Appendix 1: Transistor parameters

A parameter is a characteristic or property of a transistor which identifies it and

distinguishes it from another similar transistor. In choosing a particular transistor
to do a specific job, a comparison of parameters is the means by which the most
suitable component can be selected. The important parameters of a transistor are
the same as those for any amplifier, namely, input and output impedances, gain
and feedback ratios. The amplifier characteristics will, of course, be determined
by the parameters of the active devices it contains.
Parameters can be expressed in the units of impedance or resistance, in the
units of admittance or conductance, or they may have no units and be just plain
numerical ratios. The same kind of unit (that is, oluns or siemens) may be used
for all four parameters, or the parameters may have mixed units (for example,
ohms, siemens and straight ratio). To clarify this, consider expressing the four
parameters in ohms; the input and output impedances are already in ohms; the
gain and feedback would have to be expressed in the form of a voltage change
divided by a current change, because the unit of voltage divided by current is the
ohm. Expressing a gain in this form will not necessarily suit the device. A field-
effect transistor, for example, has a current change produced by a voltage change.
The unit of current divided by voltage is the reciprocal of the ohm, the siemens.
Without going further into detail, it is sufficient to say that appropriate para-
meters are chosen for a device, depending upon how the device works. Thus the
parameters used for the bipolar device are different to those used for the unipolar
device.
Parameters expressed in ohms are called z parameters at high frequencies and
r parameters at low frequencies. Parameters expressed in siemens are called y
parameters at high frequencies and g parameters at low frequencies. The para-
meters used for each device will now be given.
The most commonly used parameters for bipolar transistors are the hybrid,
or 'h', parameters. The h parameters are input resistance, hi; output conductance,
h o ; current gain, hr; and feedback ratio, hr. The input resistance is not extremely
 Appendix 1; Transistor parameters 125

high, because for a bipolar transistor current flows at the input. The output
resistance, if required, is the reciprocal of h o ; but the output conductance is
usually given because it is a more suitable parameter for this particular device.
As before, the parameters are defined using small changes so that

small change in input voltage

h·=------~--~----~
I small change in input current
small change in output current
h =-------=;-----"----
o small change in output voltage
small change in output current
hf = sma11 change m
. .mput current

small change in feedback voltage

hr = small change in output voltage

The parameters hf and hi are measured with the output terminals open circuited
(that is, with no load); ho and hr are measured with output terminals short cir-
cuited (that is, with zero resistance load). An examination of the defmitions
shows that hi is measured in ohms, ho in siemens, and that hr and hr are pure
numbers. Because of the mixed units, these parameters are called hybrid para-
meters, the h standing for hybrid.
The h parameters of a transistor can be obtained from the characteristics. For
example, if a graph of collector current against base current is plotted (see figure
5.3a) the slope would represent hf for the mode where output current is collector
current and input current is base current (that is, the common-emitter mode).
For the transistor, a set of h parameters is often given for each mode; for common
emitter, common base and common collector. The basic definitions remain the
same, but the output and input voltages are those at the output and input elec-
trodes for the particular mode. To distinguish between modes a second sufftx is
used in which 'e' represents common emitter, 'b' common base, and 'c' common
collector.
Thus, hfe which is the ratio between a small change in output current to a
small change in input current for the common-emitter mode means, in fact, the
ratio between a small change in collector current (the output current in this case)
and a small change in base current (the input current in this case). Similarly, hfb
is the ratio between small changes of collector current (output) and emitter
current (input) for the common-base amplifier. Other symbols used for hfe and
hfb are {3 and a, respectively, but these symbols are falling out of use at the
present time. The use of capital letters in the sufftx, for example, hFE, hFB, etc.
removes the words 'small change' from the definition and the parameters apply
to unchanging quantities (that is d.c.). Thus, where hfe means a small change in
collector current divided by small change in base current, hFE means the d.c.
value of collector current divided by the d.c. value of base current. The para-
meters hfe , h fb , etc. are close in value to hFE' hFB' etc. if hfe, h fb are measured
 Table AU Active device parameters
Bipolar transistors Unipolar transistors (FET)
Hybrid (h) Common Common Common Conductance (g) Common Common Common
parameters base emitter collector parameters gate source drain
small change in small change in
Input input voltage input current
parameter small change in h ib hi. hic small change in gig gis gid
input current input voltage
(input impedance) (input conductance)
small change in small change in
Output output current output current
parameter small change in hob hoe hoc small change in gog gos god
output voltage output voltage
(output conductance) (output conductance)
small change in small change in
Forward output current output current
transfer (gain) small change in hfb hr. hrc small change in grg grs grd
parameter input current input voltage
(current gain) (transfer or mutual
conductance)
small change in small change in
Reverse feedback voltage feedback current
transfer small change in h rb hr. h rc small change in grg grs grd
(internal input voltage output voltage
feedback)
parameter
Note: Capital letter suffix means d.c. quantities.
 Appendix 1: Transistor parameters 127

