UTILITIES

REPORT ON DIFFERENT TYPES OF UTILITIES AND THEIR IMPORTANCE

Introduction to Different Utilities

Utilities (water, electricity and gas) are essential services that play a vital role in economic
and social development. Quality utilities are a prerequisite for effective poverty eradication.
Governments are ultimately responsible for ensuring reliable universal access of service
under accountable regulatory frameworks. Increased competition in the utilities sectors in
recent years has entailed changes in regulatory frameworks and ownership structures of
enterprises, in addition to business diversification. These have impacted job security and
working conditions in the sector. Adequate staffing levels and training in the use of new
technologies are important for ensuring efficiency and safety in the workplace.

Social dialogue plays a significant role in developing joint strategies by the social partners to
improve utility services, with the common goal of extending access to services to all
communities, enhancing efficiency of delivery and reviewing tariffs and other sources of
income collection. One of the key issues in the Utilities sector is the need to respect
international conventions protecting freedom of association and collective bargaining and to
avoid breakdowns in the provision of utilities where possible.

The average age of workers in the sector is increasing in a number of countries and there is a
severe gender imbalance in some occupations, which presents challenges for human resource
planning by employers. Making employment in the sector accessible and attractive to young
men and women can be a means to address the recruiting challenges of replacing an ageing
workforce. In addition, establishing national or sector specific training programmes, and
investing in workers through apprenticeships and lifelong learning mechanisms can be
instrumental in meeting the demands of changing skills needs of the industry.

• Any Chemical Plant requires raw materials in order to produce final products.

• It also requires various other services called Utilities for smoothly carrying out the
processes.

• Utility is neither a reactant nor a product, But Utilities are required for maintaining
adequate conditions of a manufacturing unit

• Any Chemical Plant requires raw materials in order to produce final products.

• It also requires various other services called Utilities for smoothly carrying out the
processes.

• Utility is neither a reactant nor a product, But Utilities are required for maintaining
adequate conditions of a manufacturing unit
 • On the other hand bad management of utilities can make even the most profitable
processes unprofitable.

• The utilities help to maintain proper process conditions like pressure,temperature etc.,
without which it will be impossible to carry out the process.

• Now a days most of the Engineering practices are aimed at reducing the consumption
of utilities, Because the production of utilities whether it is compressed air, steam etc.,
requires energy and energy is becoming costlier day by day.

• Efficient Utility Management doesn't end at cost cutting, If utilities supply is not
proper the equipments may not last their full life.

• For eg :-

• If Steam at higher temperature than desired enters Heat Exchangers,the Exchangers

may get damaged.

• Air,Water,Steam etc., are the common utilities used in Chemical Plants.

Some Properties of utilities :-

• a) They are generally Reusable.

• b) Their Composition do not change.

• c) They cannot be stocked, So regular supply is must.

• The aim of an Chemical Engineer should be to provide Utilities & other services in
required quantities and of quality as required by the users.

• Gas-Turbine Cogeneration Process

• When generating energy on-site, many plants use a gas-turbine cogeneration process.
The thermal efficiency of a gas-turbine process is in the range of 70-80% while
conventional power stations, such as coal-fired processes, have a 30-40% efficiency.
The lower efficiency in more conventional power stations is attributed to wasted heat
in the exhaust steam in the condenser. One example of a gas-turbine process is
outlined in the following figure. Figure 3.1 is a gas-turbine cogeneration process with
a heat recovery steam generator (waste-heat) boiler.
•

• Gas-Turbine Cogeneration with a heat recovery steam generator boiler

• Overall, the process illustrated is not much different from a coal-fired process. The
main differences are that the cogeneration process creates both electricity and a heat
utility, and cogeneration processes use natural gas instead of coal. Many of the
advantages and disadvantages are similar to those of the coal-fired process, but the
cogeneration has a much higher efficiency, creates heat to be used in another process,
and uses a more volatile and expensive fuel. The main advantage of cogeneration over
coal-fired energy production is that heat is not wasted. In coal-fired processes, heat is
released and wasted during electricity generation. Cogeneration captures some, if not
all of the byproduct for heat, which is an extremely useful utility that will be
discussed in subsequent sections. In summary, the cogeneration plant is superior to the
coal-fired process because of its higher efficiency and ability to create a useful heat
utility.
• Obviously any engineer would design the cogeneration plant to meet at least the
energy requirement necessary for plant operation, but cogeneration plants often times
are designed to exceed the plant electricity requirement to drive another source of
capital. Many describe this scenario as a "make or buy" scenario (Towler 2012). This
scenario provides chemical producers leverage when negotiating contracts with
outsourced electricity providers and this allows plants to purchase electricity at a
wholesale price. This is a huge advantage of considering on-site electricity production
because electricity is needed in relatively high quantities for all chemical plants.
Being able to minimize electricity costs, or even profit off of electricity production is
a huge economical consideration that all plants employ.
Electricity

• Electricity is used to power many different kinds of equipment.

• It has many advantages: it is efficient (> 90%), reliable, available in a wide range of
power, shaft speeds, designs, lifetimes, convenience, costs, and maintenance.

• It is generally used up to 200 hp, and sometimes over 10,000 Hp. In chemical process
plants, the electricity demand is generally determined by the work or energy required
for compression, pumping, air cooling, lights, and many other items.

• This electricity often times is purchased from local electricity providers, but many
plants generate their own electricity via sophisticated processes.

• Electricity is rarely used as a primary heat utility in large-scale chemical plants for a
variety of reasons. The main disadvantages of using electricity as a heat utility.

• Heat from electricity is two to three times more expensive than heat from fuels. This
is attributed to the lack of efficiency when creating heat from electricity.

• Electrical heating units are expensive, require high maintenance, and must comply
with strict safety regulations.

