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Chapter 1

Introduction to Acoustics
Acoustics is the branch of physics that deals with the study of all mechanical waves in gases,
liquids, and solids including topics such as vibration, sound, ultrasound and infrasound.

Hearing is one of the most crucial means of survival in the animal world, and speech is one of
the most distinctive characteristics of human development and culture. Accordingly, the
science of acoustics spreads across many facets of human society—music, medicine,
architecture, industrial production, warfare and more. Likewise, animal species such as
songbirds and frogs use sound and hearing as a key element of mating rituals or marking
territories.

1.1 History

In the 6th century BC, the ancient Greek philosopher Pythagoras wanted to know why
some combinations of musical sounds seemed more beautiful than others, and he found
answers in terms of numerical ratios representing the harmonic overtone series on a string. He
is reputed to have observed that when the lengths of vibrating strings are expressible as ratios
of integers (e.g. 2 to 3, 3 to 4), the tones produced will be harmonious, and the smaller the
integers the more harmonious the sounds.

Aristotle (384–322 BC) understood that sound consisted of compressions and rarefactions of
air which "falls upon and strikes the air which is next to it...", a very good expression of the
nature of wave motion.

The physical understanding of acoustical processes advanced rapidly during and after
the Scientific Revolution. Mainly Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) but also Marin
Mersenne (1588–1648), independently, discovered the complete laws of vibrating
strings (completing what Pythagoras and Pythagoreans had started 2000 years
earlier). Experimental measurements of the speed of sound in air were carried out successfully
between 1630 and 1680 by a number of investigators, prominently Mersenne. Meanwhile,
Newton (1642–1727) derived the relationship for wave velocity in solids, a cornerstone
of physical acoustics (Principia, 1687).

In about 20 BC, the Roman architect and engineer Vitruvius wrote a treatise on the acoustic
properties of theatres including discussion of interference, echoes, and reverberation—the

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beginnings of architectural acoustics.[9] In Book V of his De architectura (The Ten Books of

Architecture) Vitruvius describes sound as a wave comparable to a water wave extended to
three dimensions, which, when interrupted by obstructions, would flow back and break up
following waves. He described the ascending seats in ancient theaters as designed to prevent
this deterioration of sound

The eighteenth century saw major advances in acoustics as mathematicians applied the new
techniques of calculus to elaborate theories of sound wave propagation. In the nineteenth
century the major figures of mathematical acoustics were Helmholtz in Germany, who
consolidated the field of physiological acoustics, and Lord Rayleigh in England, who combined
the previous knowledge with his own copious contributions to the field in his monumental
work The Theory of Sound (1877). Also, in the 19th century, Wheatstone, Ohm, and Henry
developed the analogy between electricity and acoustics.

The twentieth century saw a burgeoning of technological applications of the large body of
scientific knowledge that was by then in place. The first such application was Sabine’s ground-
breaking work in architectural acoustics, and many others followed. Underwater acoustics was
used for detecting submarines in the first World War. Sound recording and the telephone
played important roles in a global transformation of society. Sound measurement and analysis
reached new levels of accuracy and sophistication through the use of electronics and
computing. The ultrasonic frequency range enabled wholly new kinds of application in
medicine and industry. New kinds of transducers (generators and receivers of acoustic energy)
were invented and put to use.

1.2 Fundamental concepts of acoustics

Acoustics is defined by ANSI/ASA S1.1-2013 as "(a) Science of sound, including its

production, transmission, and effects, including biological and psychological effects. (b) Those
qualities of a room that, together, determine its character with respect to auditory effects."

The study of acoustics revolves around the generation, propagation and reception of
mechanical waves and vibrations.

Fig. 1.1 Steps in sound propagation

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The steps shown in the above diagram can be found in any acoustical event or process.