at small signal levels. Transistor parameters are summarised and compared in

table Al.l.
The most convenient parameters for field-effect transistors are the 'g' para-
meters, all of which are measured in the units of conductance (siemens). The
four g parameters are very similar to the h parameters for bipolar transistors. The
g parameters are

. d small change in input current

mput con uctance gi = - - - - - ' ' ' - - - - - ! . . . . - - - -
small change in input voltage
small change in output current
output conductance go = - - - - - ' ' ' - - . - - . ! . . . . - - - -
small change m output voltage
small change in output current
transfer conductance gf = II h .. I
sma c ange m mput vo tage
small change in feedback current
feedback conductance gr = II h · I
sma c ange m output vo tage
Notice that all parameters are measured in terms of current/voltage ratios, and
the unit will therefore be the siemens as stated. As with h parameters, a second
suffix is used to show the mode; s for common source; g for common gate; and
d for common drain. Thus gfs, for example, represents a small change in drain
current divided by a small change in gate voltage (for the common-source con-
nection, the drain current is the output current and gate voltage is the input
voltage). The parameter gfs is obtainable from the characteristics, being the slope
of the Id/Vg curve (see figure 5.3b). As with the bipolar transistor, capital letters
in the suffix denote the d.c. parameter, gFS, for example, being the ratio of Id to
Vg (both d.c. values). See table A.I for an overall summary of parameters.
Appendix 2: Decibels

The gain of an amplifier may be a very large number in itself and if amplifiers are
cascaded (connected so that the output of one feeds the input of the next) the
overall gain is the product of the individual amplifier gains and will be an even
larger number. To make these high gain figures easier to handle we use a logarith-
mic unit called the decibel (symbol dB). Use of the decibel also makes gain
calculations easier because, since the unit is logarithmic, the process of addition
replaces multiplication, as explained below.
We begin by defining the bel (symbol B) which is the logarithm of the ratio of
two power levels. Thus for two power levels PI and P 2 , the ratio P t/P2 expressed
in bels is 10g(P t/P2 ) (the logarithm being to the base 10).
Consider two actual power levels of say, 40 W and 1 mW
The numerical ratio is
40
10- 3
that is 40 000
The ratio in bels is given by
log 40000
= 4.602 B (from tables)
The decibel is one-tenth of a bel, that is
1 B = 10 dB
So that in decibels this ratio is 4.602 x 10 which is 46 dB (ignoring the 0.02,
which would be done in practice).
In general then for two power levels PI andP2 the ratio in decibels is
1010g(Pt/P2 )
Suppose power level PI is due to a voltage VI volts driving a currentll amperes
 Appendix 2: Decibels 129

in a resistor R ohms and power level P2 is due to a voltage V2 volts driving a

currentI2 amperes in a resistor of the same value R ohms. Then
V 12
PI =II2R or R

and

or

So that

or

or

and

log PI = log (II ) 2

P2 lz
=2 log II
- or
12
and the unit of these ratios is the bel
PI
and log - =20 log II
-
P2 lz
VI
or 20 log-
V2
where the unit is the decibel.
We see then that the decibel may be used as a unit to express voltage ratios or
current ratios as well as power ratios.
P
For power levels PI, P2 ratio is 10 log ...1. dB
P2

voltage levels VI, V2 ratio is 20 log VI dB

V2
I
and for current levels I 1 ,I2 ratio is 20 log 2. dB
12
It should be noted that the resistance was assumed the same in both cases so that
for correct use the decibel must refer to voltage and current levels across or in
the same value of resistance. Since normally we use decibels to indicate a change
in conditions at the same point in a system this does not usually lead to error.
130 Appendix 2: Decibels

