RESEARCH A N D A N A L Y S I S

Western European Materials

as Sources and Sinks of CO,
A Materials Flow Analysis Perspective
Dolf J. Gielen
Unit Policy studies
ECN Netherlands Energy Research Foundntion
Petten, The Nerherlands

-
KeywOdS
I
Summary
carbon dioxide
cement Materials use is an important factor influencing carbon di-
forest products oxide (COJ emissions because significant amounts of car-
materials flow analysis
bon dioxide are released during the productionof materials
petrochemicals
steel
from natural resources, and because products and wastes
can function as important sinks for CO,.This article ana-
lyzes the impact of Western European materials use on
CO, emissions.The material flows for steel,cement, petm-
chemicals, and wood products are analyzed in more detail.
The analysis shows that particular characteristics of the
materials system must be considered in the development of
emission reduction strategies. It is important to select a
relatively closed system for policymaking,as in Western Eu-
rope, in order to prevent unwanted transboundary effects.
The materials stored in the form of products, and the net
exports of materials, products, and waste limit the poten-
tial of a recycling stratw. Carbon storage in products and
waste disposal sites is significant both for synthetic and
natural organic materials,but is not accounted for in natu-
Address correspondenceto:
Dolf J. Gielen ral organic materials in current emissions statistics.Accord-
Unit Policy Studies inglythe emissions accounting practices should be modified
Nether'ands Rexarch to reflect the storage of such materials.
ECN
POBOX 1
1755 ZG Petten
I
The Netherlands
gielen@ecn.nl
http://www.ecn.nl/unit-bs/etsap/markal/
matter.html

0Copyright 1998 by the Massachusetts

Institute of Technology and Yale University

Volume 2. Number 2

journal of fndustriol Ecology 43

1 RESEARCH A N D ANALYSIS

Introduction tution in certain applications (HFCs). Carbon

dioxide emissions mostly result from the com-
The countries that signed the United Na- bustion of fossil fuels. Their reduction is much
tions Framework Convention on Climate more complicated because of their sheer magni-
Change (UN FCCC) agreed to reduce their tude, the lack of affordable substitutes, and the
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions to levels that diverse types and number of emissions sources.
will not harm the environment. Six categories of As a consequence, emissions reduction strategies
GHG emissions are considered under the UN for CO, deserve special attention.
FCCC agreement signed in Kyoto, Japan, in De- The industrial production of materials is a ma-
cember 1997 (UN FCCC 1997a), of which car- jor source of CO, emissions (see below). These in-
bon dioxide (CO,) is the most important: dustrial emissions must also be reduced in order to
achieve a significant emissions reduction overall.
carbon dioxide (CO,),
A number of strategies have been proposed
methane (CH,),
(Watson et al. 1996). However, industrial strate-
nitrous oxide (N,O),
gies such as fuel switching or electrification are
perfluorocarbons (PFCs),
considered to be costly, while increased energy ef-
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and
ficiency in materials production gives only limited
sulphurhexafluoride(SF,).
relief. Another strategy, which has received less
The countries of the European Union (EU) attention, is the increase of the efficiency of mate-
agreed to an 8% reduction in their total emis- rials use (or, in economic terms, increasing mate-
sions of GHGs in the period 2008-2012, com- rials productivity). If materials consumption
pared with the emissions in the reference year. decreases as a result of increased materials effi-
The Western European GHG emissions in the ciency, the materials production will also decrease.
reference year for the Kyoto agreement are listed The emissions are approximately proportional to
in table 1. The table shows that CO, constitutes the production, so they will also decrease. Such a
80% of the total GHG emissions. strategy can simultaneously enhance the
As a consequence of its large contribution to sustainability of the economy, while also resulting
GHG emissions, CO, reduction is a central goal in cost-effective emissions reduction. In certain
in many Western European countries. Other cases, it may actually increase profits and competi-
GHG emissions can be reduced by end-of-pipe tiveness because of cost reductions (Ayres and
air pollution controls (industrial N,O or CH, Ayres 1996).
from disposal sites), by improved process control The development of an effective and eco-
(PFCs in aluminium production), and by substi- nomically and ecologically viable materials effi-

Table I Western European greenhouse gas emissions

Category Reference Emission
year [MtCO, equiu. pal' Fraction [%I Main sources

CO, 1990 3,388 80 Fossil energy use, cement production

CH, 1990 520 12 Agriculture, disposal sites, coal mining
NP 1990 296 7 Agriculture, chemical industry
PFC 1995 11 0 Aluminium smelters
HFC 1995 26 1 Foams, cooling equipment, chemical
industry
SF6 1995 18 0 High voltage electric switches
Total 4.259 100

Source: UN FCCC (1997b).

Note:
'Mt CO, equiv. pa = Megatons CO, equivalents per year, based on a time horizon (ITH)of 100 years for the global
warming potential. 1 Megaton =lo6 Megagrams = 106 metric tons=1.102 106 short tons.

44 journal of Industrial Ecology


ciency strategy requires more insight into the
flows of materials in the economy and into the
relationship between material flows and CO,
emissions. This article provides a materials flow
analysis (MFA) for Western Europe from a CO,
emissionsperspective. The analysis shows which
materials are relevant and which stages in the
materials life cycle are relevant. The increasing
materials stock in products‘ is analyzed as well as
the relevance of net materials exports. These
features of the materials system-the total pro-
duction, consumption, and waste handling of
materials-limit the potential of a recycling
strategy for GHG emissions reduction. The
analysis also shows that significant amounts of
carbon are stored in materials, products, and
landfill sites, which are not properly accounted
for in current GHG emissions statistics.
The production of fossil energy carriers (i.e.,
fuels such as natural gas, crude oil, and coal) is not
discussed in this article. The CO, emissions in the
production of these primary energy carriers con-
stitute less than 5% of the emissions during their
final use (IEA 1994).Energy carriers are consid-
ered if they are used in the materials life cycle (in-
cluding energy consumed in the transport of
goods, materials, and wastes). The final use of en-
ergy carriers outside the materials life cycle is ex-
cluded (e.g., residential heating and passenger
transportation). These processes are well docu-
mented, and emissions reduction in relation to
energy carriers has been extensively studied.*
The analysis described in this article is a re-
sult of the MATTER project (MATerials Tech-
nologies for GHG Emissions Reduction), a
project within the framework of the Dutch Na-
tional Research Programme on Global Air Pol-
lution and Climate Change (Gielen and Kram
1997). In a later stage of the MATTER project,
improvement options for the material flows and
processes in the economy will be analyzed. Both
analyses will be combined in the integrated as-
sessment of energy and materials strategies for
emissions reduction. A similar analysis has been
performed previously for the Netherlands
(Gielen 1995). The Western European assess-
ment will be based on a model for the whole en-
ergy and materials system “from cradle to grave.”
It includes all GHG emissions. From this inte-
grated assessment, the potential and the cost-ef-
Gielen, Western European Materials and CO,
RESEARCH A N D ANALYSIS 1
fectiveness of materials policies for GHG emis-
sions reduction will be analyzed. The research
described in this article focuses on the current
situation and does not discuss future develop-
ments vis-tvis changes in product stock.
For the purpose of this analysis, Western Eu-
rope encompasses all 15 countriesof the European
Union as well as Norway, Iceland, and Switzer-
land. The whole region is treated as one entity.
An analysis for separate countries may seem a
more appropriate approach for policymaking, but
the international dimension of materials flows
complicatessuch an analysis. A previous study for
the Netherlands showed, for example, that a na-
tional recycling strategy for paper and aluminum
would result in CO, emissions reduction abroad
because of the reduction of the primary materials
imports (Gielen and Romer 1996). On the other
hand, the Dutch petrochemical production struc-
ture will hardly be affected by national recycling
strategies, because 75% of the petrochemical
products are exported and the plastic waste is thus
handled outside the Netherlands. The waste plas-
tics are ultimately discarded abroad. The example
indicates how international trade can complicate
national materials policymaking. This article
shows how Western Europe is a more closed sys-
tem and, as a consequence, provides a less com-
plex model for analysis of regional materials
policies for CO, emissions reduction.
What determines the closed character of an
economy?An economy’s closed character is gen-
erally related to its spatial size. A number of rea-
sons can be given for this relation. Long-range
materials transportation constitutes a significant
fraction of the production costs for bulk materi-
als (Gielen et al. 1996; Gielen and Dril 1997).
These costs hamper international trade in bulk
materials. It is generally much more cost-effec-
tive to transport (solid and liquid) natural re-
source~.~ Moreover, large economies generally
encompass more types of natural resources and
industrial sectors, thus reducing the need for
trade with other economies. Bulk materials-pro-
ducing industries in small economies must sell
their products abroad in order to achieve a suffi-
ciently large production volume. This produc-
tion volume must be large in order to achieve
economies of scale. For example, the Nether-
lands is a small country with a large materials-
45
I RESEARCH A N D ANALYSIS