• Electrical heating units are unsafe compared to steam heating units. In steam systems,
the physically steam controls the temperature, whereas in electrical heating units
temperature is controlled by temperature controllers, which can fail or burn out.

Process Heating

• The key objective of this section is to discuss how processes are heated. Heating
utilities are necessary for proper usage of distillers, reactors, condensers, and several
other integral types of equipment. More specifically, steam, fired heat, and hot
oil/specialized heat transfer fluids will be discussed in the following subsections.
Steam

• Steam is the most commonly used heat utility used in chemical plants, and as a result
understanding how it is used is essential in the study of Utility systems.

• Steam is used both as a process fluid (feedstock, diluent to absorb heat of reaction,
heating agent, and stripping agent in absorbers and adsorbers ) and utility.

• It can be used to drive pumps and compressors, ejectors (for producing a vacuum),
and heat exchangers. As one can clearly see, steam is a versatile, and useful utility.

Fired Heat

• In many cases, processes in a plant require a heat source stronger than high pressure
and temperature steam.

• That is when fired heat is used, which is generally at temperatures above 523K.

• Streams can be heated directly in the furnace tubes or via a hot oil circuit or heat
transfer fluid, which will be discussed in detail in the next section.

• Most fired heaters use natural gas as fuel because it burns cleaner than fuel oil.

• A cleaner burning fuel is always advantageous due to environmental and safety

concerns. Furthermore, natural gases usually result in less wear and tear in burners
and fuel lines.

• Depending on the application of the fired-heater, different design specifications can be

implemented to make the fired-heater as efficient as possible.

• The basic construction of a fired heater starts with a cylindrical chamber that is lined
with with refractory bricks.

Fuels
 • Fuel is burned in utility facilities such as boilers, electricity generation, and
cogeneration, and can be in solid, liquid, or gas form.

• It can also be burned to provide heating for a process or stream or to drive pumps and
compressors.

• The fuel is usually burned with excess air to ensure complete combustion

Hot Oil/Specialized Heat Transfer Fluids

• Specialized heat transfer fluids and hot oil circuits are used as heat sources when
steam and fired heat is not appropriate.

• Specialized heat transfer fluids and hot oil circuits are extremely versatile in that they
can be used in the temperature range of 323K to 673K.

• This range however is quite variable.

• For hot oils, the upper temperature limit is gauged based off of the thermal
decomposition of the oil and coking/fouling of heat exchanger tubes.

Process Cooling

Cooling Water

Cooling water is used to cool and/or condense streams.

Cooling water is usually circulated between process heat exchangers and a cooling tower.

Water is cooled during downward motion by contact with air blown upwards, which can
bring the water temperature to come within ~ 5 ⁰F of air’s wet-bulb temperature.

Process water and boiler-feed water

• Process water is water that will be directly used in the process.

• Boiler-feed water (BFW) is used to produce steam.

• Both may need to be purified to prevent impurities from contaminating a process or

from foul equipment.

• It can be used as a cooling stream when the temperature of the stream to be cooled is
greater than ~300 ⁰F. Cost of BFW can be partially offset by the steam credit.

Refrigeration

Cooling water can usually be used to cool a stream to ~ 100 ⁰F. Air can only cool to ~ 120 ⁰F.
Air may be used in places where water is scarce or more costly to transport. To cool or
condense streams below 100 ⁰F, a refrigerant is typically used. Chilled brine can also be used,
but is less common.
Until 1995, CFC Freon R-12 (dichlorodifuloromethane) and HCFC Freon R-22
(chlorodifuloromethane) were commonly used refrigerants. However, the chlorine atom in
the molecules caused the depletion of the ozone layer. The U.S. Clean Air Act Amendments
of 1990 went into effect in 1995, and the production of these refrigerants has since stopped or
been greatly reduced.
Cost estimates are based on ton-day of refrigeration, where a ton is the heat that needs to be
removed to freeze 1 ton per day of water at 32 ⁰F. Substitutes have since been developed. R-
134a is often used in place of R-12. According to the EPA, R-134a is not combustible at
ambient conditions, and is essentially non-toxic under 400 ppm, and is not ozone-depleting.
(Seider pg 607)

Energy Efficiency

One of the chief concerns in selecting and designing process utility systems for heating and
cooling is how to achieve the most energy efficient design. There are countless means by
which plants lose energy, two of the foremost being through the mixing of different
temperature or pressure streams and through the disposal of warmed cooling water. (Seider,
2009) Proper utilities design can help mitigate each of these losses as well as many others.
The energy efficiency of a plant will depend primarily on the heating and cooling methods
that are being used and the overall system design itself. These two parameters are important
in determining how well energy is transferred to the desired media as well as how well that
energy is recovered and recycled.
Inlet Gas System

Compressed air

Air filter

Instrument Air
 INERT GAS SYSTEM
Oil tankers carry oil of different grades and quality, having property to produce flammable
vapors and gases when loaded for transportation. Even with no cargo on board, there can be
harmful flammable gases present in the hold. When the vapor produced by an oil cargo is
mixed with certain concentration of air primarily containing oxygen, it can result in explosion
which results in damages to the property, marine pollution and loss of life

For safety against such explosion, Inert gas system is used on board. It can be through as a
separate inert gas plant or flue gas produced by ship’s boiler.

What is Inert gas and Inert gas system?

Inert gas system is the most important integrated system for oil tankers for safe operation of
the ship.
Inert gas is the gas which contains insufficient oxygen (normally less then 8 %) to suppress
combustion of flammable hydrocarbon gases.

Inert gas system spreads the inert gas over the oil cargo hydrocarbon mixture which increases
the lower explosion limit LEL (lower concentration at which the vapors can be ignited),
simultaneously decreasing the Higher explosion limit HEL (Higher concentration at which
vapor explodes). When the concentration reaches around 10 %, an atmosphere is created
inside tank in which hydrocarbon vapors cannot burn. The concentration of inert gas is kept
around 5% as a safety limit.