A useful point about the decibel is that because it is a unit based on logaritlnns
to the base 10 we obtain the same numerical value of a ratio and its reciprocal.
For example consider two voltages Vl and V2 when Vl/V2 = 2. In decibels

10 log Vl = 10 log 2
V2
= 10 x 0.3010
= 3.01 dB (3 dB)
and the reciprocal of the ratio is t so that in decibels this is
V
10 log -.l. = 10 log t
Vl
= 10 x 1.6990
which, since 1.6990 means -1 + O. 6990,
= 10 x (-1 + 0.699)
= -10 + 6.99
= -3.01 dB (-3 dB)
The number is the same, the sign is different. Thus if a voltage level is doubled
(from V2 to Vl) we say it is then 3 dB UP (3 dB), if it is halved (from Vl to
V2 ) we say it is now 3 dB DOWN (-3 dB).
Another useful aspect of the use of logaritlnnic units is that gains of amplifiers
or amplifying stages expressed in decibels may be added when the amplifiers or
stages are cascaded. Numerical gains are, of course, multiplied together in such a
case. Consider, for example, two stages each of voltage gain 100 which are cas-
caded together.
Total gain = 100 x 100
= 10000
or 20 log 10000 dB
=80dB
Each stage has a gain of 100 or 20 log 100 dB, that is 40 dB. The overall gain is
thus 40 dB + 40 dB
= 80 dB as before
Certain laboratory instruments (signal generators, etc.) are calibrated in decibels
up and down so that signal output levels may be changed accordingly. It must be
remembered, however, that the calibration is only accurate if the effective resist-
ance of the circuit at the point where the instrument is connected remains the
same.
Appendix 3: Resistor colour code
and schematic diagram code as 1852

The resistance of most ftxed resistors (other than wirewound types) is usually
indicated by the use of a system of coloured rings grouped together at one end
of the component. There are usually either three or four of these rings and they
are read as follows: rings one and two, counting from the end at which the rings
are grouped, give the first two ftgures of the resistance value; ring three gives the
number of noughts following these two ftgures; and ring four (if present) gives
the tolerance (that is, a measure of the range within which the actual resistance
is permitted to lie). The colour code (table A3.l) is as follows:

Table A3.1

Colour Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green

Figure (or number

of noughts, for o 2 3 4 5
third ring)

Colour Blue Violet Grey White Silver Gold

Figure (or number

of noughts, for 6 7 8 9
third ring)

If a fourth ring is present it will be silver to indicate 10% tolerance or gold to

indicate 5% tolerance. If a fourth ring is not present the tolerance may be assumed
to be 20%.
Thus, a resistor coloured red-red-red-silver has a nominal resistance 2200 n
(that is, 2-2-two noughts) and its actual resistance lies within ±10% of 2200,
132 Appendix 3: Resistor colour code

that is between (2200 - 220) il and (2200 + 220) il. Similarly, a resistor
coloured yellow-violet-brown is 470 il, 20% tolerance. A third ring coloured
black signifies no nought so that a brown-black-black set of rings would indicate
10 il, that is first two figures 1 and 0, no noughts to follow.

BS 1852 Resistance Code

Throughout the book schematic circuit diagrams have indicated resistance values
using standard prefixes. The new British Standard 1852 Code is being adopted
by some manufacturers. This code tells more about the resistor but uses fewer
characters. Some examples are
0.56 il is written R56
1.0 il is written 1RO
5.6 il is written 5R6
68 il is written 68R
2.2 kil is written 2K2
10 Mil is written 10M
An additional letter may then be used to give the tolerance
F=±l% J=±5%
M =±20%
G=±2% K =±10%
So that
4R7K means 4.7 il ± 10%
68KK means 68 kil ± 10%
4M7M means 4.7 Mil ± 20%
6K8J means 6.8 kil ± 5%
and so on.
Appendix 4: Multiple and
submultiple units