producing industry that sells its products mainly related to the consumption of organic carbon-
to the surrounding countries such as France, the containing resources (“hydrocarbons”). These
United Kingdom, and Germany, resulting in sig- compounds can be oxidized to CO,. The second
nificant materials exports. type is emissions related to the consumption of
The area of Western Europe is 3.58 million ki- inorganic resources (carbonates). They decom-
lometers2,100 times greater than the Netherlands. pose at high temperatures, thus releasing CO,.
To the west, the Atlantic Ocean constitutes a The main source of the second type is the pro-
natural trade barrier for many materials. To the duction of cement. The first type is more rel-
south, the Mediterranean and the scarcely popu- evant and is discussed in greater detail.
lated Sahara desert create effective trade barriers. Hydrocarbons can be divided into fossil fuels
In addition to the natural conditions, the Euro- and biomass. Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons that
pean Union has an important institutional role. have been stored underground for millions of
The EU decreases regulatory and customs trade years. Their conversion to CO, results in an in-
barriers between the countries within the region. crease in CO, concentration in the atmosphere.
As a consequence, it promotes trade within the Biomass consists of hydrocarbons produced by
EU. To the east, the iron curtain was an effective plants fixing CO, from the atmosphere. As a con-
international trade barrier. Because of the political sequence, their combustion results in zero net
change in Eastern Europe, the materials trade be- CO, emissions. The only exception to this rule is
tween Eastern Europe and Western Europe will sig the use of nonrenewable biomass. The use of
nificantly increase in the coming decades. At the tropical hardwoods is an example of biomass use
present time, however, its importance is still rather that results in net CO, emissions (IPCC 1995).
limited. An approximate sense of the degree to Hydrocarbons can be used as energy carriers
which materials flows stay within the region stud- and as feedstocks (see figure 1). The production
ied is provided by the case studies described below: of materials requires significant amounts of en-
a maximum of 20-25% of steel and wood and less ergy. Hydrocarbons used for energy purposes are
than 5% of cement and petrochemicals are im- directly converted into CO,. Feedstocks are in-
ported to or exported from Western Europe. corporated in the materials. Fossil fuels currently
This assessment of regional features that de- serve as feedstock for synthetic organic materials
termine the closed character of the Western Eu- such as plastics and solvents. Wood serves as
ropean economy is by no means complete. It feedstock for sawn timber and pulp. Organic
would require a full analysis of social, cultural, materials must be divided into two types, given
and historical dimensions that are not elabo- their different life-cycle characteristics. Certain
rated here.‘ This article only quantifies the “short life” carbon-containing materials, such as
closed character of the Western European mate- solvents, detergents, or urea fertilizer, are easily
rials system from the CO, emissions aspect. dissipated and subsequently converted into CO,.
First, the general relation between materials Not all carbon-containing materials, however,
and CO, emissions is discussed, followed by the are readily oxidized. “Long life” materials such as
quantification of the relationship between mate- plastics, elastomers, and wood can potentially
rials and CO, emissions in Western Europe. last for hundreds of years. The difference be-
From this analysis, the most important (groups tween short-life and long-life materials-not to
of) materials are identified. The MFA focuses on be confused with short- and long-lived products,
these materials. which are discussed below-is based on the cri-
terion of whether the materials can still be
traced in the waste stage. Within a time span of
The Relationship Between
100 years, plastics can be treated as if they are
the Materials Cycle and CO,
converted into CO, only if incinerated. As a
Emissions
consequence, they can be accounted for in the
The materials life cycle is a major source and incineration stage. The major part of the sol-
sink of CO,. Two types of emissions can be iden- vents is lost during the use phase and cannot be
tified in the life cycle. The first type is emissions properly accounted for in the waste stage. As a

46 journal of Industrial Ecology

 -
CO STORAGE
M A ? % W FiiODtlCTION
consequence, plastics are considered long-life
materials, while solvents are considered short-
life materials (Gielen 1997a). Carbon is stored
in organic long-life materials. The consumption
of these materials is much more significant than
the incineration: the stock increases. These ma-
terials are stored in the increasing product stock
as well as in waste disposal sites (see figure 1).
The potential of a recycling strategy for CO,
emissions reduction is limited by the availability
of waste materials. In any given period, the quan-
tity of wastes released does not necessarily equal
the amount of materials consumed because of in-
creasing product stock. The product stock in
Western Europe is gradually increasingas a result
of lifestyle changes and increasing income levels.
Gielen, Western European Materials and CO,
RESEARCH AND ANALYSIS
Figure I Carbon flow accounting
approach (armws indicate storage
and emissions) in relationto the
I
different stages in the materials life
cycle (vertical direction). Flows are
not proportional to the width of the
amws
If the materials stock in products increases by 1%
per year, the relevance of the materials storage
may seem small. However, the analysis of materi-
als storage must consider the product life. If the
product life is 1 year, the annual waste release is
1% lower than the consumption. When the
product life is 100 years, the waste release is 63%
lower than the consumption ( l-l.O1-'w). As a
consequence, 37% of the materials are stored in
products. If the stock increase exceeds 1% per
year, the storage will increase accordingly. The
actual product life depends on the application.
For packaging, the average life is below 1 year.
For buildings, the average life is around 100 years.
For other product groups, the life span is between
these two extremes. Because the products with a
47
1 RESEARCH A N D ANALYSIS
long life span dominate the total materials con-
sumption (see below), materials storage in prod-
ucts is significant. This effect is even more
pronounced for “new” materials such as plastics
or aluminium, which have only been in wide-
spread use for a few decades. Their consumption
(and their stock in products) is increasing by 5-
10% per year. A plastic such as polyvinylchloride,
which is mainly used in the building and con-
struction sector, features a net storage of 44% of
the total consumption (APME 1995).
The fate of organic materials in waste dis-
posal sites depends on the conditions in the
landfill sites and on the type of material. Some
biodegradable materials are readily converted
into CO, or into methane (landfill gas contains
25-50% methane). Other synthetic organic ma-
terials and certain natural organic materials do
not readily degrade, but remain fixed in the dis-
posal site.5 Measurements for the Netherlands
indicate that 40% of the disposed carbon re-
mains fixed in the disposal site (Oonk and Boom
1995). This fraction is mainly accounted for by
the plastic materials. Wood is an example of a
natural organic material that degrades slowly in
disposal sites. Paper degrades more readily, but
still not completely. The decomposition of natu-
ral organic materials depends on the content of
lignin and other persistent components. More-
over, sufficient water must be present for decom-
position to take place (Thorneloe 1995). The
methane production stage in a disposal site can
last for 50 to 100 years. Plastics degrade by 1-
5%, lignin does not degrade, cellulose and hemi-
cellulose degrade by 70% (Sundqvist 1995).
Biomass contains 25-50% lignin. In the West-
ern European situation, approximately 75% of
the municipal and solid waste (MSW) is dis-
posed in landfills; the remainder is incinerated
or recycled (APME 19931.
In addition to the emissions of methane (a
more potent greenhouse gas than CO,),
landfilling is not a viable strategy for GHG emis-
sions reduction because of other detrimental en-
vironmental consequences. The only issue to be
considered here is its relevance for the emissions
accounting balance. In the current GHG emis-
sions accounting practice, fossil fuel carbon stor-
age in products and waste disposal sites is
considered as well as methane emissions from
48 journal of Industrial Ecology
waste disposal sites; biomass carbon storage in
products and waste disposal sites is not consid-
ered (IPCC 1995).This could result in a biased
treatment of synthetic organic materials in the
GHG emissions accounting as illustrated later in
this article.
International Trade and Other
Allocation Problems
Allocation problems can arise through inter-
national trade. If materials are imported, the
emissions during materials production arise
abroad. Natural resources such as tropical timber
and most metal ores are imported because they
do not occur naturally in Western Europe. On
the other hand, materials, products, and waste
materials are exported from Western Europe.
Two approaches are possible for the system
boundary. One is a “regional border” principle.
All emissions within Western Europe are ac-
counted for, while emissions outside the region
are neglected. This approach, however, poses
problems in relation to the emissions in the life
cycle of materials. Significant emissions in mate-
rials production may arise abroad, while recycling
benefits abroad may also be missed. If these ef-
fects are neglected, wrong conclusions can be
drawn with respect to the impact on global GHG
emissions, so for this reason, a different approach
is selected based on an “end use” principle. End
use is defined as “the total amount of material
consumed by Western European product manu-
facturers plus the net import (imports minus ex-
ports) as semi-finished and finished products
minus the process waste from product manufac-
turers” (Duin 1997, ix). In other words, end use is
defined as materials used for products consumed
within Western Europe. The whole life cycle of
materials related to the consumption of products
and materials in Western Europe is included in
this approach. This includes production outside
Western Europe, but it may also include recycling
benefits outside Western Europe. With regard to
waste recycling, the recovery of waste materials
for recycling has been considered as relevant
mass flow for assessment of recycling benefits.
The following MFA analyses show if these
conventions really do influence the results for
the Western European situation, compared to a
 RESEARCH A N D ANALYSIS I

