Optical Fiber Communications

Objectives
• To discuss the importance of optical fiber communication
• To introduce optical fiber communication system
• To describe the principle of LED
• To describe the principle of laser
• To illustrate light propagation in optical fibers
• To explain total internal reflection
• To introduce the concept of numerical aperture
• To introduce the concept of modes in waveguides
• To study the transmission properties of optical fibers
• To explain the working principle of photodetector
• To study optical fiber communication system design

The objective of any communications system is the transfer of information from one point to another. This
information transfer is accomplished most often by superimposing (modulating) the information onto an
electromagnetic wave (carrier). The modulated carrier is then transmitted (propagated) to the destination,
where the electromagnetic wave is received and the information recovered (demodulated). Such systems
are often designated by the location of the carrier frequency in the electromagnetic spectrum. In radio
systems, the electromagnetic carrier wave is selected with a frequency from the radio frequency (RF)
portion of the spectrum. In an optical fiber communication system, the carrier is selected from the optical
region, which includes the infrared and visible frequencies.

What are the advantages of optical fiber communication system?

1. Wide bandwidth
In any communication system, the amount of information transmitted is directly related to the
bandwidth of the modulated carrier. Thus increasing the carrier frequency increases the available
transmission bandwidth, and therefore the information capacity of the overall system. The frequencies
in the optical range will have a usable bandwidth approximately 105 times that of a carrier in RF range.

2. Low loss
Optical fibers have lower transmission losses than copper cables. In a copper cable, the attenuation
increases with modulation frequency: the higher the frequency, the greater the loss.

Bandwidth is an indication of the rate at which information can be sent.

Loss indicates how far the information can be sent.
The combination of high bandwidth and low loss of optical fiber communication system means more
data can be sent over longer distances, thereby decreasing the number of wires and the repeaters
required. This reduction in equipment and components decreases the system cost and complexity.

The typical optical communications system essentially consists of a transmitter with a diode laser, a
receiver with a photo-diode and an optical fibre between the two serving as the transmitting medium.

1
Block diagram of the optical fiber communication system

An optical fiber communication system uses a digital communication scheme.

Optical sources
The fundamental function of optical source in optical fiber communications is to convert electrical energy
in the form of current into optical energy.
The main optical sources currently used in optical fiber communications are lasers and light emitting
diodes (LEDs).

Light emitting diode (LED)

An LED is essentially a semiconductor p-n junction under forward bias.
In this condition, electrons cross the pn junction from the n-type material and recombine with holes in the
p-type material. When recombine takes place, the recombining electrons release energy in the form of heat
and light. A large exposed surface area on one layer of the semiconductive material permits the photon to
be emitted as visible light. This process is called electroluminescence. Various impurities are added during
the doping process to establish the wavelength of the emitted light. The wavelength determines the color of
the light and if it is visible or invisible (infrared).

2
In the energy diagram it can be seen that, the major carriers from both sides of the p-n junction are injected
to the other side where they become minority. The relatively large local minority carrier population close to
the junction leads to a minority carrier concentration gradient. As a consequence, the excess minority
carriers will diffuse away from the junction recombine with carriers and emit photons.

LEDs are made of gallium arsennide (GaAs), gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP), or gallium phosphide
(GaP). Silicon and germanium are not used because they are essentially heat-producing materials and are
very poor at producing light. GaAs LEDs emit infrared (IR) radiation, which is nonvisible, GaAsP
produces either red or yellow visible light, and GaP emits red or green visible light. LEDs that emit blue
light are also available. Red is the most common.
In LED, the dominant photon generation is spontaneous emission in which the electron drops to the lower
energy level in an entirely random way. The output spectrum of an LED is relatively wide.

Laser
The most frequently used light source in optical communication systems is laser.

Why a laser as the light source?

(a) monochromatic: suitable for elimination of white noise
(b) coherent: suitable for synchronous detection;
(c) high power: improves signal to noise ratio;
(d) small divergence: improves efficiency of transmission; and
(e) small source size: suitable for use with optical fibres

Laser is an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.

