The Magnetic Compass Card

 A compass card usually has direction pointers consisting of 32 points.

 The four principal, or cardinal, points are north, east, south, and west.
 They are marked N, E, S, and W.
 Between these lie the intercardinal points, such as northeast (NE).
 Further division gives such points as north-northeast (NNE).
 A final division is by points, such as north by east (N by E).
 Naming all the points of a compass in their order is called boxing the
compass.
A compass is an extremely simple device. A magnetic compass (as opposed to a
gyroscopic compass) consists of a small, lightweight magnet balanced on a nearly
frictionless pivot point. The magnet is generally called a needle. One end of the needle is
often marked "N," for north, or colored in some way to indicate that it points toward north. On
the surface, that's all there is to a compass.
The reason why a compass works is more interesting. It turns out that you can think of the
Earth as having a gigantic bar magnet buried inside. In order for the north end of the
compass to point toward the North Pole, you have to assume that the buried bar magnet has its
south end at the North Pole, as shown in the diagram at the right. If you think of the world this way,
then you can see that the normal "opposites attract" rule of magnets would cause the north end of the
compass needle to point toward the south end of the buried bar magnet. So the compass points toward
the North Pole.
To be completely accurate, the bar magnet does not run exactly along the Earth's rotational
axis. It is skewed slightly off center. This skew is called the declination, and most good
maps indicate what the declination is in different areas (since it changes a little depending on
where you are on the planet).
The magnetic field of the Earth is fairly weak on the surface. After all, the planet Earth is
almost 8,000 miles in diameter, so the magnetic field has to travel a long way to affect your
compass. That is why a compass needs to have a lightweight magnet and a frictionless
bearing. Otherwise, there just isn't enough strength in the Earth's magnetic field to turn the needle.

The "big bar magnet buried in the core" analogy works to explain why the Earth has a
magnetic field, but obviously that is not what is really happening. So what is really
happening?
No one knows for sure, but there is a working theory currently making the rounds. As seen
on the above, the Earth's core is thought to consist largely of molten iron (red). But at the
very core, the pressure is so great that this superhot iron crystallizes into a solid. Convection
caused by heat radiating from the core, along with the rotation of the Earth, causes the
liquid iron to move in a rotational pattern. It is believed that these rotational forces in the
liquid iron layer lead to weak magnetic forces around the axis of spin.
It turns out that because the Earth's magnetic field is so weak, a compass is nothing but a
detector for very slight magnetic fields created by anything. That is why we can use a
compass to detect the small magnetic field produced by a wire carrying a current (see How
Electromagnets Work).
Now let's look at how you can create your own compass.
Gyrocompass:

The gyrocompass receives its directional information from a rapidly spinning gyroscope
driven by electric motors. Its directive action is based on the mechanical laws governing
the dynamics of rotating bodies. When any object is spinning it tends to keep its axis
pointed in the same direction, and if a force is applied to deflect its orientation it responds
by moving at right angles to the applied force. The gyrocompass consists of a gimbal-
mounted spinning gyroscope made north-seeking by placing a weight below the axis. As
the Earth rotates gravitational pull on the weight attempts to change the gyroscope's axis
of rotation. The resulting motion of the axis of the gyroscope at right-angles to the
applied force causes it to move so as to align itself with the Earth's axis of rotation. A few
hours of operation is usually sufficient to align the gyrocompass with the Earth's axis.
Errors that would be introduced by changing latitudes as when the submarine is steaming
towards the north or south are eliminated through periodic adjustments to compensating
systems within the gyrocompass by the Navigator. An electrical servo mechanism and
dial mechanically connected to the gyrocompass has the points of the mariner's compass
marked on it and indicates the submarine's true course. Repeaters connected to the servo
mechanism are located throughout the submarine to provide true course information
where needed.

Precession
If you have ever played with toy gyroscopes, you know that they can perform all sorts of
interesting tricks. They can balance on string or a finger; they can resist motion about the
spin axis in very odd ways; but the most interesting effect is called precession. This is the
gravity-defying part of a gyroscope. The following video shows you the effects of precession
using a bicycle wheel as a gyro

This mysterious effect is precession. In the general case, precession works like this: If you have a
spinning gyroscope and you try to rotate its spin axis, the gyroscope will instead try to rotate about an
axis at right angles to your force axis, like this:
 In figure 1, the gyroscope is spinning on its axis.
In figure 2, a force is applied to try to rotate the spin axis.
In figure 3, the gyroscope is reacting to the input force along an
axis perpendicular to the input force

The Cause of Precession

Why should a gyroscope display this behavior? It seems totally nonsensical that the bicycle
wheel's axle can hang in the air like that. If you think about what is actually happening to the
different sections of the gyroscope as it rotates, however, you can see that this behavior is
completely normal!
Let's look at two small sections of the gyroscope as it is rotating -- the top and the bottom, like this:

As forces are applied to the axle, the two points identified will
attempt to move in the indicated directions.
When the force is applied to the axle, the section at the top of the gyroscope will try to move
to the left, and the section at the bottom of the gyroscope will try to move to the right, as
shown. If the gyroscope is not spinning, then the wheel flops over, as shown in the video on
the previous page. If the gyroscope is spinning, think about what happens to these two
sections of the gyroscope: Newton's first law of motion states that a body in motion continues
to move at a constant speed along a straight line unless acted upon by an unbalanced force. So the top
point on the gyroscope is acted on by the force applied to the axle and begins to move toward the left.
It continues trying to move leftward because of Newton's first law of motion, but the gyro's spinning
rotates it, like this:

As the two points rotate, they continue their motion.

This effect is the cause of precession. The different sections of the gyroscope receive forces
at one point but then rotate to new positions! When the section at the top of the gyro rotates
90 degrees to the side, it continues in its desire to move to the left. The same holds true for
the section at the bottom -- it rotates 90 degrees to the side and it continues in its desire to
move to the right. These forces rotate the wheel in the precession direction. As the identified
points continue to rotate 90 more degrees, their original motions are cancelled. So the
gyroscope's axle hangs in the air and precesses. When you look at it this way you can see
that precession isn't mysterious at all -- it is totally in keeping with the laws of physics!