regional flow analysis based on the “regional ergy-intensive materials (i.e., materials requiring
border” principle. significant amounts of energy in production).
The figures represent an average with an uncer-
tainty in the 1 6 2 5 % range for most materials
Material Use, Product
(except wood, see below). This estimate of uncer-
Applications, and CO, Emissions
tainty is based on energy efficiency analysis for
An overview of the European end use of ma- materials production in a number of European
terials is shown in the second column of table 2. countries by Worrell and colleagues (1994) and
This table excludes net materials exports. Only on ranges for gross energy requirements7values
the most relevant materials contributing to CO, for materials from literature, for example, from
emissions are shown. Significant amounts of the Swiss Bureau of Environmental Chemistry
bulk materials such as sand, gravel, and earth are (Buro fur Umweltchemie 1996). The energy in-
not included because they are less relevant for tensity here is a relevant indicator for CO, emis-
CO, emissions. The CO, relevance is based on sions per ton of material because the selection of
an analysis of the production processes and the final energy carriers and the production technol-
related CO, emissions. ogy is generally the same within a certain materi-
Carbon dioxide emissions are closely related als-producing sector across different Western
to the energy consumption for materials produc- European countries.
tion. However, the emissions differ per type of The CO,emissions in the column “Primary”
energy carrier. The CO, emissions of fossil fuel is an overestimation of the actual emissions, be-
combustion are set by the carbon content of fos- cause significant amounts of material are re-
sil fuels (IPCC 1995).For electricity, a CO, emis- cycled and incinerated with energy recovery.
sions coefficient of 0.1 t/GJ6 (the Western The emissions for recycling are generally signifi-
European average for 1994)has been applied. For cantly lower than the emissions for primary pro-
heat, a CO, emissions coefficient of 0.07 t/GJ (a duction, because the energy requirements are
figure for a gas-based heating system) has been lower (see, e.g., Gielen 1995). The benefits of
used. The use of renewable energy (i.e., lignin for recycling are calculated on the basis of the emis-
pulp production and wood residues) is considered sions for primary materials production minus the
to emit no CO,. The emissions per ton of mate- emissions for recycling. The benefits of energy
rial are calculated by multiplying the final energy recovery are calculated on the basis of the emis-
inputs into the materials production processes sions for average electricity production multi-
and their specific CO, emissions. Process emis- plied with the electricity yield for waste
sions for decomposition of carbonaceous materi- combustion, assuming a 20% efficiency in elec-
als are added to the energy-related emissions. tricity production. The amount of recycled ma-
The emissions calculation procedure is discussed terial is based on analysis by Duin (1997). The
in Gielen (1997b). For all materials, the column amount of material where energy recovery is rel-
“Primary” shows the result of the multiplication evant is based on previous publications (Gielen
of end use and CO, emissions per ton of material, 1998) and research by the Association of Plas-
assuming production from virgin resources. The tics Manufacturers of Europe (APME 1996).
emissions coefficients for primary production are Both “CO, benefits’’ are aggregated in the col-
drawn on several sources (Gielen and Okken umn “Recovery.”
1994; Bur0 fur Umweltchemie 1996, Gielen Table 2 shows that a limited number of mate-
1997b, 1 9 9 7 ~ )The
. coefficients include the rials produce the major part of CO, emissions.
emissions in all processes from natural resource The total materials production would represent
extraction to the materials production. Some of a CO, emissions of 1,045 Mt if all materials
these emissions may occur abroad because the re- were made from virgin resources (the total for
sources are extracted abroad (e.g., copper ore), or the column “Primary”). This figure can be com-
because the materials are imported. Transporta- pared with the total Western European CO,
tion energy for resources has been considered in emissions of 3,300 Mt in 1995 (UN FCCC
these figures, but is generally less relevant for en- 1997b). However, considerable amounts of ma-

Gielen, Western European. Materials and CO, 49

I RESEARCH A N D ANALYSIS

Table 2 Materials end use in Western Europe,forecast for the year 2000, and its relevance for CO,
emissions in million metric tons per annum

Storage Storage in
Material End use Primary' Recovery2 in products' disposal sites

(Mt (Mt C0,pn) (Mt C0,p) (Mt C0,p) (Mt C0,pa)

