WELDING

DEFINITION:- Welding is a permanent metal joining process by which

two similar or dissimilar metals may be joined by melting them to a
suitable temperature with or without use of filler metals and with or
without external pressure

There are two kinds of Welding:-

<i> AUTOGENOUS WELDING: In this process only similar metals are

joined with the help of filler metals.

For example: M.S to M.S by using M.S filler rod.

<ii> HETEROGENOUS WELDING: In this process similar or dissimilar

metals are joined with the help of third metal or alloy which has low
melting point that the metal to be welded.

For example : M.S to M.S by using brass filler rod.

CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING
WELDING

FUSION WELDING
PRESSURE WELDING

FORGE RESISTANCE THERMIT ARC THERMIT GAS

OXY-ACETYLENE OXY-OTHER
PROJECTION SPOT BUTT SEAM
GAS FUEL

METAL ARC CARBON INERT GAS AUTOMATIC

ARC ARC HYDROGEN
IMPORTANCE OF WELDING IN INDUSTRIES : In industries Welding
is expensively used either in fabrication works or in repair and
maintainance job. In welding a considerable saving is obtained in
production cost improvements in the design of a job may be made
easily,directly,immediately by welding.

Welding is expensively used in the following industries.

1. Aircraft Industries
2. Machine tool Industries
3. Shipbuilding Industries
4. Construction,Food plant,Equipment Industries
5. Structural works in bridges and buildings
6. Repairing and Construction of M.S structure

ADVANTAGE OF WELDING:
(I) Welding is permanent joint.
(II) Occupies less space.
(III) Welding is as strong as base metal.
(IV) Welding can be automatic.
(V) Similar and dissimilar metals can be welded easily.
(VI) Can be done quickly.

DIS-ADVANTAGE OF WELDING :
(I) The ultra violet rays of welding arc are too much harmful for
eyes.
(II) The fumes and gasses are harmful.
(III) There are more stresses in the job done by welding.
SAFETYFICATIONS:- Safety means the quantity or condition of
being safe from danger, injury, or damage safety in industries is
essential. Most of the accidents occur in industries due to some
unsafe conditions.

PERSONAL SAFETY:
(I) Apron is used to protect the front body of a welder.
(II) Hand gloves are used to protect the hands of a welder.
(III) Tong must be used for picking up hot metals or jobs.
(IV) Shoes are used to protect the feet of a welder.
(V) Used an appropriate eye-shield to protect the eye from
welding arc.

MACHINE SAFETY:
(I) Do not keep the machine in open space.
(II) Do not disconnect the cooling fan of a welding generator.
(III) Maintain the cooling oil level in the oil cooled machine.
(IV) Do not clean any welding machine by water.
(V) Switch off main power supply when welding has been
completed.

ACCESSORIES SAFETY:
(I) Ensure welding arc cables electrode holder are of standard
amps.
(II) Ensure that cables are in good condition and fully insulated.
(III) Avoid temporary arrangement.
SHOP SAFETY:
(I) The welding shop should be well ventilated. To protect the
welder from fumes and gasses.
(II) Arc welding booth should be painted in such a colour which can
not reflect the light.
(III) Fire extinguisher should be kept in the welding shop.
Some important Welding process………….
MMAW (Manual Metal Arc Welding):
The metalic arc welding process in which the welding speed and feed
of the electrode is controlled mutually by the welder himself is called
Manual Metal Arc Welding.

MACHINERY PARTS OF MMAW :

WELDING TRANSFORMER:- This is a type of A.C welding machine which
converts A.C main supply to A.C welding supply. It is a step down
transformer which:

 Reduces the main supply voltage (220v-440v) to welding supply

Open Circuit Voltage (OCV) between (40v-100v).
 The main supply is connected to the primary winding which
produce a magnetic flux in the iron core.

WELDING GENERATOR: Generator is a source of electrical energy

supply. Generator gives electricity when it is run with a prime mover. A
generator may be am A.C or D.C . Generator also generate welding
supply where electricity is not available. It has a relative advantages of
polarity.

