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(SOLMAN) Elementary Mechanics & Thermodynamics PDF
(SOLMAN) Elementary Mechanics & Thermodynamics PDF
2 VECTORS 15
8 SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES 57
9 COLLISIONS 61
10 ROTATION 65
12 OSCILLATIONS 77
13 WAVES - I 85
14 WAVES - II 87
3
4 CONTENTS
MOTION ALONG A
STRAIGHT LINE
5
6 CHAPTER 1. MOTION ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE
i) x = A
ii) x = Bt
iii) x = Ct2
iv) x = D cos ωt
v) x = E sin ωt
SOLUTION
A) X is always in m.
Thus we must have A in m; B in m sec−1 , C in m sec−2 .
ωt is always an angle, θ is radius and cos θ and sin θ have no units.
Thus ω must be sec−1 or radians sec−1 .
D and E must be m.
dx dv
B) v = dt and a = dt . Thus
i) v = 0 ii) v = B iii) v = Ct
iv) v = −ωD sin ωt v) v = ωE cos ωt
and notice that the units we worked out in part A) are all consistent
with v having units of m· sec−1 . Similarly
i) a = 0 ii) a = 0 iii) a = C
iv) a = −ω 2 D cos ωt v) a = −ω 2 E sin ωt
7
C) i) ii) iii)
x x x
t t t
v v v
t t t
a a a
t t t
8 CHAPTER 1. MOTION ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE
iv) v)
1 1
0.5 0.5
x 0 x 0
-0.5 -0.5
-1 -1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
t t
1 1
0.5 0.5
v 0 v 0
-0.5 -0.5
-1 -1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
t t
1 1
0.5 0.5
a 0 a 0
-0.5 -0.5
-1 -1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
t t
9
x x x
t t
t
SOLUTION
The velocity-time and acceleration-time graphs are:
v v v
t t t
a a a
t t t
10 CHAPTER 1. MOTION ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE
3. If you drop an object from a height H above the ground, work out a
formula for the speed with which the object hits the ground.
SOLUTION
v 2 = v02 + 2a(y − y0 )
Thus
v 2 = 0 − 2g(0 − H)
= 2gH
p
⇒ v = 2gH
11
SOLUTION
5. If you start your car from rest and accelerate to 30mph in 10 seconds,
what is your acceleration in mph per sec and in miles per hour2 ?
SOLUTION
1hour = 60 × 60sec
1
1sec = hour
60 × 60
v = v0 + at
v − v0
a =
t
30 mph − 0
=
10 sec
1 1
= 3 mph = 3 mph 1
sec ( 60 × 60
1
hour)
= 3 × 60 × 60 miles hour−2
SOLUTION
We would guess that the ball returns to the ground at the same speed
V , and we can actually prove this. The equation of motion is
v 2 = v02 + 2a(x − x0 )
and x0 = 0, x = 0, v0 = V
⇒ v 2
= V 2
or v = V
14 CHAPTER 1. MOTION ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE
Chapter 2
VECTORS
15
16 CHAPTER 2. VECTORS
SOLUTION
p q
|~r||~t| cos θ = 12 + 22 12 + (−1)2 cos θ
√ √
= 5 2 cos θ
√
= 10 cos θ
2
⇒ cos θ = √ = 0.632
10
⇒ θ = 50.80
17
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
A)
~u + ~v = ĵ + k̂ + î + ĵ = î + 2ĵ + k̂
B)
~u − ~v = ĵ + k̂ − î − ĵ = −î + k̂
C)
D)
MOTION IN 2 & 3
DIMENSIONS
19
20 CHAPTER 3. MOTION IN 2 & 3 DIMENSIONS
SOLUTION
v0
v0 y
θ
v0 x
range, R
v0y = v0 sin θ
v0x = v0 cos θ
ax = 0
x − x0 ≡ R
vx = v0x + ax t
⇒ vx = v0x
vx + v0x 2v0x
R = x − x0 = t= t = v0 cos θ t
2 2
21
ay = −g
y − y0 = 0
1
0 = y − y0 = v0y t + ay t2
2
1
= v0 sin θ t − gt2
2
1
⇒ v0 sin θ = gt
2
2v0 sin θ
⇒t =
g
2v0 sin θ 2v 2 cos θ sin θ v 2 sin 2θ
⇒ R = v0 cos θ = 0 = 0
g g g
v02 sin 2θ
i.e. R = g which is a maximum for θ = 45o .