Uses of Gyroscopes
The effect of all this is that, once you spin a gyroscope, its axle wants to keep pointing in the
same direction. If you mount the gyroscope in a set of gimbals so that it can continue
pointing in the same direction, it will. This is the basis of the gyro-compass.
If you mount two gyroscopes with their axles at right angles to one another on a platform,
and place the platform inside a set of gimbals, the platform will remain completely rigid as the
gimbals rotate in any way they please. This is this basis of inertial navigation systems
(INS).
In an INS, sensors on the gimbals' axles detect when the platform rotates. The INS uses
those signals to understand the vehicle's rotations relative to the platform. If you add to the
platform a set of three sensitive accelerometers, you can tell exactly where the vehicle is
heading and how its motion is changing in all three directions. With this information, an
airplane's autopilot can keep the plane on course, and a rocket's guidance system can insert
the rocket into a desired orbit!

Substances which can be induced to become magnetized in a magnetic field are called
ferromagnetic. Soft ferromagnetic materials become demagnetized spontaneously
when removed from a magnetic field. Hard ferromagnetic materials can retain their
magnetism, making them useful in the production of permanent magnets.

A compass is a magnet which can align itself within the earth's magnetic field.

A magnet contains a north-seeking pole (north pole) and a south-seeking pole (south
pole). (The possibility of having a single monopole is being investigated.)

Similar magnetic poles repel. Opposite magnetic poles attract. (Law of Magnetic Poles)

A magnetic field is a region in space where a magnetic force can be detected.

The magnetic field is strongest at the poles of a magnet.

Magnetic lines of force are a way of representing a magnetic field.

By convention, magnetic lines of force point from north to south outside a magnet (and
from south to north inside a magnet).

Magnetic lines of force form complete loops. They never cross.

The magnetic poles of the earth are not located at the geographic poles. The angle
between the geographic North Pole and the magnetic "north" pole is called the magnetic
declination.

The angle of declination depends on one's location on earth.

The earth's magnetic field does not run parallel to the earth's surface. The angle of
magnetic dip is the measure from the horizontal plane to the magnetic lines of force.
This also varies depending on one's position on the surface of the earth.

The angle of magnetic dip is very large in the vicinity of the earth's magnetic poles,
making navigation difficult.

The earth's magnetic field moves very slightly over long periods of time. Plate tectonics
may help to account for this phenomenon.

Ore bodies in the Earth can influence the strength of the Earth's magnetic field.

The units for magnetic field strength are the weber/m2, called the tesla. More familiar
units representing the same thing are N/(A.m)

See also: How to apply the Compass Error

 Before the development of
sophisticated electronic and
sound detection systems,
navigators calculated
directions from objects in the
sky the sun, the North Star,
and the moon. A much more
reliable guide for finding
direction is a magnetic
compass, which works at all
times and in most places.
When a piece of magnetized
iron is placed on a splinter of
wood and floated in a bowl of
water, the wood will swing
until the iron is pointing north
and south. Any other
direction can be found.

In China and Europe the magnetized iron found in the lodestone, a naturally
occurring magnetic ore, was used to make a floating compass in the 12th
century. Soon afterward it was discovered that an iron or steel needle touched
long enough by a lodestone also had the tendency to align itself in a north-south
direction. A small pocket compass works on the same principle as the first
crude compass: instead of a lodestone and a wood splinter, it has a magnetized
needle that swings on a pivot to indicate north. Larger compasses have two or
more parallel needles attached to the underside of a disk called a compass card.

The compass works because the Earth itself is a huge magnet. Its magnetic
poles are oval areas about 1,300 miles (2,100 kilometers) from the geographic
North and South poles. Irregular lines of force connect the magnetic poles, and
the compass needle simply aligns itself with these lines of force. In a few
places, where lines of force happen to lie along meridians (that is, where
magnetic north and true north coincide), the compass points to true north. Near
the magnetic pole the magnetic compass is useless because there the lines of
force are vertical straight down into the Earth. In other areas iron ore deposits
affect the compass's accuracy. Generally, however, the magnetic compass
points a little east or west of true north. The angle between true north and
magnetic north is called variation or declination. A compass rose, or graduated
circle, is used to measure this angle on charts.

A compass card usually has direction pointers consisting of 32 points. The four
principal, or cardinal, points are north, east, south, and west. They are marked
N, E, S, and W. Between these lie the intercardinal points, such as northeast
(NE). Further division gives such points as north-northeast (NNE). A final
division is by points, such as north by east (N by E). Naming all the points of a
compass in their order is called boxing the compass.

Surveyors, navigators, and similar technicians need more exact directions they
use degrees. The compass card has 360 degrees marked on it. North is 000° (or
360°); East, 090° ; South, 180° ; and West, 270°.
On ships the magnetic compass is usually carried in a stand called a binnacle. It
holds a bowl containing the compass card with its needles mounted on a pivot
and has a provision for illuminating the compass face from below. The bowl is
filled with a nonfreezing liquid on which the card floats to reduce vibrations.
On the forward inside edge of the bowl is a vertical line called a lubber's line.
This marks the "dead ahead" of the ship. In steering, the helmsman watches the
mark for his course on the compass card, keeping it always opposite the
lubber's line.
A compass aboard a ship is affected by the magnetic force of the ship itself,
which acts like a huge magnet. The effect of this magnetism on the compass is
called deviation. It is measured by the angle between compass north and
magnetic north. Variation and deviation together pull the compass away from
true north by an amount called compass error.

Navigators remove most of the deviation by compensating the compass. They

take the ship to a range where they line it up with markers indicating the four
cardinal points. Then they "swing ship" by pivoting the craft so that the bow
points in turn to each of the markers. They remove the deviation on each
heading by placing counteracting magnets in the binnacle these magnets serve
to cancel the magnetic effects of the metal in the ship.

In an effort to develop a navigational instrument whose accuracy would be

unaffected by stray magnetic fields, the gyrocompass, which does not use
magnetism, was developed. Gyrocompasses are often used in modern
navigation systems because they can be set to point to true north rather than to
magnetic north. Today large ships carry both magnetic compasses and
gyrocompasses.