Metals Aluminium 9 90 -3 1 0 0
Copper 4.5 34 -16 0 0
Lead 1.4 3 -1 0 0
Manganese 1.4 2 0 0 0
Iron and steel4 78 195 -45 0 0
Zinc 1.6 4 -1 0 0
Other metals' 2.6 13 -3 0 0
Synthetic Bitumen 16 55 0 48 0
organic Detergents6 4 12 0 0 0
Lubricants 2.9 12 -1 0 0
Solvents 4.6 18 -1 0 0
Polyethy lene 10.3 52 -5 4 -25
Polypropylene 7 .O 35 -3 -3 -13
Polyvinylchloride 5.1 20 -2 -6 -3
Polyethyleneterephthalate 3 .O 18 -2 -2 -5
Polystyrene 2.9 15 0 -3 -2
Other thermoplastics 2.8 17 -1 -4 -3
Thermosets 5.1 31 -1 -5 -5
Synthetic elastomers 2.2 13 -2 0 -2
Plasticizers 1.1 4 0 0 0
Carbon black 1.o 4 -1 0 0
Other synthetic organic7 5.0 25 0 -2 -10
Natural Sawn timber+plywood8 46.0 46 -7 -50 -1 0
organic Particle board 15.0 8 -2 -1 5 -3
Mechanical wood pulp 11.5 12 0 0 0
Chemical wood pulp 27.0 5 0 0 0
Paper 80.0 40 -29 -5 -5
Other natural organic' 15.0 20 0 -5 -5
Inorganic Ammonia 10.0 20 0 0 0
Chlorine 8.4 9 0 0 0
Sodium carbonate 6.0 5 0 0 0
Sodium chloride (solid) 15.4 5 0 0 0
Other inorganic" 100 10 0 0 0
Ceramic Bricks 66 8 0 0 0
Cement 175 126 0 0 0
Concrete 800 14 0 0 0
Glass 25 12 -2 0 0
Quicklime 22 23 0 0 0
Other ceramic" 50 10 0 0 0
Total 1,644.8 1,045 -156 -152 -9 1
Sources: Duin (1997), Gielen and Okken (1994), Gielen (1997b) and Metals (1996)
Notes:
I Includes fossil carbon feedstocks.
* Includes recycling benefits and energy recovery froin post-consumer waste. Excludes energy recovery from process-
ing waste.
' Net storage in long-life products.

50 Journal of Industrial Ecology

 RESEARCH AND ANALYSIS 1

Table 2 (continued)

‘Carbon storage in the form of high carbon steel and carbon in sheet steel is negligible.
Includes nickel, chromium, tin, titanium, and zirconium.
Consists of 25% surfactants and other organic compounds; the remainder are zeolites, sodium perborate, phosphates,
etc.
Solvents, resins, others.
Includes CO,emissions from nonrenewable wood production.
Cotton,hides and skins, wool, peat, cellulosic fibers, natural rubber, and fiberbogrd.
lo Salt brine, ornamental stone, gypsum, sulfur, potash, phosphor, and kaolin.
II Other clay products, sand-limestone.

terials are recycled or incinerated with energy
recovery. The combined benefit of recycling and
energy recovery is an emissions reduction of 156
Mt (the total for the column “Recovery”).
Table 2 also reveals the importance of carbon
storage in products and disposal sites. Consider-
able amounts of both natural and synthetic or-
ganic materials are stored in long-life products
such as buildings. For many materials, the con-
sumption has been increasing for decades.
Coupled to a product life of decades, the quantity
of waste material lags behind the current materi-
als production. As a consequence, the materials
stock in products is increasing. The net carbon
storage in products is estimated to be 152 Mt of
CO, per year. Moreover, considerable amounts of
carbon are stored in disposal sites: 91 Mt of CO,
equivalent per year. The total storage effect is
larger than the combined effect of recycling and
energy recovery. The storage data for synthetic
and natural organic materials are elaborated in
the MFA analyses provided later in this article.
Together, recovery and storage reduce the CO,
impact of materials from 1,045 to 646 Mt per year
(1,045-156-152-91, see table 2). If the method
according to IPCC (Intergovernment Panel on
Climate Change) guidelines is applied (storage
for synthetic organic materials, 145 Mt; and ne-
glect storage for natural organic materials,98 Mt),
the total emissions amounts to 744 Mt of CO,.
In addition to CO,, the other GHG emis-
sions related to materials can also be quantified
(see table 1). In 1990 the CH, emissions from
landfill sites amounted to 6.1 Mt (UN FCCC
1997b). The global warming potential of CH, is
21 (time horizon 100 years), so these emissions
are equivalent to 130 Mt of CO,. The bulk of
these emissions arises from the degradation of
kitchen waste and paper. Current policy plans in
Western Europe are focusing on increased recov-
ery of landfill gas and incineration of organic
waste. Recovery percentages of up to 89% are
technologically feasible for controlled landfills
(Oonk 1994). With regard to N,O, 100 Mt of
CO,equivalent in GHGs are emitted in the pro-
duction of nitric acid, caprolactam, and adipic
acid. These emissions can be reduced through
catalytic conversion of the N,O in the off-gases.
Perfluorocarbon emissions are related to the so-
called anode effect in aluminium production
from alumina (Tabereaux 1994). Emissions for
new smelters with so-called point feeders are one
order of magnitude lower than the emissions for
existing smelters without this equipment. Total
emissions in Western Europe are approximately
11 Mt according to official statistics (see table
1). Finally, HFCs are rapidly being introduced
for foams and cooling equipment as a substitute
for CFCs and hydrochlorofluorocarbons
(HCFCs), which are banned because of their
ozone depletion impact. If it is assumed that half
of the total quantity of HFCs is used for foams,
the result is an estimate of 13 Mt of CO, equiva-
lents. Hydrofluorocarbons are the only group of
non-CO, GHG where a significant increase in
emissions can be expected during the next ten
years.
Addition of the non-CO, GHG emissions at-
tributable to materials results in an estimate
equivalent to 254 Mt of CO,. It is assumed that
emissions abroad do not significantly add to the
emissions related to European end use. These