There is one fundamental equation that describes sound wave propagation, the acoustic wave
equation, but the phenomena that emerge from it are varied and often complex. The wave
carries energy throughout the propagating medium. Eventually this energy is transduced again
into other forms, in ways that again may be natural and/or volitionally contrived. The final
effect may be purely physical or it may reach far into the biological or volitional domains. The
five basic steps are found equally well whether we are talking about an earthquake, a submarine
using sonar to locate its foe, or a band playing in a rock concert. In fluids such as air and water,
sound waves propagate as disturbances in the ambient pressure level. While this disturbance is
usually small, it is still noticeable to the human ear. The smallest sound that a person can hear,
known as the threshold of hearing, is nine orders of magnitude smaller than the ambient
pressure. The loudness of these disturbances is related to the sound pressure level (SPL) which
is measured on a logarithmic scale in decibels.

1.3 Need for acoustics in automobiles

Noise consists of unpleasant obtrusive, annoying, distracting, or persistent sounds that interfere
with sleep or the ability to concentrate or enjoy life. In residential and commercial areas, a
majority of the noise pollution is contributed by vehicles[1].

A study among workers exposed to road traffic noise in Brazil reported that 28.5% had
suspected noise-induced hearing loss on audiometric assessment. Those working in noisier
areas were more affected (38.8%) than those in areas with lower noise levels (24.2%)[2].

With increased demands of passenger cars in developing countries, the automotive

manufacturers are facing several challenges from Pollution control board on severe noise
pollution. Automobiles are the major part in development of any country, which makes regular
transportation easier. Though automobiles provide better transportation, it comes with huge
cost to mankind by making environmental noise pollution. Automotive engines are the root
cause of traffic noise pollution. Hence mufflers are essential to reduce the engine noise before
it interacts with surround atmosphere.

1.4 Progress in the industry

Sound quality and the problem of NVH (Noise, Vibration and Harshness) of the vehicles has
become very important for automakers. It is interpreted to be among the factors relevant to the
perceived quality of the product, and it is also important in gaining an edge on the market. To

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help their products stand out from the competition in an increasingly competitive
marketplace, global vehicle manufacturers are using Noise, Vibration and Harshness
engineering to enhance the appeal of their vehicles to their target audience. By using specialist
NVH facilities to analyse and develop specific acoustic attributes of automobiles, Original
Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) are able to create a signature ‘audio brand’ for either a
specific vehicle, or for their range as a whole. Sports car companies on the other hand often
use NVH engineering to analyse and enhance the ‘sportier’ acoustic characteristics of their
vehicles, such as the exhaust sound or engine noise.

During the past 30 to 40 years, engineering effort was directed towards reducing the structure
borne issues in the vehicles by reengineering acoustic and vibration transfer paths through the
structure, as well as reducing the airborne noise with soundpacks. OEMs started to pay more
attention to the characterisation of vehicle acoustics, with more effort being applied to exhaust
and intake tuning, as well as tuning the firing frequency of the engine. As a result of this, there
have been great engineering advances in acoustics over the past decade. Electronic Control
Unit (ECU) tuning, advances in Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) and exhaust tuning have
all become key parts of acoustics development. Active noise is another field of acoustics that
OEMs are tapping into. The use of sound symposers is becoming more widespread, with
vehicle manufacturers feeding desirable sounds into the cabin whilst blocking out other
undesirable noises. Active exhausts, vibration neutralisers (which change the path of structure
borne noise), road noise cancellation devices and active engine mounts are all NVH
development techniques currently being used by OEMs.

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Chapter 2

Review of Literature
2.1 Basic acoustic and vibrational terminologies

1. Vibration - If a system repeats its motion over a certain interval of time, then it is known as
vibration.

2. Periodic Motion - If a system repeats its motion over an equal interval of time, then it is
called periodic motion.

3. Time Period - The time taken by the system to complete one cycle is called time period.

4. Cycle - It is the motion of a vibrating system completed during one time period.

5. Frequency of oscillation - It is the total number of cycles completed per unit time.

6. Degree of Freedom - It is the number of independent co-ordinates required to describe the

motion of the system.

7. Simple Harmonic Motion - It is the simplest form of periodic motion.

8. Amplitude - It is the maximum displacement of a vibrating body with respect to the mean
position

9. Discrete System - Systems exhibiting finite number of degrees of freedom are called discrete
or lumped parameter system.