B)
3
60×60sec ) sin(2 × 15 )
( 30×10 m 2 o
69.4 × 0.5 m2
R = =
9.8m sec−2 9.8 sec2 m sec−2
= 3.5 m
i.e. R = 3.5 m
22 CHAPTER 3. MOTION IN 2 & 3 DIMENSIONS
SOLUTION
v0 height, H
v0 y
θ
v0 x
ay = −g and H ≡ y − y0 .
vy2 = v0y
2
+ 2ay (y − y0 )
0 = v02 sin2 θ − 2gH
v02 sin2 θ
⇒ H =
2g
which is a maximum for θ = 90o , as expected.
23
SOLUTION
height, H
range, R
24 CHAPTER 3. MOTION IN 2 & 3 DIMENSIONS
v02 sin2 θ
H= 2g we see that L = 4H.
25
4. Normally if you wish to hit a bulls-eye some distance away you need to
aim a certain distance above it, in order to account for the downward
motion of the projectile. If a bulls-eye target is at a horizontal distance
D away and if you instead aim an arrow directly at the bulls-eye (i.e.
directly horiziontally), by what (downward) vertical distance would
you miss the bulls-eye ?
SOLUTION
D
In the x direction we have: ax = 0, v0x = v0 , x−x0 ≡ R.
but y0 = 0, giving y =− 2 g( v
1 D 2 1 D
) or L = 2 g( v )2 .
0 0
26 CHAPTER 3. MOTION IN 2 & 3 DIMENSIONS
SOLUTION
v0
v0 y
θ
v0 x
Let x0 = y0 = 0.
vx = v0x + ax t
= v0x because ax = 0
Also
vx + v0x
x − x0 = t
2
⇒ x = v0x t = v0 cos θt
In the y direction
1
y − y0 = v0y t + ay t2
2
1
⇒ y = v0 sin θt − gt2 because ay = −g
2
x 1 x
= v0 sin θ − g( )2
v0 cos θ 2 v0 cos θ
g
= x tan θ − 2 x2
2v0 cos2 θ
which is of the form y = ax2 + bx + c, being the general formula for a
parabola.
27
SOLUTION
A person at the equator will be flung off if the centripetal acceleration
a becomes equal to the gravitational acceleration g. Thus
A)
v2 ( 2πR )2 4π 2 R
g=a = = T =
R R T2
2
4π R
T2 =
g
s
R
T = 2π
g
B)
s
6.4 × 106 km
T = 2π
9.81 m sec−2
s
6.4 × 109 m
= 2π
9.81 m sec−2
s
6.4 × 109
= 2π sec
9.81
s
6.4 × 109 hour
= 2π
9.81 60 × 60 sec
= 44.6 hour
i.e. Earth would need to rotate about twice as fast as it does now
(24 hours).
28 CHAPTER 3. MOTION IN 2 & 3 DIMENSIONS
SOLUTION
The gravitational potential energy is U = −G Mrm where m is the mass
of the satellite and r = R + H.
Conservation of energy is
Ui + Ki = Uf + Kf
To escape to infinity then Uf = 0 and Kf = 0 (satellite is not moving
if it just barely escapes.)
Mm 1
⇒ −G + mvi2 = 0
r 2
giving the escape speed as
s
2GM
vi =
r
The speed in the circular orbit is obtained from
F = ma
Mm v2
G 2 = m
r sr
GM m
⇒ v =
r
The additional speed required is
s s
2GM GM
vi − v = −
r r
s
√ GM
= ( 2 − 1)
r
Check units:
q
N m2
F = G Mr2m and so the units of G are kg 2
. The units of GM
r are
s s
N m2 kg −2 kg kg m sec−2 m2 kg −2 kg √ 2
= = m sec−2 = m sec−1
m m
which has the correct units of speed.