Components and description of IG system:

The following components are used in a typical inert gas system in oil tankers:

1) Exhaust gases source: inert gas source is taken from exhaust uptakes of boiler or
main engine as contains flue gases in it.

2) Inert gas isolating valve: It serve as the supply valve from uptake to the rest of the
system isolating both the systems when not in use.

3) Scrubbing tower: Flue gas enters the scrub tower from bottom and passes through a
series of water spray and baffle plates to cool, clean and moist the gases. The SO2 level
decreases up to 90% and gas becomes clear of soot.

4) Demister: Normally made of polypropylene, it is used to absorb moisture and water

from the treated flue gas.

5) Gas Blower: Normally two types of fan blowers are used, a steam driven turbine
blower for I.G operation and an electrically driven blower for topping up purpose.

6) I.G pressure regulating valve: The pressure within the tanks varies with the
property of oil and atmospheric condition. To control this variation and to avoid overheating
of blower fan, a pressure regulator valve is attached after blower discharge which re-
circulates the excess gas back to scrubbing tower.
7) Deck seal: Purpose of the deck seal is to stop the gases to return back which are
coming from the blower to cargo tanks. Normally wet type deck seals are used. A demister is
fitted to absorb the moisture carried away by the gases.

8) Mechanical non return valve: It is an additional non return mechanical device

inline with deck seal.

9) Deck isolating valve: The engine room system can be isolated fully with the deck
system with the help of this valve.

10) Pressure Vacuum (PV) breaker: The PV breaker helps in controlling the over or
under pressurization of cargo tanks. The PV breaker vent is fitted with flame trap to avoid fire
to ignite when loading or discharging operation is going on when in port.

11) Cargo tank isolating valves: A vessel has numbers of cargo holds and each hold is
provided with an isolating valve. The valve controls the flow of inert gas to hold and is
operated only by a responsible officer in the vessel.
12) Mast riser: Mast riser is used to maintain a positive pressure of inert gas at the time of
loading of cargo and during the loading time it is kept open to avoid pressurization of cargo
tank.

Safety and alarm system: The Inert gas plant is provided with various safety
features to safeguard the tank and its own machinery.

Following are various alarms (with Shutdown) incorporated in the Inert Gas plant on board
ship:

 High Level in scrubber leads to alarm and shutdown of blower and scrubber tower
 Low pressure sea water supply (approx. 0.7 bar) to scrubber tower leads to alarm and
shutdown of blower

 Low pressure sea water supply (approx. 1.5 bar) to deck seal leads to alarm and
shutdown of blower

 High inert gas temperature (approx. 70 deg C) leads to alarm and shutdown of blower

 Low pressure in line after blower (approx. 250mm wg) leads to alarm and shutdown
of blower

 Oxygen content high (8%) leads to alarm and shutdown of gas delivery to deck

 Low level in deck seal leads to alarm and shutdown of gas delivery to deck

 Power failure leads to alarm and shutdown of blower and scrubber tower

 Emergency stop leads to alarm and shutdown of blower and scrubber tower

Following are various alarms incorporated in the Inert Gas plant:

 Scrubber low level

 Deck seal High level

 Low O2 Content (1%)

 High O2 Content (5%)

 Low lube oil pressure alarm

Working of Inert Gas Plant:

The basis of inert gas production in the IG plant is the flue gas generated from the ship’s
boiler. The high temperature gas mixture from the boiler uptake is treated in an inert gas plant
which cleans, cools and supplies the inert gas to the individual tanks via PV valves and
breakers to ensure safety of tank structure and atmosphere.

The system can be divided in to two basic groups:

a) A production plant to produce inert gas and deliver it under pressure, by means of
blower(s), to the cargo tanks.

b) A distribution system to control the passage of inert gas into the appropriate cargo tanks at
the required time.
Brief working procedure:

1. Boiler uptake gases are drawn to the scrubber unit via flue gas isolating valve(s) to the
scrubber unit.
2. In the scrubber unit the gas is cooled, cleaned and dried before being supplied in to
the tanks.
 3. Motor driven inert gas blowers supplies the treated gas from scrubber tower to the
tanks through . They are mounted on rubber vibration absorbers and isolated from the
piping by rubber expansion bellows.

4. Regulation of gas quantity delivered to deck is taken care of by the gas control valves
and the deck pressure is managed by pressure controller. If the deck pressure is lower
than the set point the output signal will be raised to open the valve more, and vice versa
if the deck pressure is lower than the set-point. These valves will then work in
cooperation to keep both the deck pressure / blower pressure at their respective set
point without starving or overfeeding the circuit.

5. Before entering the deck line, the gas passes through the deck water seal which also
acts as non-return valve automatically preventing the back-flow of explosive gases
from the cargo tanks.

6. After the deck seal the inert gas relief is mounted to balance built-up deck water seal
pressure when the system is shut down. In case of a failure of both the deck seal and
the non-return valve, the relief valve will vent the gases flowing from the cargo tank
into the atmosphere

7. The oxygen analyser which is fitted after the blower separates the “production” and
“distribution” components of the plant and analyzes the oxygen content of the gas and
if it is more than 8%, it alarms and shut downs the plant

COMPRESSED AIR

Compressed air is air kept under a pressure that is greater than atmospheric pressure. It
serves many domestic and industrial purposes.
In Europe, 10 percent of all industrial electricity consumption is to produce compressed air—
amounting to 80 terawatt hours consumption per year

Uses
 HYPERLINK
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kompressorstation_mit_Druckluftspeicher.jpg"

Air compressor station in a power plant

In industry, compressed air is so widely used that it is often regarded as the fourth utility,
after electricity, natural gas and water. However, compressed air is more expensive than the
other three utilities when evaluated on a per unit energy delivered basis.
Compressed air is used for many purposes, including:

 Pneumatics, the use of pressurized gases to do work

 Pneumatic post, using capsules to move paper and small goods through tubes.