10. Continuous System - Systems exhibiting infinite number of degrees of freedom are called
continuous or distributed systems.

11. Mass or Inertia Elements - It is a rigid body element that changes whenever the velocity of
the body, gain or drops the kinetic energy.

12. Spring Elements - In order to indicate the stiffness of the element any deformable body can
be characterized as a spring element. A spring element is said to be linear if decrease or increase
in length (x) is associated to the applied force F, and k is called as the spring constant or spring
stiffness.

13. Damping Elements - These are the elements by which the energy of vibration can be
progressively converted into heat.

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14. Classification of Vibration – Vibration can be classified in number of ways. Some of the
major classifications are discussed below:

15. Free and Forced Vibration - Free vibration and forced vibration of a system is the vibration
that occurs in the absence of any external forces and the vibration that occurs in the presence
of external forces respectively.

16. Linear and Non-Linear vibration - If the response exhibited by the components of the
system such as mass, spring and damper act linearly, the resulting vibration is known as linear
vibration.

17. If any of response is exhibited non-linearly, the vibration is called non-linear vibration.

18. Deterministic and Random Vibration - If the motion acting on vibratory system the
magnitude of excitation forces is known, the resulting vibration is called deterministic
vibration.

19. If the motion acting on vibratory system or magnitude of excitation forces is unknown, the
resulting vibration is called random vibration.

2.2 Basic muffler terminologies

1. Muffler -It is a part of the vehicle exhaust system to reduce the noise produced by engine
combustible products when passing through the exhaust system.

2. Sound - It is a pressure wave formed from pulses of alternating high- and low-pressure air.

3. Noise - It is defined as an unwanted sound.

4. Back-pressure - It is defined as the difference between the ambient pressure and is due to a
drop in stagnation pressure across various perforated elements and the sudden area
discontinuities.

5. Monopole - A monopole is a source which radiates sound equally well in all directions. The
simplest example of a monopole source would be a sphere whose radius alternately expands
and contracts sinusoidally. The monopole source creates a sound wave by alternately
introducing and removing fluid into the surrounding area.

6. Dipole - A dipole source consists of two monopole sources of equal strength but opposite
phase and separated by a small distance compared with the wavelength of sound. While one
source expands the other source contracts. The result is that the fluid (air) near the two sources

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sloshes back and forth to produce the sound. A sphere which oscillates back and forth acts like
a dipole source. A dipole source does not radiate sound in all directions equally. There are two
regions where sound is radiated very well, and two regions where sound cancels.

7. Quadrupole - Two opposite dipoles make up a quadrupole source. In a Lateral Quadrupole

arrangement, the two dipoles do not lie along the same line (four monopoles with alternating
phase at the corners of a square). The sound is radiated well in front of each monopole source,
but sound is canceled at points equidistant from adjacent opposite monopoles. If two opposite
phase dipoles lie along the same line, they make up a Linear Quadrupole source.

2.3 Engine Noise

Internal combustion engines play a major part in the development of any country but with this
the problem of noise pollution arises. This noise pollution level can be greater than 80 dB which
is injurious for human ears. The main cause for this pollution is the exhaust noise and the noise
because of the friction occurring inside the engines, etc. The preceding factor is the major
reason behind these noises. Road traffic noise is caused by the blend of rolling noise (arising
from tyre road interaction) and propulsion noise (comprising engine noise, exhaust system and
intake noise). Controlling these noise sources, which contributes to the globally emitted engine
noise is the subject of stringent road noise regulations which is being updated year by year.
The propulsion noise comprises of combustion, mechanical noise and the noise radiated from
the open terminations of the intake and exhaust systems which is caused by the pressure pulses
generated by the periodic charging and discharging process, which propagates to the open ends
of the duct system (Pulse noise), and the mean flow in the duct system, which generates
significant turbulence and vortex shedding at geometrical discontinuities (Flow generated
noise)[2].