29
SOLUTION
ΣF = ma
mv 2
kx =
r
mv 2 m( 2πR
T )
2
4π 2 mR
x = = =
kR kR kT 2
Check units:
The units of k are N m−1 (because F = −kx for a spring), and
2
N ≡ kg m
sec2
. Thus 4πkTmR
2 has units
kg m kg m
−1
= =m
N m sec2 kg m sec−2 m−1 sec2
which is the correct unit of distance.
30 CHAPTER 3. MOTION IN 2 & 3 DIMENSIONS
SOLUTION
v0
10. A skier starts from rest at the top of a frictionless ski slope of height
H and inclined at an angle θ to the horizontal. At the bottom of
the slope the surface changes to horizontal and has a coefficient of
kinetic friction µk between the horizontal surface and the skis. Derive
a formula for the distance d that the skier travels on the horizontal
surface before coming to a stop. (Assume that there is a constant
deceleration on the horizontal surface). Check that your answer has
the correct units.
SOLUTION
H
d
θ
vx2 = v0x
2
+ 2ax (x − x0 )
2
0 = v0x + 2ax d
F = ma
= −µk N = ma
= −µk mg
⇒ a = −µk g
Substituting gives
2
0 = v0x − 2µk gd
32 CHAPTER 3. MOTION IN 2 & 3 DIMENSIONS
2
v0x
or d =
2µk g
And we get v0x from conservation of energy applied to the ski slope
Ui + Ki = Uf + Kf
1
mgH + 0 = 0 + mv 2
p2
⇒ v = v0x = 2gH
Substituting gives
2gH H
d= =
2µk g µk
Check units:
H
µk has no units, and so the units of µk are m.
33
SOLUTION
1
y − y0 = v0y t + ay t2
2
Choose the origin to be at the top of the building from where the stone
is thrown.
y0 = 0, y = −H, ay = −g
v0y = v0 sin θ
1
⇒ −H − 0 = v0 sin θt − gt2
2
1
− gt2 + v0 sin θt + H = 0
2
or
gt2 − 2v0 sin θt − 2H = 0
which is a quadratic equation with solution
p
2v0 sin θ ± 4(v0 sin θ)2 + 8gH
t =
2g
p
v0 sin θ ± (v0 sin θ)2 + 2gH
=
g
34 CHAPTER 3. MOTION IN 2 & 3 DIMENSIONS
Chapter 4
35
36 CHAPTER 4. FORCE & MOTION - I
Chapter 5
37
38 CHAPTER 5. FORCE & MOTION - II
SOLUTION A) B)
T’
T
m m
1 2
T’
W
m 2
2
Check that your answer makes sense for θ = 0o and for θ = 90o .
SOLUTION
θ 90 −
θ
sθ
co
W
x
θ
W
sin W
θ
40 CHAPTER 5. FORCE & MOTION - II
ΣF~ = m~a
⇒ ax = g sin θ
SOLUTION N
W
R
W
42 CHAPTER 5. FORCE & MOTION - II
Bottom: Top:
mv 2 mv 2
N = W+ N =W −
R R
µ ¶ µ ¶2
m 2πR 2 m 2πR
= mg + = mg −
R T R T
2
4π R 2
4π R
= mg + m 2 = mg − m 2
T T
At the bottom the person feels heavier and at the top the person feels
lighter, which is as experience shows !
43
θ
m1
m
2
SOLUTION
Let the acceleration of both masses be a. For mass m2 (choosing m2 a
with the same sign as T ):
T − W 2 = m2 a
T = m2 a + m2 g
For mass m1 :
X X
F x = m1 a Fy = 0
F cos θ − T − Fk = m1 a N + F sin θ − W1 = 0
F cos θ − T − µN = m1 a N = m1 g − F sin θ
44 CHAPTER 5. FORCE & MOTION - II
SOLUTION
W
R
W
46 CHAPTER 5. FORCE & MOTION - II
Bottom: Top:
m1
R
m2
SOLUTION
Forces on m2 : Forces on m1 :
X X
Fy = m2 ay Fx = m1 ax
v2 m1 (2πR/t)2
T − W 2 = m2 a T = m1 =
R R
m1 4π 2 R
=
t2
where we have chosen m2 a and T with the same sign.