Gielen. Western European Materials and CO, 5I

1 R E S E A R C H A N D ANALYSIS
emissions pose less of a policy problem because
they can be cost-effectively managed by end-of-
pipe technology (CH,, N,O), improvements in
process technology (PFCs), and substance chain
management (HFCs). A 50-75% reduction of
these emissions in the next 10-15 years is esti-
mated to be feasible.
The materials consumption can also be sub-
divided into one of the nine product groups in
which the material is used as shown in figure 2.
These product groups are characterized accord-
ing to the product use and the product charac-
teristics such as product life. The consumer
products group is divided into durables and non-
durables and are consumed by households. The
difference is accounted for in the product life:
more than five years for durables (mainly fur-
nishings), less than five years for nondurables
(papers, etc.). The group “auxiliary materials”
includes alloying elements, metal coatings, fer-
tilizers, and inorganic intermediates in the
chemical industry.
The CO, emissions in figure 2 include pro-
duction and recycling (total 899 Mt CO,). Car-
bon storage (253 Mt CO,) and energy recovery
(10 Mt CO,) have not been considered. The fig-
ure shows that the preponderance of the materi-
als is used for buildings and infrastructure
(together 43%). This group is followed by pack-
aging materials (15%). The third group consists
of auxiliary materials ( 1 1%). If the carbon stor-
age is taken into account, the relevance of the
group buildings and infrastructure is halved be-
cause of the increasing product stock.
Figure 2 CO, emissions for
12%
materials production allocated to
product gr0ups.Westet-n Europe
forecast for the year 2000.Excludes
carbon storage and incineration
(total 899 Mt CO,). Source: Duin
( 1997).
52 journal of Industrial Ecology
The relative importance of materials can be
seen in table 2. Aggregated groups of materials
such as plastics or wood products show an in-
creased relevance compared to individual mate-
rials. In order to provide more insight into the
complexity of the material flows,the most rel-
evant (groups of) materials contributing to CO,
emissions are discussed in more detail:
iron and steel,
cement,
petrochemical products, and
wood products.
The relevance of imports and exports, materi-
als storage, carbon storage for petrochemical
products and wood products, and waste handling
are discussed in more detail using MFA. The re-
lationship between materials production, con-
sumption, and the amounts of waste is analyzed.
The closed character of Western Europe is ana-
lyzed for these important groups of materials. To-
gether, they account for 74% of the CO,
emissions in table 2 (excluding carbon storage).
This analysis provides more insight into the po-
tential to “close the materials cycle”8and into the
relative importance of strategies to be applied to
different stages of the materials life cycle.
Iron and Steel
The materials balance for the Western Euro-
pean iron and steel industry in 1992 is illustrated
in figure 3. The analysis shows that significant
BUILDINGS
0 PACKAGING
INFRASTRUCTURE
AUXILIARIES
MACHINERY
CARS, VANS TRUCKS
5% FURNITURE
0 CONSUMER DURABLES
CONSUMER NON-DURABLE
 105
Figure 3 The materials balance for iron and steel,WestemEurope. 1992 Figures indicate material flows in million
metric tons per year: Some flows do not balance because of rounding.Source: Gielen and Dril ( I 997).
amounts of semifinished steel products, finished
steel products, waste products, and steel scrap
are exported (a total of 44 Mt vs. 80 Mt iron pro-
duction from ore). Two steel production pro-
cesses are used: the blast furnace-basic oxygen
furnace route (BF-BOF) and the electric arc fur-
nace (EAF) process. The BF-BOF route uses
iron ore and limited amounts of scrap, whereas
the EAF only uses steel scrap. The iron ore for
the blast furnaces is mainly imported from Bra-
zil and Australia, but the CO,emissions for ore
mining and transportation are comparatively
small. As a consequence, more than 95% of the
emissions for Western European end use arise
within Western Europe.
The iron and steel subsystem is relatively
open as a result of the strong export position of
the Western European iron and steel industry.
Total exports of steel products amount to 32 Mt
of iron and steel. This export represents 23% of
the total crude steel production. The net export
of waste steel products and steel scrap represents
another 12 M t of steel (i.e., 15% of the total
steel waste produced). As a result, the fraction of
EAF steel production in Western Europe is rela-
Gielen, Western European Materials and CO,
20
40
tively low, compared with other regions of the
world. The positive trade balance complicates
the analysis of materials policies for this sector.
The increasing steel stock is also a notable fea-
ture, bearing in mind that steel consumption in
the last two decades has stabilized. It indicates
that the product stock is not yet approaching a
steady state. In particular, the building and con-
struction sector is a major materials sink. Ap-
proximately 75% of the steel input in the sector
is stored. This estimate is based on the increasing
building floor area and a comparison of building
and demolition data (see, e.g., Gielen [1997c]).
The total storage in the increasing product stock
is approximately 15 Mt per year. Five to ten Mt
of steel are lost in disposal sites (Gros 1992).
Some iron and steel are also converted into rust.
Data are not available, but it is estimated that 5-
10 Mt are lost. The steel balance shows that re-
coverable losses from the steel system constitute
only a small fraction of the total steel consump-
tion. As a consequence of significant net exports
and storage, “closing the materials cycle” is not a
feasible strategy for the Western European iron
and steel industry.
53
1 RESEARCH A N D ANALYSIS

Cement constitute the most complex subsystem of the

European materials system.
Cement is a material with a low price per ton
The petrochemical industry converts oil and
of product. The natural resource, limestone, is
natural gas into petrochemicals. Figure 4 shows
available in most countries; hence international
that the bulk of the petrochemical products is de-
cement trade is traditionally limited. Approxi-
rived from oil, while natural gas products are only
mately 10% of the Western European cement
of secondary importance. The bulk of the oil is im-
production is exported. This export is balanced
ported, but this step is of minor importance for
by an almost equivalent import from Eastern Eu-
CO, emissions. Both refinery products and
rope. The net import and export of cement since
steamcracking products are used as feedstock mate-
1990 represents less than 2% of the total produc-
rial for the petrochemical industry. Steamcracking
tion (Eurostat 1995, 5.14). Cement is mainly
is a key process in the petrochemical industry and
used in concrete and mortar. These products are
is used to convert a range of oil products into pet-
also characterized by a low price per ton. More-
rochemicals. The most important steamcracking
over, transportation of ready-mix concrete, the
products are ethylene, propylene, butylene, and
bulk of concrete production, is technically not
benzene. These intermediatesare converted into a
feasible over large distances. Western Europe
whole range of polymers, solvents, resins, fibers,
thus constitutes a closed system for cement. On
and other synthetic organic products. The bulk
the supply side, the situation is complicated by
monomers such as ethylene and propylene are gas-
the residuals, which are also used for cement pro-
eous compounds. Transportation of these gases is
duction. Granulated blast furnace slag, fly ash,
only cost-effective if pipelines are used. As a result,
volcanic ash (Pozzolan), and gypsum are added
there is no major trade with other regions
to Portland cement clinker to produce cement.
(Eurostat 1995,6.16). The same applies to the liq-
Only very limited CO, emissions are associated
uid petrochemicals such as aromatics, where trans-
with the use of these residuals. Estimates for the
portation would be feasible. For plastic granulates,
consumption of resources in 1993 are shown in
the production is also matched by the consump-
table 3. Cement consumption is completely ac-
tion. This is illustrated in table 4. Total production
counted for by the building and construction in-
exceeds consumption by just 3%.
dustry. The significant net storage of cement in
The material flows in the petrochemical in-
the increasing product stock is not relevant for
dustry are shown in figure 4. The base year for
the analysis because cement cannot be recycled.
the analysis is 1994, but some data have been
extrapolated for 1992 and 1993. The figure
Petrochemical Products shows only the most important material flows
and their ultimate application. Imports and ex-
Petrochemical products can be divided into a
ports are only shown where data were available.
number of groups. The most important groups
In order to provide a more aggregated overview,
on a mass basis are plastics, followed by solvents,
figure 5 shows the petrochemical balance but
fibers, resins, and detergents. Petrochemicals
excludes urea, lubricants, bitumen, petroleum
cokes, and fuel products. These products are
Table 3 Consumption of resources for cement generally not accounted for in petrochemical
production in Western Europe, I993 in million statistics. The materials group “other produc-
metric tons per annum tion” in figure 5 contains substances such as an-
~~

(Mt pa) tifreeze and plasticizers.

For plastics and elastomers, there is a consid-
Portland clinker 150 erable discrepancy between the materials con-
Blast furnace slag 11
sumption and the release of waste materials as a
Fly ash 5
Pozzolan 8 result of the increasing materials stock in prod-
Gypsum 8 ucts. In the product group buildings and con-
structions alone, 4 Mt of plastics are stored per
Source: Gielen (1997b). year (APME 1995). The term “loss” in figure 5

54 journal of Industrial Ecology

 RESEARCH A N D ANALYSIS 1

FEEDSTOCK END PRODUCT

(SEE flGURE 5)

................................................
.................................................
.*.-m ...........................
..................................
-
PUITU

DoLvEm
ELASTOMERS
.................................. EUnOYWS

......................... E W W E E l
...........................F, pumo8
Hm ........................... =*ms
........................ME!W
on€=
PlMlUL FImRS

............................................. OTHER

........................
......................... SQVEm
PU8Tcd
.........................
.........................mvEms
........................ -8.-

........................
......................... '.--.-R
p-m

........................ pusncg

FoIy.soLm

................................................ OTHER
S a r n . r n R

........... OTHER

UPHUT

WDES

........................................... EUIFmYERIL

.......................................... ~VEM1IPLMICII.
OTHER
.............................. .pusTIQI.

............................ OTHER
FLEL
............................ RESINS
............................ Raw&**m
OTHER

UEuLlE UE ....................................MaMs
1 ........................................... FB(TIUSER

Figure 4 Material flows in the petrochemical industry,Western Europe. estimated for 1994. Figures indicate material
flows in million metric tons per year:Arrows marked "exports" indicate exports less imports. Dashed and solid lines
have the same meaning and are used to improve readability of the diagram.Acrunyms are explained in the glossary.
Sources: Weissermel and Arpe ( 1994) Barnett and Bubley ( 1994). Gielen et al. ( I996),APME ( 1996). Kunststoffe
(I 993).TNO ( 1997). and European Chemical News ( I 997).

