spacing,
bunding and area classification of tankage in accordance with 3.2 and Appendices A and D.
7.3 Design features common to all bitumen tanks and their piping (but also including 7.3.8 detailing
the recommendations for installation of oxygen depletion facilities in oxidised grade rundown
tanks).
7.4 Operation.
7.5 Inspection of tanks.
7.6 Entry and cleaning precautions, and hot work in storage areas.
Operators of storage facilities should refer also to Chapters 2, 3, 4, 8, 10 and, for cutback blending, 6.
The distinction made in Chapter 3 between penetration, hard and oxidised grade bitumens to be
handled as Unclassified products and those (i.e. cutback grades) to be handled in the Class II(2) or
III(2) category, affects the grouping, spacing and bunding of tanks and the area classification of
tankage areas. Where there is any doubt over the product class of the bitumen to be handled, facilities
should be located and arranged as for Class II(2) products.
Bunding
Bunding is not mandatory for these Unclassified products but low diversion walls or ditches should
normally be provided to stop spillages from reaching operating areas, public boundaries and areas
required for fire fighting access.
Area Classification
Area classification is the grading of areas of a plant into non-hazardous and hazardous zones in
accordance with the likelihood and frequency of occurrence of a flammable atmosphere. It is a guide to
the selection of appropriate protection for electrical equipment and to the control over the location of
and avoidance of non-electrical sources o ignition in such areas. See Appendix D.
Because of the possibility indicated in 3.2.2.2, that in the confined space of tanks holding heated
Unclassified bitumens there could be flammable vapours being evolved as a result of localised
overheating, it is recommended that all tanks for penetration, hard and oxidised grade bitumens, in the
process rundown, bulk distribution and user sectors, should be classified Zone 0 within their ullage
space, with a Zone 1 area 1.5 m in diameter surrounding all vents and other tank openings. See foot
note to Figure 7.1. Only electrical equipment with a type of protection meeting these zoned
requirements should be used within these areas, and all non-electrical sources of ignition should be
avoided.
See 3.2.2.1 for Unclassified bitumens in well ventilated unconfined conditions in the open air.
Bunding
Tanks containing these Class II(2) or III(2) cutback products should be surrounded by bund walls
capable of retaining the product should a major tank spill occur, unless spillages or leaks from any tank
would flow quickly and safely via diversionary walls to a dispersion or impounding basin.
Separate walls around each tank are not necessary but the total capacity of the tanks in any one
bunded area should not exceed 60,000 M3.
Bund walls should be of a height sufficient to afford protection to personnel engaged in fire fighting and
should be located so that a reasonably close approach for mobile fire fighting equipment can be made
to any tank fire.
The net retention capacity of the tank compound created by each bund wall should normally be at least
equivalent to the capacity of the largest tank within the bund but may be as little as 75% of this
capacity where conditions are such that there is no risk to the public or the environment.
Table 7.1. Tank spacing for Class II(2) or III(2) cutback bitumens
Description Recommended Distances
1. Between groups of small tanks* 8m
2. Between a group of small tanks* and any tank outside the group 8m
3. Between tanks not being part of a group of small tanks Half the diameter of the
larger tank;the diameter
of the smaller tank; or
15 in, whichever is
least, but in no case less
than 10 m
4. Between a tank and any filling point, filling shed or building 15 m
5. Between a tank and the outer boundary of the installation, any 15 m
designated non-hazardous area, or any fixed source of ignition
6. Between a tank and any facility handling a Class I product 15 m
*A small tank is any tank smaller than 10 m in diameter.
Figure 7.1. Area Classification for Class II(2) or Class III(2) Cutback Bitumens Stored at
Temperatures above their Flashpoints
Further advice on the treatment of tanks containing these diluents is given in the IP Marketing and
Refining Safety Codes.
Tanks must be designed and constructed to conform to the relevant statutory requirements of the
country in which they are installed. In the United Kingdom, mild steel cylindrical tanks should conform
to BS 2654:'Specification for the manufacture of vertical steel welded storage tanks with butt welded
shells for the petroleum industry', or BS 2594: 'Specification for carbon steel welded horizontal
cylindrical storage tanks'. Account must be taken of the maximum operating temperature and pressure
likely in service. The exterior of the tank may be covered with insulation to minimise heat losses. See
7.3. 10.
7.3.1 Access
Tanks should be provided with roof guard rails and toe-plates. Walkways should be provided to give
access for any necessary operations or maintenance on the roof.
They should be so arranged as to avoid the need for operators to walk across tank roofs. Tank top
walkways should have two access routes from the ground arranged as necessary to avoid any part of
the walkway becoming isolated by a tank fire.
- discharge well away from any point where personnel might be harmed by discharge of hot material
from overflow or froth-over*.
- prevent ingress of rain water. See 7.3.9.
- avoid contamination of tank insulation by any oily condensate discharged from the mouth of the vent,
in order to reduce the risks from auto-ignition near the vent. See 3.3.4 and 7.3. 10.
- minimise the risk of blockage by fouling. For this reason, it is recommended not to provide vents
with mesh covers or flame arrestors.
- facilitate access for regular inspection and vent cleaning. See 7.4.9.
A 50% overdesign on vent area is recommended for bitumen tank vents because some fouling is
inevitable.
It is essential that vent calculations should be checked and reviewed when tanks are allocated to duties
for which they were not designed e.g. change of pumping rates into or out of the tank, or of pipe inlet
size, or where it is proposed (in consequence of the above recommendation that cross flow should be
avoided) that a reduction in the number of the vents is to be made.
Failure to do this can result in serious damage to the tank roof, e.g. where overfilling forces bitumen to
be expelled through the breather vent line, with consequent partial blockage from congealed material.
*A vent brought down to discharge close to ground level is preferable.
7.4 OPERATIONS
- remove water from pipework and other facilities before passing product through them to a tank
already containing bitumen,
- avoid ingress of water through open hatches and manholes on the roof of a tank, particularly when
fire fighting or emergency tank cooling,
- ensure that all water has been effectively removed from any cutback diluent system before the
diluent is passed to a bitumen tank,
- avoid and make regular checks for leaks in steam coils. See 7.5.4. When a coil is shut down an
atmospheric bleed should be opened on the coil near the tank and checked for condensate or signs
of product leakage.
Tanks should not be operated in a range of temperature which fluctuates above and below the boiling
point of water, as these fluctuations are conducive to the accumulation and then rapid vaporisation of
water, which often results in froth-over. A tank operated continuously above 100'C has less
opportunity for water accumulation by condensation.
If, despite draining, the presence of water is suspected in a tank containing bitumen at a temperature
below 100oC and it is necessary to heat the product, great care should be taken to raise the
temperature slowly through the range 95 to 120oC, in order to avoid froth-over. In these circumstances
the use of anti-foaming agents can be beneficial, but access near to or on the tank should be
prohibited during this period.
7.4.7.1
The circumstances under which solid carbonaceous deposits on the walls or the roof areas of bitumen
tanks can become self-heating are still not always fully understood. As indicated in 3.3.5 the oxidation
process that occurs with such deposits can be a slow reaction that normally produces no significant
local temperature rise.
This is the normal experience with oxidised grade non rundown tanks, and with rundown and
non-rundown tanks for the other bitumen grades.
However, where deposits are present there is always some risk that self-heating might occur. This
might or might not be important in any particular case, since this is dependent upon the likelihood of
the presence of a flammable level in the vapour space.
These factors have been reviewed in 3.2.2.2, 3.3.6, 5.4.2, 5.4.3 and 5.4.4 with the resultant division
of
tankage categories as follows:
(i) manufacturing rundown tanks from oxidation plants, which should be equipped with controlled
oxygen depletion facilities in accordance with 7.3.8.
(ii) other rundown tanks from distillation plant, which will not require oxygen depletion, but should be
given periodic ventilation in accordance with 5.4.3. other tankage in the bulk distribution and user
sectors.
7.4.7.2
For tankage in category (iii) above it is prudent still to be aware that the formation of deposits can
occur and should be minimised. The use of the lowest practicable bitumen storage temperatures at all
times will help, and should ensure that the probability of generating a flammable condition in the tank
space is minimal. The guidance given in 7.4.3 and Appendix B should therefore be followed.
7.4.7.3
The steady state slow oxidation process that occurs with typical deposits in the above category (iii)
tankage has been mentioned in 3.3.5 and 7.4.7.1 as normally occurring. This steady state situation is
of obvious importance and carbonaceous deposits, once formed, should be kept in a steady state with
their surroundings until such time as they can be removed by thorough tank cleaning.
This steady state is promoted by:
• avoiding through -draughts of fresh air in tank vapour spaces (7.3.5). These can suddenly in-
crease the rates of the oxidation processes which are normally continuously occurring at the
surfaces of deposits.
• avoiding significant step changes in the temperature regime surrounding the tank. The addition
of new heat insulation across the roof, for example, could result in existing roof deposits
overheating.
If tankage operating conditions cannot be selected to prevent the build up of deposits, consideration
may be given to removal of the deposits by cleaning before they begin to break away, exposing new
surfaces at which self-heating might start.
