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Culture Documents
AUTHORS’ NOTE: Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Lila Lenoria
Carden, Assistant Professor, Management, College of Business and Economics, Houston Baptist
University, 7502 Fondren Road, Houston, TX 77074-3298; e-mail: lcarden@hbu.edu.
Human Resource Development Review Vol. 7, No. 3 September 2008 309-338
DOI: 10.1177/1534484308320577
© 2008 SAGE Publications
310 Human Resource Development Review / September 2008
and European education for work efforts beginning in the mid-1800s, are asso-
ciated with industrialization and modernization, which strongly influenced the
manner in which work was completed. Other accounts have emphasized
the U.S. Training Within Industry Project (Dooley, 1945) in which the name
of the massive undertaking to train the World War II era industrial workforce
itself emphasized HRD-related efforts as projects. More recently, several HRD
scholars highlighted the importance of project management for HRD.
Whether developing a system-wide strategic plan, enacting an organization
development (OD) intervention, producing a new training curriculum, or sup-
porting individual on-the-job learning, HRD activities are most often orga-
nized into projects. Project work has become an increasingly prevalent in
organizations worldwide and is an important consideration for organizational
success (Packendorff, 1995). Project management has become an essential
organizational competency (Fuller, 1997). As project management research,
methodology, and theory development have increased so has organizational
and individual investment in project management knowledge and personnel
(Kerzner, 2001).
Although HRD project management connections are implicit in HRD prac-
tice and practice literature, and project management has been included in uni-
versity HRD curricula, research and theory linking project management and
HRD is limited. HRD approaches and processes have been examined in terms
of implementation of necessary steps to achieve a HRD-related outcome, but
the management of the HRD process itself has been rarely explored. We have
spent a lot of time talking about how to conceptualize and implement OD,
training and career development (CD), but little time examining the manage-
ment of implementation or the impact of efficient or inefficient execution of
HRD interventions themselves on desired outcomes. Although project man-
agement is a field with its own professional associations, journals, interna-
tional certification programs, and increasing number of professionals, the
direct examination of the important intersection between HRD and project
management has been uncommon. Contrary to the limited accessibility of
related literature, anecdotal evidence from HRD practice and support from
HRD scholars (Fuller, 1997; Gilley, Eggland, & Gilley, 2002; Henderson,
2005; Krempl & Pace, 2001; McLagan, 1989; McLean, 2006) suggest investi-
gation of project management in HRD to be of importance for HRD imple-
mentation, learning, and performance.
Problem Statement
This examination of HRD-project management connections emphasizes two
contexts—literature exploring HRD-related areas with explicit connections to
project management and an emerging “nontraditional” project management liter-
ature that has implications for HRD-project management. While practice
advanced well ahead of theory during the early to mid-1900s, the general project
Carden, Egan / HRD PROJECT MANAGEMENT 311
management literature has also steadily progressed during the past few decades.
As the importance of project management has emerged, key terms such as learn-
ing, participation, renewal, and innovation have become associated with the pro-
ject management practices (Packendorff, 1995). Despite the importance of
project management for HRD success having been frequently highlighted (Fuller,
1997; Gilley et al., 2002; Henderson, 2005; Krempl & Pace, 2001; McLagan,
1989; McLean, 2006), there have been few theoretical or empirical investigations
conducted, examining the impact of effective project management for HRD.
Although project management has been proposed to support HRD practitioners
and organizations, the absence of research and theory associated with project
management–HRD connections means that we have little understanding regard-
ing project management practices in HRD contexts. This lack of research leaves
open questions as to how project management is and can be approached in HRD
contexts, the types of systematic approaches to project management that are actu-
ally used in HRD implementation, and what approaches are effective or ineffec-
tive.
Different from many other understudied HRD-related areas, there is an
established project management literature outside of the scope of HRD that,
similar to HRD literature overall, has been steadily growing and making con-
tributions to theory, research, and practice. This literature has formed to
improve understanding regarding project management outcomes and
processes (Jugdev & Müller, 2005). However, until recently, project manage-
ment literature focused almost exclusively on traditional project management
contexts (construction, engineering, manufacturing, utilities, and information
technology; Kloppenborg & Opfer, 2002). Although some theoretical perspec-
tives may overlap, the specific nature of literature in these traditional areas of
project management makes transfer to HRD contexts difficult in most cases.