In general, an atomic system is characterized by discrete energy level, and the constituent atoms can exist
in one of the allowed energy levels or states. The atoms can make upward or downward transitions between
any two allowed states by absorbing or releasing, respectively, an amount of energy equal to the difference

3
between the two energy levels. Thus, if we consider two levels of an atomic system that participate in an
interaction with optical radiation of photon energy
hν = E2 – E1
where h is Planck’s constant, then there could be three types of interactions:

Absorption
An atom in a lower energy state can absorb photons and make an upward transition to the higher energy
level.

Spontaneous emission
An atom in an excited level can make a downward transition spontaneously (i.e., on its own) by emitting a
photon corresponding to the energy difference between the two levels.

Stimulated emission
An atom in an excited level can make a downward transition in the presence of external stimulation by
emitting a photon corresponding to the energy difference between the two levels. The emitted photon is in
phase with the incident photon.

Example
Suppose you use an LED whose energy gap equals 2.5 eV. What is its radiating wavelength?
Solution 1 eV = 1.602 × 10-19 J
Since the energy gap is the photon energy Ep, and Ep = hν = hc /λ, then as
hc = 6.626×10-34 J•s × 3×108 m/s ≈20×10-26 m•J
Ep = 2.5 eV = 2.5 ×1.602×10-19 ≈ 4×10-19 J
We have λ = hc / Ep = 20×10-26 m•J / 4H10-19 J = 5H10-7 m = 500 nm

What is the condition for light amplification by stimulated emission?

Population inversion
To achieve light amplification, it is necessary that the population of the upper energy level is greater than
that of the lower energy level, this condition is known as population inversion.

4
How to realize population inversion?
Population inversion is achieved by pumping techniques. Pumping is to excite atoms into the upper energy
level and hence obtain a nonequilibrium distribution by the use of external source.

Optical feedback and laser oscillation

If the population inversion is achieved, light amplification occurs when a photon colliding with an atom in
the excited energy state causes the stimulated emission of a second photon and then both these photons
release two more. When the electromagnetic wave associated with these photons are in phase, amplified
emission is obtained. A positive feedback mechanism has to be provided in the amplifying medium to
increase the net gain and achieve a laser light output.

Total Partial
reflector reflector

Some light escapes

Some light escapes

The rest is fed back

Eventually, equilibrium
is established

Growth of stimulated emission in a resonant laser cavity

5
Oscillations occur in the laser cavity over a small range of frequencies where the cavity gain is sufficient to
overcome the losses incurred in the amplifying medium. Hence the laser source is not monochromatic. The
spectral emission from the laser source lies within the frequency range dictated by the gain curve.

The type of laser most frequently used in optical communication systems is the semiconductor diode laser,
or the fibre laser.

Why semiconductor diode lasers?

(a) They are excited conveniently: by injecting current;

(b) Their operating wavelengths suffer low attenuation in fibres: small loss;
(c) Their size is compatible with fibre dimensions: improved coupling;
(d) They work continuously at room temperature;
(e) They do not have moving parts: easier to use, no maintenance;
(f) They are highly efficient;
(g) They have a very long life; and
(h) They are relatively cheap.

The laser diode commonly used in optical fiber communication systems is single mode, emits light with a
wavelength of around 1.55 µm, within a bandwidth of 0.2 nm. The light emitting area is of the order of
several µm2. Peak power is typically around 2mW.
Modulation of the light produced by the laser can be achieved by modulating the current injected into the
laser, since the output of the laser follows closely the waveform of the injected current.

Light propagation in optical fibers

The simplest way to view light in fiber optics is by ray theory. The light is treated as a simple ray, shown
by a line. An arrow on the line shows the direction of propagation.

6
What is commonly called speed of light is actually velocity of electromagnetic energy in a vacuum such as
space. Light travels at slower velocities in other materials such as glass. Light traveling from one material
to another changes speed, which, because of wave motion, results in light changing its traveling direction.
This deflection of light is called refraction.
The refractive index, n, of a dielectrical medium is defined as the ratio of the velocity of light, c, in
vacuum, to the velocity of light in the medium, v.
n=c/v
When a ray of light is incident on the interface between two dielectrics of different refractive indices with
an angle of incidence θi, the reflected ray will propagate along the angle of reflection θr, and the transmitted
ray will travel according to the angle of refraction θt, and
θr = θI (Law of reflection)
n1sinθi = n2sinθt (Snell’s law)
where n1 and n2 are refractive indices of the incident and transmission regions, respectively.