Special compasses have also been developed for airplanes. Gyroscopic systems
are especially useful in such applications because, unlike magnetic compasses,
their accuracy is not affected by rapid alterations of course or speed.
The aperiodic compass is a magnetic compass whose needle is extremely stable
under most flying conditions for aircraft. The magnesyn compass is a remote-
indicating magnetic compass. Readings from its pickup coil are transmitted to
repeaters in other parts of the airplane.

Both the gyro flux gate compass and the gyrosyn compass are remote-
indicating, gyrostabilized compasses. For its indications, the obsolete Earth-
inductor compass used current generated in a coil revolving in the Earth's
magnetic field.

The astrocompass is an astronomical instrument by which the air or sea

navigator finds the true heading by sighting a celestial body. A form of
astrocompass is the sun compass, which utilizes the shadow of a pin.

Local Magnetic Anomalies

In various parts of the world, magnetic ores on or just below the seabed may
give rise to local magnetic anomalies resulting in the temporary deflection of
the magnetic compass needle when a ship passes over them. The areas of
disturbance are usually small unless there are many anomalies close together.
The amount of the deflection will depend on the depth of water and the strength
of the magnetic force generated by the magnetic ores. However, the magnetic
force will seldom be strong enough to deflect the compass needle in depths
greater than about 1500 m. Similarly, a ship would have to be within 8 cables
of a nearby land mass containing magnetic ores for a deflection of the needle to
occur.

Deflections may also be due to wrecks lying on the bottom in moderate depths,
but investigations have proved that, while deflections of unpredictable amount
may be expected when very close to such wrecks, it is unlikely that deflections
in excess of 7° will be experienced, nor should the disturbance be felt beyond a
distance of 250 m.

Greater deflections may be experienced when in close quarters with a ship

carrying a large cargo such as iron ore, which readily reacts to induced
magnetism.

Power cables carrying direct current can cause deflection of the compass
needle. The amount of the deflection depends on the magnitude of the electric
current and the angle the cable makes with the magnetic meridian. Small
vessels with an auto-pilot dependent upon a magnetic sensor may experience
steering difficulties if crossing such a cable.

The Effect of Magnetic and Ionospheric Storms on the Compass

Needle

Disturbances on the sun may cause disturbances of the magnetic compass

needle and interference with radio communications.
At the time of an intense solar flare or eruption, a flash of ultra-violet light and
a stream of charged particles are emitted from the sun.

The flash of ultra-violet light takes only 8 minutes to reach the Earth, where it
produces great ionisation (electrification) at abnormally low layers of the upper
atmosphere. Short radio waves which travel round the Earth by being reflected
from a higher layer of the upper atmosphere cannot penetrate this barrier of
ionisation and a radio 'fade-out' is experienced. Long radio waves however may
be reflected more strongly from the base of the lower layer of ionisation. Since
these short range radio fade-outs and long wave enhancements are caused by
the effects of ultra-violet light from the sun, they are confined to the sunlit side
of the Earth and are almost simultaneous with the flare, lasting on the average
for about 20 minutes.

The stream of charged particles, travelling much more slowly than light, arrives
at the Earth, if it is suitably directed, at from 1 to about 3 days after it leaves the
sun; it visibly signals its arrival by producing a bright and active aurora. It too
causes great ionisation in the upper atmosphere, which is much more prolonged
than that caused by the ultra-violet light. There is again deterioration in short
wave radio communications, which may be a complete 'black-out' in higher
latitudes. At this time currents of the order of a million amperes may circulate
in the upper atmosphere. The magnetic field of the fluctuating currents is
appreciable at the Earth's surface and may deflect a compass needle noticeably
from its normal position. The effects on these so-called magnetic and
ionospheric storms, which may persist with varying intensity for several days,
are usually greatest in higher latitudes. Radio 'black-outs' and simultaneous
deviations of the magnetic compass needle by several degrees are not
uncommon in and near auroral zones. When a great aurora is seen in
abnormally low latitudes, it is invariably accompanied by a magnetic and
ionospheric storm. Unlike the fade-out which occurs only on the sunlit side of
Earth, the interference with radio communications which accompanies an
aurora and magnetic storm may occur by day and at night.

All these effects occur most frequently and in most intense forms at the time of
sunspot maximum; maxima are likely to occur in 2001-02.

B
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e
o
p
p
os
it
e
p
oi
nt
.
to
N
.E
.
?

A
.
S.
W
.

W
it
h
a
v
er
y
lit
tl
e
at
te
nt
io
n
to
th
e
q
u
es
ti
o
n,
th
e
y
o
u
n
g
b
e
gi
n
n
er
w
ill
b
e
a
bl
e
to
a
ns
w
er
a
n
y
o
p
p
os
it
e
p
oi
nt
s
m
os
t
re
a
di
ly
,
al
w
a
ys
b
ea
ri
n
g
in
m
in
d
th
at
th
e
le
tt
er
N
.
is
o
p
p
os
it
e
to
S.
,
a
n
d
E,
to
W
.,
a
n
d
re
m
e
m
b
er
in
g
th
at
t
w
o
or
th
re
e
of
th
es
e
le
tt
er
s
a
d
d
e
d
to
g
et
h
er
re
pr
es
e
nt
al
l
th
e
p
oi
nt
s
of
th
e
c
o
m
p
as
s.
F
or
in
st
a
n
ce
:
E.
N
.
E.
is
th
e
o
p
p
os
it
e
p
oi
nt
to
W
.
S.
W
.|
S.
S.
E.
to
N
.
N
.
W
.|
N
.E
.
b
y
E.
to
S.
W
.
b
y
W
.|
N
.
W
.
b
y
N
.
to
S.
E.
b
y
S.
|
N
.E
.
b
y
N
.
�
.
N
.|
S.
W
.
b
y
S.
�

S.
|
W
.
�

N
.
to
E.
�

S.
|
N
.
�

E.
to
S.
�

W
.,
a
n
d
so
o
n,
to
a
n
y
p
oi
nt
of
th
e
c
o
m
p
as
s.

T
H
E
C
O
M
P
A
S
S
M
A
D
E
E
A
S
Y
.

C
a
r
di
n
al
P
oi
nt
s.