Mufflers play an important role in reducing the exhaust and intake system noise and as a result,
a lot of research is done to designing these systems effectively. The traditional “build & test”
procedure which is time taking and expensive, can nowadays be assisted by numerical
simulation models which are capable of predicting the performance of several different
muffling systems in a short time.

2.4 Exhaust Mufflers

Exhaust mufflers are used by most automobile industries which can somehow reduce some
noise but 100% efficiency is not reached. The muffler is a part of the exhaust system that is

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generally located under the car chassis and installed lengthwise along the vehicle. Due to the
space restrictions, there is a constant room for improvement so that the acoustic performance
of a muffler improves without changing its dimension. For this very reason, many researchers
till now are optimizing the designs. An automotive muffler should be designed in such a way
that exhaust gases also pass as well as the noise is also restricted.

Fig 2.1 Sources of noise in an automobile

2.5 Muffler Classifications
According to Munjal[3], the mufflers are classified on basis of the way they attenuate noise.
There are two types of muffler designs.
1. Reactive and
2. Dissipative.

Fig. 2.2 Classification of mufflers

The reactive mufflers normally work on the principle of destructive interference. In simple
words, the sound waves produced by an engine source which is simple plane wave partially
cancel out each other in the muffler by producing an equal and opposite 180 s out of phase
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plane wave. These waves when collide produce a destructive interference. Reflection actually
happens when we have geometrical variations. This gives rise to two different types of reactive
mufflers. These are mainly (i) Simple expansion chamber (SEC) and (ii) perforated reactive
mufflers.

Fig. 2.3 Reactive Muffler

A reactive muffler shown in Fig: 2.3, generally have a series of resonating and expansion
chambers that are designed to reduce sound pressure level (SPL) to certain limits. These
mufflers are used in majority in car exhaust systems. They have to reduce sounds at various
frequencies due to geometry variations. The only complication is that they produce a large
amount of backpressure and work at low frequencies says in the range of 0-1500 Hz which is
not enough since the exhaust gases noise frequencies range between 0-3500 Hz.

The dissipative or Absorptive mufflers as shown in Fig: 2.4 uses the principle of absorption as
a way to reduce the sound energy. Plane sound waves are reduced as their energy is converted
into heat energy since energy is neither created nor destroyed but transferred from one form to
another. A standard absorptive muffler is comprised of straight, circular and perforated pipe
with porosity and that is enclosed in a large steel housing. Between the perforated pipe and the
casting is a layer of sound absorptive material that absorbs some of the pressure wave pulses.
Generally, glass wool is used as the fibrous material for absorbing the noise. They produce
very less backpressure but they do not work well at low frequencies and noise reduction is not
that much. The acoustic performance of the muffler can be improved by increasing sound
pressure loss or transmission loss. In addition to the acoustic performance, another important
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consideration is how much backpressure the muffler produces when it is attached to the exhaust
system. A high backpressure from the muffler can decrease the engine efficiency and increase
the fuel consumption.

Fig. 2.4 Absorptive muffler

There is third category of mufflers that based on the principles of both reactive and dissipative
mufflers. These kinds of mufflers are known as Hybrid mufflers[5]. They have both capabilities
such as resonating noise due to geometry variations as well as absorbing the noise energy and
converting it into heat energy. Thus, the design of hybrid silencers requires understanding of
acoustic characteristics of individual simple expansion chamber, dissipative and reactive
elements, as well as the interactions among them.

2.6 Acoustic parameters of muffler

There are certain acoustic parameters to determine the performance of a muffler. The
parameters are given as:

1. Noise reduction (NR): Sound Pressure Level (SPL) difference across the muffler meaning
actual difference between inlet and outlet. It is an easily measurable parameter but difficult to
calculate and a property which is not reliable for muffler design since it depends on the
termination and the muffler.

2. Insertion loss (IL): SPL difference at a point outside the system with and without the muffler
present. Insertion loss is not only dependent on the muffler but also on the source impedance

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and the radiation impedance. Because of this insertion loss is easy to measure and difficult to
calculate.