Within recent years, as it became clear that a variety of industries beyond the
aforementioned traditional areas were benefiting from project management
approaches, project management literature has begun to expand into a wide
assortment of contexts, including HRD-related areas. Because of the newness
of this expansion, the literature in any one nontraditional area associated with
HRD or other industries and contexts is relatively thin. However, understand-
ing the foci and directions of these emerging studies, including those beyond
specific HRD emphases, will be beneficial to early efforts to frame theory and
research with HRD–project management connections (Kloppenborg & Opfer,
2002). Thus, despite established practical implications, little energy has been
dedicated to HRD–project management connections by HRD scholars, and no
efforts to frame future theory building have been published.
Method
To enact the purpose identified, we conducted two systematic reviews of
literature. The first search of literature involving connections between HRD
and project management and a second search for emerging project manage-
ment literature (defined in the following sections). Articles identified in the
search of HRD-related journals were selected based on their connections to
OD, training and development, CD, HRD, or related areas.
evaluation and review techniques (PERT) and critical path methods (CPM) and
other techniques were presented, utilized broadly and, in some cases, the tools
or approaches themselves were closely researched or evaluated (Pinto, 1998).
During the 1960s, project management scholarship grew and transformed to
human resource period. This period emphasized project management effective-
ness at the individual, team, and organizational levels (Packendorff, 1995). The
Carden, Egan / HRD PROJECT MANAGEMENT 315
The need to better understand and execute project undertakings led to the
development of the field of project management which, similar to HRD, often
engages at the point of intersection between scholars and practitioners. The
Project Management Institute (PMI) defines project management as “the art of
directing and coordinating human and material resources throughout the life
of the project by using modern management techniques to achieve predeter-
mined objectives of scope, cost, time, quality, and participant satisfaction”
(PMI Standards Committee, 1987, p. 4-1). Many definitions of HRD (see
Weinberger, 1998; Woodall, 2001) and even more HRD texts and articles
frame HRD interventions as projects or emphasize processes and outcomes in
a manner that aligns with project management (Swanson & Holton, 2001;
Werner & DeSimone, 2006).
There are numerous HRD activities and interventions requiring project man-
agers and appropriate project management approaches (Fuller, 1997). A project
management system is a key element to HRD and OD interventions (McLean,
2006). According to McLean (2006), establishing an effective approach to project
management is essential in the early stages of action research and OD and
throughout implementation of HRD-related interventions. Although HRD and
project management practice and literature have greatly expanded over recent
decades, the intersection of these two areas has not been comprehensively exam-
ined. Gilley et al. (2002) positioned project management as central for the suc-
cess of HRD implementation. Understanding the scope of literature exploring
project management and HRD connections is important for HRD and organiza-
tional success and project management itself is an essential frame through which
organizational action can be examined.
Summary of Literature
Researchers suggest that projects fail to deliver quality products because of
inadequate planning, lack of alignment with resources and deliverables, inad-
equate change management, and insufficient feedback processes (Cicmil,
2000). To that end, project management and HRD connections and emerging
project management are operationalized in organizational settings because of
the need to ensure that project planning and execution are aligned with strategic
goals to support resource requirements and to assist in successful change manage-
ment deliverables. The literature integrating project management and HRD
provides a means for planning, controlling, and executing project initiatives.
A thematic review of the literature noting project management and HRD connections
included articles divided into several sections, and particularly (a) failure statistics,
(b) OD, (c) CD, (d) leadership, and (e) organization theory. These sections
summarize each of the systematically selected articles for project management
and HRD literature connections.
A review of the emerging project management literature included research
that was related to broad areas of industries including banking, pharmaceutical,
Carden, Egan / HRD PROJECT MANAGEMENT 317
Neo- Action
Institutional In Project
Queuing
Temporary
Organization Knowledge
Flow
Signaling
Detection Resource
Theory Based
Theories
Human Resource
Management
Project Planning
and Controlling
Project
Scheduling
Management
Models
Tools
and
HRD
Performance
Literature
Human Resource
Management Communication
and Technology
Research
Quality Human
Management Resources
Project Leadership
Outcomes Organization Career
Development Development
Project managers are not overly affected by internal market mechanisms or con-
straints on face-to-face interactions. However, certain project variables such as
project objectives, team size, frequency of team changes and project duration
play significant roles in the relationship between the project leaders and his/her
perception of project difficulties (p. 461).