POLARITY IN D.C WELDING:

Polarity indicates the direction of current flow in the welding circuit. In

D.C welding 2/3 of current is liberated from the positive end and 1/3 is
from negative end.
(I) STRAIGHT POLARITY: In straight polarity the electrode is
connected to the negative end and the job piece is connected
to the positive end.
(II) REVERSE POLARITY: In reverse polarity the electrode is
connected to the positive end and the job piece is connected to
the negetive end.
TOOLS & EQUIPMENTS:

(I) WELDING MACHINE

(II) CABLES
(III) ELECTRODE HOLDER
(IV) EARTH CLAMP
(V) HAND SCREEN
(VI) CHIPPING HAMMER
(VII) WIRE BRUSH
(VIII) TONG
(IX) Hack saw
(X) MARKING & MESSURING TOOLS :
 Hammer
 Chisel
 Centre punch
 Scriber
 Divider
 Steel rule
 Try square
 ELECTRODE:
DEFINITION: An electrode is a metalic wire of standard size and length,
generally coated with flux (may be bare) used to complete the welding
circuit and to provide filler material to the material to the joint by an
arc, maintained between it’s tip and the work.

STANDARD SIZE AND LENGTH OF ELECTRODES IN DIFFERENT

COUNTRIES:

INDIAN(MM) BRITISH(SWG) AMERICAN(INCH) CURRENT(AMP) LENGTH(MM)

1.6 16 1/16’’ 25-40 250

2.0 14 5/64’’ 40-60 300
2.5 12 3/32’’ 60-90 350
3.15 10 1/8’’ 9-130 450
4.0 8 5/32’’ 140-190 450
5.0 6 3/16’’ 180-240 450
6.3 4 7/32’’ 230-310 450

TYPES OF ELECTODE:

ELECTRODE

METALIC NON-METALIC

COATED BARE

STEEL TUNGSTEN CU-TUNGSTEN

CLASSIFICATION OF MMAW ELECTRODES:

Electrodes are classified depending upon following factors:

1. Method of coating
2. Coating factor
3. Type of flux
4. Purpose of flux coating
5. Core wire material

Outside dia of electrode

COATING FACTOR:
Inside dia of electrode

COATING FACTOR TYPE OF ELECTRODE

1.25-1.3 Light coated
1.4-1.5 Medium coated
1.6-2.2 Heavy coated

TYPES OF FLUX COATING:

1. Cellulose coated electrode

2. Routile coated electrode
3. Iron coated electrode
4. Basic coated electrode
COMPOSITION OF FLUX COATING: The coating of the welding
electrode consists of a mixture of the following substances-

I. OXIDIZING SUBSTANCE:- The Oxidizing substances make the weld

metal flow freely. The oxidizing substances are-
 Iron Oxide
 Lamitite
 Magnetite
II. REDUCING SUBSTANCE:- These substances compensate for the
burning of Manganese,Ferro-Silicon

The reducing substances are-

 Ferro-Manganese
 Ferro-Silicon
 Ferro-Titanium
III. IONIZING SUBSTANCES:- These are carbonates known as chalk
and marbel. These are used for stabilization of arc.
IV. ORGANIC SUBSTANCES:- These substances form gases which aid
the transfer of metal.They also shield the welding arc and welding
pool.
These substances are-
 Wood
 Cellulose
V. BINDING AND PLASTICIZING SUBSTANCE: These substances help
the applied coating to grip firmly around the core wire of
electrode.

These substances are-

  Sodium Silicates, Potassium Silicates

PURPOSE OF FLUX COATING:

1. It stabilizes the arc.

2. It forms a gaseous shield which protect the molten pool from tge
atmospheric contamination.
3. It compensates the losses of certain elements which are burnt out
during welding.
4. It retards the rate of cooling of the deposited metal by covering
with slag and improves its mechanical properties.
5. It helps to give good penetration of the weld.
6. It makes the welding easy.
7. It acts as a cleaning agent to dissolve oxides and the other
material of welding.

LOW HYDROGEN ELECTRODE: These electrodes are called basic coated

electrode. They have super heavy coating of flux. The coating contains
the lime compounds that is fluoride and calcium carbonate.

FUNCTION OF THIS ELECTRODE:

1. The arc gives less heat.

2. Molten pool solidifies quickly.
3. Very good quality of weld.
4. Thick and H.S.S can be weld easily.
 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW)

DEFINITION:- The Shielded Metal Arc Welding is nothing but an electric

arc welding which is a fusion welding process.
process. In which the welding
heat is obtained from an electric arc between an electrode tip and
welding job connected to a suitable welding machine.

PRINCIPLE:- When high

current passes through an
air gap from one
conductor to another, it
produces very intensed
and concentrated heat in
the form of spark or arc.
The amount of heat
depends upon the
resistance of the medium
and the volume of current that is passed through
t it.

TYPES:

1. Metalic Arc Welding

2. Carbon Arc Welding
3. Automatic Hydrogen Arc Welding
4. Inert Gas Arc Welding
 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW)

PRINCIPLE:- Submerged Arc Welding is an arc welding process. Where

the welding arc is submerged under a granulated flux. The arc is
initiated between the consumable electrode wire and weld joint under
the medium of flux.A wire feeding mechanism then feeds the wire
towards the joint at a controlled speed. A flux feeding mechanism feeds
the flux around the electrode wire continuously to keep the electrode
in submerged condition.