As indicated in the text, units of resistance, capacitance and inductance are

ohms, farads and henrys respectively. These are abbreviated U, F and H. The
single unit is not always a convenient size and accordingly multiple units or sub-
mUltiple units are used. The abbreviations and symbols in use are

pico P 10- 12
nano n 10- 9
micro Il 10- 6
milli m 10- 3
centi c 10-2
kilo k 10 3
mega M 10 6
giga G 109
Thus: 1 gigahertz (1 GHz) means 1 x 109 or 1000 million hertz
1 kilohm (l kU) means 1000 ohms
1 microampere (lilA) means 1 x 10- 6 amperes; that is, one millionth of
one ampere
1 nanofarad (1 nF) means 1 x 10-9 or 1/1 000 000 000 of one farad
and so on.
Self-test questions and answers

Questions
1. The main disadvantage of d.c. signal transmission is
A. Only low power signals may be transmitted
B. d.c. power supplies are required
C. Electromagnetic propagation cannot be used
D. The extent of the transmitted intelligence is limited

2. The synchronising signal in a television transmission is used to

A. Separate sound from vision signals
B. Ensure line and frame timebases run at the same frequency
C. Ensure camera and receiver timebases run in synchronism
D. Ensure the same brightness at the camera and at the receiver

3. A superheterodyne receiver system

A. Has poor selectivity
B. Uses a frequency changer
C. Has poor sensitivity
D. Uses wideband amplifiers

4. For correct working of an npn bipolar transistor the electrodes named

should be at the following polarities with respect to the emitter
A. Collector positive, base negative
B. Collector negative, base positive
C. Collector positive, base positive
D. Collector negative, base negative
 Self-test questions and answers 135

S. The nature of the impedance of a series tuned circuit below and above
resonance, respectively, is
A. Inductive, capacitive
B. Capacitive, inductive
C. Capacitive, resistive
D. Resistive, inductive

6. The nature of the impedance of a parallel tuned circuit below and above
resonance, respectively, is
A. Inductive, capacitive
B. Inductive, resistive
C. Capacitive, inductive
D. Resistive, capacitive

7. If the gate-source voltage of a junction-gate n-channel field-effect transistor

is positive, that is gate is positive with respect to source
A. The drain current increases
B. The drain current is reduced
C. The drain current ceases
D. The drain current remains at the same value as when the gate-source volt-
age is zero

8. A thyristor may be switched off

A. By reducing the gate voltage
B. By reducing the anode voltage
C. By increasing the gate voltage
D. By increasing the anode voltage

9. If one diode of a bridge rectifier failed

A. The output would fall to zero
B. The output would be reduced full wave rectified d.c.
C. The output would be half wave rectified d.c.
D. The output would be unrectified a.c.

10. A Zener diode

A. Is used in the forward biased mode
B. Uses avalanche breakdown when reverse biased
C. May be used as a current stabiliser
D. May be used as a voltage stabiliser
136 Self-test questions and answers

11. The purpose of a bleeder resistor at the output of a power supply is to

A Stabilise the output voltage
B. Prevent the output voltage rising to too high a value on no load
C. Reduce output ripple
D. Rectify the a.c. input

12. The voltage regulator in a power supply (a.c. to d.c.) is included

A To remove ripple
B. To rectify the a.c.
C. To stabilise the output voltage
D. To stabilise the input voltage

13. A transistor is biased class A when the operating point is

A At zero collector (drain) current
B. At cut-off
C. Beyond cut-off
D. Between zero current and cut-off and in the linear part of the transfer
curve

14. A common-emitter amplifier has the input and output signals at the
following electrodes
A Input-base, output-emitter
B. Input-base, output-collector
C. Input-emitter, output-collector
D. Input-emitter, output-base

15. A complementary symmetry circuit uses

A Two pnp transistors
B. Two npn transistors
C. Two n-type FETs
D. One pnp transistor, one npn transistor

16. A phase splitter circuit is used

A To provide feedback in an oscillator
B. To provide antiphase signals from a single input
C. To improve the gain-frequency response of an amplifier
D. As a detector for FM signals