Total internal reflection

From Snell’s law, n1sinθi = n2sinθt
if n1 > n2, then sinθi = (n2/n1) sinθt < sinθt,
which leads to θi < θt, i.e. the angle of refraction is always greater than the angle of incidence. Thus, when
the angle of refraction θt = 90°, as
sinθi = (n2/n1) sinθt = (n2/n1) sin90° = n2/n1 < 1
the refracted ray emerges parallel to the interface between the dielectrics, the angle of incidence, θi, must be
less than 90°.
The angle of incidence that yields an angle of refraction θt = 90° is called the critical angle, θC.
sinθC = n2/n1
When the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, the light will be reflected back into the
originating dielectric medium. This is known as total internal reflection.

7
 Example
A Beam of light is incident on a plane boundary between two dielectrics. The incident-ray angle is at 10 to
the boundary normal and the transmitted beam is at 12. Which of the two media has the higher refractive
index? n
n 2

Solution: 1

sinθt / sinθi = n1 / n2 12E

since θt > θi, then sinθt > sinθi and then we must have n1 > n2. 10E

Optical fibers
An optical fiber consists of a core surrounded by a cladding.
There are two types of fibers: step-index fibers and graded-index fibers.

Conditions for total internal reflection in optical fiber

1. Refractive index of fiber core, n1 is greater than refractive index of fiber cladding n2, i.e.
n1 > n2
2. The incident angle is larger than the critical angle.
θi > θC

Light guiding
In order to propagate a long distance in the optical fiber, the light beam must satisfy the conditions for total
internal reflection.

n1 > n2
θi θi > θC

Acceptance angle
Another way to look at light guiding in a fiber is to measure the fiber’s acceptance angle, θa, the maximum
angle over which light rays entering the fiber will be guided along its core.

8
Numerical aperture
The acceptance angle is normally measured as numerical aperture (NA).
At the air-core interface,
n0sinθa = n1sinθ2 = n1sin(90° - θC) = n1cosθC = n1(1 – sin2θC)1/2
= n1[1 – (n2/n1)2]1/2 = (n12 - n22)1/2 = NA
The value of NA represents the light collecting ability.
Example
(a) What is the numerical aperture of silica fiber with n1 = 1.48 and n2 = 1.46 ?
(b) What is the numerical aperture of plastic fiber where n1 = 1.495 and n2 = 1.402 ?
Solution
(a) NA = (n12 - n22)1/2 = (1.482 – 1.462)1/2 = 0.2425
(b) NA = (n12 - n22)1/2 = (1.4952 – 1.4022)1/2 = 0.5192
*Notice the difference in the values of NA for these two fibers

Light propagation in graded-index fiber

The graded-index fibers guide light by refraction. The fiber’s refractive index decreases gradually away
from its center, finally dropping to the same value as the cladding at the edge of the core. The change in
refractive index causes refraction, bending light rays back toward the axis as they pass through layers with
lower refractive index.

The light beam with larger θi experience total internal reflection earlier, light beam with smaller θi travels
longer distance until it experience total internal reflection.

Recall that in order to propagate a long distance in the optical fiber, the light beam must satisfy the
conditions for total internal reflection, but
Can all the light beams propagate in the optical fiber for a long distance if they satisfy the conditions for
total internal reflection?
The answer is: only a set of separate beams at distinct propagation angles can propagate in the optical fiber
for a long distance. These different beams are called modes.

9
*Modes in waveguides
From the theoretical standpoint, an optical fiber is a waveguide, which confines light waves so they travel
along the fiber. Modes are stable patterns in which a wave can travel along a waveguide.