Note: In the event that specific user requirements require a higher temperature than is provided for in
Appendix B, this should be achieved not by increasing the bulk tank temperature of the bitumen but by
reheating the product separately from the tank, e.g. by suction or line heaters. (A maximum
temperature of 230oC should still apply for loading into tank vehicles.)
7.5 INSPECTION
7.5.1 Overall
External inspection of the exposed parts of tank walls and fittings to detect leaks and other possible
defects should be carried out on a routine basis by operators.
The intervals between full internal inspections of tank walls, floors, roofs and internal fittings, entailing
total emptying and cleaning, should be specified in company procedures.
If there are any signs of smouldering within the tank, possibly due to pyrophoric deposits, the area
concerned should be damped down with water and kept damp until the deposits can be removed.
Particular care is necessary, when entering un-cleaned bitumen tanks, to avoid the risks to personnel
from failing lumps of bitumen or carbonaceous deposit which may have become detached from the wall
or roof during cooling.
The permit to work should specify any constraints on the types of tools and lighting which may be used
inside the tank.
7.6.2.1 Entry Without Breathing Apparatus For entry without breathing apparatus it should be ensured
that:
- flammable vapours are nowhere in the tank at concentrations in excess of 4% of the lower flammable
limit.
- hydrogen sulphide is nowhere in the tank present at concentrations exceeding 10- ppm.
- the concentration of oxygen in the air within the tank is nowhere less than 20% by volume, and that
adequate fresh air ventilation is maintained.
- there are safeguards by frequent monitoring as appropriate against the risks of flammable or toxic
vapours being produced as tank deposits are disturbed. A tank cannot be regarded as gas-free and
safe for hot work in the presence of such deposits. See 7.6.5.
- an attendant is posted at an entry manway whenever personnel are inside the tank, and is equipped
with the means to raise an alarm.
- flammable vapours are nowhere in the tank at concentrations in excess of 25% of the lower flam-
mable limit,
- an attendant is posted at the tank entry manway tokeep observation on the people within the tank.
He should be equipped with self contained breathing apparatus and the means to raise an alarm.
Use of a life line should be considered.
- a second person is responsible for ensuring a satisfactory air supply from the compressor unit to
the personnel in the tank,
- any air compressor supplying air to personnel in the tank, is located so that its air intake is in a
safe position and remote from engine exhaust or other contamination,
- no work other than inspection is undertaken in the tank.
7.6.2.3 The Monitoring of the Atmosphere Within the Tank Throughout any period of entry, with or
without breathing apparatus, the atmosphere within the tank should be monitored by gas tests, as
necessary, to ensure that it does not deteriorate beyond the limits indicated. Rechecks are necessary
after every period when the tank has been left unattended.
Additional fire fighting equipment, appropriate to the risks, should always be provided in the vicinity of
the work while it is in progress.
- flammable vapours are nowhere in the tank at concentrations in excess of 1% of the lower flam-
mable limit,
- bitumen and carbonaceous deposits are cleaned away as far as practicable from the vicinity of the
hot work so as to minimise the risks of vapour production and bitumen ignition,
- ventilation with fresh air is good enough to clear rapidly any vapours produced,
- provisions are made to protect against the ignition of any remaining bitumen or carbonaceous de-
posits not cleaned away.
Similar precautions are necessary before any hot work is started on the outside of a bitumen tank or
near any vapour vent from the tank, unless alternative arrangements are made to avoid flammable
atmospheres in the tank vapour space for the duration of the work. (Note that in the United Kingdom,
under Section 31 of the 1961 Factories Act, special dispensation is required from the Health and Safety
Executive for hot work on the outside of a tank containing bitumen.)
This chapter deals mainly with the bulk transfer of bitumen by road, rail and ship. Consideration is also
given to the handling of packaged bitumen.
Operators of bitumen transport facilities should refer also to Chapters 2, 3, 4 and 10.
8.2 BULK TRANSPORT CONTAINERS
Notes;
1 The Code figures and symbol in the boxes and the dimensions of the panel are as specified by the present UK Dangerous
Substances (Conveyance by Road in Road Tankers and Tank Containers) Regulations 1981. The Code 2W and the symbol in the
diamond panel indicate that the load carried is a hot liquid, with the number 7033 being allocated in the UK for bitumen.
2 Under a forthcoming revision of the 1981 Regulations, expected to come out in late 1990/early 1991, a new diamond symbol
will be introduced. Although most bitumens now come under the UK identification number 7033, if a bitumen has a flash point
below 55'C (i.e. cutbacks), it will be covered by the identification number 1999 and the hazard warning symbol will be the one
appropriate to flammable liquids.
3 There is no equivalent to 7033 in ADR, and the number shown in countries using this system is 1999, with the appropriate
hazard warning number 30, and the ADR diamond hazard warning sign.
Figure 8.1 Typical Current Hazard Warning Panel for Bitumen Road and Rail Tankers in the UK
This card has been prepared by the Institute of Petroleum from the best information available to meet the
requirements of Regulation 10 of S.I. 1981 No. 1059 but no responsibility is accepted of whatsoever kind, for
damage or alleged damage arising or otherwise occurring in or about premises, areas or vehicles to which
this card has been applied.
Figure 8.2. Text of Transport Emergency (Trem) Card for Bitumen. Ibis has been issued by the
Institute of Petroleum to meet the requirement for emergency guidance to be kept available in the
driver's cab of a road tanker, and by the driver of a rail train
New railcar tanks intended for discharge by air or inert gas pressure, should be designed and
constructed
to the British Standard pressure vessel code (See 8.2. 1) or equivalent. Railcar tanks constructed to
former standards may be used in the UK subject to written approval by the Health and Safety
Executive.
All railcars should be fitted with relief valves adequate for the relief of any possible pneumatic or hyd-
raulic over-pressure.
Railcars should be examined internally at regular intervals. Typically for such cars, cleaning to remove
deposits is likely to be required every two to five years and it is normally sufficient to carry out internal
examination at the same frequency. Removal of lagging for external examination should be carried out
on a regular random sample basis.
Bitumen and cutback tank vehicles are normally loaded through top connections on the vehicle tank. It
is
therefore necessary to provide safe means of access to the vehicle tank top for loading operations.
Such means of access should be provided by way of a gantry with a working platform along or across
the vehicle just above tank top level.
Gantries should also be provided wherever samples are to be taken from the tops of vehicle tanks. See
Chapter 10.
8.3.2 Construction
Gantries should be constructed in steel and/or concrete.
Any cladding sheets used should be of a material that does not support combustion.
The gantry and its equipment should be protected against accidental damage from vehicles by the use
of
bollards, high road curbs or other effective means.
Platforms and stairs should be provided with non-slip surfaces. Open grid platforms and stair treads
should be avoided where there is equipment or access for personnel beneath, unless suitable means
are provided for protection against bitumen releases.
8.3.7 Ventilation
If gantry roofs or other weather protection enclosures are used these should be adequately ventilated
to avoid excessive concentrations of fumes or hydrogen sulphide vapours during loading.
8.3.8 Lighting
Gantries should be provided with sufficient artificial illumination for night time operation. This should
normally give a minimum of 50 lux illumination at the vehicle tank top.
The electrical equipment within the gantry structure should be to a standard suitable for areas
classified as Zone 2.
Any air or inert gas supply system for the discharge of a road or rail transport tank should incorporate
relief valves as necessary to avoid the vehicle tank relief valves being overloaded by the air or gas
supply facilities. It should also incorporate effective knock-out facilities sufficient to ensure that any
water which might collect in the gas or air supply system and its piping is removed before the air
enters a vehicle tank. Excessive air or gas should not be applied and a restriction orifice may be
desirable to limit flow. See also 8.8.6, second paragraph.
8.5 PIPEWORK
Pipework systems should be designed and laid out with care in accordance with 7.3.13 and kept clear
of block ages when not in use as appropriate by,
8.6 HOSES
8.6.1 Types and Specification
Hoses for bitumen and cutback bitumen duties are usually either
Hoses and hose assemblies should conform to the British Standard BS 6130: 'Specification of hose and
hose assemblies for asphalt and bitumen' or equivalent national standards.
8.6.2 Couplings
Hoses should be connected by flanged couplings at both ends except where it is necessary to deliver
bitumen by a potting hose through a manhole. In this case the un flanged end of the hose should be
properly secured to the manhole by means of a chain or hose clamp so that it cannot pull out of the
vessel due to a surge of product; failure to make it secure can give rise to serious personnel injuries.
Where hose flanges are designed to take particular bolt or washer fittings, only the correctly matching
fittings should be used. Where it is necessary to use gaskets, these should be of the correct material
and in good condition. Where flanges are bolted, all the bolt holes should be used. The use of flange
clamps should not be permitted unless the flanges are specifically designed to accept the clamps.
Buckets or other similar containers, of adequate capacity and with means for the disposal of their
contents safely, should be provided for the draining of loading arms and chutes and for disconnected
hoses after vehicle loading and closure of the filling valves.
- care to remove water and other volatile materials from the transfer pipework as in 8.8. 1,
- care to remove water and other volatile materials from the tanks before adding hot bitumen and
cautious initial filling to allow any frothing to disperse. (See following paragraph.)