T
h
e
c
o
m
p
as
s
is
c
o
m
p
os
e
d
of
fo
ur
le
tt
er
s
o
nl
y
-
N
.
S.
E.
a
n
d
W
.,
w
hi
c
h
re
pr
es
e
nt
th
e
fo
ur
ca
rd
in
al
p
oi
nt
s
-
vi
z.
,
N
or
th
,
M
o
ut
h,
E
as
t,
a
n
d
W
es
t.

H
al
f-
C
a
r
di
n
al
P
oi
nt
s.

S
o
ca
ll
e
d
b
ec
a
us
e
th
e
y
c
o
m
e
h
al
f
w
a
y
b
et
w
ee
n
t
w
o
ca
rd
in
al
p
oi
nt
s
fr
o
m
w
hi
c
h
th
e
y
d
er
iv
e
th
ei
r
n
a
m
es
.
T
h
us
,
N
.E
.
c
o
m
es
b
et
w
ee
n
N
or
th
a
n
d
E
as
t,
a
n
d
b
y
a
d
di
n
g
th
e
t
w
o
le
tt
er
s
to
g
et
h
er
,
N
.
E.
is
pr
o
d
u
ce
d;
in
li
k
e
m
a
n
n
er
th
e
ot
h
er
h
al
f-
ca
rd
in
al
p
oi
nt
s
ar
e
fo
r
m
e
d-
vi
z.
,
N
.
W
.,
S.
E.
,
a
n
d
S.
W
.
T
h
er
e
ar
e
fo
ur
h
al
f-
ca
rd
in
al
p
oi
nt
s.

F
al
s
e
P
oi
nt
s.

S
o
ca
ll
e
d
b
ec
a
us
e
th
e
y
b
or
ro
w
th
ei
r
n
a
m
es
fr
o
m
th
e
t
w
o
p
oi
nt
s
b
et
w
ee
n
w
hi
c
h
th
e
y
c
o
m
e.
T
h
us
,
N
.
N
.E
.
c
o
m
es
b
et
w
ee
n
N
or
th
a
n
d
N
.E
.,
a
n
d
b
y
p
ut
ti
n
g
th
es
e
t
w
o
p
oi
nt
s
to
g
et
h
er
,
ta
ki
n
g
ca
re
to
p
ut
th
e
le
tt
er
of
th
e
n
ea
re
st
ca
rd
in
al
p
oi
nt
fi
rs
t,
N
.
N
.E
.
is
pr
o
d
u
ce
d
;
in
li
k
e
m
a
n
n
er
ar
e
al
l
th
e
ot
h
er
fa
ls
e
p
oi
nt
s
fo
r
m
e
d
:
th
e
y
ar
e
as
fo
ll
o
w
s:
E.
N
.E
.,
E.
S.
E.
,
S.
S.
E.
,
S.
S.
W
.,
W
.S
.
W
.,
W
.
N
.
W
.,
a
n
d
N
.
N
.
W
.
T
h
er
e
ar
e
ei
g
ht
fa
ls
e
p
oi
nt
s.

T
h
e
B
y-
P
oi
nt
s.

S
o
ca
ll
e
d
b
ec
a
us
e
th
e
y
d
er
iv
e
th
ei
r
n
a
m
es
fr
o
m
th
e
n
ea
re
st
ca
rd
in
al
or
h
al
f-
ca
rd
in
al
p
oi
nt
s
th
e
y
ar
e
n
ea
r
or
b
y.
T
h
us
;
N
.
b
y
E.
is
b
y
or
n
ea
r
N
or
th
,
a
n
d
ta
ki
n
g
a
di
re
ct
io
n
to
w
ar
ds
L
as
t
b
ec
o
m
es
N
.
b
y
E.

N
.E
.
b
y
N
.
is
b
y
or
n
ea
r
N
.E
.,
b
ut
b
ei
n
g
n
ea
re
r
N
or
th
th
a
n
E
as
t
it
b
ec
o
m
es
N
.E
.
b
y
N
.;
in
li
k
e
m
a
n
n
er
al
l
th
e
ot
h
er
b
y-
p
oi
nt
s
d
er
iv
e
th
ei
r
n
a
m
e:
th
e
y
ar
e
th
e
fo
ll
o
w
in
g:
N
.E
.
b
y
E.
,
E.
b
y
N
.,
E,
b
y
S.
,
S.
E.
b
y
E.
,
S.
E.
b
y
S.
,
S.
b
y
E.
,
S.
b
y
W
.,
S.
W
.
b
y
S.
,
S.
W
.
b
y
W
.,
W
.
b
y
S.
,
W
 .
b
y
N
.,
N
.
W
.
b
y
W
.,
N
.
W
.
b
y,
N
.,
a
n
d
N
.
b
y
W
.-
1
6
in
n
u
m
b
er
.

H
al
f-
ca
rd
in
al
p
oi
nt
s
ar
e
al
w
a
ys
fo
ur
p
oi
nt
s
fr
o
m
a
ca
rd
in
al
p
oi
nt
;
if
a
sh
ip
's
h
ea
d
m
ar
ks
a
ca
rd
in
al
p
oi
nt
,
su
c
h,
fo
r
in
st
a
n
ce
,
as
N
or
th
,
h
er
st
er
n
a
n
d
ei
th
er
b
ea
m
w
ill
al
so
m
ar
k
a
ca
rd
in
al
p
oi
nt
:
h
al
f-
ca
rd
in
al
p
oi
nt
s
m
ar
ki
n
g
th
e
t
w
o
b
o
w
s
a
n
d
q
u
ar
te
rs
:

F
o
r
E
x
a
m
pl
e.

S
hi
p'
s
h
ea
d
is
N
or
th
,
or
st
er
n
is
S
o
ut
h,
p
or
t-
b
ea
m
W
es
t,
st
ar
b
o
ar
d-
b
ea
m
E
as
t,
p
or
t-
b
o
w
N
.
W
.,
st
ar
b
o
ar
d
b
o
w
N
.E
.,
p
or
t
q
u
ar
te
r
S.
W
.,
st
ar
b
o
ar
d
q
u
ar
te
r
S.
E.

P
A
R
T
II
.

Q
.
H
o
w
ar
e
th
e
p
oi
nt
s
of
th
e
c
o
m
p
as
s
re
c
k
o
n
e
d
?

A
.
Fr
o
m
N
or
th
a
n
d
S
o
ut
h,
to
E
as
t
a
n
d
W
es
t.