TYPES OF SAW:

I> AUTOMATIC
II> SEMI-AUTOMATIC
 MAG WELDING
MIG/MAG WELDING:- Generally Gas Metal Arc Welding or welding
with shielding gas, as it is often called, is a welding arc process which
utilizes the heat of an electric arc established between a continuoually
feeded wire and the workpiece. During this process the wire will melt
and the weld metal is transferred to the workpiece. The weld pool is
always protected by a shield of gas in order to protect both the melting
wire and the weld pool from the oxygen and nitrogen in the air. If these
gases enter into the shielding gas atmosphere, it may cause porosities
in the weld. Exterior disturbances such as draugths from open doors
and windows may cause the shielding gas to blow away. Also
ventilating air currents may influence on the welding place and the
shielding gas. The shielding gas is usually divided into two submethods
according to the applied type of shielding gas.

MIG WELDING:- MIG welding is welding in an atmosphere of inert gas,

which means welding with a shielding gas that does not react with
other substances. Inert gases are for instance argon and helium of
which argon is more used within the European region. Usually, the
process is called MIG welding even when the inert

MAG WELDING:- MAG welding is welding in an atmosphere of reacting

gases, or as it is also called: shielded by an active gas. This means that
the gas is separated in the arc and to a smaller or larger extent reacts
with the weld pool. CO2 is mainly used as shielding gas which is why
the process is also known as CO2 welding.

WELDING EQUIPMENTS:-

 POWER SOURCE
 WIRE FEED MECHANISM
 WELD GUN OR TORCH
 SHIELDING GAS SUPPLY

POWER SOURCE:

The MIG welding power source is generally a D.C power source. The
recommended machine for GMAW is rectifier or motor generator with
normal limit of 200-250 amps. Generally reverse polarity is used for
optimum efficiency (wire electrode= +ve). The electrode wire is fed
through Cu contact tube from which it picks up the current. The gas
flows out through a nozzle surrounding the contact tube. The gap
between the nozzle and the work piece is known as ‘stand off distance’.
It should be maintained between 10-20 mm to ensure positive gas
protection. The distance between the tip of the contact tube and the
arc is known as ‘electrode extension’ or ‘stick out’.

WIRE FEED MECHANISM:

The basic requirements of the wire feeder is to feed the electrode wire

continuously from the wire’s pool to the arc through the welding gun or
torch. The required wire feed rate is obtained by setting dial on the
control knob. A switch in the torch controls the starting and stopping of
the wire feed response and shielding gas flow at a predetermined rate.

The wire feeder can be mounted on the power supply machine or it can
be separated from the welding machine and else where to facilitate the
welding over a larger area.

WELDING GUN OR TORCH:

The welding torch can be either aircooled or watercooled. In general

aircooled torches are used for all materials at low current intensities
and also for welding of ordinary mild steels at higher current
intensities. An aircooled torch will be rather heavy if it is to be used at
higher current intensities.
SHIELDING GAS SUPPLY:

The shielding gas is supplied in cylinders of various dimensions and with

a pressure of up to 150 kp/cm2. The gas cylinder is fitted with a
pressure reducing valve in order to decrease the high pressure inside
the cylinder to a lower and less dangerous working pressure, before the
gas flows into the hoses. After the pressure reducing valve (in
connection with it) is a flowmeter indicating the gas consumption,
usually in litres per minut. The welding machine is equipped with a
solenoid valve which controls the gas supply.

ADVANTAGES OF MIG OR MAG:

1. Welding is economical due to less edge preparation.
2. Produces joints with deep penetration.
3. Thin & thick material can be easily welded.
4. Deposition rate is more.
5. Reduces distortion.
6. Production rate is very high.

DIS-ADVANTAGES OF MIG OR MAG:

1. Welding equipments are more costly, more complex,less portable.
2. Since air drifts may dispense the shielding gas,GMAW may not
work well in outdoor welding.
APPLICATION:-

MIG/MAG welding is usually used with:

• Aluminium
• Ordinary mild steels
• Stainless steels
• Copper and copper alloys
In addition to the above metals this method is suited for magnesium,
nickel and a number of other metals and their alloys.