 Air tools

 HVAC control systems

 Vehicle propulsion (see compressed air vehicle)

 Energy storage (see compressed air energy storage)

 Air brakes, including:

 railway braking systems

 road vehicle braking systems

 Underwater diving, for breathing and to inflate buoyancy devices

 Refrigeration using a vortex tube

 Air-start systems in engines

 Ammunition propulsion in:

 Air guns

 Airsoft equipment

 Paintball equipment

 Cleaning dust and small debris in tiny spaces

 Sandblasting in machine shops

 Injection molding

 Food and beverage capping and fermentation

The header piping up to the air dryers is exposed to moist, hot air (temperatures can reach
well over 150 degrees F). Copper, stainless steel and other piping materials that are less
corrosive are recommended. If plain carbon steel piping is installed, then rust particles can
pass downstream and interfere with the operation of condensate valves and wye strainers. The
riser piping should connect to the top of the header piping and be one pipe size larger than the
compressor discharge piping and/or overhead header piping. A drip leg with a drain is needed
to prevent water from flowing back to the compressor. Mount valves in the highest horizontal
piping (this avoids the hazard of opening a closed valve in vertical piping, and releasing
trapped condensate to flow back into air compressors). All of the header main compressed air
piping should slope 1/8" to 1/4" per foot down and away from the point of origin. Gravity and
airflow will then carry condensate to the low points where a drop leg should be installed to
allow for removal at accessible drop legs and drain points. These drops should be installed
every 50 to 70 feet in the system and be taken from the bottom of the main line to insure as
much removal as possible.
The inlet piping for air dryers should connect to the bottom of the piping headers.

Compressed air rooms with multiple air compressors

Where multiple air compressors are to connect the riser piping to the top of overhead piping
headers. The inlet piping for Air Dryer(s) should connect to the bottom of the piping headers.
It is recommended for the inlet pipe to be thermostatically controlled to automatically open
and close based on the compressed air room’s temperature.

Compressed air distribution piping outside air compressors rooms

All of the header main compressed air piping should slope 1/8" per foot down from the air
compressor. Gravity and airflow will then carry condensate to the low points where drop leg
should be installed to allow for removal at to accessible drop legs and drain points. For larger
plant, as the piping elevation lowers, a full size tee with a bottom drip leg preceding an elbow
turned up to raise the pipe elevation. These drip legs & up turned elbows are typically 200 to
300 feet apart, i.e. the main piping slopes about 1/100 feet, and the elbow up raises the piping
elevation 2 to 3 feet.
Compressed air should flow through the straight ends of a tee and should never hit the back
side of a tee.
Compressed air piping drops
The air piping drops should connect from the top of the main piping. This prevents any
condensate which forms in the main piping from flowing into the branch pipes. Individual
shut-off valves should be installed (in the riser section or the horizontal section of the
connection piping above the main piping, instead of the vertical drop) at each drop pipe to
isolate it from the rest of the system for maintenance. Putting the valve above the header
piping in the horizontal section, avoids trapping water on the top side of closed valves in
vertical piping

INSTRUMENT AIR

The equipment associated with the Instrument air system as used in the industry, generally
consists of an air compressor, air dryer and an air receiver fitted with a liquid drain trap. The
instrument air system is utilized by various plant instrumentation, some of which may have a
critical role in plant operation and safety. Therefore, the equipment should be properly sized
and capable of producing the required air quality.

This article provides an overview of some of the key points and calculations associated with
the instrument air system, which can assist the design engineer in his task.

Air Quality Specification:

The Specification for Instrument air quality is governed by ANSI/ISA-7.0.01 "Quality
Standard for Instrument Air". This specification stipulates the following:

1. Pressure Dew Point:"The pressure dew point as measured at the dryer outlet shall
be at least 10C (18F) below the minimum temperature to which any part of the
instrument air system is exposed. The pressure dew point shall not exceed 4C (39F) at
line pressure".
2. Particle Size:"A maximum 40 micrometer particle size in the instrument air system
is acceptable for a majority of pneumatic devices".

3. Lubricant Content:"The lubricant content should be as close to zero as possible

and under no circumstances shall it exceed one ppm w/w or v/v."

4. Contaminants:"Instrument air should be free of corrosive contaminants and

hazardous gases which could be drawn into the instrument air supply".

Regenerative Desiccant Air Dryers:

There are various types of air dryers such as the regenerative desiccant type, refrigerated
type, deliquescent type, membrane type and point-of-use type dryer. Each type of dryer has
its own limit on the air outlet dew point. Regenerative desiccant air dryers are commonly
used in the process industry and are the most expensive.

The dryers work by adsorbing moisture on desiccant material such as alumina, silica gel
molecular sieves. The desiccant material is contained in two packed towers which are
alternately in service or being regenerated. The regeneration can be achieved by different
methods, such as, using a purge of dry air from the operating tower or by using internal
heaters or by an external heat source. Use of purge of dry air is a simple process with the
discharge air purged to the atmosphere. However, use of purge air consumes about 15 to 20
percent of the compressed air capacity and is best utilized when there is sufficient excess air
capacity.

The capacity of air dryers as provided by the vendor is generally in terms of "inlet scfm" at a
service pressure of 100 psig and service temperature of 100F. At different service conditions,
the inlet flow to the dryer needs to be corrected by multiplying by the pressure correction
factor and the temperature correction factor.

If service pressure is higher than 100 psig (say 120 psig) the flow capacity of the dryer
increases by the pressure ratio (120+14.7)/(100+14.7)=1.17. On the other hand, if service
temperature is higher than 100F (say 115F), the flow capacity of the dryer decreases by the
ratio of moisture saturation vapor pressure ratio at 100F and 115F (that is, 0.9492 psia/1.4711
psia=0.64).