For the most part, project management scholarship has been focused on tra-
ditional areas such as construction and engineering, but it has been broaden-
ing to cover a larger number of industries and contexts. For the purposes of this
study, emerging project management literature is defined as articles identified
in a systematic search of literature (discussed earlier) that are situated in non-
traditional project management contexts/industries. Four key themes from the
literature are reviewed (models, tools, theories, and research) are explored.
Models. Models have typically been used as a process to control, track,
and implement a series of phases, steps, or patterns. For example, a model
“provides a framework with which organizations can conduct a formal assess-
ment of their current project management capabilities and, thereby, determine
action plans (change initiatives) that need to be completed to improve project
performance” (Kendra & Taplin, 2004, p. 43). In addition, models are used by
project managers and project team members as frameworks to increase the
efficiency of project activities and resources (Kerzner, 2001). More specifi-
cally, models provide structure and organization for scheduling, performance
tracking, communication, and management activities.
Based on thematic analysis, identified models were divided into project plan-
ning and control models and human resource management models. Project plan-
ning and control models focus on strategic goal execution using quality
improvement for planning, coordinating, and executing project tasks. More
specifically, project planning and control processes and cycles include schedul-
ing, updating tasks, data management, and reporting capabilities (Kerzner, 2001).
For example, project life cycle is a construct that has developed as a model for
organizational processes including decision priorities (Smith, Mitchell, &
Summer, 1985) and productivity criteria (Cameron & Whetton, 1981). Human
resource project management includes the processes “that organize and manage
the project team” (PMI Global Standard, 2004, p. 199) including processes that
are related to human resource planning, acquiring the project team, developing
the project team, and managing the project team. More specifically, human
resource management models are focused on developing teams as well as team
members with an emphasis on enhancing and supporting performance. The arti-
cles identified provided project management– related models that examined
resource allocation, cost control, data management, project roles, reporting rela-
tionships, training, team-building activities, personality characteristics, conflict
management, and learning or knowledge development. The next section exam-
ines theoretical elements in identified literature.
Turner and Müller (2003) framed a discussion about the project viewed
through the lens of organization theory. The authors contended that within
existing organization theory a project can be defined as “a temporary organi-
zation to which resources are assigned to undertake a unique, novel and tran-
sient endeavor managing the inherent uncertainty and need for integration in
order to deliver beneficial objectives of change” (Turner & Müller, 2003, p. 7).
In addition, the role of the project manager is flexible and includes identifying
and communicating project tasks, encouraging project team members to com-
plete project tasks, and aligning project strategies and goals with internal and
external objectives.
Jugdev (2004) created a resource-based theory of project management
based on Arnoult’s (1972) classification of theories including metaphors,
analogies, reductionist (simpler) concepts, and abstract (mathematical) rela-
tionships. She compared the genomes of humans to an organization’s tangible
resources entitled “strategic asset genome” (p. 22). Furthermore, Jugdev
(2004) focused on project management as a strategic asset that must be main-
tained and extended by using business processes, methodologies, and frame-
works to implement strategic initiatives.
Barber and Warn (2005) discussed the leadership requirements for project
managers by reviewing the literature and developing a framework to link trans-
action and transformation leadership styles. The findings report that proactive
leadership is more success driven than reactive decisions, including monitor-
ing project plans and budgets. In addition, “project managers need to pay more
attention to the progress of their project and forestall any problems rather than
just being reactive problem solvers” (Barber & Warn, 2005, p. 1032).
McGrew and Bilotta (2000) demonstrated that signal detection theory can
be used to gather data in which to minimize the impacts of intervention and
response bias on risk management plans. Furthermore, signaling theory can be
used effectively to describe success in software development initiatives. More
specifically, the unbiased estimator (or true approximations for the project
being assessed) enables comparisons across project and facilitates the effec-
tiveness of risk management plans. As outlined in Figure 1, these theories pro-
vide interesting frameworks by which to examine project management and
point to future opportunities for theory development and research. The section
that follows explores project management research as identified by the afore-
mentioned search process.
Research. Research builds on the literature, models, and theories and thus
is useful in identifying practices and applications that are useful for project ini-
tiatives. More specifically, project management uses generally accepted
knowledge and priorities to execute projects and as such there is interest in the
patterns, trends, and future directions in which to frame project planning and
execution. The literature further provides suggestions for researchers, as it
relates to advancing the maturity of the project management profession.