N
.
b
y
E.
|
N
.
b
y
W
.|
S.
b
y
E.
|
S.
b
y
W
.
�
�
�
�
...
O
n
e
p
oi
nt
.

N
.
N
.
E.
|
N
.
N
.
W
.|
S.
S.
E.
|
S.
S.
W
...
...
..
�
�
�
T
w
o
p
oi
nt
s.

N
.E
.
b
y
N
.|
N
.
W
.
b
y
N
.|
S.
E.
b
y
S.
|
S.
W
.
b
y
S.
T
hr
ee
p
oi
nt
s

N
.
E.
|
N
.
W
.|
S.
E.
|
S.
W
...
...
...
...
�
�
�
�
F
o
ur
p
oi
nt
s.

N
.E
.
b
y
E.
|
N
.
W
.
b
y
W
.|
S.
E.
b
y
E.
|
S.
W
.
b
y
W
...
.F
iv
e
p
oi
nt
s

E.
N
.
E.
|
W
.
N
.
W
.|
E.
S.
E.
|
W
.
S.
W
...
..
�
�
�
�
Si
x
p
oi
nt
s.

E.
b
y
N
.|
W
.
b
y
N
.|
E.
b
y
S.
|
W
.
b
y
S.
...
..
�
�
�

S
e
v
e
n
p
oi
nt
s.

E
as
t
a
n
d
W
es
t
�
�
�

�
�
�
�
..
Ei
g
ht
p
oi
nt
s.

Q
.
H
o
w
cl
os
e
to
th
e
w
in
d
w
ill
a
sh
ip
la
y
?

A
.
W
h
e
n
th
e
sa
il
s
ar
e
w
el
l
se
t,
a
sh
ip
is
su
p
p
os
e
d
to
la
y
fi
v
e
p
oi
nt
s
fr
o
m
th
e
w
in
d,
b
ut
in
m
os
t
ca
se
s
it
is
si
x
p
oi
nt
s.

Q
.
S
u
p
p
os
in
g
a
sh
ip
to
la
y
fi
v
e
p
oi
nt
s
fr
o
m
th
e
w
in
d,
h
o
w
m
a
n
y
w
ill
sh
e
ta
c
k
in
?

A
.
T
e
n
p
oi
nt
s.

Q
.
H
o
w
m
a
n
y
w
ill
sh
e
w
ea
r
in
?

A
.
T
w
e
nt
y-
t
w
o
p
oi
nt
s.

Q
.
W
h
at
d
o
y
o
u
m
ea
n
b
y
ta
c
ki
n
g
a
sh
ip
?

A
.
S
u
p
p
os
in
g
a
sh
ip
to
b
e
sa
ili
n
g
cl
os
e
to
th
e
w
in
d
o
n
th
e
st
ar
b
o
ar
d
ta
c
k,
la
yi
n
g
S.
E.
b
y
E.
,
th
e
w
in
d
w
o
ul
d
h
e
S
o
ut
h.
B
y
m
a
n
o
e
u
vr
in
g
th
e
h
el
m
a
n
d
sa
il
s,
sh
e
is
br
o
u
g
ht
h
ea
d
to
w
in
d,
a
n
d
p
ai
d
of
f
o
n
th
e
p
or
t
ta
c
k,
u
nt
il
th
e
sa
il
s
ar
e
a
g
ai
n
fu
ll,
or
h
er
h
ea
d
is
S.
W
.
b
y
W
.;
sh
e
w
o
ul
d
th
e
n
li
e
o
n
th
e
p
or
t
ta
c
k,
su
p
p
os
in
g
th
e
w
in
d
to
b
e
st
ea
d
y,
a
n
d
th
e
sh
ip
w
o
ul
d
w
or
k
in
te
n
p
oi
nt
s
or
li
e
fi
v
e
p
oi
nt
s
fr
o
m
th
e
w
in
d.

Q
.
W
h
at
is
th
e
m
ea
ni
n
g
of
a
sh
ip
b
ei
n
g
o
n
th
e
p
or
t
or
st
ar
b
o
ar
d
ta
c
k
?

A
.
It
is
sa
id
a
sh
ip
is
o
n
th
e
p
or
t
ta
c
k
w
h
e
n
sh
e
h
as
h
er
p
or
t
ta
c
ks
o
n
b
o
ar
d,
or
th
e
w
in
d
is
bl
o
w
in
g
fi
v
e
p
oi
nt
s
o
n
th
e
p
or
t
b
o
w
,
w
hi
c
h
is
ca
ll
e
d
th
e
w
ea
th
er
b
o
w
.

Q
.
W
h
at
d
o
y
o
u
m
ea
n
b
y
th
e
w
ea
th
er
a
n
d
le
e
b
o
w
,
a
n
d
h
o
w
ar
e
th
e
y
di
st
in
g
ui
sh
e
d
?

A
.
T
h
e
w
ea
th
er
b
o
w
or
si
d
e
of
a
sh
ip
is
th
e
si
d
e
o
n
w
hi
c
h
th
e
w
in
d
bl
o
w
s.
T
h
e
le
e
b
o
w
or
si
d
e
w
ill
,
of
c
o
ur
se
,
b
e
th
e
o
p
p
os
it
e
to
th
at
fr
o
m
w
hi
c
h
th
e
w
in
d
bl
o
w
s.
T
h
e
sh
ee
ts
of
fo
re
a
n
d
af
t
sa
il
s
ar
e
h
a
ul
e
d
af
t
o
n
th
e
le
e
si
d
e.

Q
.
W
h
at
is
th
e
m
ea
ni
n
g
of
w
ea
ri
n
g
a
sh
ip
?

A
.
T
o
ru
n
h
er
of
f
b
ef
or
e
th
e
w
in
d,
a
n
d
br
in
g
h
er
to
th
e
w
in
d
o
n
th
e
ot
h
er
ta
c
k.

Q
.
W
h
at
d
o
y
o
u
m
ea
n
b
y
st
ee
ri
n
g
a
sh
ip
?

A
.
T
o
m
o
v
e
h
er
h
ea
d
in
a
n
y
p
ar
ti
c
ul
ar
di
re
ct
io
n,
or
k
ee
p
h
er
o
n
a
n
y
gi
v
e
n
c
o
ur
se
.