Based on above, the corrected flow to a dryer rated for inlet of 100 scfm (at 100 psig/100F)
and operating at 120 psig/115F, would be =100 x 1.17 x 0.64 = 75 scfm. Note that this is 25%
less than the rated value of 100 scfm.
Desiccant Type Air Dryer Schematic - 1

Possibility of Mismatch between Compressed Air Supply and Demand:

The term "standard cubic feet per minute - scfm" should be used with caution due to variation
in values used to represent standard pressure and standard temperature. In the compressed gas
industry, standard conditions are taken as 14.5 psia, 68F and 0 percent relative humidity.
Other variations for standard pressure/temperature conditions are 14.7 psia and 32F. As such,
these variations can cause confusion and result in a mis-match between the compressed air
supply and compressed air demand.

For example, consider an end-user demanding 10 scfm of air with the understanding that
standard conditions are at 14.7 psia and 32F. Air density at these condition of pressure and
temperature is p/RT= 0.808 lbs/cu. ft. In other words the air demand is for 10 ft3/min *0.808
lbs/ft3= 8.08 lbs/min.

Now consider a reciprocating compressor supplying 10 scfm air at standard conditions of

14.5 psia, 68F. Air density at these condition of pressure and temperature is p/RT= 0.742
lbs/cu. ft. In other words the air supply is providing 10 ft3/min *0.742 lbs/ft3= 7.42 lbs/min
of air. This quantity of air is only 92% of the air demand of 8.08 lbs/min and therefore does
not meet the requirement of the end user.
In case of a centrifugal compressor, the lower ambient pressure and higher ambient
temperature at suction conditions leads to lower discharge pressure.

Note that in some cases, compressor capacity is stated in terms of Free Air Delivery (FAD)
which is merely the discharge volumetric flow converted back to inlet conditions of the
compressor

Effect of Relative Humidity on Compressor Inlet Conditions:

the compressed gas industry uses 14.5 psia, 68F and 0 percent relative humidity as the
standard conditions. Now consider actual site conditions at 14.5 psia, 68F and 100% relative
humidity. The moisture saturation vapor pressure at 68F is 0.339 psia, therefore the dry air
pressure is reduced from 14.5 psia to 14.161 psia (14.5 psia-0.339 psia= 14.161 psia). In turn,
this reduced pressure value at compressor suction decreases the mass flow capability of the
reciprocating compressor (or decreases the discharge pressure in case of a centrifugal
compressor).

Air receiver with Liquid Drain Trap and Balance Line - 2

Volume of the Air Receiver Tank:

The air receiver provides a storage volume of compressed air to be used when the compressor
is off-line or when the air demand temporarily exceeds the compressor output. If the users
require 100 psig in the air receiver and the compressor is set to provide 100 psig air to the
receiver, then there is no hold-up or buffer. For the air receiver to be effective, it must
therefore operate within a pressure band.

For example, assume that the demand for compressed air requires 100 psig pressure in the air
receiver and the compressor is set to operate in a pressure band to load at 120 psig and unload
at 130 psig. This means that in case the compressor is off-line, or if air demand increases, a
storage volume corresponding to air receiver pressure ranging from 120 psig to 100 psig is
always available. The air receiver volume can be calculated from the following equation
which shows the time taken for the air receiver to drop from the higher pressure point to the
lower pressure point within the operating pressure band:

t=V(p1-p2)/C*pa

Where,

t= time, mins

V= volume of air receiver, cu ft

p1= upper limit of air receiver operating band, psia

p2= lower limit of air receiver operating band, psia

C= net air consumption (scfm)

pa= atmospheric pressure (psia)

If air is supplied to the air receiver during the time interval being evaluated, then the value of
C must be reduced by the rate of air supplied.

Air Compressor:

There are three types of air compressors generally used in the industry. These are as follows:

1. Centrifugal Compressors
2. Reciprocating Compressors

3. Rotary Screw Compressors

Centrifugal compressors are cost effective in large sizes only, can provide oil-free air delivery
and have the characteristic pressure curve with pressure decreasing as capacity increases.
The reciprocating compressors have effective multistep capacity control but has a high first
cost with special foundations for vibrations and needs routine maintenance.

The rotary screw compressor is popular in instrument air service since it is a compact
package at a relatively low first cost and provides oil-free air.

Compressor Control Strategy and Air Receiver Volume:

The rotary screw compressor capacity can be controlled by a variable speed drive. However
for oil free compressors speed turndown is limited to about 50% of maximum speed
depending upon adequacy of bearing lubrication at low speed and on compressor discharge
temperature. Therefore during periods of low air consumption, the compressor will need to be
unloaded with the discharge-to-suction bypass open (and if an over-run timer is fitted, it can
stop the compressor in case it runs in unloaded condition for a pre-set period of time). With a
large sized air receiver, the compressor will be unloaded for a longer period of time thus
minimizing wear and tear associated with the compressor's load/unload frequency or
start/stop frequency. Therefore the air receiver should be sized accordingly keeping in view
the associated wear/tear effect on the compressor and motor.

Moisture Drainage from Air Receivers:

The atmospheric humidity entering the air compressor ends up in the air receiver which is
usually at a temperature below the dew point of the compressed air. Note that the pressure
dew point is higher than the atmospheric dew point resulting in water accumulation at the
bottom of the air receiver. This water is usually drained out through a liquid drain trap which
drains the water while preventing escape of compressed air.

The balance line allows air which has entered the trap to be discharged back to the receiver.
Without the balance line, air binding can occur in the liquid trap.