Substituting we obtain
m1 4π 2 R
− m2 g = m2 a
T2
giving the acceleration as
m1 4π 2 R
a= −g
m2 t2
The acceleration will be zero if
m1 4π 2 R
=g
m2 t2
i.e.
m1 4π 2 R
t2 =
m2 g
or s
m1 R
t = 2π
m2 g
D) If
s
R
m1 = m2 ⇒ t = 2π
g
for R = 9.81 m
r
9.81 m √
⇒ t = 2π −2
= 2π sec2 = 2π sec
9.81 m sec
49
SOLUTION
A) We have: v=0 x0 = 0
v 2 = v02 + 2a(x − x0 )
0 = v02 + 2a(d − 0)
⇒ v02 = −2ad
v2
⇒ a = − 0
2d
which gives the force as
mv02
F = ma = −
2d
mv02
F = µk N = µk mg =
2d
v2
⇒ µk = 0
2dg
50 CHAPTER 5. FORCE & MOTION - II
C) The force is
mv02
F = −
2d
1000kg × (60 × 103 m hour−1 )2
= −
2 × 200m
1000kg × (60 × 103 m)2
= −
2 × 200m × (60 × 60sec)2
kg m
= −694
sec2
= −694 N ewton
= 0.07
51
52 CHAPTER 6. KINETIC ENERGY & WORK
Chapter 7
53
54CHAPTER 7. POTENTIAL ENERGY & CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
SOLUTION
The situation is shown in the figure.
Fk
N
H
θ 90 −
θ ∆x
sθ
co
W
θ x
W
sin W
θ
55
∆U + ∆K = WN C
= Uf − Ui + Kf − Ki
KF = Ui + WN C
H
KF = Ui − Fk ∆x where ∆x =
sin θ
1 H
mv 2 = mgH − µk N
2 sin θ
F = ma
N − W cos θ = 0
N = W cos θ
= mg cos θ
1 H
⇒ mv 2 = mgH − µk mg cos θ
2 sin θ
H
v = 2gH − 2µk g
2
tan θ
µk
= 2gH(1 − )
tan θ
r
µk
v = 2gH(1 − )
tan θ
56CHAPTER 7. POTENTIAL ENERGY & CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
Chapter 8
SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES
57
58 CHAPTER 8. SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES
SOLUTION
The position of the center of mass is
1 X
~rcm = mi~ri
M i
P
with M ≡ mi . The x and y coordinates are
i
1 X 1 X
xcm = mi xi and ycm = mi yi
M i M i
1 1
= × = ×
m + 2m + m m + 2m + m
×(m × 1 + 2m × 0 + m × 1) ×(m × 0 + 2m × 1 + m × 1)
1 2m 1 3m
= (m + 0 + m) = = (0 + 2m + m) =
4m 4m 4m 4m
1 3
= =
2 4
Thus the coordinates of the center of mass are
µ ¶
1 3
(xcm , ycm ) = ,
2 4
59
2. Consider a square flat table-top. Prove that the center of mass lies at
the center of the table-top, assuming a constant mass density.
SOLUTION
Let the length of the table be L and locate it on the x–y axis so that
one corner is at the origin and the x and y axes lie along the sides
of the table. Assuming the table has a constant area mass density σ,
locate the position of the center of mass.
Z
1 X 1
xcm = mi xi = x dm
M i M
Z
1 dm M
= x σdA with σ = =
MZ dA A
σ
= x dA if σ is constant
M
Z LZ L
1
= x dx dy with A = L2
A 0 0
· ¸
1 1 2 L L
= x [y]0
A 2 0
11 2 L3 L3
= L ×L= =
A2 2A 2L2
1
= L
2
and similarly for Z
σ 1
ycm = y dA = L
M 2
Thus µ ¶
1 1
(xcm , ycm ) = L, L as expected
2 2
60 CHAPTER 8. SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES
SOLUTION
Conservation of momentum in the x direction is
X X
pix = pf x
(mc + ms )v0 = ms v
where v is the new final speed of the sled, or
µ ¶
mc
v = 1+ v0
ms
the change in speed is
mc
v − v0 = v0
ms
which will be large for small ms or large mc .