Gielen. Western European Materials and CO, 55

1 RESEARCH A N D ANALYSIS

Table 4 Production and consumption of plastics, storage and loss is calculated from the materials
Western Europe, I994 in million metric tons per consumption and waste release data and on the
annum basis of the dissipative use of certain materials.
Apparent Most of the petrochemical products are still
Material Production consumption Ratio used only once. The majority of the waste is dis-
P AC PIAC posed in landfills; some energy is recovered. As
a consequence of the disposal, considerable
(Mt pa) (Mt pa) f-I amounts of fossil carbon are stored in disposal
Polyethylene 9.74 9.74 1.oo sites (see table 2).
Polypropylene 5.47 4.88 1.12
PVC 5.24 5.36 0.98
Polystyrene 2.58 2.49 1.04 Wood Products
Total 23.03 22.47 1.03
Wood products can be divided into paper and
Source: TNO (1997). pulp, structural wood products, and wood for
energy applications. Wood is a special material
because the forest stock in Western Europe is
encompasses actual losses of material during use increasing, and as a consequence, there is an in-
(e.g., detergents that are carried away with the creased storage of carbon. The net storage of
wash water). It also includes net exports of prod- CO, in the increasing forest stock in Western
ucts, waste products, and waste materials. For Europe is around 220 Mt per year, based on
example, in the case of plastics, 0.2 Mt of waste United Nations Food and Agriculture Organiza-
plastics are exported to other regions. Net ex- tion data (UN ECE/FAO 1996). This type of
ports of product packaging may also be substan- stock increase does not occur for any other re-
tial, but no figures have been found. The total of source. It has not been accounted for in table 2.

PLASTICS 28.4 5 . 4 INCINERATION

ELASTOMERS -,-
PRODUCTION I

-
SYNTHETIC 3.5
I
I

I
FIBERS ' -I
PRODUCTION I
I

PRODUCTION I
I

PRODUCTION
RESINWFOAMS USE _---
0.5 I
.-a I
STORAOSS 0.5

DETERGENTS 1.0 USE

PRODUCTION LOSS 1.0 I
I

Figure 5 Petrochemical product balance,Western Europe, 1994. Figures indicate material flows in million metric tons
per year. Some flows do not balance because of rounding.SourcesWeissemel and Arpe (I 994). Barnett and Bubley
( I 994). Gielen et al. (I 996).TNO (I 997) Eumpean Chemical News (I997).APME (1996). Kunststoffe (I 993).
Hentefricke (1994). and Biggin ( 1994).

56 journal of Industrial Ecology


The depletion of forest resources abroad,
however, is a major source of CO, emissions.
Twenty to twenty-five percent of the total global
CO, emissions is a result of tropical deforesta-
tion; one of the many contributing causes is log-
ging for timber production. The production of
timber results not only in direct stock depletion,
but it also opens the forest for successivefurther
exploitation and degradation. However, the ac-
tual CO, emissions that can be allocated to tim-
ber production in these regions are very
uncertain. The allocation of emissions to differ-
ent types of forest use, the definition of regions,
and the timescale for the assessment determine
the outcome. Estimates range from 1 to 10 tons
of CO, per ton of sawn timber, depending on the
allocation principle and the system boundaries
(IPCC 1995). The CO,emissions for wood pro-
duction in table 2 result principally from tropi-
cal wood production (roundwood, sawn timber,
and panels in table 5 , 2 5 Mt CO,).
Total net trade of forest products accounted for
a net import of 42 Mt roundwood equivalent in
1990 (UN ECE/FAO 1996). Net imports, how-
ever, decreased significantly in more recent years.
Most are imported as panels, sawn wood, and pulp.
The European wood impow are analyzed in table
5. (Note that the definition of Europe in this table
includes the Eastern European countries; their
trade is, however, comparativelysmall.)
The figures in table 5 show a significant net
import of pulp and sawn wood. Addition of the
trade volumes results in a net import of 13.6 Mt
Table 5 European trade in wood products with other regions, I993 in million metric tons per annum
Roundwwd Sawnurood
Region IMt pal I M t paJ
North America 0.6 2.0
Former Soviet Union 2.6 3.8
Tropics' 2.0 1.8
Total imports 5.2 7.6
Total exports 4.2 0.1
Net import 1.0 7.5
Sowce: UN ECE/FAO (1996).
Nore: Assumes a density of 0.75 Jm.]
I Total for Latin America, Asia-Pacific region, Africa.
Gielen,Western European Materials and CO,
RESEARCH A N D ANALYSIS 1
in 1993. For paper, a net export exists. The paper
and pulp balance for 1992 is detailed in figure 6,
which shows that 26 Mt of paper are recycled.
Approximately 3 Mt of wastepaper are lost as
household and sanitary papers through the sew-
age system. A net storage of approximately 5 Mt
is assumed in increasing product stocks such as
books and wallpaper. The remainder (30 Mt) is
still disposed or incinerated. The ratio for MSW
handling can be applied to this waste: approxi-
mately 25% is combusted, 75% is disposed in
landfills. The aggregated wood balance for S t N C -
tural products, pulp and paper making, and en-
ergy production is shown in figure 7 except for
paper and pulp where only the fiber content is
shown?
The net import of wood products for struc-
tural applications is 16 Mt per year, compared to
a consumption of 82 Mt per year. For the total
roundwood import, the fraction of net imports is
below 10%.These figures show that Western
Europe is almost self-sufficient in wood and
wood products. However, the nonrenewable
character of certain categoriesof imported wood
results in a much higher relevance of the imports
for CO, emissions. These imports require sepa-
rate treatment in an emissions-reduction policy
framework for materials. As a consequence of
the significant emissions for the imported wood,
the Western European wood system cannot be
considered as a closed system.
The balance of structural wood end use, 48
Mt, is in the form of products and waste wood
Pa7WI.S Pulp
IMt pal IMt Pal IMt pal
1.1 4.5 2.2
0.4 0.50 0.2
1.1 2.0 0.6
2.6 7.0 3.0
0.0 1.o 6.5
2.6 6.0 -3.5
57
1 RESEARCH A N D ANALYSIS

PULPING

32

PULP NETIMPORT

37

PAPER MAKfNG
7 LOSS

65

PAPER
2
- NET EXPORT

63
Figure 6 Paper and pulp balance
for Western Europe, 1992.Figures USE
38 LOSSlSTORAGE
indicate material flows in million
metric tons per year: Sources: CEPl 25
(I995) and Bystrijm and Lonnstedt 1
NET IMPORT
( 1995).

I HIRYEST 1
Figure 7 Wood balance for
Western Europe. Figures indicate
material flows in million metric tons
per year; paper and pulp figures
refer to the fiber content; 1992/
1993. Some flows do not balance
because of rounding. WIR = wood in
the rough (all wood removed from
forests and from trees outside the
forests). Dashed and solid lines have
the same meaning and are used to
improve readability of the diagram.
Sources: UN ECUFAO (I996). UN
FA0 ( 1995) Sikkema ( 1997).and
Rijpkema et al. ( 1997).