The size of the liquid trap depends on the differential pressure across the trap and the required
discharge flow rate. The required discharge flow rate can be computed as follows:

Assume ambient air is at 14.5 psia, 70F and 70% relative humidity:

Saturation vapor pressure at 70F = 0.363 psia (from steam tables)

Vapor pressure at 70% Relative Humidity = 0.363 x 0.7 = 0.25 psia

Vapor pressure of dry air=14.5-0.25 = 14.25 psia

Mol fraction of water vapor=0.25/14.5=0.017

Assuming compressor inlet capacity of 500 scfm= 500/379.5=1.317 moles/min

Water vapor in compressor inlet= 1.315 x 0.017 =0.022 moles/min

Now (0.022 moles/min) x 18 x (60/8.338) = 2.89 gallons per hour. This is the amount of
water to be discharged from the liquid trap at the bottom of the air receiver.

AIR FILTER

A particulate air filter is a device composed of fibrous materials which removes

solid particulates such as dust, pollen, mould, and bacteria from the air. Filters containing
an absorbent or catalyst such as charcoal (carbon) may also remove odors and gaseous
pollutants such as volatile organic compounds or ozone. Air filters are used in applications
where air quality is important, notably in building ventilation systems and in engines.
Some buildings, as well as aircraft and other human-made environments
(e.g., satellites and space shuttles) use foam, pleated paper, or spun fiberglass filter elements.
Another method, air ionisers, use fibers or elements with a static electric charge, which attract
dust particles. The air intakes of internal combustion engines and air compressors tend to use
either paper, foam, or cotton filters. Oil bath filters have fallen out of favor. The technology
of air intake filters of gas turbines has improved significantly in recent years, due to
improvements in the aerodynamics and fluid dynamics of the air-compressor part of the gas
turbines

Automotive cabin air filters

The cabin air filter is typically a pleated-paper filter that is placed in the outside-air intake for
the vehicle's passenger compartment. Some of these filters are rectangular and similar in
shape to the combustion air filter. Others are uniquely shaped to fit the available space of
particular vehicles' outside-air intakes.
The first automaker to include a disposable filter to clean the ventilation system was the Nash
Motors "Weather Eye", introduced in 1940.
Being a relatively recent addition to automobile equipment, this filter is often overlooked,
and can greatly reduce the effectiveness of the vehicle's air conditioning and heating
performance. Clogged or dirty cabin air filters can significantly reduce airflow from the cabin
vents, as well as introduce allergens into the cabin air stream. The poor performance of these
filters is obscured by manufacturers by not using the MERV rating system. Some people
mistakenly believe that some of these are HEPA filters.

Internal combustion engine air filters

HYPERLINK
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Air_filter,_opel_astra(2).JPG"

Used auto engine air filter, clean side

HYPERLINK
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Air_filter,_opel_astra(1).JPG"

Used auto engine air filter, dirty side

HYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dirty-air-
filter.jpg"
 Auto engine air filter clogged with dust and grime

HYPERLINK
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Low_Temperature_Oxidation_Catalyst.jpeg"

Low-temperature oxidation catalyst used to convert carbon monoxide to less toxic carbon
dioxide at room temperature. It can also remove formaldehyde from the air.

The combustion air filter prevents abrasive particulate matter from entering the engine's
cylinders, where it would cause mechanical wear and oil contamination.
Most fuel injected vehicles use a pleated paper filter element in the form of a flat panel. This
filter is usually placed inside a plastic box connected to the throttle body with ductwork.
Older vehicles that use carburetors or throttle body fuel injection typically use a cylindrical
air filter, usually a few inches high and between 6 inches (150 mm) and 16 inches (410 mm)
in diameter. This is positioned above the carburetor or throttle body, usually in a metal or
plastic container which may incorporate ducting to provide cool and/or warm inlet air, and
secured with a metal or plastic lid. The overall unit (filter and housing together) is called
the air cleaner.

Paper

Pleated paper filter elements are the nearly exclusive choice for automobile engine air
cleaners, because they are efficient, easy to service, and cost-effective. The "paper" term is
somewhat misleading, as the filter media are considerably different from papers used for
writing or packaging, etc. There is a persistent belief amongst tuners, fomented by advertising
for aftermarket non-paper replacement filters, that paper filters flow poorly and thus restrict
engine performance. In fact, as long as a pleated-paper filter is sized appropriately for the
airflow volumes encountered in a particular application, such filters present only trivial
restriction to flow until the filter has become significantly clogged with dirt. Construction
equipment engines also use this.

Foam
Oil-wetted polyurethane foam elements are used in some aftermarket replacement automobile
air filters. Foam was in the past widely used in air cleaners on small engines
on lawnmowers and other power equipment, but automotive-type paper filter elements have
largely supplanted oil-wetted foam in these applications. Foam filters are still commonly used
on air compressors for air tools up to 5Hp. Depending on the grade and thickness of foam
employed, an oil-wetted foam filter element can offer minimal airflow restriction or very high
dirt capacity, the latter property making foam filters a popular choice in off-road rallying and
other motorsport applications where high levels of dust will be encountered. Due to the way
dust is captured on foam filters, large amounts may be trapped without measurable change in
airflow restriction.

Cotton

Oiled cotton gauze is employed in a growing number of aftermarket automotive air filters
marketed as high-performance items. In the past, cotton gauze saw limited use in original-
equipment automotive air filters. However, since the introduction of the Abarth SS versions,
the Fiat subsidiary supplies cotton gauze air filters as OE filters.

Stainless steel

Stainless steel mesh is another example of medium which allow more air to pass through.
Stainless steel mesh comes with different mesh counts, offering different filtration standards.
In an extreme modified engine lacking in space for a cone based air filter, some will opt to
install a simple stainless steel mesh over the turbo to ensure no particles enter the engine via
the turbo.