TIG WELDING
INTRODUCTION:-

TIG welding refers to Tungsten Inert Gas welding or GTAW. It is a

process that uses an arc between a non-consumable tungsten electrode
& the base metal. The heat developed by the arc is used for melting the
base metal & the filler metal. During welding an inert gas either Ar or
He is used for elimination of the oxidation of the weld metal. The
shielding gas is supplied to the welding zone from gas cylinder. This gas

also acts as a medium for ionization for establishment of the arc. Filler
metal may not be added to the weld metal.
WELDING DEFECTS
NAME : PRITAM GHOSH
CLASS : ME 2nd YEAR (4th SEM)
ROLL : LATERAL 09
SUBJECT : WELDING WORKSHOP
 SPOT WELDING
Resistance spot welding is a process in which faying surfaces are joined in one or more
spots by resistance to the flow of electric current through workpieces that are held
together under force by electrodes. The contacting surfaces in the region of current
concentration are heated by a short-time pulse of low-voltage, high-amperage current to
form a fused nugget of weld metal. When the flow of current ceases, the electrode force
is maintained while the weld metal rapidly cools and solidifies. The electrodes are
retracted after each weld, which usually is completed in a fraction of a second.
The size and shape of the individually formed welds are limited primarily by the size and
contour of the electrode faces. The weld nugget forms at the faying surfaces, as shown
in Figure 1, but does not extend completely to the outer surfaces. In section, the nugget
in a properly formed spot weld is round or oval in shape; in plan view, it has the same
shape as the electrode face (which is usually round) and approximately the same size.
Spacing between adjacent spot welds or rows of spot welds must be enough to prevent
shunting or to limit it to an acceptable amount.

Spot Weld Illustration

Spot Resistance Welding is widely used in joining sheet

steel of thickness up to about .125 “ and can be used for
many material including combinations of materials, refer
to
for material weldability chart.. Many assemblies of two or
more sheet-metal stampings that do not require gas-tight
or liquid-tight joints can be more economically joined by
high-speed resistance spot welding than by mechanical
methods. Containers such as receptacles are spot
welded. The attachment of braces, brackets, pads or
clips to formed sheet-metal parts such as cases, covers,
bases or trays is another common application of spot welding. One of the most
important applications of resistance spot welding is in automotive industry-the car frame
body is constructed by spot welding of individual stamping parts,
with manual portable welding guns, semi-automatic machines or fully automatic robots.
Major advantages of resistance spot welding are high speed and suitability for
automation and inclusion in high-production assembly lines with other fabricating
operations. With computer PLC control of current, timing and electrode forces, sound
spot welds can be produced consistently at high production rates and low unit labor
costs by unskilled operators.

Nomenclature:
I –current in Amperes
E –voltage drop across the electrodes in Volts
R –the resistance of the workpiece which is the sum of the contact, and material
resistance to be welded in Ohms
H –total heat in watt-seconds (Joules)
T –time in seconds

Principle of Operation

The operation of spot welding involves a coordinated application of current of the proper
magnitude for the correct length of time. This current must pass through a closed circuit.
Its continuity is assured by forces applied to the electrodes, which are shaped to provide
the necessary density of current and pressure. The entire sequence of operations is
required to develop sufficient heat to raise a confined volume of metal, under pressure,
to temperature must be such that fusion or incipient fusion is obtained, but not so high
that molten metal will be forced from the weld zone.

The rates of the rise and fall of temperature must be sufficiently rapid to obtain
commercial welding speeds, but neither rate may be permitted to be so rapid that either
inconsistent or brittle welds will be produced. The rates of rise and fall of temperature
and the time of maintenance at temperature are determined by the characteristics of the
metals being welded and by the capacity of available equipment.

The heat required for any resistance welding process is produced by the resistance
offered to the passage of an electric current through the workpieces, in exactly the
same manner as in any other electrical heating device. Since the electrical resistance of
metals is low, high welding currents are required to develop the necessary welding heat.
Typically the currents are in the range of 1000’s of Amps, while the voltage is at the
level of a few Volts only. The rate of heat generation depends upon the flow of current,
in amperes, through the resistance offered by the materials. Other electrical factors,
such as voltage, frequency and power factor, enter into consideration only with respect
to their uniformity. They affect only the value of the current.

According to Ohm’s law,

I=E/R

where I is the current, E is voltage drop across the electrodes and R is the resistance
throughthe material in ohms. R is the summation of the contact resistances and the
resistance of the work to be welded. Therefore, for a given value of R, the magnitude of
I is determined by E.

Current to the primary of the transformer is controlled which, in turn, determines the
current delivered to a weld of a given resistance. The total heat in watt-seconds
generated in the work being welded and in the welding electrodes is expressed by the
formula:

H = I 2RT (2)
or
H = IET (3)
T is time in seconds.