- care to avoid overheating of the bitumen product, and/or carbonaceous deposits at the surfaces of
tank
heating coils, and the uncovering of heating coils,
- regulation of personnel access to tank tops when bitumen heating operations or product movements
into or out of tanks are taking place,
- precautions to check and protect against the presence of hydrogen sulphide in tank head spaces
and from vents and other tank openings.
Water or other volatile liquid might be present from a previous cargo, an unblanked valved connection,
a bilge clearing operation, a deck leak or rainwater ingress through a manhole. This can sometimes be
removed by adding fuel oil to the tank, sufficient to cover the heating coils, and then 'boiling out'. A
sufficient level of oil to cover the coils should be maintained throughout the operation which should be
carried out only under care fully controlled conditions.
In order to limit the production of flammable vapours and avoid the risks of auto-ignition of
carbonaceous deposits during this process, oil temperatures in excess of 140oC and heating times in
excess of 12 hours should be avoided.
8.10 PACKAGING
8.10.1 Containers
Packages should be checked before filling to ensure that they are mechanically sound. The interiors of
the pack ages should be dry. All packages (e.g. cardboard kegs) should be of types known to be
suitable for filling with hot liquid bitumen.
Notwithstanding arrangements and procedures designed either to keep bitumen pipework hot or to
drain it when not in use (see 8.5), pipework blockages occur occasion ally due to cooling and
solidification of the product.
The methods used to clear such blockages will depend upon the circumstances.
Controlled flame heating, using an LPG torch or equivalent on the outside of a pipe or valve to clear a
blockage within, should be allowed only where there is no reasonably practicable alternative. Burning
oil soaked rags must not be used for this purpose. Where flame heating is permitted locally, a specific
procedure should be established for each particular set of circumstances and should be carried out
under a permit to work by a person experienced in the application of flame beating for this purpose.
Flame heating should never be applied:
• in a location classified as hazardous(see Area Classification under 7.2.1,7.2.2 and Appendix D),
• when the pipework system is under pressure, or contains cutback,
• in conjunction with blowing by air or inert gas,
• where the pipework system is blocked-in by valves or might be blocked-in by solid plugs of
bitumen.
All loading, discharge and packaging stations should be arranged so as to protect the operator from
splashing, frothing. fumes and spillage, and bums from hot un insulated surfaces.
A cold water supply and an emergency shower should be readily accessible locally for skin bum
treatment. See also Figure 9.2.
Operators should wear suitable protective clothing and observe the personal hygiene precautionary
measures as stipulated in Chapter 2.
9
PRODUCT USER GUIDANCE
9.1 INTRODUCTION
In addition to the guidance contained in this chapter, users of bitumen should refer to and apply the
recommendations of Chapter 2 which give appropriate guidance on the requirements for protective
clothing, personal hygiene precautions and first aid/medical treatment for bums and other exposures;
Chapter 3 in respect of fire risks; Chapter 4 for the fighting of fires involving bitumen, including the
type and recommended minimum provision of portable equipment; Chapter 7 for design, layout and
operation of bulk tankage; and Chapter 8 for the loading, conveyance and discharge of bitumen in
bulk.
Note: The reference test method cited in 2.3 for the determination of total particulate matter (TPM)
and benzene soluble material (BSM) in bitumen fume is a complex procedure not suitable for
everyday use. How ever data provided in IP technical paper IP 84-006 have been incorporated in the
respective sections following to serve as an indicator of typical exposure levels in the different types of
user application.
It should be noted that the guidance note EH40/90, paragraph 33 states that in the absence of a
specific exposure limit for a particular dust, and where there is no indication of the need for a lower
value, personal exposure should be kept below 10 Mg/M3 8-hour TWA total inhalable dust or 5 mgl/m3
8-hour TWA respirable dust. It follows from this that the 'TPM' data determined in the above method,
and where quoted in the sections of this chapter, are indicative of the combined exposure to both
mineral (airborne) dust and petroleum fume.
• Check that there is a clear and unobstructed route for the tanker to and from the bitumen
delivery point.
• Ensure that the delivery flange of each bitumen tank is legibly numbered and marked with
the bitumen grade.
• Ensure that the tank contents gauges are working property and that there is sufficient spare
capacity in each tank to receive the amount of product ordered. In any event, tanks should
not be filled to more than 90 % of total capacity.
• Where applicable, check that any tank pipework valves are, correctly set to receive the
delivery.
• For cutback grades, ensure that there are no sources of ignition near the discharge points and
that a suitable fire extinguisher is placed close by.
• Check the Delivery Note and make sure that the grade and quantity of product are as ordered.
• Fully complete the Delivery Note and hand top copy to driver before delivery commences.
Retain copy for your records.
• Check the contents of the storage tanks once more, and ensure that there is sufficient space
therein to receive the actual loaded quantity of bitumen as stated on the Delivery Note, with
10% of tank capacity spare.
• If the bitumen tanks are contained within a tank house, make sure that there is no one within
the structure during the period of the bitumen discharge.
• Show the driver the correct tank filling points.
• Where applicable, check again that all tank and pipework valves are set correctly.
• Wherever possible, remain in attendance throughout the delivery.
IF YOU HAVE ANY PROBLEMS OR QUERY ABOUT THE DELIVERY, YOU SHOULD INFORM THE
DRIVER AT ONCE. HE SHOULD THEN TELEPHONE HIS DEPOT AND RECEIVE INSTRUCTIONS.
THE DRIVER IS INSTRUCTED TO TELEPHONE HIS DEPOT IF, IN HIS OPINION, THE DELIVERY
CONDITIONS OR PROCEDURES ARE UNSAFE
Figure 9.1. Example of a Guide for the Safe Receipt of Bulk Bitumen
1 The affected part should immediately be plunged into clear cold running water until thoroughly
cold.
2 No attempt should be made to remove adhering bitumen from the skin unless the site of contact
or nature of the product makes this essential. Bitumen will provide a sterile covering until
healing occurs and it will then detach itself.
3 Where it is absolutely necessary to remove adhering bitumen from the skin use liberal amounts
of warm medicinal paraffin or a medicinally approved vegetable oil or with care medicinal
paraffin and kerosine. Kerosine can cause skin irritation. Follow this by gentle washing with soap
and clean warm water. Apply a proprietary refatting agent or a skin cleansing cream.
4 Bitumen encircling a limb or finger may cause a tourniquet effect as it cools and such cases
should receive immediate medical attention to relieve this without delay.
EYES
1 A splash of hot bitumen in the eye should be immediately cooled by irrigating with clean cold
running water for at least FIVE minutes. The casualty should then be promptly sent
to hospital for assessment and further treatment.
Figure 9.2. Suggested Text for a First Aid Poster (to be Posted in Clear View at All Bitumen Plants) and for
Pocketsize Cards (for Distribution to Workers Handling Hot Bitumen)
Those bitumens which are solid at ambient temperatures can be supplied in light weight steel drums,
cardboard kegs, paper sacks or plastic wrappings.
Cutback bitumens can be supplied in heavy gauge steel drums.
Kettles are extensively used during roofing and flooring, construction and maintenance. They are
usually fitted with a lid sufficient to stop rainwater entering and are heated from beneath by a bottled
gas burner. This type of kettle should never be used for heating cutback bitumens.
Drums should not be used for the melting or holding of molten bitumen stocks unless specifically
designed for the purpose.
When bottled gas is employed for heating a bitumen kettle, those cylinders actually in use should be
located not less than 3 m from the kettle; and any cylinders not in use should be located at least 6 m
from the kettle. The arrangement should be such as to prevent any spillage from the kettle reaching
the cylinders. Vehicle mounted kettles should not be heated during transit.
Gas supply lines should be protected against damage.
For other precautions in the use of LPG fuel and its equipment the references given in 3.4.3 should be
consulted.
9.4.2 Heating
Kettles should not be left unattended while they are being heated.
When heating from cold, heating rates should be kept low until the product is clearly fluid and any
water present has been driven off, and the heating kettle should never be filled above the capacity
level specified by the manufacturer.
Overheating of the product should be avoided by temperature control based upon reliable thermometer
readings. Temperatures should be kept as low as practicable, consistent with efficient application of the
product. Unnecessary overheating may result in deterioration in the life of the bitumen, and for most
grades it should not be necessary to exceed the temperature limits given in Appendix B.
However, there is an exception in the case of certain oxidised grade bitumens which for some
applications require the use of temperatures that exceed the recommended limit of 230oC in Table B. 1.
In such cases the temperature guidance given in appropriate user standards such as those provided by
the Flat Roofing Contractors Advisory Board (FRCAB), BS CP144 etc. should be followed.
Note: In respect of these exceptions, it should be noted that, unlike the case where the build-up of a
flammable vapour concentration may develop within the confined space of a heated bulk storage tank,
the open lidded construction of a heating kettle should permit dispersion of vapour given off (see
3.2.2.1). Nevertheless sources of ignition should be kept away from the proximity of the lidded area of
the kettle.