Oil bath

An oil bath air cleaner consists of a sump containing a pool of oil, and an insert which is
filled with fibre, mesh, foam, or another coarse filter media. When the cleaner is assembled,
the media-containing body of the insert sits a short distance above the surface of the oil pool.
The rim of the insert overlaps the rim of the sump. This arrangement forms
a labyrinthine path through which the air must travel in a series of U-turns: up through the
gap between the rims of the insert and the sump, down through the gap between the outer
wall of the insert and the inner wall of the sump, and up through the filter media in the body
of the insert. This U-turn takes the air at high velocity across the surface of the oil pool.
Larger and heavier dust and dirt particles in the air cannot make the turn due to their inertia,
so they fall into the oil and settle to the bottom of the base bowl. Lighter and smaller particles
are trapped by the filtration media in the insert, which is wetted by oil droplets aspirated there
into by normal airflow.
Oil bath air cleaners were very widely used in automotive and small engine applications until
the widespread industry adoption of the paper filter in the early 1960s. Such cleaners are still
used in off-road equipment where very high levels of dust are encountered, for oil bath air
cleaners can sequester a great deal of dirt relative to their overall size without loss of filtration
efficiency or airflow. However, the liquid oil makes cleaning and servicing such air cleaners
messy and inconvenient, they must be relatively large to avoid excessive restriction at high
airflow rates, and they tend to increase exhaust emissions of unburned hydrocarbons due to
oil aspiration when used on spark-ignition engines.

Water bath

In the early 20th century (about 1900 to 1930), water bath air cleaners were used in some
applications (cars, trucks, tractors, and portable and stationary engines). They worked on
roughly the same principles as oil bath air cleaners. For example, the original Fordson
tractor had a water bath air cleaner. By the 1940s, oil bath designs had displaced water bath
designs because of better filtering performance.
 Water (Industrial utility)
Sources of water:
 Rain water
 Underground water (well, tube wells, etc)
 Surface water ( rivers, lakes, springs, ponds, etc)
 Frozen water (ice bergs, glaciers, etc)

Distribution of water:
• Earth’s water
– Fresh water: 3%
– Saline water: 97%
• Fresh water
– Surface water: 0.3%
– Ground water: 30.1%
– Ice caps and glaciers: 68.7%
– Others: 0.9%
• Fresh surface water
– Rivers: 2%
– Swamps: 11%
– Lakes: 87%

Industrial classification of water

1. Process water:
Process water is a common name for water which cannot be classified as drinking
water and which is used in connection with technical plants and processes in
production companies, heat and power plants, and institutions. Process water has
undergone a more extensive treatment, e.g. softening and demineralization.
2. Potable water:
Potable water has to be safe enough to be consumed by humans with a minimal risk of
short-term or long-term harm. Typical uses of potable water are drinking, cooking,
washing, toilet flushing and farm irrigation.
3. Boiler feed water:
Boiler feed water is the water used in boilers to produce steam. Boiler water treatment
is used to control alkalinity, prevent scaling, correct pH, and to control conductivity.
4. Cooling water:
 Water cooling is a method of heat removal from components and industrial
equipment. As opposed to air cooling, water is used as the heat conductor. Water
cooling is commonly used for cooling automobile internal combustion engines and
large industrial facilities such as steam electric power plants, hydroelectric generators,
petroleum refineries and chemical plants.
5. Hot water:
In industries hot water is required in various processes. Depending upon the use, it
can be potable and non-potable.
6. Fire water:
Water used for extinguishing fire in the industries.
7. Waste water:
Waste water is the water which is sent to the effluent treatment plants for further
treatment as the water basically becomes useless and harmful.
Uses of water in the industries

 Cooling
 Steam generation ( Boilers)
 Process
 Sanitation, food and beverages, etc
Cooling:
There are few ways to handle "waste heat” in industries:
• to modify existing processes so that energy is conserved and less waste heat is
generated.
• to find ways to capture the "waste heat" for uses in the manufacturing processes.
Water is often the most acceptable medium to transfer heat away from the machinery.
Cooling tower

Evaporative cooling is the process where warm water from an industrial process is pumped
up to the top of the cooling tower where the water distribution system is. The water then gets
distributed by cooling tower nozzles to the wet deck. At the same time, air is being drawn
through the air-inlet louvers forcing water to evaporate. Evaporation causes the heat to be
removed from the make up water. The hot air naturally rises out of the tire.
Cooling ponds:
• The pond receives thermal energy in the water from the plant’s condensers and the
energy is dissipated mainly through evaporation.
• Once the water has cooled in the pond, it is reused by the plant.
• New water is added to the system (“make-up” water) to replace the water lost through
evaporation.
Direct cooling :
( Major Cause of thermal pollutuion)
Some industrial plants do not use cooling towers and the atmosphere as a heat sink, but put
the waste heat to the river or coastal water instead.
Steam generation:
Boiler feed water:
• Boiler water must be treated in order to be proficient in producing steam. Boiler water
is treated to prevent scaling, corrosion, foaming, and priming.
• Chemicals, mostly oxygen scavengers and phosphates, are put into boiler water
through the chemical feed tank to keep the water within chemical range.
• Boiler blowdown water is water intentionally wasted from a boiler to avoid
concentration of impurities during continuing evaporation of steam.
• Make up water: Water which is supplied to compensate for losses by blow down in
the boilers.
Process:
• cleaning and rinsing products, parts and vessels, assembly line
• as a lubricant,
• as a solvent or reactant in a chemical reaction,
• forming a water seal to block out contact with air,
• inclusion in the product such as in beverage manufacturing.

Sanitation, irrigation, food Service and housekeeping:

Manufacturing facilities all have:
• restrooms,
• general areas must be cleaned,
• landscape watered, and
• in many cases food service is offered and even laundry facilities are required for
uniforms and special clothing.
 Distribution of Water

As is clearly evident from the picture, most of the earth’s water is found in oceans, & seas. A
minimal amount of water as low as only 2.5 % is available as freshwater. Even of that 2.5 %,
more than two-third is blocked in glaciers and ice-caps. About 30 % is available as
groundwater, and just above 1 % is present on the surface, which is further categorized under
lakes, ground ice, rivers, soil moisture, & atmospheric moisture.