3. Transmission loss (TL): It is a property of the muffler alone. It is independent of the source
(its position and strength). It is easy to predict but difficult to measure since it is very difficult
to achieve an anechoic termination, however transmission loss is the most relevant measure to
describe the muffler performance.

2.7 Governing equations

The governing equation of the sound field in a muffler is the linear time harmonic wave
equation in three dimensions for acoustic[4] pressure given as
∇2p + k2p = 0 , k = ώ2/c2 ……2.1

Where, ώ is the angular frequency, k is the wave number, c is the speed of sound and p is the
acoustic pressure.

The theory of linearity using a frequency model is valid for sound pressure levels up to 150 dB
or 20 μPa, and for exhaust system lengths below 15 m, but nonlinearities may still occur at
local constrictions such as perforated elements, due to high pulsating velocities [7]. In addition,
a constant temperature throughout the system is also assumed. Finally, the Mach number is set
to zero, while the flow induced losses are implemented through the boundary conditions.

The solution to the equation above may be written in sine and cosine functions or in exponential
functions as

P(x)=p+e-jkx + p-e-jkx ……2.2

Where, p(x) is a sum of two plane waves, one travelling in the positive x-direction with
amplitude p+ and the other in the negative x-direction with amplitude p-. The plane wave
decomposition is shown in the figure below.

By using Euler’s equation for motion in a medium, the volume velocity is determined as

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Q(x)=(s/ρc)x(p+e-jkx + p-e-jkx ) …….2.3

Where, ρ is the density and s is the duct area. The above equation gives the volume velocity
for plane wave.

Fig. 2.5 Wave propagation

2.8 Review of literature

Davis et al[5] have published experimental results of one-dimensional wave equation travelling
through mufflers and the theory that say that acoustic sound pressure and acoustic volume
velocity are continuous at changes in cross sectional area. In order to evaluate the performance
of a muffler, Prof. Munjal detailed the theory of insertion loss (IL), transmission loss (TL) and
noise reduction (NR), which can be used as acoustic performance parameters.

Bhattacharya et al[6] published in his paper the basic design principles. There are five major
design conventions or principles of mufflers design. These are Acoustical principle, Aero
dynamical principle, Mechanical principle, Geometrical principle and Economical principle.
The acoustical principle which specifies the minimum noise reduction required from the
muffler as a function of frequency. Aero dynamical principle specifies the high acceptable
pressure drop through the muffler at given temperature and mass flow. The Mechanical
principle specifies the materials from which the muffler is fabricated or designed. So that it is
durable and requires less maintenance. This is especially important in case of involving high
temperature exhaust or corrosive gases or the gaseous flow is carrying solid particles in
suspension that might be deposited on the inner surface of the wall of the muffler and reduces
the muffler effectiveness. Geometrical principle specifies the m allowable value and restriction
on shape. The Economical principle is vital in the market place. A muffler must be inexpensive
as possible while designing initial cost as well as operating cost must be considered.

As per Daniel et al[7] who defined the general design principles for mufflers said noise
spectrum varies with different frequencies hence it is important to find out at what frequencies
that noise is higher. As a general rule, while due calculations fundamental frequencies the first
few harmonics should be determined properly. Therefore, these frequencies are then used as a

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starting point for preliminary muffler design can be treated with appropriate noise control to
achieve noise reduction.

Various choices of lengths of extended ducts cause a great enhancement on the acoustic
behavior of mufflers over a wide frequency range. Furthermore, latest works in fiber properties
combined with their broadband acoustic dissipation characteristics and perforated ducts make
such mufflers potentially desirable for their acoustic characteristics. Different methods for
modeling dissipative mufflers have been studied previously by the researchers. Xu et al [8] by
using a two-dimensional analytical approach, examined the effect of fiber thickness, chamber
diameter and material properties on the acoustic performance of dissipative silencers. An
analytical approach was proposed based on the solution of Eigen equation for a circular
dissipative expansion chamber.