Chapter 9
COLLISIONS
61
62 CHAPTER 9. COLLISIONS
vT
vPi
α x
m1 m2 θ
vP
63
ROTATION
65
66 CHAPTER 10. ROTATION
1. Show that the ratio of the angular speeds of a pair of coupled gear
wheels is in the inverse ratio of their respective radii. [WS 13-9]
SOLUTION
2. Consider the point of contact of the two coupled gear wheels. At that
point the tangential velocity of a point on each (touching) wheel must
be the same.
v1 = v2
⇒ r 1 ω 1 = r2 ω 2
ω1 r2
⇒ =
ω2 r1
67
SOLUTION
The total linear acceleration is given by a vector sum of the radial and
tangential accelerations
q
a= a2t + a2r
v2
ar = = ω2r
r
and
at = rα
so that p p
a= r 2 α2 + ω 4 r 2 = r ω 4 + α2
68 CHAPTER 10. ROTATION
SOLUTION
rev 2π radians 2π rad
ω0 = 33 = 33 = 33
min min 60 sec
= 3.46 rad sec−1
ω = 0
t = 20 sec
34.6 radian
number of rotations = = 5.5
2πradian
69
SOLUTION
Conservation of energy is
Ki + Ui = Kf + Uf
1 1
0 + mgH = mv 2 + Iω 2 + 0
2 2
For a cylindrical shell I = mR2 . Thus
1 1
mgH = mv 2 + mR2 ω 2
2 2
and v = rω giving (with m cancelling out)
1 2 1 2 v 2
gH = v + R ( )
2 2 R
1 2 1 2
= v + v
2 2
= v2
p
⇒ v = gH
√
If we just drop an object then mgH = 12 mv 2 and v = 2gH. Thus the
√
dropped object has a speed 2 times greater than the rolling object.
This is because some of the potential energy has been converted into
rolling kinetic energy.
70 CHAPTER 10. ROTATION
A) If the rotation of the system occurs about the y axis with an angu-
lar velocity ω, find the moment of inertia about the y axis and the
rotational kinetic energy about this axis.
B) Now suppose the system rotates in the xy plane about an axis through
the origin (the z axis) with angular velocity ω. Calculate the moment
of inertia about the z axis and the rotational kinetic energy about this
axis. [Serway, 3rd ed., pg. 151]
SOLUTION
(The m masses don’t contribute because their distance from the y axis
is 0.) The kinetic energy about the y axis is
1 1
Ky = Iω 2 = 2M a2 ω 2 = M a2 ω 2
2 2
y
m
b
. a a . x
M b M
.m
71
= 2M a2 + 2mb2
SOLUTION
The total kinetic energy is (with v = ωR)
1 1 2
K = mv 2 + Iω
2 2
µ ¶2
1 1 v 1
= mv 2 + αmR 2
= (1 + α) mv 2
2 2 R 2
Conservation of energy is
Ki + Ui = Kf + Uf
1
O + mgH = (1 + α) mv 2 + O
s 2
2gH
⇒v=
1+α
√
For a hollow cylinder I = mR2 , i.e. α = 1 and v = gH.
q
For a solid cylinder I = 12 mR2 , i.e. α = 1
2 and v = 4
3 gH
When α = 0,√we get the result for simply dropping an object,
namely v = 2gH.