58 journal of lndustriol Ecology


(see figure 7). Also for wood, considerable stor-
age can be expected because structural wood is
mainly applied in the building and construction
sector. However, a significant fraction of this
wood is thought to decay during use. Actual fig-
ures are not available, although it has been as-
sumed in these calculations that SO% is stored
and 50% decays naturally. This is considered a
conservative estimate for the storage. A ton of
wood produces 1.8 tons of CO, when oxidized
through decay or incineration. This results in a
net carbon storage of 50 Mt per year in the in-
creasing product stock, with an uncertainty
range of 25-75 Mt.
The MFA for wood is considered to be the
least accurate of the four (groups of) materials
that have been analyzed. The uncertainty of the
material flows is in the range of 20%, based on the
data on material flows from different sources. The
material flows for the other materials contain an
uncertainty in the range of 10%.The MFA accu-
racy could be significantly improved by the bot-
tom-up measurement of losses and storage.
Moreover, trade of products that include materi-
als and waste products containing materials in-
creases the uncertainties. If the uncertainty of the
CO, emission coefficients is combined with the
uncertainties for material flows, the actual CO,
emissions estimates have an accuracy of 20%,
while the accuracy of the storage is 25-S0%.
Conclusions
In Western Europe a limited number of mate-
rials are relevant for CO, emissions, of which
the most important are iron and steel, cement,
plastics, and wood products. Total materials pro-
duction accounts for 646-1,045 Mt of CO, emis-
sions, depending on the definitions. These
figures represent 20-32% of the total Western
European emissions. The bulk of the CO, emis-
sions for materials production can be allocated
to buildings and infrastructure, to packaging
materials, and to auxiliary materials applications
such as fertilizers.
The materials balances for the most relevant
materials for Western Europe show that the net
imports and exports of materials with high CO,
emissions per ton represent less than 25% of
Gielen. Western European Materials and CO,
RESEARCH A N D ANALYSIS 1
the consumption. Trade, however, also extends
to materials embodied in products, waste prod-
ucts, and waste materials. These material flows
are not well documented. Intercontinental
trade is relevant for steel (significant exports)
and wood products (significant imports). For
plastics and cement, net trade is negligible.
Western Europe represents a more closed mate-
rials system than smaller regional entities such
as the Netherlands. From a n analysis point of
view, t h e more closed character makes the
analysis results less dependent on the selection
of the end use or regional system boundaries.
This more closed system also provides a better
forum for policymaking, because major
transboundary policy effects can be avoided.
The Western European materials system is far
from balanced: that is, consumption is not equal
to releases as waste in most periods. Significant
amounts of materials are stored in long-life prod-
ucts. This storage can be explained by the in-
creasing product stock. This effect is significant
especially for long-life products such as buildings
and constructions.
The storage of materials also results in con-
siderable carbon storage for both synthetic and
natural organic materials. In addition to storage
in products, carbon-containing materials are
stored in disposal sites. The total storage effect
(243 Mt CO, per year) is more important than
the combined recycling and energy recovery ef-
fect (156 Mt CO, per year). Storage is currently
considered in the official CO, accounting ac-
cording to the international guidelines for syn-
thetic organic materials. Storage is not
considered for natural organic materials even
though it is of similar importance (98 Mt CO,
per year), as is the storage of synthetic organic
materials (145 Mt CO, per year). The emissions
accounting guidelines should be modified to ac-
count for this storage. This is important because
increased storage of natural organic materials in
products provides a strategy to reduce emissions.
The current accounting practice favors syn-
thetic organic materials. The accounting of this
storage, however, is complicated.
Other than its relevance for carbon storage,
the significant net materials storage in products
is a limiting factor for a closed loop recycling
59
1 RESEARCH A N D ANALYSIS
strategy. This limit is relevant for both organic
and inorganic materials. The dynamics of the
materials consumption, materials losses, the in-
tercontinental trade, and the already high recy-
cling rates further limit the potential of the
recycling strategy. The MFA results for iron and
steel, for cement, for synthetic organic materials,
and for wood show that the synthetic organic
materials are the only group where recycling can
be significantly increased.
The analysis has not focused on strategies
that could be applied to increase the efficiency
of materials use. The earlier calculations for the
Netherlands suggested an important improve-
ment potential for biomass feedstocks and mate-
rials substitution (Gielen 1995). Preliminary
assessments suggest there may be ample room to
improve the materials quality and to redesign
products for increased materials efficiency
(Gielen 1997d). Moreover, the potential for in-
creased energy recovery has not been realized.
These potentials will be analyzed in more detail
within the MA'ITER project later this year.
The analysis has shown that data for material
flows are available, but many different sources
must be combined in order to generate an overall
picture. With regard to materials storage in prod-
ucts, materials losses during the product use phase,
and imports and exports of products and waste
products, no accurate data have been found. Sta-
tistics should be improved, and standard conver-
sion factors from product units to materials weight
units should be developed in order to allow easy
generation of complete materials balances.
Notes
By stocks, it is meant the materials or carbon
smed in the form of products or waste. Stocks in
this sense are typically distinguished from flows,
which measure the relevant quantity per unit
time.
See, for example, work of Robert Watson and col-
leagues done for the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (Watson et al. 1996).
This somewhat counterintuitive finding arises
because bulk transport carriers can be used in-
stead of smaller size carriers with higher costs per
ton freight. Moreover, packaging is less critical
and loading/unloading is generally easier.
See, for example, Michael Porter's discussion of the
60 journal of Industrial Ecology
factors that shape national competitiveness(1990).
5. Editor's note: For a discussion of carbon seques-
tration and conversion of carbon from paper to
methane in landfills, see the special issue of the
Jouml of Indusmd Ecology (volume 1, number 3)
on the industrial ecology of paper and wood.
6. t = metric ton = 1 teragram (Tg). GJ = gigajoule
= lo9joule.
7. GER is the sum of all energy in all upstream pro-
cesses that is required to produce the material ex-
pressed in primary energy units.
8. Note that in this paper, closure of cycles can re-
fer either to matters of t i d e and regional bound-
aries (i.e., the amount of materials that are
exported or imported into the region) or to the
degree to which materials are recycled. In this
case, the latter meaning is intended.
9. Nonfiber additives such as clays or sizing are ex-
cluded.
References
APME (Association of Plastic Manufacturers in Eu-
rope). 1993. European municipal solid waste com-
bustors and associated energy recovery survey.
Brussels.
APME. 1995. Infonnation s y s m on plastics in the build-
ingand demolitionsecturand in the cwr*uctia and
demolition waste in Westem Europe. Brussels.
APME. 1996. Plastics consumption and recovery in
Western Europe 1994. Brussels.
Ayres, R. U. and L. W. Ayres. 1996. Industrial ecol-
ogy-towards closing the materials cycle.
Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.
Barnett, A. and D. Bubley. 1994. European petro-
chemicals: Prospects for future profitability. Fi-
nancial Times Management Reports. London:
Financial Times.
Biggin, I. 1994.The coatings scene in Europe. Polymers
Paint Cobur Jouml 184 (15 June): 288-289.
Bur0 fur Umweltchemie. 1996. Graue Energie von
Baustoffen. Zurich.
Bystrom, S. and L. Lonnstedt. 1995. Waste paper us-
age and fiber flow in Western Europe. Resources,
Conservation,andRecycling 15: 111-121.
CEPI (Confederation of European Paper Industries).
1995,1994annual statistics. Brussels.
Duin, R. van. 1997. Production and consumption of
materials in Western Europe in the year 2000: An
overview of muterials with CO, relevance. Emst,
the Netherlands: Bureau B &a G.
European Chemical News. 1997. 21-27 April: 15.
Eurostat. 1995. Panorama of EU industry 1995/96.
Luxembourg.