324 Human Resource Development Review / September 2008
Conclusion
We reported key findings related to exploring HRD-related areas with explicit
connections to project management and an emerging nontraditional project man-
agement literature that has implications for HRD–project management connec-
tions. HRD–project management explicit connections included findings related
to failure statistics, OD, CD, leadership, and organization theory. In addition, the
(text continued on p. 335)
328
FIGURE 2: A Conceptual Framework for Successful HRD Project Management
TABLE 2: Propositions for a Conceptual Framework for Successful HRD Project Management
Antecedents Project manager P1: The greater a project P1: Although there is limited research, and no
characteristics manager's knowledge, HRD-related studies were identified, Wang,
abilities skills, Chou, and Jiang (2005) found that project manager
proactivity, responsive- experiences positively impact project outcomes.
ness, and experience, In addition, project manager qualifications and
the more positive impact attitudes likely influence project outcomes (Casey,
on HRD project 1978; Gullett, 1972; Kerzner, 2001). An important
outcomes. element needing further examination is the extent to
which successful HRD implementation is actually a
mixture of HRD practitioner's professional
judgment and project management-related skills that
extend HRD-sponsored programs/efforts to reality.
It is likely that better project management makes for
better HRD professionals, as project management
and implementation are often closely related.
Project team characteristics P2: The greater the P2: Given the scope and complexity of many HRD-
project team members’ related projects, including large-scale HRD-related
knowledge, abilities, research, it is logical that team management is a
skills, proactivity, central element for success. Although HRD-related
responsiveness, and expe- studies associated with team HRD project
rience, the more positive management, Kendra and Taplin (2004) reported the
impact on HRD project experiences and knowledge of project team
outcomes. members positively impact project outcomes. There
is much room for exploration regarding teams and
HRD project success.
329
(continued)
TABLE 2: (continued)
330
Organization stakeholder P3a: The greater the P3a: Although the HRD-related literature has
characteristics organizational suggested that readiness is essential to HRD
stake-holder readiness, interventions (Miller, Madsen, & John, 2006), most
buy-in, support, readiness-related commentary has been anecdotal,
proactivity, and readiness from the HRD project perspective has
responsiveness, and yet to be thoroughly considered. Although not
experience, the more directly associated with HRD projects, Pinto and
positive impact on HRD Prescott (1990) and Jugdev and Müller (2005)
project outcomes. reported that project success is based on stakeholder
involvement including stakeholder support,
stakeholder consultation, and stakeholder
acceptance demonstrated through readiness,
proactivity, and responsiveness.
P3b: The more aligned the P3b: According to Semler (1997), organizational
organization structure alignment is a key element for HRD success.
and environment in Although the alignment perspective may often be
support of the HRD used to describe conceptual buy-in, it is also
project, the better the important for shared participation in complex
outcome. projects involving multiple stakeholders. Available
research suggests that alignment of structure and
environment, including authority, leadership, and
responsibility, yields better project outcomes (Baker
et al., 1983; Butler, 1973; Gullett, 1972; Hodgetts,
1968). There is a need to examine alignment with
HRD project contexts.
(continued)
TABLE 2: (continued)
Process Project management P4: Utilization of P4: Although numerous models have been used to
approach and/or Practice structured project explicate key HRD concepts and practices (McLean,
models utilized management approaches 2006; Swanson & Holton, 2001) understanding the
or practice models and utilization of specific models toward effective HRD
early determination of implementation has been understudied. Utilization
critical success factors of project management approaches, including
(CSFs) will positively processes used to plan, control, and execute con-
influence HRD project tracts, positively influence project outcomes (Jiang,
outcomes. Klein, & Means, 2000; Kendra & Taplin, 2004) and
have led to initial understanding regarding appropri-
ate approaches to general project management.
Comparing and contrasting current HRD practice
models and the project management components
associated with them, or development and testing of
integrated HRD project management models, will
clearly benefit the field.
Project management tools P5: Utilization of relevant P5: According to Kendra and Taplin (2004) tools,
project management tools including performance measurement systems, posi-
will positively influence tively influence project success. The extent to which
HRD project success. project management tools outlined in the review of
literature assist in the maximization of HRD project
performance and HRD implementation have yet to
be systematically explored.
Leadership and project P6: Proactivity and low P6: Although there is some evidence that leadership
team dynamics avoidance behaviors behavior and project team behaviors positively
among team leadership influence project outcomes (Jiang et al., 2000;
and members will posi- Zimmer & Yasin, 1998), there is little beyond anec-
tively influence HRD dotal and prescriptive support in terms of the role of
331
project outcomes. leadership for HRD and HRD-related projects.