Molten product may be removed from the kettle using either a side branch or a ladle. It should be
conveyed to the point of use in spill resistant containers by persons fully protected by clothing against
spills and splashes as in 2.2. 1.
Operators should minimise breathing fumes from hot bitumen kettles which should, wherever possible,
be sited downwind of the job. See also data under 9.5 below.
9.5 ROOFING
Oxidised grade bitumens are used as 'mopping adhesives' for the fixing of roofing felts.
The adhesive is prepared by heating the bitumen in a kettle to a temperature normally in the range
200oC to 230oC (or such necessary application temperature as specified in appropriate user standards
referred to in 9.4.2), transporting the product to the work area in a bucket and spreading it over the
area to be covered using a mop. The felt is rolled on to the bitumen while it is still hot. The risks of
spills causing bums to the bucket carrier should be minimised by care in providing a safe route from
the kettle to the work area and by the wearing of appropriate protective clothing in accordance with
2.2. 1.
Fume exposure (see 2.3) should be minimised by working as far as reasonably practicable on the
upwind side of the work. Sampling data during re-roofing with oxidised grade 95/25 on two separate
days gave TPM 8 hour TWA exposures for kettlemen hand-carrying the bitumen to the roof, of 4.1 and
6.4 Mg/M3, with benzene soluble values of the bitumen fume of 3.5 and 5.4 Mg/M3 BSM respectively.
These data suggest that the use of orinasal masks might be necessary in still air conditions.
Figures for the other workers involved ranged from 0.5 to 1.7 Mg/M3 (average 1.3) TPM, with 8-hour
TWA exposures to BSM of between 0.2 and 1.1 mg/rn3.
In another study (Finland) eight personal samples during roofing gave TPM exposures from 0.2 to 3.4
Mg/m3 during spreading (mean 1.6) and a benzene soluble level from 0.2 to 2.9 rng/m3 (mean 1.4).
9.6 FLOORING
Bituminous mastics (blends of penetration grade bitumen with finely ground mineral fillers) are used
for
flooring.
The mastic is prepared by beating in a kettle to a temperature not exceeding the level appropriate to
the user standard, transporting the product to the work area in a bucket and trowelling it as necessary
to produce an even surface. The hazards are similar to those of roofing but because of the indoor
conditions, the troweller can be particularly exposed to fume levels which could exceed the exposure
standard. For any indoor operations with hot mastic it is essential to ensure adequate ventilation.
Thus exposures measured during laying of a mastic containing 11 % by weight of 10/20 pen bitumen
at a temperature of 265-280'C, inside a building ventilated only through open doors and windows,
were reported as 8-hour TWA exposures for indoor workers of 10.5 to 18.5 Mg/M3, with benzene
soluble bitumen fume of 6 to 13.6 Mg/M3. For the outside kettleman, exposures of 2.9 to 7.7 Mg/M3
TPM, and 1.8 to 5.0 Mg/M3 BSM were significantly lower. In another indoor mastic laying operation,
8-hour benzene soluble TWA exposures were 7.7 Mg/M3 for the pourer, 8.7 for the carrier and 11 for
the troweller, compared to 2.8 mg/m3 for the kettleman.
Exposure should be minimised by taking full advantage of all possible natural ventilation and sup-
plemented if necessary by the provision of effective local artificial ventilation in the vicinity of the work
or the use of an orinasal face mask. See 2.3. 1.
Asphalts are mixtures of bitumen with mineral aggregates and their use for road paying represents the
largest use of bitumen.
The study states that a very few results above 5Mg/M3 TPM were found, all from the payer operator,
with the highest 6.4 Mg/M3, most results being very much lower than 5 Mg/M3.
In a further study of hot mix paving using asphalts at 132 to 135'C, personal sampling measurements
over periods from 225 to 265 minutes gave benzene soluble (BSM) figures of 0.1 to 0.2 Mg/M3. These
figures amounted to 0.5 to 51 % of the total particulate matter.
Precautions as outlined in Chapter 2.should be taken to prevent skin and eye contact.
The road maintenance technique of surface dressing entails spraying the road with a thin film of
binder,
which may be a cutback bitumen, a penetration grade bitumen or a bitumen emulsion. This is followed
by the application of a layer of stone chippings (crushed aggregate, slag or gravel). The road is then
rolled to embed the chippings into the surface.
The binder is stored hot in fixed stock tanks from which it is pumped, or gravity fed, into mobile spray
vehicle tanks as required. These are then driven to the application site.
Spray vehicle tanks are fitted with flame tube heaters in order to be able to boost the bulk liquid
temperatures.
This is necessary for example when periods of inclement weather have delayed the start of a surface
dressing operation. Stock tanks may also be fitted with flame tube heaters.
9.8.1.2 Transfer of Cutback to the Spray Vehicle Tank Before transfer of cutback from the supply tank
to the spray vehicle tank all flame tube heaters must be extinguished and sufficient time given for
them to cool down. This should be at least 15 minutes.
The spray vehicle itself should stand on level or near level ground with the hand brake fully on. At no
time during the transfer of binder should the vehicle be left unattended.
Before any transfer of hot cutback bitumen to a spray vehicle takes place, it is important to ensure that
there is no water or bitumen emulsion in the tank or its fittings.
If the presence of water is suspected, action should be taken to dispel it before filling with cutback.
This may be achieved by transferring a small quantity of hot cutback, sufficient only to enable
circulation through the spray bar, and to circulate this until frothing and evolution of steam have
subsided.
The hose for transferring the cutback from the supply tank to the spray vehicle should be of the correct
quality (see 8.6) and in good condition. It should be correctly attached to the vehicle tank filling flange
and not placed loosely through the tank manhole.
During the transfer of cutback, it is necessary to ensure that there are no naked lights or other sources
of ignition in the vicinity of the tanks.
Overfilling should be avoided and sufficient ullage space should be left to allow for expansion of the con
tents when further heated.
After filling but before moving off, all hoses and man hole covers should be secured and the
appropriate Hazard Warning Panels clearly displayed.
9.8.1.4 Protective Clothing and Personal Hygiene for Cutback Spray Operations
All operators should be dressed appropriately to avoid skin and eye contact with the product as
recommended in 2.5.1 and they should follow the personal hygiene recommendations given in 2.5.2.
Spray bar operators when working in the open near the spray bar should wear orinasal fume masks.
For work alongside open highways operators should wear high visibility jackets and reflective patches.
9.9.1
The foregoing health precautions given in this chapter, in association with the more detailed guidance
in
Chapter 2, should enable bitumen to be used safely.
However the recommendation given in 2.6, of self examination on a regular basis for any abnormalities
of the skin, is a prudent measure and should be conveyed to all employees handling bitumens,
including those who are changing jobs or retiring. This is particularly relevant in respect of older
employees, since in the past many bituminous materials were in use with little or insufficient distinction
as to whether these were of petroleum or coal tar origin or mixtures of both.
9.9.2
'Me typical exposure data reviewed under the headings of the various modes of bitumen application
should enable sensible means of minimising this exposure. Thus the studies quoted have in their
assessments reached the general conclusions that:
9.9.2.1
Bitumen fume exposures are usually below 5 Mg/M3 in operations in the open air involving:
(i) bitumen refining and distribution, including road and rail tanker loading,
(ii) road surfacing using aggregate mixes containing about 5% bitumen,
(iii) rooting using oxidised grade bitumens,
(iv) surface dressing of roads by spraying of cutback bitumen.
It is noted however that exposures in (ii) and (iii) may occasionally exceed 5 mg/M3 in some situations
involving adverse (e.g. still air) conditions.
9.9.2.2
Bitumen fume exposures can easily exceed 5 Mg/M3 in indoor application unless good ventilation is
provided for, and supplementing of natural ventilation by local artificial ventilation should be
considered.
10
SAMPLING
10.1 INTRODUCTION.
Sample needs range in size from a few millilitres for laboratory testing to the several hundred litres
which might be required for equipment trials.
Sampling of hot bitumen is particularly hazardous because of the risks of bums from spills and splashes
of the material. Whatever the size of the sample or the methods (as described in 10.2 or 10.3) that are
to be used, appropriate protective clothing should always be worn. See Chapter 2.
The area should be well lit whenever sampling is required during the hours of darkness.
Sampling of bitumens and cutback bitumens through tank vapour spaces can also be hazardous
because of exposure of the operator to the tank vapours and the risks of ignition when tank
atmospheres are in the flammable range. See 10.2.
In respect of this aspect of dip sampling, the guidance given in 6.2.1 and 7.4.6 in respect to access to
cutback or hot bitumen tanks should be followed; namely that access by personnel to hot bitumen tank
roofs should be avoided, wherever practicable, during product movements into or out of the tanks
concerned, and that no personnel should go onto the tank roof during the mixing or circulation of a
cutback blending tank. Where such sampling is essential the mixing/circulation should be temporarily
stopped.
Similar restrictions should be placed on the sampling during filling or discharge of road or rail tank
cars, and of ships or barge tanks.
The potential for the presence of hydrogen sulphide should be recognised when dip sampling a heated
bitumen tank (see 7.4.2), and samplers should be alert to the possible presence of hydrogen sulphide
in the vapour space, and take all necessary precautions in accordance with the guidance in 2.4.