17. An emitter follower has

A Low input impedance, low output impedance
 Self-test questions and answers 137

B. Low input impedance, high output impedance

C. High input impedance, low output impedance
D. High input impedance, high output impedance

18. An amplifier delivers 100 mV output when the input is 10 mY. If 1 mV is

fed back so as to oppose part of the input the new overall gain of the
amplifier is approximately
A. 10
B. 11
C. 9
D. 100

19. The fall-off in gain of a transformer-coupled voltage amplifier at low fre-

quencies is due to
A. The high reactance of the load
B. The low reactance of the load
C. The high reactance of the output shunt capacitance
D. The low reactance of the output shunt capacitance

20. The fall-off in gain of a resistance-capacitance-coupled amplifier at low

frequencies is due to
A. The low reactance of the coupling capacitor
B. The high reactance of the coupling capacitor
C. The low reactance of the output shunt capacitance
D. The high reactance of the output shunt capacitance

21. The fall-off in gain of a resistance-coupled amplifier when the signal

frequency is high is due to
A. The high reactance of the coupling capacitor
B. The low reactance of the coupling capacitor
C. The high reactance of the shunt capacitance across the output
D. The low reactance of the shunt capacitance across the output

22. If the load of a resistance-loaded amplifier is increased in value, the HT

remaining the same
A. The load line slope is increased
B. The load line slope is reduced
C. The load line slope remains the same, the load line moving up the h/VA
axes
D. The load line slope remains the same, the load line moving down the
lA/VA axes towards zero
138 Self-test questions and answers

23. In the normal operation of an astable multivibrator

A. There is one stable state
B. There are two stable states
C. There are no stable states
D. The output is sinusoidal

24. In a Colpitts oscillator

A. One side of the tuned circuit contains a tapped coil
B. One side of the tuned circuit contains two capacitors connected in series
C. Feedback is effected via a transformer
D. There is no tuned circuit

25. In a phase shift RC oscillator

A. The tuned circuit is transformer coupled
B. Phase shift is effected by an RC network
C. Feedback is from emitter to base
D. The frequency is controlled by varying a coil

26. In a Hartley oscillator

A. One side of the tuned circuit contains a tapped coil
B. One side of the tuned circuit contains two capacitors connected in series
C. Feedback is effected by a transformer
D. There is no tuned circuit

27. A diode detector for AM signals gives

A. Poor selectivity, good sensitivity
B. Good selectivity, poor sensitivity
C. Good selectivity, good sensitivity
D. Poor selectivity, poor sensitivity

28. In ftgure Q.l, if direct voltage readings between base and ground and
between emitter and ground were equal, the fault could be
A. R 1 open circuit
B. C3 short circuit
C. Transistor internal base-emitter short
D. R3 open circuit
 Self·test questions and answers 139

figure Q.l

29. In figure Ql, if R3 went open circuit

A. The amplifier gain would fall to zero
B. The transistor would overheat
C. The output would be distorted
D. The transistor bias would increase

30. In figure Ql if capacitor C3 went open circuit

A. The gain of the amplifier would be reduced
B. The transistor would cut off
C. The transistor would burn out
D. The output would fall to zero

Answers
1. C 11. B 21. D
2. C 12. C 22. B
3. B 13. D 23. C
4. C 14. B 24. B
5. B 15. D 25. B
6. A 16. B 26. A
7. A 17. C 27. D
8. B 18. C 28. C
9. C 19. B 29. A
10. D 20. B 30. A
 Index
AM detectors 55ff
amplifiers
coupling 77
modes 66
see also under type
amplitude limiting 52
amplitude modulation 56
angular velocity 11
anodes (CR T) 108
astable multivibrator 98
audio power amplifiers 86
auto-transformer 33
avalanche breakdown 45
ballast resistor 51
bandwidth 27,79,91
base 57
belt drive 112
bias
classes 75
diode 45
transistor 57, 60
biasing 73
bipolar transistor 57
bistable multivibrator 100
bleeder resistor 118
blocking oscillator 100
bridge rectifier 50
capacitor input filter 116ff
cathode ray oscilloscope 107ff
cathode ray tube 107ff
choke input filter 118
clamping 52
classes of bias 75
clipping 52
collector 57
Colpitts oscillator 93
common base mode 66
common collector mode 66
common drain mode 66
common emitter mode 66
common gate mode 66
common source mode 66
complementary symmetry 90
compression bonding 64
coupling, amplifier 77
CR circuits, d.c. 3
crossover distortion 87
crystal oscillator 96
current amplification 58
current feedback 81ff
decibel 80, 128ff
damping 28
d.c. restoration 52
deflection (CRO) 110
deflection sensitivity 110
depletion mode 60
depletion region 47
diac 61
diffusion process 64
differentiating circuits 104
diode 42ff
characteristic 47
steering 102
distortion 86, 87
doping 43
drain 59
dynamic impedance 27
eddy currents 31
efficiency, transformer 39
electron gun 107
electromagnetic focusing 109
electrostatic focusing 108
emitter 57
emitter follower 66, 118
enhancement mode 60
exponential curve 3ff
extra high tension 111
extrinsic semiconductor 43
 Index 141