(continued)
TABLE 2: (continued)
332
Project team responsive- P7: Ongoing use of P7: Available project management literature suggests
ness to environmental environmental scanning project techniques and tools appropriately applied to
change and adaptation to changes project activities reinforce ongoing environmental
in the project scanning and adaptation to project environments to
environment, including ensure project success (Kendra & Taplin, 2004; PMI
stakeholder expectations Global Standard, 2004).
and of critical success
factors, will positively
influence HRD project
outcomes.
Proximal outcomes Project timeliness P8: On-time execution P8: There have been few researchers or practitioners
and/or appropriate time who have systematically explored the role of
adjustments for project timeliness and on-time delivery for HRD projects.
execution will positively In related project management literature, Kendra
influence HRD project and Taplin (2004) suggested that positive project
outcomes. outcomes are predicated on on-time execution of
initiatives; however, no identified studies examined
the elements/barriers contributing to HRD project
timeliness and the specific impact such timeliness or
lack of timeliness may have on HRD success.
Project alignment with P9: Alignment between P9: Pinto (1998) and PMI Global Standard (2004)
objectives HRD intervention objec- maintained the importance of alignment between
tives and project manage- project and project management execution tech-
ment execution overall niques to influence project outcomes. Because of
will influence perceptions the absence of exploration regarding HRD and pro-
of HRD project success. ject management intersections, there is currently
little to inform HRD professionals regarding these
important practice intersections.
(continued)
TABLE 2: (continued)
Quality of project P10: Project management P10: Well-executed HRD processes supported by
execution efforts that led to HRD appropriate project management logically create a
intervention implementa- better likelihood for project execution which
tion will have a positive stakeholders embrace. Christenson and Walker
impact on proximal (2004) emphasized the importance of using project
stakeholder perceptions management techniques to positively influence
and general intervention stakeholder perceptions and intervention outcomes.
outcomes. The absence of systematic studies exploring the
impact of project management implementation on
intervention outcomes points to the need for further
study of this phenomenon.
Project team learning P11: Project team learning P11: HRD literature has long emphasized team and
throughout the HRD organizational learning and the importance of these
project will have a elements for organizational performance. Although
positive impact on not examined in the context of HRD, results
perceived outcomes of reported by Thiry (2001) pointed to a relationship
the project and on between learning and performance outcomes. Thiry
future project team introduced a model that integrated team learning
performance. with performance within the project management
framework. More study is needed.
Distal outcomes Intervention success P12: Objective and subjec- P12: When an HRD project is perceived to be well
tive HRD project success executed in ways that lead to a focused HRD inter-
will have a positive vention, it is proposed that the intervention itself is
impact on HRD interven- likely to be viewed as successful. Kendra and Taplin
tion success. (2004) emphasized that project success will have a
positive influence on the organization and
perceptions of organizational efforts. HRD-related
333
examples have yet to be examined in the literature.
(continued)
TABLE 2: (continued)
334
Model Category Variable Propositions Rationale and Support
Intervention-related P13: A successful HRD P13: Schindler and Eppler (2003) researched the use
learning intervention, aided by of lessons learned sessions after project implemen-
effective HRD project tations to positively impact organization, team, and
management, will individual learning. Organizational practices
positively impact embracing action-reflection learning cycles create
organizational/group/ opportunities for learning about HRD project
individual learning. implementation and have the potential to contribute
to future HRD project implementation strategies
and outcomes.
Intervention-related P14: A successful HRD P14: Kendra and Taplin (2004) and PMI Global
performance intervention, aided by Standard (2004) posited that project management
improvement effective HRD project can be used as a framework to impact interventions
management, will posi- including team and organizational performance.
tively impact organiza- Assuming the HRD approach aligns well with orga-
tional/group/individual nizational needs, effective project management
performance. associated with the deployment of HRD efforts is
likely to result positive performance outcomes.
Resulting organizational P15: Objective and P15: Pinto (1998) suggested that future organizational
success subjective HRD success is predicated on the use of project manage-
intervention success ment techniques to implement successful organiza-
will positively impact tional interventions. Well-implemented HRD-related
organizational success. efforts with an emphasis on the key elements identi-
fied in Figure 2 above create a greater likelihood for
related organizational success.
Carden, Egan / HRD PROJECT MANAGEMENT 335
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