This is sampling by dipping a weighted can or 'thief' on the end of a rope or rod into the surface of the
liquid in a tank. 'Me method is simple and can produce, with little waste of product, samples which are
well representative of the tank contents. It is normally not satisfactory, how ever, for taking samples
larger than one or two litres in size.
Sample 'thiefs' which can be opened by remote control to take samples at levels below the liquid
surface are not normally necessary for bitumen sampling.
Dip sampling gives rise to some risk of introducing air and creating a source of ignition at the sample
point.
It should therefore be avoided in circumstances where the tank vapour space may contain a flammable
atmosphere. Sections 3.2.2.2 to 3.2.2.4 show that this is possible in the case of rundown tanks that
are connected to receive product from the manufacturing processes, and in particular in the case of the
air blown oxidised grades (see 5.4.3.2). It should also be avoided when tanks are being held under an
oxygen depleted atmosphere. See 7.3.8 and 7.3.4.
Dip sampling from cutback tanks in particular should be avoided, or carried out with caution because of
the risks of the presence of flammable atmospheres in tank vapour spaces. See 10. 1 and 6.2. 1.
Where the risks of flammable atmospheres in hot bitumen tank vapour spaces are assessed as being
negligible, dip sampling might be preferred, for cleanliness and simplicity, to other methods of taking
small samples. See however 7.4.6.
Provisions should be made to protect the area around the sample point to avoid contamination of
thermal insulation materials which might lead to auto-ignition. See 7.3.10. & access to the sample
point, protected by hand rails. 1ould be provided. See 7.3.1. Gantry access should be provided where
dip samples are required from vehicle tanks. See 8.3.4. The area of the tank roof or vehicle gantry
should be well lit whenever sampling is required during the hours of darkness.
10.3 SAMPLE VALVES
Sample valves may be provided for sampling from pipe lines or from tanks. They should be designed to
be kept sufficiently warm by the product in the pipeline or the tank, to avoid blockage when in the
closed position.
The valve may be of the screw driven, plunger type with the plunger, when closed, extending into the
fresh product. With this type of valve, a representative sample of the fresh product can be obtained
without fore runnings.
If the sample valve is not of the plunger type it should preferably be a ball or plug type valve with its
'closed' position clearly marked on the stem. With these types of valve, provision must be made to
dispose safely and cleanly of the fore-runnings, collected before the representative sample is produced.
The valve discharge nozzle should be firmly fitted but readily detachable for cleaning.
The sample collector should be clamped in place below the nozzle while the sample is being taken and
the sample valve operator should be protected against accidental splash or spill by appropriate splash
deflectors and overspill collectors, and also by wearing protective clothing in accordance with 2.2. 1.
If the sample does not flow immediately when the valve is cracked open, the valve should be fully
closed again and a pre-established procedure for clearance of the blockage should be initiated.
Depending upon the particular circumstances and subject to appropriate safety precautions, blocked
sample valves can sometimes be cleared by external heating using steam or by oil purging from the
outlet end using a high flash point oil. See 8.11. Whichever method is used the sample valve must not
be left unattended in the open position in case the blockage suddenly clears.
Designs for bitumen sampling valves are given in:
- Asphalt Institute Manual Series No. 18: 'Sampling Asphalt Products for Specification Compliance'
- RILEM Recommendations BM2 April 1987:'Methods for Sampling Hydrocarbon Binders'.
Appendix A
The following classification, based (except for liquefied petroleum gases) on the Closed Cup Flash Point
Test is used by the Institute of Petroleum to provide appropriate guidance on the location and spacing
of facilities as in Chapter 7, and for the selection of precautionary measures against fire:
Class II(1): Liquids which have flash points from 21oC up to and including 55oC, handled below flash
Point
Class II(2): Liquids which have flash points from 21oC up to and including 55oC, handled at or above
flash point
Class III(1): Liquids which have flash points above 55oC up to and including 100oC, handled below
flash point
Class III(2): Liquids which have flash points above 55oC up to and including 100oC, handled at or
Above flash point .
NOTES:
1 The definition of flash point is given in the Glossary, and for petroleum products in Classes I,
II and III the flash point can be taken as an indication of the lowest temperature at which the
product is likely to produce a concentration of vapour that is flammable when in contact with
the air.
2 While Classes 0 (LPG) and I (e.g. petrol) will always give rise to a flammable vapour when
handled in air, it will be noted that Classes II and III, into which cutback bitumens fall, are
subdivided into Classes II(1) and III(1) and Classes II(2) and III(2) in accordance with the
temperature at which they are handled, dependent upon whether this is below or above the
flash point. Thus under different handling conditions they may sometimes correspond to
subdivision (1) while in others at higher temperatures they become classifiable as subdivision
(2).
This
subdivision of Classes II and III enables an important distinction to be made in the design,
location and operation of their handling facilities, since materials in Classes II(1) and III(1)
require less onerous conditions than those in Classes II(2) and III(2) which are stored and
handled at temperatures above the flash point. See Chapter 7.
This distinction will also affect the requirements for area classification of the facilities in
determining the type and location of electrical equipment and precautions against non-electrical
sources of ignition. See Appendix D and 7.1 and 7.2. (It must nevertheless be borne in mind
that all petroleum liquids, even at temperatures below that at which a flammable vapour will be
formed, when dispersed in a state of very fine subdivision as in mist, spray or foam, can be
ignited at temperatures we I I below the flash point. Thus even for Class II(1)and III(1)
products, when mist, spray or foam formation is possible, precautions should be taken to avoid
sources of ignition in the vicinity.)
3 The testing of cutback bitumens blended with kerosine diluent by the IP closed cup flash point
method IP 34/88 or its equivalent, shows that, at the normal range of temperature at which they
are stored and used. they will fall into Class III(2)-and that the vapour produced is likely to be
within the flammable range (see 3.2.1), calling for the measures prescribed in 7.2.2 and 9.8.1 in
order to avoid the risk of ignition.
4 Unclassified Petroleums, including Bitumens and Fuel Oils Blended with Heavy Residual Fractions
Penetration, hard and oxidised grades of bitumens nominally fall into this category of > 100oC
flash point.
However because of the slow and variable after-reactions which, as outlined in 3.2.2.3, can
occur during storage in heated tankage, (giving rise to the evolution of very light flammable
vapours which cannot be detected by the flash point test on the liquid), the flash point so
determined is not a reliable indicator of the temperature at which the product in a confined
space is likely to produce a flammable atmosphere; nor whether the confined ullage space within
a tank so sampled and tested for the liquid flash point is in the flammable range.
The measures to be taken to safeguard against such circumstances are described in Chapters 3,
5 and 7. These include the avoidance of all sources of ignition, electrical and non-electrical, in
such tanks or in the vicinity of vents or other openings.
Similar measures should be followed in the case of tankage for heavy residual heated fuels (see
3.4.2-third paragraph) since there can also be a build up of flammable vapour in the ullage
space.
Appendix B
Bitumen normally has to be applied hot in order to keep it fluid enough for working. Trying to work at
too low a temperature can increase overall risks by adding general handling and operational difficulties.
The principle to be followed is that, in order to minimise the risks from burns, fumes, flammable
atmospheres and fire, every operation should be carried out at as low a temperature as practicable,
compatible with efficient working, and always below the maxima recommended here.
The maximum storage and handling temperatures recommended in Table B.1 have become established
as safety limits through generally satisfactory experience over many years. They can be considered
safe, subject to appropriate precautions as follows:
• The recommended maximum handling temperatures for cutback grades are well in excess of
product flash points. For this reason they can be considered safe only so long as all sources of
ignition are avoided in the vicinity of tank vents and where open air operations are carried out
such as spraying. See 7.2.2 and 9.8. 1.
• For bitumens other than cutback grades the recommended maximum handling temperatures
are below their notional flash points but at these temperatures there are risks that pyrophoric
deposits or other sources of ignition might be present in some tank vapour spaces in which
evolution of flammable vapour may accumulate. See 3.2.2.
For this reason the guidance given in 7.4.7 and 9.2.2 should be followed together with the
design and operational recommendations for ensuring accurate temperature control and
adequate cover of heating elements in Chapter 7.
The Area Classification guidance in 7.2.1 should also be adhered to, in respect both of
electrical equipment, and the avoidance of non-electrical sources of ignition in the proximity of
tank vents and other openings.
Table B.1 indicates the minimum temperatures required for pumping liquid bitumens. For normal
pumping operations, temperatures 10 to 50oC in excess of these may be more appropriate.
To achieve realistic loading rates, temperatures 40 to 50oC above the minimum pumping temperature
may be necessary.
The maximum storage and handling temperatures shown in Table B.1 should not be exceeded.
The temperatures typically required for mixing bitumens with aggregates or fillers are indicated in
Table B.1. These illustrate that in some cases working temperatures have to approach very close to the
maxima recommended. In such cases good temperature control is essential for safety.
The viscosity required for spraying depends upon the type of spray head used. Viscosities of 30-50 cSt
are required for swirling jets and 60-90 cSt for slotted jets. See 9.8.1.