Storage of Water

In agriculture water storage, water is stored for later use in natural water sources, such
as groundwater aquifers, soil water, natural wetlands, and small artificial ponds, tanks and
reservoirs behind major dams.
 Groundwater is located beneath the ground surface in soil pore spaces and in
the fractures of rock formations. A unit of rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called
an aquifer when it can yield a usable quantity of water.

There are two broad types of aquifers: An unconfined aquifer is where the surface is
not restricted by rocks, so the water table is at atmospheric pressure. In a confined
aquifer, the upper surface of water is overlain by a layer of rock, so the groundwater is
stored under pressure.

The depth at which soil pore spaces or fractures and voids in rock become completely
saturated with water is called the water table.

 Soil moisture is the water held between soil particles in the root zone of plants,
generally in the top 200 cm of soil. Water storage in the soil profile is extremely
important for agriculture, especially in locations that rely on rainfall for cultivating
plants. For example, in Africa rain-fed agriculture accounts for 95% of farmed land.

 Wetlands span the surface/sub-surface interface, storing water at various times as

groundwater, soil moisture and surface water. They are vital ecosystems that support
wildlife and perform valuable ecosystem services, such as flood protection and water
cleansing. They also provide livelihoods for millions of people who live within and
around them.

The primary factor that distinguishes wetlands from other land forms or water bodies
is the characteristic vegetation of aquatic plants.

 Ponds and water tanks can be defined as community-built or household water stores,
filled by rainwater, or surface runoff. They are usually open, and therefore exposed to
high levels of evaporation. They can be a great help to farmers in helping them
overcome dry spells. However, they can promote vector-borne diseases such as
malaria or schistosomiasis.

 In the past, large dams have often been the focus of water storage efforts. Many large
dams and their reservoirs have brought significant social and economic benefits.

For example, Egypt's Aswan High Dam, built in the 1960s, has protected the nation
from drought and floods and supplies water used to irrigate some 15 million hectares.
 However, dams can also have great negative impacts. Because sediment is trapped by
the Aswan High Dam, the Nile no longer delivers nutrients in large quantities to
the floodplain. This has reduced soil fertility and increased the need for fertilizer.

Hydropower is often used in conjunction with dams to generate electricity.

Treatment of Water

Water treatment is any process that makes water more acceptable for a specific end-use. The
end use may be drinking, industrial water supply, irrigation, river flow maintenance, water
recreation or many other uses, including being safely returned to the environment. Water
treatment removes contaminants and undesirable components, or reduces their concentration
so that the water becomes fit for its desired end-use.

Various treatment processes are:

 Settling, & filtration

 Disinfection, & coagulation

 Wastewater treatment

 Ion Exchange

 Desalination

 RO

 Distillation

Settling is the process by which particulates settle to the bottom of a liquid and form
a sediment.

Disinfectants are antimicrobial agents that are applied to the surface of non-living objects to
destroy microbes that are living on the objects.

Coagulation is a process wherein colloids come out of suspension in the form of floc or
flake.
Ion exchange is an exchange of ions between two electrolytes or between an
electrolyte solution and a complex.

Desalination is a process that extracts minerals from saline water.

Reverse osmosis (RO) is a water purification technology that uses a semipermeable

membrane to remove ions, molecules, and larger particles from drinking water.

Distillation is a process of separating the component or substances from a liquid mixture by

selective evaporation and condensation.

Water Resource Management

Water is an essential resource for all life on the planet. Of the water resources on Earth only
three percent of it is fresh and two-thirds of the freshwater is locked up in ice
caps and glaciers.

Water resource management is the activity of planning, developing, distributing and

managing the optimum use of water resources. It is a sub-set of water cycle management.
Ideally, water resource management planning has regard to all the competing demands
for water and seeks to allocate water on an equitable basis to satisfy all uses and demands. As
with other resource management, this is rarely possible in practice.

The observation of water as an integral part of the ecosystem is based on integrated water
resource management, where the quantity and quality of the ecosystem help to determine the
nature of the natural resources.

Successful management of any resources requires accurate knowledge of the resource

available, the uses to which it may be put, the competing demands for the resource, measures
to and processes to evaluate the significance and worth of competing demands and
mechanisms to translate policy decisions into actions on the ground.

Agriculture is the largest user of the world's freshwater resources, consuming 70 percent.

As the world population rises it consumes more food, the industries and urban
developments expand, and the emerging biofuel crops trade also demands a share of
freshwater resources; water scarcity is becoming an important issue.
As the carrying capacity of the Earth increases greatly due to technological
advances, urbanization in modern times occurs because of economic opportunity. This rapid
urbanization happens worldwide but mostly in new rising economies and developing
countries.

In the areas surrounding urban centers, agriculture must compete with industry and municipal
users for safe water supplies, while traditional water sources are
becoming polluted with urban runoff.

Developing world countries tend to have the lowest levels of wastewater treatment. Often, the
water that farmers use for irrigating crops is contaminated with pathogens from sewage.

The pathogens of most concern are bacteria, viruses and parasitic worms, which directly
affect farmers’ health and indirectly affect consumers if they eat the contaminated crops.

One of the biggest concerns for our water-based resources in the future is the sustainability of
the current and even future water resource allocation. As water becomes scarcer, the
importance of how it is managed grows vastly.

Finding a balance between what is needed by humans and what is needed in the environment
is an important step in the sustainability of water resources.

Attempts to create sustainable freshwater systems have been seen on a national level in
countries such as Australia, and such commitment to the environment could set a model for
the rest of the world.