Q
.
H
o
w
is
a
sh
ip
's
h
ea
d
m
o
v
e
d
or
k
e
pt
in
a
n
y
p
ar
ti
c
ul
ar
di
re
ct
io
n
?

A
.
B
y
m
ea
ns
of
th
e
h
el
m
,
w
hi
c
h
is
c
o
m
p
os
e
d
of
th
e
ru
d
d
er
,
til
le
r,
or
y
o
k
e,
til
le
r
ro
p
es
,
a
n
d
w
h
ee
l.

A
ll
sh
ip
s
ar
e
fit
te
d
w
it
h
til
le
rs
,
w
it
h
th
e
e
x
ce
pt
io
n
of
sc
re
w
sh
ip
s,
w
hi
c
h
ar
e,
ac
c
or
di
n
g
to
th
e
sp
ac
e
a
b
af
t
th
e
sc
re
w
c
h
a
m
b
er
,
fit
te
d
ei
th
er
w
it
h
a
til
le
r
or
y
o
k
e.
A
si
n
gl
e
bl
o
c
k
is
se
iz
e
d
o
n
th
e
fo
re
m
os
t
e
n
d
of
th
e
til
le
r,
w
h
e
n
sh
ip
p
e
d
b
ef
or
e
th
e
ru
d
d
er
h
ea
d,
a
n
d
o
n
th
e
af
te
r
e
n
d
of
th
e
til
le
r
w
h
e
n
sh
ip
p
e
d
a
b
af
t
th
e
ru
d
d
er
h
ea
d
;
y
o
k
es
h
a
v
e
g
e
n
er
al
ly
t
w
o
m
et
al
sh
ea
v
es
fit
te
d
at
ea
c
h
e
n
d.

Ti
ll
er
ro
p
es
ar
e
ro
v
e
th
e
sa
m
e
w
a
y
in
al
l
sh
ip
s,
w
h
et
h
er
fit
te
d
w
it
h
a
til
le
r
or
y
o
k
e,
so
th
e
m
o
v
e
m
e
nt
of
th
e
w
h
ee
l
w
ill
b
e
al
ik
e
in
al
l
sh
ip
s.

Q
.
H
o
w
d
o
y
o
u
k
n
o
w
in
w
h
at
di
re
ct
io
n
a
sh
ip
is
st
ee
ri
n
g
?

A
,
B
y
m
ea
ns
of
lu
b
b
er
's
p
oi
nt
a
n
d
th
e
c
o
m
p
as
s
ca
rd
.

Q
.
W
h
at
is
lu
b
b
er
's
p
oi
nt
?

A
.
A
bl
ac
k
li
n
e
dr
a
w
n
d
o
w
n
th
e
ce
nt
re
of
th
e
m
et
al
b
o
w
l
in
w
hi
c
h
th
e
c
o
m
p
as
s
ca
rd
is
sh
ip
p
e
d,
in
a
di
re
ct
li
n
e
w
it
h
th
e
sh
ip
's
h
ea
d,
a
n
d
as
th
e
sh
ip
's
h
ea
d
m
o
v
es
to
th
e
ri
g
ht
or
th
e
le
ft,
th
e
c
o
m
p
as
s
ca
rd
re
v
ol
v
es
p
as
t
th
e
li
n
e
ca
ll
e
d
lu
b
b
er
's
p
oi
nt
,
w
h
at
e
v
er
p
oi
nt
of
th
e
c
o
m
p
as
s
c
ut
s
th
is
li
n
e,
d
e
n
ot
es
th
e
c
o
ur
se
th
e
sh
ip
is
st
ee
ri
n
g.

Q
.
W
h
at
is
th
e
m
ea
ni
n
g
of
lu
ff,
or
gi
vi
n
g
a
sh
ip
le
e
h
el
m
,
or
p
ut
ti
n
g
th
e
h
el
m
d
o
w
n
?

A
.
T
o
br
in
g
th
e
sh
ip
's
h
ea
d
n
ea
re
r
th
e
w
in
d.

Q
.
W
h
at
is
th
e
m
ea
ni
n
g
of
"
k
ee
p
h
er
a
w
ay
,"
or
"
gi
v
e
h
er
w
ea
th
er
h
el
m
,"
or
"
p
ut
ti
n
g
th
e
h
el
m
u
p
"
?

A
.
T
o
ru
n
th
e
sh
ip
's
h
ea
d
of
f
th
e
w
in
d.

Q
.
W
h
at
is
th
e
m
ea
ni
n
g
of
"
v
er
y
w
el
l
th
us
,"
"
th
us
a
n
d
n
o
hi
g
h
er
"?

A
.
H
er
h
ea
d
is
in
a
v
er
y
g
o
o
d
di
re
ct
io
n,
b
ut
y
o
u
ar
e
n
ot
to
br
in
g
h
er
a
n
y
cl
os
er
th
e
w
in
d.

P
A
R
T
II
I.

Q
.
W
h
at
is
th
e
m
ea
ni
n
g
of
"
n
ot
hi
n
g
of
f"
?

A
.
T
o
k
ee
p
th
e
sh
ip
's
h
ea
d
as
cl
os
e
to
th
e
w
in
d
as
p
os
si
bl
e
w
it
h
o
ut
sh
a
ki
n
g
th
e
sa
il.

Q
.
If
a
sh
ip
's
h
ea
d
is
S.
E.
,
a
n
d
sh
e
is
o
n
th
e
st
ar
b
o
ar
d
ta
c
k,
la
yi
n
g
fi
v
e
p
oi
nt
s
fr
o
m
th
e
w
in
d,
h
o
w
is
th
e
w
in
d
?

A
.
S.
b
y
W
.

Q
.
If
sh
e
w
as
o
n
th
e
p
or
t
ta
c
k,
h
o
w
w
o
ul
d
th
e
w
in
d
b
e
?

A
.
E.
b
y
N
.

Q
.
If
h
er
h
ea
d
is
E
as
t,
a
n
d
sh
e
is
o
n
th
e
p
or
t
ta
c
k,
h
o
w
is
th
e
w
in
d
?

A
.
N
.E
.
b
y
N
.