Temperatures should be kept as low as reasonably practicable and should not normally be allowed to
exceed the maxima recommended by Table B. 1. See however the special circumstances in 9.4.2
where application requirements for certain oxidised grades will require higher temperatures as specified
by appropriate user standards bodies.
When working at or near these temperatures good ventilation is essential to avoid fume and fire
hazards. There must be careful temperature control and special attention is necessary to fire fighting
precautions.
When heating road tankers and railcar tanks, good temperature control is essential to ensure that
temperatures do not exceed the maxima recommended in Table B.1 and care is necessary to control
sources of ignition in the vicinity. See 8.8.5.
Table B.1. Recommended bitumen handling and storage temperatures (oC)
(To be read in conjunction with B.1 to B.8 inclusive)
Typical Bitumen Temperature Maximum
Minimum at Time of Application Handling and
Pumping Storage
Grade Temperature Mixing Spraying Temperature
(BS 3690) Note (1) Note (2) Note (3) Note (5)
Penetration Grades
450 pen 90 130 160 190
300 pen 95 135 165 190
200 pen 100 140 175 190
100 pen 105 155 190 200
70 pen 110 160 200 200
50 pen 115 165 - 200
40 pen HD 125 175 - 200
35 pen 125 175 - 220
25 pen 135 185 - 220
15 pen 140 190 - 220
Hard Grades
H80/90 160 200 - 230
H100/120 190 230 - 230
Notes:
(1) Based on a viscosity of 2000 cSt (all grades).
(2) Based on a viscosity of 200 cSt (all grades).
(3) Based on a viscosity of 60 cSt (penetration grades).
(4) Based on a viscosity of 30 cSt (cutback grades). In conformity with the maximum spraying temperatures recommended for
road surface dressing by the UK Department of Transport. See TRRIL Road Note No. 39.
(5) Based on generally satisfactory experience of the storage and handling of penetration, hard and oxidised grades in contact
with
air. Subject to avoidance of flammable atmospheres in the vapour spices of storage tanks as outlined in B.2.
(6) Based on generally satisfactory experience of storage and handling cutback grades in contact with air. Subject to avoidance
of
sources of ignition in the vicinity of tank vents and open air operations.
(7) In oxidised bitumen rundown tanks, i.e. those that are, or can be. directly connected to the process plant. and except
where
oxygen depletion is applied temperatures should not exceed 200'C.
Where this limitation conflicts with the required delivery temperatures for certain oxidised heavy grades, where these are
loaded direct from their rundown tankage, three alternative options can be followed:
- to have the bulk temperature higher than 20WC and, as in 7.3.8, hold the tank under a controlled oxygen depleted
atmosphere,
- to reheat the delivered bitumen to the required temperature by the installation of an outflow heater or heat
exchanger in the line to the loading point,
- to provide for a separate delivery tank, without connection to the process plant, in which the bitumen may be
reheated to the required level, but not higher than 230'C.
Appendix C
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
For the purpose of this Code the following interpretations apply, irrespective of any meaning the
words may have in other connections. Where used in the Code, defined terms are printed in italics.
Additive: Any substance ' which is added in small proportions to bitumen to impart some particular
property e.g. improved adhesion, emulsification etc.
Adhesion agent: An additive which forms a water resistant chemical bridge between binder and
chippings.
Anti-foam agent: A substance, e.g. silicone oil, which when added to a bitumen will reduce the
surface tension and hence the frothing tendency of hot bitumen in the presence of water.
Approved eye protection: Goggles, visors, spectacles or fixed shields which meet the requirements
of The British Standard BS 2092: Specification for Industrial Eye Protectors or equivalent.
Area classification: The notional division of a facility into hazardous areas and non-hazardous
areas, and the sub-division of hazardous areas into zones graded in accordance with the probability
of the presence of a flammable atmosphere within them. See definition of 'Zones' and Appendix D.
Asphalt: A natural or mechanical mixture in which bitumen is associated with a substantial
proportion of inert mineral matter. The term is normally qualified by an indication of the origin or
type, e.g. Trinidad lake asphalt, rolled asphalt, mastic asphalt.
Auto-ignition: Ignition which results from beating of a substance in the absence of a source of
ignition when exposed to an atmosphere containing oxygen.
Auto-ignition temperature: (Synonymous with ignition temperature and self ignition temperature)
The temperature above which a substance, when exposed to air, might ignite in the absence of a
source of ignition as a result of contact with a hot surface or by self-heating alone.
Auto-ignition temperature is not an intrinsic property of the substance. It depends upon the
surrounding physical circumstances including the size and shape of the substance and the degree of
ventilation around it. Therefore, the auto-ignition temperature for any substance can only be indicated
approximately. See 3.33, 3.3.4 and 3.3.5.
Barrier cream: A non-dermatitic cream or ointment which, when applied to the skin, gives some
protection against contamination and facilitates subsequent cleansing with soap and water. See 2.5.2.
BCF: Bromo – chloro – difluoro - methane; a vaporising liquid used as a fire extinguishing agent. See
Chapter 4.
Binder: The mixture of bitumen, fluxes, etc used for road sealing or the manufacture of asphalt mixes.
Bitumen: A viscous petroleum-derived liquid or a solid, consisting essentially of hydrocarbons and
their derivatives, which is soluble in trichloroethylene. It is substantially non-volatile and softens
gradually when heated. It is black or brown in colour and possesses waterproofing and adhesive
properties.
Bitumen is obtained by refinery processes from petroleum and is also found as a natural deposit in
some parts of the world as a component of naturally occurring asphalt. See Chapter 1.
Bitumen emulsion: A dispersion of bitumen in water achieved by the use of suitable chemical
emulsifying agents. See 1.3.
Blowing flux: A heavy petroleum liquid which is added to a bitumen to facilitate the production of
oxidised grades. See 5.3. 1.
Blown bitumen: See oxidised grade bitumen.
Boil-over: The rapid increase in volume caused by the presence of water in hot bitumen and the
subsequent overflow from a tank.
Breathing apparatus: Respiratory protective equipment which supplies the wearer with breathable
air, not taken from the immediate environment.
Bund: A compound around a tank, capable of retaining a spillage from the tank or associated
pipework.
Carcinogenic: Capable of causing cancer.
Combustible: A substance not failing into the flammable classification as such, but capable of self
sustained burning in air, once ignited. See Flammable.
Competent inspector: A person having the necessary knowledge, experience and authority to carry
out and witness the required inspection and testing of plant or equipment and to assess and certify
the results of such inspection and testing.
Creosote: A coal tar fraction boiling mainly between 200'C and 350'C. It has been used as a diluent
in certain special cutbacks. See Addendum in 2.8.
Cutback bitumen: Bitumen, the viscosity of which has been reduced by the addition of a suitable
diluent such as kerosine, to render it more fluid for ease of application. See 1.2.4.
Diffuser nozzle: An adjustable fire fighting nozzle which is capable of converting a stream of water
into fine spray.
Flame tube heater: Means of heating bitumen, normally applicable to smaller sized vessels or
tanks. It consists of an oil or gas fired burner associated with a flue pipe immersed in the product to
be heated.
Flammable: A combustible substance, solid, liquid, gas or vapour, which is easily ignited in air. It is
synonymous with 'inflammable' but the term flammable is much preferred. The term non-flammable
refers to substances which are not easily ignited but does not necessarily indicate that they are
non-combustible. See Combustible.
Flammable atmosphere: A mixture of flammable gas or vapour with air in such proportion that,
without any further addition of gas or air, it will burn when ignited. See Appendix A.
Flammable limits: The upper and lower limits of concentration of a flammable gas or vapour in air
Within which the mixture will burn when ignited. These are referred to as the upper flammable limit
(UFL) and the lower flammable limit (LFL) respectively. They are sometimes referred to as 'explosive
limits' i.e. 'UEL' and 'LEL' respectively. See Appendix A.
Flammable range. The range of gas or vapour concentrations between the flammable limits.
Flash point: The lowest temperature at which the application of a small flame in a prescribed manner
causes the vapour above a flammable product to ignite when the product is heated under prescribed
conditions. The flash point may be measured according to IP Method 34188 or equivalent in a Closed
Cup or by IP 36/84 in an Open Cup. See Appendix A for IP Classification by flash point.
Flux: See Blowing Flux.
Foam: A collection of bubbles of air or gas formed in a liquid. Foam for fire fighting is produced from
Water and chemicals, usually with mechanical aspiration, and is applied to the burning zone to
exclude oxygen by blanketing of the surface. See Chapter 4.
Froth-over: Spilling over a tank rim caused by the evaporation of water droplets within a hot bitumen
mass producing an eruption of froth.
Fume: Vapour carrying suspended solid particles or liquid droplets. See 2.3.
Fume mask: A face mask which removes, by filtration, solids and liquids from air drawn by the wearer
from the immediate environment. See Orinasal cartridge respirator.
Gantry: A fixed structure providing access to the top of a transport vehicle for loading or discharging
operations.
Gas detector: An instrument, fixed or portable, designed to detect and measure the presence and
Concentration of flammable gas in an area or enclosed space.