73
8. A pencil of length L, with the pencil point at one end and an eraser
at the other end, is initially standing vertically on a table with the
pencil point on the table. The pencil is let go and falls over. Derive a
formula for the speed with which the eraser strikes the table, assuming
that the pencil point does not move. [WS 324]
SOLUTION
The center of mass of the pencil (of mass m) is located half-way up at
a height of L/2. Using conservation of energy
1 2
Iω = mg L/2
2
where ω is the final angular speed of the pencil. We need to calculate
I for a uniform rod (pencil) about an axis at one end. This is
Z Z
I= r2 dm = r2 ρ dV
75
76 CHAPTER 11. ROLLING, TORQUE & ANGULAR MOMENTUM
v
.
m
R
SOLUTION
Li = Lf
The initial angular momentum is just that of the bullet, with magni-
tude Li = mvR. Thus
mvR = Iω
where the final rotational inertial I is due to the spinning cylinder and
the bullet, namely
1
I = M R2 + mR2
2
Thus µ ¶
1
mvR = M + m R2 ω
2
giving
mv
ω=³ ´
1
2M +m R
Chapter 12
OSCILLATIONS
77
78 CHAPTER 12. OSCILLATIONS
SOLUTION
The frequency of a spring, with mass m on one end is
s
k 2π
ω= and ω=
m T
Check units:
The units −1 (because F = −kx for a spring). Thus the
q of k are N m
units of mk are
s s
kg kg √
= = sec2 = sec
N m−1 −2
kg m sec m −1
T
which are the correct units for the time 4.
79
SOLUTION
Conservation of energy is
Ui + Ki = Uf + Kf
Check units:
The units −1 (because F = −kx for a spring). Thus the
q of k are N m
units of k
m (A
2 − d2 ) are
s s
N m−1 m2 kg m sec−2 m−1 m2 √ 2
= = m sec−2 = m sec−1
kg kg
SOLUTION
x = A cos ωt
q
k
with ω = m. The speed is
dx
v= = −Aω sin ωt
dt
giving the total energy
1 1
E = K + U = mv 2 + kx2
2 2
1 1
= mA ω sin ωt + kA2 cos2 ωt
2 2 2
2 2
1 k 1
= mA2 sin2 ωt + kA2 cos2 ωt
2 m 2
1 2
= kA (sin ωt + cos2 ωt)
2
2
1 2
= kA
2
(Alternative derivation:
E = 12 mv 2 + 12 kx2 ; when v = 0, x = A ⇒ E = 12 kA2 ).
SOLUTION
The total energy is
1 1
E = K + U = mv 2 + kx2
2 2
When v = 0, x = A giving
1
E = kA2
2
which is a constant and is the constant value of the total energy always.
For the spring in the elevator we have the speed = v when x = 0. Thus
1 1 1
E = kA2 = mv 2 + kx2
2 2 2
1
= mv 2 + O
2
Thus
m 2
A2 = v
k
q
k k m 1
but ω = m giving ω 2 = m or k = ω2
v2
A2 =
ω2
v
A =
ω
82 CHAPTER 12. OSCILLATIONS
SOLUTION
Consider the upper block (of mass m),
F = ma
= µs N
= µs mg
so that the maximum acceleration that the upper block can experience
without slipping is
a = µs g
the acceleration of the whole system is (with the mass of the lower
block being M )
F = (M + m)a
= −kx
The maximum acceleration occurs when x is maximum,
i.e. x = amplitude = A, giving the magnitude of a as
kA
a=
M +m
q
k
But ω = M +m giving a = Aω 2 = µs g, i.e.
µs g
A=
ω2
83
SOLUTION
The period of a pendulum is given by
s
L
T = 2π
g
F = Ma
τ − Mg = 0
τ = Mg
and the mass per unit length is
m
µ=
L
Thus s s
Mg M gL
v= =
m/L m
T 2g
but T 2 = 4π 2 Lg or L = 4π 2
giving
s s
M gT 2 g gT M
v= =
m4π 2 2π m
84 CHAPTER 12. OSCILLATIONS
Chapter 13
WAVES - I
85
86 CHAPTER 13. WAVES - I
Chapter 14
WAVES - II
87
88 CHAPTER 14. WAVES - II
(Hint: First find an expression for the wave speed at any point a
distance x from the lower end by considering the tension in the rope
as resulting from the weight of the segment below that point.) [Serway,
5th ed., p. 517, Problem 59]
SOLUTION
Consider a point a distance x from the lower end, assuming the rope
has a uniform linear mass density µ = mL . The mass below the point
is
m = µx
and the weight of that mass will produce tension T in the rope above
T = mg = µxg
(This agrees with our expectation. The tension at the bottom of the
rope (x = 0) is T = 0, and at the top of the rope (x = L) the tension
is T = µLg = mg.)
