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The Derivation of
the Planck Formula
Topics
The Planck formula for black-body radiation. Revision of waves in a box. Radiation
in thermal equilibrium. The equipartition theorem and the ultraviolet catastrophe.
The photoelectric effect. The wave-particle duality. Quantisation of radiation and
the derivation of the Planck spectrum. The Stefan-Boltzmann law.
10.1 Introduction
0 1 2 3 4 x 5 6 7 8 9 10
1
The Derivation of the Planck Formula 2
ω2
|k|2 = (kx2 + ky2 + kz2 ) = .
c2
where k is the three-dimensional wave-vector. Now,
π2 2
k 2 = kx2 + ky2 + kz2 = (l + m2 + n2 ),
L2
and so
ω2 π2 2 2 2 π 2 p2
= (l + m + n ) = , (10.4)
c2 L2 L2
where p2 = l2 + m2 + n2 .
V 2 V 8π 3 ν 2 4πν 2 V
dN (p) = k dk = dν = dν
2π 2 2π 2 c3 c3
Finally, for electromagnetic waves, we are always Illustrating the electric and magnetic
allowed two independent modes, or polarisations, fields of an electromagnetic wave. The E
per state and so we have to multiply the result by and B fields of the wave are perpendicular
two. Because of the nature of light waves, there are to each other and to the direction of prop-
two independent states associated with each lattice agation of the wave. There is an indepen-
point (l, m, n). The final result is that the number dent mode of propagation in which E and
of modes of oscillation in the frequency interval ν B are rotated through 90◦ with respect to
to ν + dν is the direction of propagation C. Any po-
8πν 2 V larisation of the wave can be formed by
dN = dν
c3 the sum of these two independent modes
Thus, per unit volume, the number of states is of propagation.
8πν 2
dN = dν (10.5)
c3
This is a really important equation.
8πν 2
du = u(ν) dν = E dν,
c3
8πν 2
u(ν) = 3 E.
c
8πν 2 8πν 2 kT
u(ν) = E = . (10.6) The Rayleigh-Jeans Law
c3 c3
8πν 2 kT
u(ν) = .
This result is very bad news – the energy density c3
of radiation diverges at high frequencies. Einstein
expressed this result forcibly –
The Ultraviolet Catastrophe
Z ∞ Z ∞
8πν 2 kT According to classical physics, the energy
u(ν) dν = dν → ∞.
0 0 c3 density of black-body radiation diverges at
high frequencies
Z ∞
This is the famous result known as the ultraviolet 8πν 2 kT
dν → ∞.
catastrophe – the total energy in black-body ra- 0 c3
diation diverges. This expression for the spectral
energy distribution of radiation is known as the
Rayleigh-Jeans Law and, although it diverges at
high frequencies, it is in excellent agreement with
the measured spectrum at low frequencies and high
temperatures. This result was derived by Lord
Rayleigh in 1900. This was one of the key prob-
lems of classical physics – what has gone wrong?
therefore
∞
X
∞
En exp (−En /kT )
X n=0
Eν = En p(n) = ∞
X
n=0
exp (−En /kT )
n=0
∞
X
nhν exp (−nhν/kT )
n=0
= ∞ (10.8)
X
exp (−nhν/kT )
n=0
Now, we remember the following series expansions: Note (10.11) can be found from (10.10)
1 by differentiation with respect to x.
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + . . . (10.10)
(1 − x)
1
= 1 + 2x + 3x2 + . . . (10.11)
(1 − x)2
Hence, the mean energy of the mode is
Average energy of a mode of fre-
hν x hν hν
E= = −1 = hν/kT . (10.12) quency ν according to quantum
1−x x −1 e −1 theory
hν
This is the result we have been seeking. To find E= .
ehν/kT −1
the classical limit, we allow the energy quanta hν
to tend to zero. Expanding ehν/kT − 1 for small
values of hν/kT ,
µ ¶
hν/kT hν 1 hν 2
e −1=1+ + + · · · − 1.
kT 2! kT
Thus, for small values of hν/kT ,
hν
ehν/kT − 1 =
kT
The Derivation of the Planck Formula 11
and so
hν hν
E= = = kT
ehν/kT −1 ²/kT
the walls per second, and consequently the rate at Two forms of the Stefan-Boltzmann
which the energy must be re-radiated from them, Law
is 14 N hνc = 14 uc since u = N hν. Therefore, In terms of the energy density of black-
µ ¶ body radiation
ac 2π 5 k 4 µ 5 4¶
I= 1
4 uc = T 4 = σT 4 = T4 8π k
4 15c2 h3 u = aT =4
T 4,
15c3 h3
This provides a derivation of the value of the Stefan-
Boltzmann constant in terms of fundamental con- where a = 7.566 × 10−16 J m−3 K−4 .
stants In terms of the energy emitted per unit
µ 5 4¶ surface area of a black-body
ac 2π k
σ= = = 5.67 × 10−8 W m−2 K−4 µ 5 4¶
4 15c2 h3 4 2π k
I = σT = T4
15c2 h3
10.9 Summary where σ = 5.67 × 10−8 W m−2 K−4 .
4πp2 dp 1
=2× 3
× hν/kT .
h e −1
where p = hν/c is the momentum of the photon. This
is a deep result. The term 4πp2 dp is the differential
volume of momentum space for the photons which have
energies in the range hν to h(ν + dν). The factor two
corresponds to the two polarisation states of the photon
(or electromagnetic wave). The h3 is the elementary
volume of phase space and so the term 4πp2 dp/h3 tells
us how many states there are available in the frequency
interval dν. The final term is the photon occupation
number which we derived above.