Q
.
If
sh
e
w
as
o
n
th
e
st
ar
b
o
ar
d
ta
c
k
w
it
h
h
er
h
ea
d
E
as
t?

A
.
S.
E.
b
y
S.

Q
.
If
h
er
h
ea
d
w
as
W
.S
.
W
.
o
n
th
e
p
or
t
ta
c
k,
a
n
d
th
e
sh
ip
w
as
cl
os
e
to
th
e
w
in
d,
w
hi
c
h
w
o
ul
d
b
e
S.
b
y
W
.,
a
n
d
y
o
u
w
er
e
o
n
th
e
lo
o
k
o
ut
at
th
e
m
as
th
ea
d,
a
n
d
sa
w
a
sh
ip
b
ea
ri
n
g
W
es
t,
or
o
n
a
n
y
of
th
e
fo
ll
o
w
in
g
b
ea
ri
n
gs
,
h
o
w
w
o
ul
d
y
o
u
re
p
or
t
h
er
?

A
.
If
b
ea
ri
n
g
W
.,
t
w
o.
p
oi
nt
s
o
n
th
e
le
e
b
o
w
.

If
sh
e
b
or
e
W
.
N
.
W
.,
fo
ur
p
oi
nt
s
o
n
th
e
le
e
b
o
w
.

If
sh
e
b
or
e
S.
S.
E.
,
o
n
th
e
w
ea
th
er
b
ea
m
.

If
sh
e
b
or
e
N
.E
.,
o
n
th
e
le
e
q
u
ar
te
r.

If
sh
e
b
or
e
E.
N
.E
.,
ri
g
ht
as
te
rn
.

If
sh
e
b
or
e
S.
E.
,
t
w
o
p
oi
nt
s
a
b
af
t
th
e
w
ea
th
er
b
ea
m
.

If
sh
e
b
or
e
S.
S.
W
.,
fo
ur
p
oi
nt
s
o
n
th
e
w
ea
th
er
b
o
w
.

Q
.
W
h
at
d
o
y
o
u
ca
ll
ri
g
ht
a
b
ea
m
?

A
.
Ei
g
ht
p
oi
nt
s
fr
o
m
ri
g
ht
a
h
ea
d
;
fo
r
in
st
a
n
ce
,
if
a
sh
ip
's
h
ea
d
is
N
or
th
,
E
as
t
a
n
d
W
es
t
is
ri
g
ht
a
b
ea
m
.

Q
.
If
a
sh
ip
is
ly
in
g
N
.
W
.
o
n
th
e
st
ar
b
o
ar
d
ta
c
k,
a
n
d
y
o
u
ar
e
or
d
er
e
d
to
k
ee
p
h
er
a
w
a
y
fo
ur
p
oi
nt
s,
h
o
w
w
ill
h
er
h
ea
d
b
e
w
h
e
n
k
e
pt
a
w
a
y
as
or
d
er
e
d
?

A
.
W
es
t.

Q
.
S
u
p
p
os
in
g
a
sh
ip
is
st
ee
ri
n
g
W
es
t,
or
a
n
y
of
th
e
fo
ll
o
w
in
g
c
o
ur
se
s
:
N
.
W
.|
E.
N
.E
.|
S.
S.
E.
|
N
.E
.
b
y
N
.|
S.
b
y
W
.
�

W
.|
E.
�

N
.|
W
.
�

S.
,
h
o
w
m
a
n
y
p
oi
nt
s
is
sh
e
st
ee
ri
n
g
fr
o
m
N
or
th
or
S
o
ut
h
?

A
.
If
W
.,
8
p
oi
nt
s|
N
.
W
.,
4
p
oi
nt
s|
E.
N
.E
.,
6
p
oi
nt
s|
S.
S.
E.
,
2
p
oi
nt
s|
N
.E
.
b
y
N
.,
3
p
oi
nt
s|
S,
b
y
W
.
�

W
.,
1
�

p
oi
nt
s|
E.
�

N
.,
7
�

p
oi
nt
s|
W
.
�

S.
,
7
�

p
oi
nt
s.

Q
.
Y
o
u
sa
y
a
sh
ip
's
c
o
ur
se
is
d
e
n
ot
e
d
in
a
n
y
di
re
ct
io
n
sh
e
m
a
y
b
e
st
ee
re
d
b
y
th
e
c
o
m
p
as
s,
w
hi
c
h
is
a
ci
rc
ul
ar
ca
rd
:
e
x
pl
ai
n
h
o
w
th
is
is
d
o
n
e
?

A
.
A
c
o
m
p
as
s
ca
rd
,
m
o
u
nt
e
d
o
n
a
m
a
g
n
et
ic
b
ar
of
st
ee
l,
af
te
r
b
ei
n
g
pr
o
p
er
ly
a
dj
us
te
d,
is
pl
ac
e
d
o
n
a
pi
v
ot
in
th
e
ce
nt
re
of
a
m
et
al
b
o
w
l,
th
e
in
si
d
e
of
w
hi
c
h
is
p
ai
nt
e
d
w
hi
te
,
a
bl
ac
k
li
n
e
b
ei
n
g
m
ar
k
e
d
d
o
w
n
fr
o
m
to
p
to
b
ot
to
m
of
th
e
b
o
w
l:
a
n
d
e
x
ac
tl
y
in
th
e
li
n
e
of
th
e
sh
ip
's
h
ea
d
or
b
o
w
s,
w
hi
c
h
is
ca
ll
e
d
th
e
lu
b
b
er
's
p
oi
nt
s
;
th
e
ca
rd
is
su
p
p
os
e
d,
w
h
e
n
'o
n
th
e
pi
v
ot
,
to
p
oi
nt
to
th
e
m
a
g
n
et
ic
N
or
th
a
n
d
S
o
ut
h,
w
it
h
o
ut
it
is
at
tr
ac
te
d
b
y
a
n
y
lo
ca
l
ca
us
e,
w
hi
c
h
is
ca
ll
e
d
d
e
vi
at
io
n.
T
h
e
b
o
w
l
c
o
nt
ai
ni
n
g
th
e
c
o
m
p
as
s
is
h
u
n
g
o
n
ji
m
bl
es
,
in
a
w
o
o
d
e
n
fr
a
m
e
ca
ll
e
d
bi
n
n
ac
le
;
a
n
d
b
y
m
o
vi
n
g
th
e
ru
d
d
er
b
y
m
ea
ns
of
th
e
til
le
r
or
w
h
ee
l,
a
sh
ip
's
h
ea
d
is
p
ut
in
a
n
y
di
re
ct
io
n
d
es
ir
e
d.