The wave speed is
s r
T µxg √
v= = = xg
µ µ
2. A uniform cord has a mass m and a length L. The cord passes over
a pulley and supports an object of mass M as shown in the figure.
Derive a formula for the speed of a wave pulse travelling along the
cord. [Serway, 5 ed., p. 501]
L - x
SOLUTION
T − Mg = 0
T = Mg
q
T
The wave speed is v = µ where µ is the mass per unit length
m
µ=
L
Thus s s
Mg M gL
v= =
m/L m
90 CHAPTER 14. WAVES - II
SOLUTION
q
The wave speed is given by v = Tµ where T is the tension in the
string and µ is the mass per unit length µ = mL . To get the tension,
use Newton’s laws as shown in the figure below.
91
Ν
M
sθ
co
θ
W
W
Ws
in θ
Choose the x direction along the edge
X
Fx = M ax
T − W sin θ = 0
T = W sin θ = M g sin θ
where we have used the fact that m ¿ M so that the mass of the
string does not affect the tension. Thus the wave speed is
s s s
T M g sin θ M gL sin θ
v= = =
µ m/L m
To get the time t for the wave to travel from one end to the other,
simply use v = Lt giving
r s
L m mL
t= =L =
v M gL sin θ M g sin θ
92 CHAPTER 14. WAVES - II
Let β ≡ uv . Thus
2β
∆f = f
1 − β2
Chapter 15
93
94CHAPTER 15. TEMPERATURE, HEAT & 1ST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
1. The coldest that any object can ever get is 0 K (or -273 C). It is rare for
physical quantities to have an upper or lower possible limit. Explain
why temperature has this lower limit.
SOLUTION
From the kinetic theory of gases, the temperature (or pressure) de-
pends on the speed with which the gas molecules are moving. The
slower the molecules move, the lower the temperature. We can easily
imagine the situation where the molecules are completely at rest and
not moving at all. This corresponds to the coldest possible tempera-
ture (0 K), and the molecules obviously cannot get any colder.
95
SOLUTION
The heat required is
Q = mc∆T
For fixed c and ∆T we have
Q∝m
3. How much heat is required to make a cup of coffee? Assume the mass
of water is 0.1 kg and the water is initially at 0◦ C. We want the water
to reach boiling point.
Give your answer in Joule and calorie and Calorie.
SOLUTION
The amount of heat required to change the temperature of water from
0◦ C to 100◦ C is
Q = mc ∆T
J
= 0.1 kg × 4186 × 100 C
kg
1 cal
= 41860 J = 41860 = 10, 000 cal
4.186
= 10 Calorie
97
SOLUTION
To change the ice at −10◦ C to ice at 0◦ C the heat is
J
Q = mc∆T = 1 kg × 2090 × 10C = 20900J
kg C
To change the ice at 0◦ C to water at 0◦ C the heat is
J
Q = mLf = 1 kg × 3.33 × 105 = 3.33 × 105 J
kg
To change the water at 0◦ C to water at 100◦ C the heat is
J
Q = mc∆T = 1 kg × 4186 × 100 = 418600 J
kg C
To change the water at 100◦ C to steam at 100◦ C the heat is
J
Q = mLv = 1 kg × 2.26 × 106 = 2.26 × 106 J
kg
To change the steam at 100◦ C to steam at 110◦ C the heat is
J
Q = mC∆T = 1 kg × 2010 × 10 C = 20100 J
kg C
The total heat is
(20900 + 3.33 × 105 + 418600 + 2.26 × 106 + 20100)J = 3.0526 × 106 J
1 cal
= 3.0526 × 106 = 7.29 × 105 cal = 729 Cal
4.186
98CHAPTER 15. TEMPERATURE, HEAT & 1ST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Chapter 16
KINETIC THEORY OF
GASES
99
100 CHAPTER 16. KINETIC THEORY OF GASES
1.