Gas-free: An enclosed space or area is considered to be gas-free when the concentrations of
flammable and toxic gases in it are within prescribed safe limits, and the oxygen content is sufficient
to sustain the respiration of personnel. 'Me area or enclosed space must also have been protected
against ingress of harmful gas or vapour. For tanks see 7.6.
Hard grade bitumens: These are manufactured in a similar way to penetration grade bitumens.
See 1.2.2 and 5.2. 1. They have lower penetration values and higher softening points than
penetration grade bitumens. British Standard grades are normally designated by the prefix 'H'
followed by two numbers representing the limits of the softening Mint. See Table 1.2.
Hazard: A physical situation with significant potential for human injury, damage to property or
damage to the environment. See also Risk.
Hazardous area: A space or zone in which a flammable atmosphere is expected to be present at
such a frequency as to require special precautions for the construction and use of any electrical
apparatus installed within it. See Appendix D.
Hazardous atmosphere: (Synonymous with flammable atmosphere.)
Hot work: Work involving flames or equipment which might cause ignition of any flammable vapours
present. It includes welding, or the use of any flame or electric spark or any equipment likely to
cause beat, flame or spark, such as drilling, riveting and any other such heat-producing operation
unless it is carried out in such a way as to keep the temperature below the level at which ignition of a
flammable atmosphere could occur.
Ignition source: Accessible source of beat or energy, electrical or non-electrical, capable of igniting
flammable atmospheres. See Chapter 3.
Ignition temperature: See Auto-ignition temperature.
Inert gas: A gas or mixture of gases which will not support combustion.
Loss on heating: 'Me percentage loss of mass and the percentage drop in penetration value, as
measured after heating a bitumen for 5 hours at 163'C by IP Method 45/58 or equivalent.
Lower flammable limit (LFL): See Flammable limit.
Occupational exposure standards (OES): The contaminant concentrations in the working
atmosphere annually set, in the UK by the Health and Safety Executive, either as limits which should
not normally be exceeded or as limits of good practice. These limits are normally set as Long Term
Exposure Standards (8-hour time weighted average values) and/or as Short Term Exposure Limits
(10-minute time weighted average maximum exposure limits (MEQ). See 2.3.1. Other countries have
similar standards.
Orinasal cartridge respirator: A cartridge type half face respirator. See 2.3. 1.
Oxidised grade bitumen: Grades produced by passing air through soft bitumen/flux mixtures under
controlled temperature conditions. See 1.2.3 and 5.3.1. British Standard grades are normally
designated by two numbers representing the mid-points of their softening point and penetration
ranges. See Table 1.3.
Penetration grade bitumens: These are usually produced by vacuum distillation of petroleum,
followed in some cases by an oxidation process. See 1.2.1 and 5.2.1. British Standard Grades are
normally designated by a number representing the mid-point of the penetration range and the suffix
'pen'. See Table 1. 1.
Penetration value: A measure of the consistency of bitumen, determined as the depth to which a
standard needle penetrates the sample under the conditions prescribed by IP Method 49/86 or
equivalent.
Permit to work: A document issued by an authorised person or persons permitting specific work to
be carried out in a defined area during a stated period of time, provided that specified safety
precautions are taken.
Petroleum class: A class of petroleum products as defined by the Institute of Petroleum system of
classification. See Appendix A.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH): Also synonymously known as 'Polycyclic Aromatics
(PCA)' or 'Polynuclear Aromatics (PNA)'. High boiling members of the family of ring type aromatic
hydro carbons present in the low percentage range in bitumens, some of which, with 4 to 6 fused
rings and present in minute traces in bitumen, have been shown by animal testing to have
carcinogenic potential. See Chapter 2.
Potting hose: A hose terminating in a short piece of metal pipe, used for delivery of bitumen
through the manhole of a tank or vessel.
Pyrophoric deposit: A deposit, normally formed in an oxygen depleted environment, which can
produce self heating when its temperature or the surrounding oxygen concentration is increased. See
3.3.5.
Resuscitation equipment: Equipment which either increases the ventilation of the lungs by
mechanical means or supplies oxygen in a controlled manner to aid recovery after a period of
inadequate respiration. See Chapter 2.
Risk: The likelihood of human injury, damage to property or damage to the environment from a
specified hazard.
Self-heating: Temperature rise of a substance caused by oxidation of the substance when exposed to
an atmosphere containing oxygen. See 3.3.5.
Self-ignition temperature: See Auto-ignition temperature.
Skin sensitisation: A condition which can lead to a skin disorder, e.g. dermatitis.
Slop over: Displacement of hot product from a tank during fire fighting, due to violent evaporation of
water beneath the surface. See Boil-over.
Snuffing/blanketing steam: Steam which is used to extinguish a fire or to prevent the build up of
a flammable atmosphere. It might be injected into a vessel or tank vapour space or used through a
steam lance in the open air.
Softening point: The temperature in degrees C at which a bitumen attains a particular degree of
softness with reference to test conditions prescribed by IP Method 58/86 or equivalent.
Source of ignition: See Ignition source.
Type of protection: The terms used to define the measures applied in the construction of electrical
apparatus to prevent ignition of a surrounding explosive/flammable atmosphere by such apparatus.
See Appendix D.
Ullage: The space above the liquid level in a tank.
Upper flammable limit: See Flammable limit.
Ventilation: Air movement and replacement by fresh air. Natural ventilation refers to ventilation
caused by wind or convection and artificial ventilation refers to ventilation caused by air purge or
mechanical means such as fans.
Viscosity: A measure of the resistance of a fluid to flow. Various scales of measurement are used.
The Standard Tar Viscometer (STV) is used in the IP Method 72/86 to characterise cutback bitumens
in 'seconds'.
Kinematic viscosity is a derived characteristic which can be used to represent the fluid in technical
calculations.
Zone 0: That part of a hazardous area in which a flammable atmosphere is continuously present or
present for long periods. See Appendix D.
Zone 1: That part of a hazardous area in which a flammable atmosphere is likely to occur in normal
operation. See Appendix D.
Zone 2: That part of a hazardous area in which a flammable atmosphere is not likely to occur in
normal operation and, if it occurs, will exist only for a short period. See Appendix D.
Appendix D
THE APPLICATION OF
AREA CLASSIFICATION
D.1 INTRODUCTION
Because of the arcs, sparks and hot surfaces that they can produce, ordinary type industrial equipment
and fittings including lighting, switches, motors, heating and measuring instruments are capable of
igniting a flammable atmosphere.
This is true for the bitumen vapours that may accumulate under the confined conditions of the head
space of a heated bitumen storage tank. Fires and explosions can also occur due to non-electrical
sources of ignition such as naked flames or hot work which is carried out in the proximity of vents and
other tank openings.
Ideally, electrical equipment should only be installed in 'safe' areas remote from a location in which a
flammable atmosphere can arise, but often this is not reasonably practicable and alternative measures
are required, which will also control the use and location of non-electrical sources of ignition.
For these reasons, under the heading in Chapter 3 of the 'Control of Sources of Ignition' the need is
stated (see 3.3. 1) for area classification and its grading of areas in and around plant from which
flammable atmospheres can arise. The recommendations given in 7.2.1 and 7.2.2, covering the various
classes of bulk bitumen storage are based upon the IP Area Classification Code: 1990.
D.2
In that Code, which conforms to the internationally recognised concepts expressed by the International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC 79/10; CENELEC EN 50014) and, for the UK, BS 5345 Parts 1 and 2,
the areas around plant and vessels are subdivided according to the degree of probability that
flammable concentrations of vapour can arise, these subdivisions being defined as follows:
Zone 0 An area in which a flammable vapour/air mixture is continuously, present or present for long
periods (this is termed a 'continuous grade release').
Zone 1 An area in which a flammable vapour/air mixture is likely to occur periodically or
occasionally in normal operation (termed a 'primary grade release').
Zone 2 An area in which a flammable vapour/air mixture can only occur in abnormal operation, and
if it does occur is likely to do so only infrequently and for short periods (termed a 'secondary
grade release').
It should be noted that the zone number (grade of release) of such areas is a function solely of the
assessed frequency and duration of flammable presence or release. All other areas of the facility are
deemed, for the purpose of area classification, non-hazardous areas-for which the probability of a
flammable atmosphere being present is so low that special protection vis-a-vis electrical and
non-electrical sources of ignition need not be provided (although other precautions, as for the carrying
out of hot work etc may be needed, as under 3.3.2 and its Note).
D.3
While zone number is a function of frequency and duration only of the potential flammable release, the
extent (i.e. dimensions) of the zone is a function of the volatility characteristics of the petroleum
material as determined in Appendix A and the operating conditions of temperature. ventilation etc. See
3.2.1 and 3.2.2.1 to 3.2.2.4. These assessments have been incorporated in the guidance given in 7.2.1
and 7.2.2, and nothing further need be carried out in this respect prior to proceeding to the selection of
an appropriate type of protection for electrical equipment suitable for operation in the specific zones in
accordance with D.4 below.