T
E
C
H
N
I
C
A
L
T
E
R
M
S
U
S
E
D
B
Y
T
H
E
O
F
F
I
C
E
R
O
R
Q
U
A
R
T
E
R
M
A
S
T
E
R
O
F
T
H
E
W
A
T
C
H
I
N
D
I
R
E
C
T
I
N
G
T
H
E
C
O
N
N
I
N
G
O
F
T
H
E
S
H
I
P.

C
o
n
ni
n
g.

A
n
y
p
er
so
n
di
re
ct
in
g
th
e
p
er
so
n
di
re
ct
in
g
th
e
h
el
m
s
m
a
n
h
o
w
to
p
ut
th
e
h
el
m
,
is
sa
id
to
b
e
c
o
n
ni
n
g
th
e
sh
ip
.

St
a
r
b
o
a
r
d
T
a
c
k.

A
sh
ip
sa
ili
n
g
w
it
h
th
e
w
in
d
bl
o
w
in
g
a
g
ai
ns
t
th
e
st
ar
b
o
ar
d
si
d
e,
w
it
h
h
er
st
ar
b
o
ar
d
ta
c
ks
h
a
ul
e
d
o
n
b
o
ar
d,
a
n
d
h
er
p
or
t
sh
ee
ts
h
a
ul
e
d
af
t,
is
sa
id
to
b
e
o
n
th
e
st
ar
b
o
ar
d
ta
c
k.

P
o
rt
T
a
c
k.

E
v
er
yt
hi
n
g
b
ei
n
g
th
e
e
x
ac
t
o
p
p
os
it
e
to
th
e
st
ar
b
o
ar
d
ta
c
k.

T
a
c
ki
n
g.
St
a
yi
n
g.
G
oi
n
g
A
b
o
ut
.

Is
a
n
e
v
ol
ut
io
n
p
er
fo
r
m
e
d
b
y
m
a
n
o
e
u
vr
in
g
th
e
sa
il
s
a
n
d
h
el
m
,
b
y
w
hi
c
h
m
ea
ns
a
sh
ip
is
m
a
d
e
to
p
as
s
ro
u
n
d
h
ea
d
to
w
in
d
fr
o
m
o
n
e
ta
c
k
to
th
e
ot
h
er
.

W
o
r
ki
n
g
o
r
B
e
at
in
g
to
W
in
d
w
a
r
d.
T
a
c
k
a
n
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^
b
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to
p
^

Standard and Steering Compasses Compasses The Chief of Naval Operations

requires that each self-propelled ship and are service craft of the United States Navy be equipped
with one or more REQUIRED magnetic compasses suitable for navigation. Except for modern
nuclear-powered submarines, all ships and craft, regardless of size or classification, must have a
magnetic steering compass at the primary steering station. Steering Compass Many ships carry more
than one magnetic compass. The primary magnetic compass is called the steering compass. It is
normally located on the centerline in the ship’s pilothouse (except aboard aircraft carriers), where it
can best be seen by the helmsman. The readings from the steering compass are labeled "per
steering compass" (PSTGC). Standard Compass If a ship has two magnetic compasses, the
second compass is called the standard compass. The ship’s standard compass is normally located
on the ship’s centerline at the secondary conning station. The readings from the standard compass
are expressed as "per standard compass" (PSC). Note The readings from the ship’s gyrocompass
are "per gyrocompass" (PGC). Courses and bearings by these compasses must be carefully
differentiated by the abbreviations. Cautions A magnetic compass cannot be expected to give
reliable service unless it is properly installed and protected from disturbing magnetic influences.
Certain precautions must be observed in the vicinity of the magnetic compass. If possible, a
compass should not be placed near iron or steel equipment that will be moved frequently. Thus, a
location near a gun, boat davit, or boat crane is not desirable. The immediate vicinity should be
kept free of sources of magnetism, particularly those of a changing nature. When possible, no
source of magnetism should be permitted within a radius of several feet of the magnetic compass.
2-6

Up Up Next
Quartermaster 3 & 2 - Military Quartermaster 3 & 2 - Military manual for the Magnetic Compass
manual for the Quartermaster rate Quartermaster rate Operation and
Next Components,
Magnetic Compass ErrorBack Continued
Standard and Steering Compasses
Magnetic Compass Operation and Components, Continued
Components The following illustrations should help you visualize the working parts of a basic
magnetic compass. Figure 2-7. Parts of a magnetic compass. 2-8

(navigation) A compass by which a craft is steered; it sometimes refers to a gyro repeater,

which is used for the same purpose as the steering compass; the term steering repeater is
preferable

navigation) A magnetic compass in which the image of the compass card is viewed by
direct reflection in a mirror adjacent to the helmsman's position.

Magnetic Compass Operation and Components Operation The operation of a magnetic compass is
very simple and can be stated as follows: "A small bar magnet freely suspended in the magnetic field
of Earth will always align itself parallel to the lines of force of that field and thus will establish a
direction." Components Use the following table, figure 2-6, and figure 2-7 to learn the parts of a
magnetic compass. Part Card Bowl Magnets Gimbals Binnacle Function The card is an aluminum disk
graduated in degrees from 0 to 359. It has a jeweled bearing that rides on a hard, sharp pivot
point. The card is supported by the bowl. A lubbers line is marked on the bowl and is used as
visible index. The bowl is filled with Varsol to dampen overswings by the card. An expansion
bellows in the lower bowl serves to allow expansion of the liquid with temperature changes. Several
bar magnets are used to correct and align the compass. The bowl has two pivots that rest in a
metal ring, which also has two pivots resting in the binnacle. This arrangement (gimbals) permits
the compass to remain level despite the motion of the ship. The binnacle serves as a housing for the
compass. It is made of a non- magnetic material. It also serves as a housing for the compasses
correctors: magnets, flinders bar, and quadrantal spheres. A lighting system is normally Figure 2-6.
Compass binnacle installed. 2-7

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Magnetic Compass Operation and Components