Kirby[9], presented a method that two-dimensional finite element eigenvalue calculation is

combined with a point collocation matching scheme in the inlet/outlet ducts for mufflers with
mean flow and perforated pipe. This method showed a good agreement with experimental
measurements. Selamet et al[10] ,combined the behavior of extended ducts and the effects of
dissipation of absorbing materials. A hybrid silencer was studied both by methods of boundary
element method and multi-dimensional approach to see the effects of variations in the structure
of the muffler. Finite element method was commonly discussed for modeling mufflers by
means of taking three-dimensional effects into account because it gave more accuracy and
precision.

Numerical schemes are generally used to calculate the common wavenumbers in two domains
of the silencer. Then, boundary conditions inlet and outlet endplates are applied to obtain
overall acoustic performance such as transmission loss. But this method gives approximate
solution on the boundary layers but do not consider the factors at contact of perforated pipe
and absorptive material. Finite element method gives proper analytical view of a hybrid
muffler.

To find the TL of any mufflers, it is necessary to find the impedance of that muffler. The
standard two-microphone test method with broadband random excitation is described in ASTM
E1050-98, and the detailed theory, including the transmission loss calculation, were presented
by Seybert and Ross (1977)[11] and Chung and Blaser (1980a, 1980b)[12,13].

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2.9 Problem Definition

The work focuses on determining the transmission loss and tail pipe noise of generic muffler
design and verification of the results using reference papers. Various design modifications like
side branch, dual chambers, extended inlet, ducts etc. will be analysed. The performance
variations of these design modifications will be compared with each other to see which
modification causes the most improvement in performance.

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Chapter 3

Methodology

Planning

Implementation
3-D Modelling Analysis

Evaluation

Fig 3.1 Flow chart of methodology

3.1 Planning

By reading the previous work in the field of vibro acoustics, details of which can be found in
the literature review, a decision was made to analyse the vibro acoustic characteristics of a
muffler as a muffler is the only component in an automobile that works on reducing the noise
produced by the engine

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3.2 Implementation

3.2.1 3-D modelling

With the use of software like Solidworks or AutoCAD to model the muffler design, it is
possible to match the designs evaluated in the reference papers. With the help of these software,
it is possible to create different designs by introducing variations and analysing the designs to
compare their efficiencies. The variations include but are not limited to the addition of a side
branch, an extended inlet, ducts and a 2nd chamber.

3.2.2 Analysis

Acoustics software Actran will be used to perform vibro acoustic analysis of each muffler
design used in the reference papers to find out their transmission loss and tail pipe noise. By
introducing a source impedence to these designs it is possible to find the tail pipe noise. Further
analysis of different designs and comparison of the transmission and tail pipe noise of each
variation will help deduce the most effective design.

3.3 Evaluation

Comparison of the analysis data, which includes transmission ratio and tail pipe noise, with the
experimental data provided in the reference papers will serve as a verification for the analysis.
Equating and relating the data of different design variations helps to analyse the effects of each
new component of design.

3.4 Analysis using software

Analysis of transmission loss of a generic muffler design

Fig. 3.2 Dimensions of a generic muffler

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3.4.1 Analytical Solution

....3.1

– m: cross section area ratio between expansion chamber and inlet (outlet) tube

(0.15 / 0.05)2 = 9

– l: length of expansion part of the chamber = 0.35

– k: wave number 2∙ π ∙ freq / speed of sound

This analytical solution is calculated with the assumption of plane wave propagation in the
muffler

3.4.2 Simulation

Step 1 – Create a BOXPRO mesh by specifying co-ordinates

Step 2 - Add domain for inlet and outlet

Step 3 - Create direct frequency response and specify frequency range

Step 4 - Create finite fluid component and modal duct components

Fig. 3.3 Meshed Structure

Step 4 – create post processing requests and specify solvers (MUMPS solver)

Step 5 -Check the analysis file and view results using Actran analysis

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Step 6 - Plot transmission loss using PLTviewer

Fig. 3.4 Graph of transmission loss

In the TL curve

– High TL value means high transmission loss = acoustic wave is much reflected

– Low TL value means low loss = wave goes through the muffler with little reflection