Having identified the respective zone number for each of the hazard zones specified in 7.2.1 or 7.2.2. it
is then the function of an appropriate electrical specialist to select the type of protection to which
electrical equipment, including instruments, should be certified as suitable for installation from among
the nine internationally recognised types of protection listed in the following tabulation:
Zone Type of Protection BS 5345 Code
Part Reference
0 Intrinsic safety Type 'ia' Part 4
Type 's' special protection Part 8
(specifically certified for use in Zone 0)
1 Any explosion protection suitable for Zone 0 and:
Type V flameproof Part 3
Intrinsic safety Type 'ib' Part 4
Type 'p' pressurisation Part 5
Type 'e' increased safety Part 6
Type 's' special protection Part 8
2 Any explosion protection suitable for Zone 0 or 1 and:
Type ‘N’ or 'n' Part 7
Type ‘o’ oil filled Part 9
Type 'q' powder filled Part 9
Notes
1 The details have been condensed from Table 7.1 of the IP Area Classification Code 1990, BS
5345 Part 1; 1989 and BS 5345 Part 2, together with the listed individual part numbers of BS
5345 given in the last column.
2. Intrinsic Safety protection is at two levels 'ia' and 'ib', only type 'ia' being certifiable for Zone 0
installation. Some but not all types of special protection 's' can be certified for Zone 0. See BS
5345 Part 8.
3. The above types of protection are designated as 'Group W, being suitable for above ground
usage in flammable atmospheres. (Group 1 apparatus is specifically for mining application.)
Some Group 11 types are further subdivided in order of increasing severity into Apparatus
Subgroups A, B and C according to the dimensions between their joint surfaces and the properties
of the flammable vapours involved.
4. All types of protected equipment also have to fulfil the following further requirements:
5. All equipment should be assigned an appropriate 'Temperature Class' from one of six recognised
Temperature Classes TI to T6, listed in ascending order of severity. and chosen to ensure that the
surface temperatures attained by the apparatus, both internal and external (i.e. casing), will at its
full rating not exceed the ignition temperature of the gas or vapour that will be encountered.
6. The required degrees of environmental protection, against access into the equipment of a)
foreign objects such as dust, tools etc, or parts of the body; b) the ingress of fluids including
rain. water jets etc. For both of these aspects there are six categories of protection that can be
selected, denoted by a double digit number preceded by the initials 'IP' in accordance with an
international scale prescribed in IEC publication 144, CTNELEC EN 60 034-5 and Appendix C of BS
5345 Part 1 (1989) (Note the designation 'IP' does not relate to the Institute of Petroleum, but to
'ingress protection').
For more details of the selection of the above four factors, i.e.:
- selection of the appropriate type of protection in accordance with the zone number.
- selection of the appropriate apparatus sub grouping in accordance with die characteristics of the
vapour or gases.
- selection of the appropriate 'Temperature Class' in accordance with the ignition temperature of the
vapour or gases involved.
- the degree of environmental (mechanical) protection.
Chapter 7 of the IP Area Classification Code 1990 and the revised IP Electrical Safety Code 1990 should
be consulted. These give full references to the relevant standards, including certification and marking
of such apparatus. installation, maintenance, inspection etc. Reference may also be made
to the guidance given as to the choice of suitable electrical equipment in HSE Health and Safety
Booklet HS(G)22.
For the vapours released from heated bitumens an apparatus sub-group II-A and a T(Temperature)
Class T2 (maximum surface temperature 300oC are typical, while for cutback grades with kerosine
diluent a II-A apparatus subgroup with T Class T3 (maximum surface temperature 200oC) should be
considered.
Conclusion
The above notes focus on the application of area classification to electrical equipment. However its
zoning of plant areas is also relevant to the need to avoid non-electrical sources of ignition in such
hazard zones.
Appendix E
EXPOSURE TO BITUMEN BY SKIN
CONTACT AND INHALATION
As noted in Chapter 2, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), Lyon, France, an
agency of the World Health Organisation, has concluded, in a published monograph on polynuclear
aromatic compounds Part 4 (1985):
'Bitumens, Coal Tars and derived products, Shale Oils and Soots', that petroleum bitumens do contain
small quantities of 4-6 ring high boiling polycyclic aromatic compounds some of which have been
shown in animal testing to' have carcinogenic properties. The presence of these constituents in
petroleum bitumens has been shown to be many times less than the quantities present in coal tar and
pitches (see 2.1), which are recognised carcinogens.
Since the significance of carcinogenic potential is very much a function of the level and duration and
the 'bio availability' (i.e. access to the body organs), interpretation can be very difficult when applied to
the conditions of human exposure during occupation. Certain studies in respect of petroleum bitumen
have been associated with similar involvement with coal tar materials or coal tar bitumen mixes.
Inhalation studies on rats and guinea pigs (Huepar WC and Payne WW 1960) and on mice (Simmers
MH, 1964) did not find any carcinogenic effect of bitumen fumes. However Huepar and Payne found
that neither was there any such effect on a control group exposed to fumes from coal tar.
Animal testing in 1983 (Thayer PS, Menzies KT and Thuna PC) has shown that the application of the
condensate from bitumen fumes on the skin of mice had almost as strong an effect as the condensate
from coal tar fumes, but in neither of these is there a direct correspondence with human occupational
exposure.
A recent worker in this field (Hansen ES 1989) has pointed to studies in the US in 1976 in which excess
mortality was reported in asphalt workers from lung cancer and cancer of buccal cavity, pharynx,
digestive organs, bladder and skin, compared to the population at large, but has commented that
'although the studied groups of roofers had been exposed to bitumen fumes, no clear conclusions could
be drawn regarding the carcinogenicity of these fumes because the roofers had been concomitantly
exposed to the known carcinogen coal tar'.
Hansen's own study-was on 679 'heavily exposed' long term mastic asphalt workers in Denmark
followed up from 1959 to 1984, of whom only the older, it was said, would have handled both bitumen
and coal tar. Of these 679, whose work was to hand-trowel in the kneeling position heated mastic at
250*C from open buckets, and who were exposed to high fume concentrations (see below), some 194
were born between 1893 and 1919; 129 between 1920 and 1929 and the remaining 356 between 1930
and 1960. Observed cancer incidence was found to be almost twice that of the total population, mainly
of the respiratory and digestive systems.
Hygiene measurements were stated to have considerably exceeded the 5 Mg/M3 Danish standard, with
a range from 0.5 to 260 Mg/M3 (mean 41.4) of fume during flooring with mastic asphalt, compared to
two samples during manual road paving of 4.3 and 3.4 rng/M3. Hansen noted that only the two older
sub-cohorts referred to above had the possibility of working with coal tar, due its use during the World
War II period.
Hansen states that it is not possible to restrict the increased lung cancer risk to the mastic workers
who had possibly been exposed to coal tar pitch during World War II. Nevertheless, from the tabulation
of the 27 lung cancer cases, only three with birth dates of 1930, 1931, and 1934 were from the
younger sub-cohort and Hansen does not show a breakdown for other diagnoses 'because almost all
the cases occurred among workers aged 65 years or over, and there were no men of these ages in
sub-cohorts II and III'.
From the above, it is evident that further study should be carried out, but that care should be taken to
keep exposure to all bitumen fumes as low as possible, with strict control over temperature to avoid
overheating.
Skin Contact
Skin contact is avoidable by good personal hygiene and adherence to the use of protective clothing,
and there are no data to show that them is a problem with occupational exposure. Nevertheless, the
IARC and other studies show that in animal skin painting tests, the bio-available contact level when
bitumens are dissolved in solvents and applied to the skin is such that tumours are produced. This
should be viewed as having relevance where bitumens in solution form, e.g. cutback blends, are
handled. See 2.5. 1.
Appendix F
REFERENCES
F.5 CONCAWE
(The oil companies' European organization for environmental and health protection)
Report 6/84 Review of Bitumen Fume Exposure and Guidance on Measurement
IP 27/74 Distillation of Cutback Asphaltic (Bituminous) Products (technically identical to BS 2000 Part
27)
IP 34/88 Flash Point by Pensky-Martens Closed Tester (technically identical to BS 2000 Part 34)
IP 36/84 Flash and Fire Points by Cleveland Open Cup (technically identical to BS 4689)
IP 45/58 Loss on Heating Bitumen (technically identical to BS 2000 Part 45)
IP 49/86 Penetration of Bituminous Materials (technically identical to BS 4691)
[P 58/86 Softening Point of Bitumen. Ring and Ball (technically identical to BS 2000 Part 58)
IP 72/86 Viscosity of Cutback Bitumen and Road Oil (technically identical to BS 2000 Part 72)
F.12 RILEM
(Reunion intemationale des laboratoires d’essais et de recherches sur les materiaux et les
constructions)
Recommendation BM 2: April 1987: Methods for Sampling Hydrocarbon Binders
F.15 UK Statutes
1981 SI 1059 Dangerous Substances (Conveyance by road in road tankers and tank
containers) Regulations 1981
1989 SI 2169 Pressure Systems and Transportable Gas Containers Regulations 1989
1984 SI 1244 Classification, Packaging and Labelling of Dangerous Substances
Regulations
1984
1988 SI 1657 Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations 1988