Oxford English Grammar Course Advanced

may have gone, should have told etc

modal verbs with perfect infinitives are used mostly to talk about ‘unreal’ past situations –
things which are the opposite of what happened, or which did not certainly happen.
You should have told me earlier. She may have gone home.

the opposite of what happened Should have …, ought to have …, would have …, could have …
and might have … can be used to talk about ‘unreal’ past situations that are the opposite of what
really happened.
You should have been here an hour ago. (But you weren’t.)
Alice oughtn’t to have bought that car. (But she did.)
I was so angry I could have killed her. (But I didn’t.)
If I’d known you were coming, I would have stayed in.
Jumping out of the window like that – he could/might have broken his leg.
We can use the structure to criticise people for not doing things.
You could have helped me! (Why didn’t you?)
You might have let me know you weren’t coming – I stayed in all evening!

1 Complete the sentences with should have … could have … , might have … or would have … .
More than one answer may be possible.
▶ He should have paid me last week. (pay)
1 When he said that to me I him. (hit)
2 You somebody, driving like that. (kill)
3 I you, but I didn’t have your number. (phone)
4 If my parents hadn’t been so poor, I to university. (go)
5 It’s his fault she left him; he nicer to her. (be)
6 I more garlic in the soup. (put)
7 If you needed money, you me. (ask)
8 ‘We got lost in the mountains.’ ‘You fools – you a map.’ (take)
9 It’s a good thing they got her to hospital in time. She (die)
10 You me you were bringing your friends to supper! (tell)

not certain May have …, could have… and might have … can be used to talk about possible situations,
when we are not sure what (has) happened.
I may have left my keys here this morning. Have you seen them?
‘Why isn’t he here?’ ‘He could have missed the train, I suppose.’
They’re not home. They might have gone away for the weekend.

2 rewrite the sentences using may/could/might have ….

▶ Perhaps she’s got lost. She may have got lost. (OR She could/might have got lost. )
1 Perhaps Peter forgot to lock the door.  
2 Perhaps your mother sent these flowers.  
3 It’s possible that the builders have finished.  
4 There’s a chance that I’ve found a new job.  
5 It seems possible that Alex has changed her mind.  
6 Somebody has been in my room, possibly.  
7 Perhaps we’ve come to the wrong house.  

68 modal verbs

© Michael Swan and Catherine Walter 2015

4313919 OEGCA SB+AK.indb 68 31/05/2011 12:40
Oxford English Grammar Course Advanced

Must/Can’t have … are used to talk about what we know or believe from logical deduction,
from reasoning about things (see page 65).
Julie’s crying. Something bad must have happened.
Joe isn’t here. He can’t have got my message.

3 rewrite the sentences in italics using must/can’t have …

▶ ‘We went to Dublin for the weekend.’ ‘I’m sure that was a nice change.’
That must have been a nice change.
1 ‘The car’s got a big dent in the side.’ ‘It looks as if Bernie’s had an accident.’

2 There’s nothing in the fridge. Obviously Luke hasn’t been shopping.

3 ‘Lucy isn’t here.’ ‘I reminded her yesterday. Surely she hasn’t forgotten.’

4 ‘There’s a lot of water around.’ ‘That means it rained in the night.’

5 He had plenty of money last week. I don’t believe he’s spent it all.

6 ‘I’ve finished the report.’ ‘Already? I guess you worked all weekend.’

must have … and had to … note the difference.

Joe must have gone home. (It seems certain that he has gone home.)
Joe had to go home. (It was necessary for him to go home.)

can’t have … and may not have … note the difference.

They can’t have arrived yet. (They certainly haven’t arrived.)
They may not have arrived yet. (Perhaps they haven’t arrived.)

4 Put in must have … , had to … , can’t have … or may not have … .

1 Shakespeare
2 King Arthur
3 Castles in the Middle Ages
4 Poor people five hundred years ago
5 Sorry I’m late. I
6 She didn’t answer. She
7 I two years’ military service – a complete waste of time. (do)
8 You
9 ‘My ankle really hurts.’ ‘Well, you
10 I’m very sleepy. I
to Australia, because Europeans didn’t know about it. (go)
– nobody’s sure. (exist)
cold in the winter. (be)
easy lives. (have)
for a phone call. (wait)
what I said. (understand)
pleased when you heard you’d won the prize. (be)
it if you can still walk.’ (break)
at four this morning. (get up)

modal verbs 69

© Michael Swan and Catherine Walter 2015

4313919 OEGCA SB+AK.indb 69 31/05/2011 12:40