Step 7 Comparison with analytical solution

Fig. 3.5 Graph of analytical and actran solution

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Comparing Actran result with analytical solution:

– Below about 1200Hz, there is a good correlation

– Above this frequency, non-plane wave starts to appear, and the analytical solution assuming
plane wave is not suitable anymore

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Chapter 4

Conclusion
4.1 Conclusion

A muffler is the only component on an automobile that is aimed at reducing the oise coming
from the engine. In a world where people buy a new car every second, disturbance due to
engine noise is dominant even in residential areas. The only way noise from these vehicles can
be reduced is by installing a well deigned muffler which attenuates noise without
compromising power and efficiency

The work focuses on the determination of characteristics like transmission loss and tail pipe
noise, which are the fundamental parameters of a muffler, and can help in understanding the
behaviour of sound waves inside the muffler. Analysing the design modifications like the
addition of a side branch, an extended inlet, ducts or a 2nd chamber can help determine ways
of improving the transmission loss of a muffler. While all these characteristics can be
determined using analytical approaches, the time consumed and the accuracy of the results will
be underwhelming as compared to the use of dedicated acoustics analysis software like Actran
which provide the results within seconds.

Analysis of modifications in mufflers will aid in improvement of muffler design and

performance.

4.2 Scope of Future Work

On the concept of muffler design, future scope of work can be focused on aero- vibro- acoustic
characteristic analysis of a muffler which involves the study of fluid i.e. air and its interaction
with sound waves. Experimental verification of various design modifications can also be done
by manufacturing the muffler designs and practically testing them in order to compare the
theoretical performance with the real-world performance.

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References
[1] Barbosa AS, Cardoso MR. Hearing loss among workers exposed to road traffic noise in the
city of São Paulo in Brazil. Auris Nasus Larynx. 2005;32:17–21.

[2] Sabry Allam, “Acoustic Modeling and Testing of Advanced Exhaust System
components for Automotive Engines”, Doctoral thesis, KTH, Sweden, 2004.

[3] Munjal, M. L., “Acoustics of Ducts and Mufflers”, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New
York, 1987.

[4] Shital Shah, et al., “A Practical Approach towards Muffler Design, Development and
Prototype Validation”, SAE International, vol. 021, pp. 1-16, 2010.

[5] D. D. Divis, et al., “Theoretical and Experimental Investigation of Muffler with

Comments on Engine- Exhaust Muffler Design”, JR 1954 NACA 1192, 1954.

[6] Paritosh Bhattacharya, et al., “Design of Reactive Muffler for Study on the Noise Level
and Performance of a Two cylinder Four Stroke 16 H.P Diesel Engine”, 2013.

[7] Potente, Daniel, “General Design principles for an automotive muffler”, Proceedings of
Acoustics ,Western Australia, 2005.

[8] Xu M.B., Selamet A., et al., “Sound attenuation in dissipative expansion chambers”,
Journal of Sound and Vibration, vol. 272, pp. 1125-1133,2004.

[9] Kirby, R., “Transmission loss predictions for dissipative silencers of arbitrary cross
section in the presence of mean flow”, J. Acoust. Soc. Am., vol. 114, pp. 200-209, 2003.

[10] Selamet, A., Lee, et al., “Acoustic attenuation of hybrid silencers”, J. Sound Vib.”, vol.
262,pp. 509-527, 2003.

[11] Seybert, A. F. and Ross, D. F, “Experimental determination of acoustic properties using

a two-microphone random-excitation technique”, Journal of the Acoustical Society of
America , vol.-61, pp. 1362-1370,2012.

[12] Chung, J. Y. and Blaser, D. A., “Transfer function method of measuring in-duct acoustic

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properties. I. Theory”, Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, vol.- 68, pp. 907-
913,1980a.

[13] Chung, J. Y. and Blaser, D. A., “Transfer function method of measuring in-duct acoustic
properties. II. Experiment”, Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, vol. 68, pp.
914-921, 1980b.

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