A) If the number of molecules in an ideal gas is doubled, by how much does
the pressure change if the volume and temperature are held constant?
B) If the volume of an ideal gas is halved, by how much does the pressure
change if the temperature and number of molecules is constant?
C) If the temperature of an ideal gas changes from 200 K to 400 K, by how
much does the volume change if the pressure and number of molecules
is constant.
D) Repeat part C) if the temperature changes from 200 C to 400 C.
SOLUTION
The ideal gas law is
P V = nRT
where n is the number of moles and T is the temperature in Kelvin.
This can also be written as
P V = N kT
SOLUTION
The ideal gas law is
P V = N kT
If T is constant then
N
P ∝
V
If N is doubled and V is doubled then P does not change.
102 CHAPTER 16. KINETIC THEORY OF GASES
SOLUTION
The ideal gas law is
P V = N kT
which implies
NT
V ∝
P
If N → 2N , T → 2T and P → 12 P then V → 2×2
1/2 V = 8V .
Review of Calculus
103
104 CHAPTER 17. REVIEW OF CALCULUS
SOLUTION
y(x) = 5x + 2
y(x + ∆x) = 5(x + ∆x) + 2 = 5x + 5∆x + 2
2. Calculate the slope of the curve y(x) = 3x2 + 1 at the points x = −1,
x = 0 and x = 2.
SOLUTION
y(x) = 3x2 + 1
y(x + ∆x) = 3(x + ∆x)2 + 1
= 3(x2 + 2x∆x + ∆x2 ) + 1
= 3x2 + 6x∆x + 3(∆x)2 + 1
n
3. Calculate the derivative of x4 using the formula dxdx = nx
n−1 . Verify
dy
your answer by calculating the derivative from dx = lim y(x+∆x)−y(x)
∆x .
∆x→0
SOLUTION
dxn
= nxn−1
dx
dx4
... = 4x4−1 = 4x3
dx
Now let’s verify this.
y(x) = x4
y(x + ∆x) = (x + ∆x)4
= x4 + 4x3 ∆x + 6x2 (∆x)2 + 4x(∆x)3 + (∆x)4
d 2
4. Prove that 2
dx (3x ) = 3 dx
dx .
SOLUTION
y(x) = 3x2
y(x + ∆x) = 3(x + ∆x)2 = 3x2 + 6x∆x + 3(∆x)2
Now take
dy
y(x) = x2 ⇒ = 2x
dx
Thus
d
(3x2 ) = 6x
dx
d
= 3 x2
dx
108 CHAPTER 17. REVIEW OF CALCULUS
d dx dx2
5. Prove that dx (x + x2 ) = dx + dx .
SOLUTION
Take y(x) = x + x2
y(x + ∆x) = x + ∆x + (x + ∆x)2
= x + ∆x + x2 + 2x∆x + (∆x)2
6. Verify the chain rule and product rule using some examples of your
own.
SOLUTION
your own examples
110 CHAPTER 17. REVIEW OF CALCULUS
SOLUTION
y(x) = x2 − 4
dy
0= = 2x
dx
... x = 0
y(0) = 0 − 4 = −4
... extreme occurs at (x, y) = (0, −4)
R R
8. Evaluate x2 dx and 3x3 dx.
SOLUTION
R dy
y = f dx with f (x) ≡ dx A) the derivative function is f (x) = x2 =
dy 1 3
dx . Thus the original function must be 3 x + c. Thus
Z
1
x2 dx = x3 + c
3
dy
B) the derivative function
³
is
´
f (x) = 3x3 = dx . Thus the original
function must be 3 14 x4 + c . Thus
Z
3 4
3x3 dx = x + 3c
4
3 4
or = x + c0
4
where I have written c0 ≡ 3c.
112 CHAPTER 17. REVIEW OF CALCULUS
SOLUTION
f (x) = x
Z 3 · ¸3 µ ¶ µ ¶
1 2 1 2 1 2
x dx = x +c = 3 +c − 0 +c
0 2 0 2 2
µ ¶
9
= +c −c
2
9
= = 4.5
2
in agreement with the graphical method.