Gielen, D. J. 1995. Toward integrated energy and mate-
rials policies?A case study on 0,reduction in the
Netherlands. Energy Poky 23(12): 1049-1062.
Gielen, D. J. 1997a. Potential CO,emissions in the
Netherlands due to carbon storage in materials
and products. Ambio 26(2): 101-106.
Gielen, D. J. 1997b. MATTER technology charac-
terisation for ceramic and inorganic materials.
ECN-C-997-064. Petten, the Netherlands: Neth-
erlands Energy Research Foundation.
Gielen, D. J. 1997c. Building materials and CO,:
Western European emission reduction strategies.
ECN-C-97-065. Petten, the Netherlands: Neth-
erlands Energy Research Foundation.
Gielen, D. J. 1997d. Longterm energy and materials
strategies for reduction of industrial CO, emis-
sions: A case study for the iron and steel indus-
try. ACEEE Summer S d y on Energy Efficiency in
Industry Proceedings, edited by M. Olszewski.
Washington, DC:ACEEE.
Gielen, D. J. 1998.The MARKAL systems engineer-
ing model for waste management. Paper pre-
sented at the workshop Systems Engineering
Models for Waste Management. 25-26 February.
Goteborg, Sweden.
Gielen, D. J. and T. Kram. 1997. The MARKAL
model for environmental accounting in energy
and materials systems. In Regional and national
material flow accounting:"From Paradigm w Prac-
tice ofSustainability,"edited by S. Bringezu et al.
Wuppertal special no. 10. Wuppertal Institut,
Germany.
Gielen, D. J. and P. A. Okken. 1994. Optimisation of
integrated energy and materials systems: Compila-
tion of materials processes. ECN-C-94-0 11.
Petten, the Netherlands: Netherlands Energy
Research Foundation.
Gielen, D. J. and A. W. N. van Dril. 1997. The basic
metal industry and its energy use: Prospects for
the Dutch energy intensive industry. ECN-C-
97-019. Petten, the Netherlands: Netherlands
Energy Research Foundation.
Gielen, D. J. and J. C. Romer. 1996. De Grensover-
schrijdende C0,-Reductie door Afvalbeleid.
[The transboundary CO, impact of waste poli-
cies] ECN-C-96-024. Petten. the Netherlands:
Netherlands Energy Research Foundation.
Gielen, D. J., D. Vos, and A. W. N. van Dril. 1996.
The petrochemical industry and its energy use:
Prospects for the Dutch energy intensive indus-
try. ECN-C-96-029. Petten, the Netherlands:
Netherlands Energy Research Foundation.
Gros, B. 1992. A new scrap variety: Shredded scraps
from incinerated domestic waste. In Fourth Euro-
pean Ekctric Steel Congress Proceedings. Madrid.
Gielen, Western European Materials and CO,
RESEARCH A N D ANALYSIS 1
Hentefricke, K. 1994. The European market for sol-
vents. Polymers Paint Colour Journal 184 (15
June): 292-294.
IEA (International Energy Agency). 1994. World en-
ergy outlook. Paris.
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change). 1995. Guidelines for national green-
house gas inventories. Volume 1-3. IPCC WG1.
Technical Support Unit. Bracknell, UK.
Kunsamffe. 1993. October: 725-824.
Metals. 1996. Annual review. Miner& and Metals.
Oonk, J. 1994. Landfill gas recovery with high yields.
TNO-ME November report no. 9405. Apeldoom,
the Netherlands.
Oonk, J. and T. Boom. 1995. Validation of landfill gas
formation models. In Climate change research:
Evaluation and policy implications, edited by S.
Zwerver, R. van Rompaey, M. Kok, and M. Berk.
Amsterdam: Elsevier Science.
Porter, M. 1990. The competitive advantage of nations.
London: Macmillan.
Rijpkema, B., D. van den Berg, and P. van Haren.
1997. The potential for energy from biomass in
Europe. TNO-MEP November report no. 9717.
Maam, the Netherlands: MHF!
Sikkema, R. 1997. Stroom uit de Boom-Europa.
November report no. 9707. Wageningen, the
Netherlands: Scichting Bos en Hout.
Sundqvist, J. 0. 1995. LCA and solid waste: Organic
materials in municipal solid waste landfill. In
Life-Cycle Assessment and Treatment of Solid
Waste, edited by G. Finnveden and G. Huppes.
Workshop proceedings, 28-29 September 1995.
AFR report no. 98. Swedish Environmental Pro-
tection Agency, Stockholm.
Tabereaux, A. 1994. Anode effects, PFCs, global
warming, and the aluminium industry. Journal of
the Minerals, Metals, and Materials Society
46(11): 30-34.
Thomeloe, S. A. 1995. Methane emissions from land-
fills and open dumps. In Methane and Nitrous Ox-
ide Workshop Proceedings, edited by A. vanAmste1.
Bilthoven, the Netherlands: Rijksinstituut voor
Volksgezondheid en Milieuhygiene.
TNO. 1997. Jaarboek 1997: Kunststojen Rubber. [An-
nual overview, 1997: Plastics and Elastomers].
Rotterdam: WYT Publishers, 371-380.
UN ECE/FAO (United Nations Economic Commis-
sion for Europe/Food and Agricultural Organiza-
tion). 1996. European timber trends and prospectc:
Into the 2 1st century. ECE/TIM/SP/l 1. Geneva:
UN-ECE/FAO.
UN F A 0 (United Nations Food and Agricultural Or-
ganization). 1995. Forest products yearbook,
1982-1993. Rome.
61
I RESEARCH A N D ANALYSIS

UN FCCC. (United Nations Framework Convention HCFCs hydrochlorofluorocarbons

on Climate Change) 1997a. Kyoto protocol to HFCs hydrofluorocarbons
the United Nations Framework Convention on IEA International Energy Agency
Climate Change. IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on
UN FCCC. 1997b. National communications: Commu- Climate Change
nications from parties included in Annex 1 to the
LCA life-cycle analysis
Convention. FCCC/SBI/1997/19/Add. 1.
Watson, R., M. C. Zinyowera, R. H. Moss,and D. J.
LPG liquefied petroleum gas
Dokken. 1996. Climate change 1995: Impacts, MEK methylethylketone
adaptions, and mitigation of climate change- MFA materials flow analysis
scientific-technical analyses. Contribution of MSW municipal solid waste
Working Group 2 to the Second Assessment MTBE methyltertiarybutylether
Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Cli- N- benzene nitro-benzene
mate Change. Cambridge: Cambridge Univer- NGL natural gas liquids
sity Press. nitrous oxide
NZO
Weissermel, K. [and H.-J. Arpe. 1994. Industrielle o-xylene ortho-xylene
Organische Chemie] Industrial organic chemis- PA polyamide
try]. 4th ed. Weinheim, Germany: VCH. PBD polybu tadiene
Worrell, E., R. Cuelenaere, K. Blok, and W.
PE polyethyLene
Turkenburg. 1994. Energy consumption by in-
dustrial processes in the European Union. Energy PET polyethylene terepthalate
19(11): 113-119. PFCs perfluorocarbons
Pht. anhydride phthalic anhydride
PP polypropylene
Glossary
PS polystyrene
ABS acrylonitrile butadiene styrene PVC polyvinylchloride
ACEEE American Council for a n En- p-xylene para-xylene
ergy-Efficient Economy RIVM National Institute of Public
APME Association of Plastics Manu- Health and the Environment
facturers in Europe SBR styrene butadiene rubber
BF blast furnace SF6 sulphurhexafluoride
BOF basic oxygen furnace TNO Netherlands Organization for
CEPI Confederation of European Applied Scientific Research
Paper Industries TPA terephthalic acid
CFCs chlorofluorocarbons UF-resins urea-formaldehyde resins .
C*, methane UN ECE United Nations Economic
carbon dioxide Commission for Europe
COZ
DMT dimethy lterephthalate UN FA0 United Nations Food and
EAF electric arc furnace Agriculture Organization
ECN Netherlands Energy Research UN FCCC United Nations Framework
Foundation Convention o n Climate
EU European Union Change
GER gross energy requirement VCM vinylchloride monomer
GHG greenhouse gas WIR wood in the rough

62 journal of Industrial Ecology