Faraday's law 34 microprocessor 64

feedback 76,81,84
fidelity 75
field effect transistor 46, 57
film circuit 63-4
filter 51, 116
flywheel 111
focusing (eRO) 108ff
forward bias, diode 45
frequency 16
frequency response 28,79
full-wave rectifier 49
midband gain 80
minority carriers 45
monolithic circuit 64
monostable multivibrator 102
MOSFET 60
multivibrators 98ff
n-type semiconductor 43
negative feedback 81ff
neon oscillator 99
npn transistor 57ff

g parameters 68-9,126
Ohm's law 1,15
gate 59
operational amplifier 105, 119
gears 112
oscillators 92ff
germanium 42
see also under type
h parameters 68, 125
half-power points 91 p-type semiconductors 44
half-wave rectifier 47 peak inverse voltage 49
Hartley oscillator 93 pentavalent material 43
high-pass circuit 18 phase shift 9
hole 43 phase splitter 88
hole conduction 44, 57 phasors 9
hysteresis 40 photoelectric devices 62
pinch-off 59
IGFET 60 planar transistor 65
impedance 17 pnp transistor 57ff
diagrams 18ff positive feedback 81 ff
input 36,85 post-deflection anode 111
matching 37,85 power amplifier 86
output 37, 85 power dissipation 49
triangle 19 power supplies 115
integrated circuits 63 prime mover 115ff
integrating circuit 104 protection, diode 56, 100
intrinsic semiconductor 43 pulleys 111 ff
push-pull circuits 87
JUGFET 58
Q-factor 26
laminations 31
LC oscillators 92ff RC coupling 78
LCR circuits, a.c. 20ff RC oscillators 96
limiters 53 rectification 48
linearity 74 regulation 51, 118
load line 47, 70ff relaxation oscillators 98
low-pass circuit 18 reservoir capacitor 49, 116
LR circuits, d.c. 3ff resistor colour code 131
resonance 22, 27
majority carriers 45 resonant frequency 23
matching 37 restoration, d.c. 53
Meissner oscillator 93 r.f. choke 55
metallising 111 ripple 55, 117
142 Index
screen ( CRT) 107
screening 31
semicond uctor 42ff
series resonance 22, 81, 86
silicon 42
single-ended amplifier 85
small-signal amplifier 87
smoothing 51, 116
source 59
source follower 66
stabilisation 118
stabiliser diode 46
steering diodes 102
substrate 64
swinging choke 118
tappings, transformer 32
tetravalent material 43
thermal runaway 76
thyristor 61, 99
time constant 3ff
transformers
audio 89
construction 31
coupling 78
efficiency 39
ideal 33
losses 39
toppings 32
transients 2ff
transistors
characteristics 58-9
parameters 125
see also under type
triac 61
trivalent material 43
tuned circuits
oscillators 93
see also resonance
tunnel diode 47
veractor diode 47
VDU 107
voltage
feedback 8lff
gain 68ff
magnification 25
multiplication 120
regulation 117
regulator diode 46
stabiliser 51
waveform shaping 102
Wien bridge oscillator 96
X deflection 109
X plates 109-10
Y deflection 109
Y plates 109-10
Zener breakdown 45
Zener diode 46, 51, 118