If two rays have the same initial phase at two points A and B respectively, one ray goes along the path AC
and the other travels along BDEF. The optical path difference between the two rays is 2ndcosθi.
Electromagnetic theory shows that there is a phase shift, Φ, on reflection, so the total phase difference
between the two rays is
Φt = 2kndcosθi - 2Φ
where k = 2π/λ is the propagation constant.
When Φt = 2kndcosθi - 2Φ = 2mπ
the two light beams produce a constructive interference. However, this happens only for certain angle of
incidence as
mπ + Φ
cos θ i = m = 0, ±1, ±2, ⋅⋅⋅,
nkd
Rays with angle of incidence θi satisfying above equation can travel along the waveguide and we say that
they correspond to a waveguide mode.
The number of modes supported by a fiber waveguide depends on its size and properties. In particular, if
only one mode can be supported when the fiber core diameter is very small (8 – 12 µm), the fiber is called
singlemode fiber.
*A strict analysis using Maxwell’s electromagnetic wave theory tells us that a mode is a specific solution of
the wave equation that satisfies the appropriate boundary conditions and has the property that its spatial
distribution does not change with propagation.

Optical Fibres
The fibre that is dominantly used for long-distance transmission is a step-index single mode optical fibre .

10
This is called a “single-mode” fibre because it transmits only one light ray because of the small size of its
core.

Transmission properties of optical fibers

The most important transmission properties of optical fiber are attenuation and dispersion.

Fiber attenuation
The attenuation of an optical fiber measures the amount of light lost between input and output. Total
attenuation is the sum of all losses. It usually is dominated by imperfect light coupling into the fiber and
absorption and scattering within the fiber.
Attenuation limits how far a signal can travel through a fiber before it becomes too weak to be detected.
Fibre attenuation is a function of wavelength and it gives a measure of the loss suffered by the light in the
fibre per km of length travelled. The attenuation constant, α, is given by

α = −10 log10 (Pout / Pin ) / L

where L is the length of the fibre, Pin is the input light power and Pout is the output light power.

11
Main types of fiber attenuation:
Absorption, scattering and light coupling loss

Absorption
All material absorbs some light energy. Absorption is a loss mechanism related to the material
composition and the fabrication process for the fiber, which results in the dissipation of some of the
transmitted optical power as heat in the waveguide.
Absorption depends on the wavelength. It is due to the fact that any material absorbs at certain wavelengths
corresponding to resonances associated with its molecules.
Scattering
Scattering refers to the process by which the light wave encounters a particle small than its wavelength,
with the results that energy is sent to a new direction.

Bend loss
Bend loss is the loss resulting from bend. Bend can cause the change of incident angle at which the light
hits the core-cladding boundary.

Dispersion
Dispersion is the spreading of a light pulse as it travels along an optical fiber. It occurs because the speed of
light through a fiber depends on its wavelength and the propagation mode. Dispersion limits digital
transmission speed by causing pulses to overlap, so they cannot be distinguished. The bit rate must be low
enough to ensure that pulses do not overlap. A lower bit rate means that the pulses are farther apart and,
therefore, that greater dispersion can be tolerated.

12
*Three main types of dispersion
1. Material dispersion
Material dispersion occurs because the refractive index of the material changes with the optical wavelength.
As n = n(λ), and n = c / v, then v = c / n(λ)
Different wavelength elements travel at different velocities through a fiber, even in the same mode.

2. Waveguide dispersion
It is equivalent to the angle between the ray and the fiber axis varying with wavelength which subsequently
leads to a variation in the transmission times for the rays, and hence dispersion.
For a given mode, Φt = 2kndcosθi - 2Φ = 2mπ = constant
i.e. 2kndcosθi = constant
or 2(2π/λ)ndcosθi = constant
cosθi /λ = constant
so that λ is related to θi.
e.g. π + Φ (π + Φ )λ
cos θ1 = =
nkd 2π nd
Different λ elements lead to different values of θ1 and hence results in different transmission time.

3. Mode dispersion
Mode dispersion occurs only in multimode fibers. It arises because rays follow different paths through the
fiber and consequently arrive at the other end of the fiber at different times.

13
Fibre Dispersion
Because the bandwidth of the optical fibre is not infinitely large, the digital pulses broaden as they travel
along the fibre. This is called chromatic dispersion.
Chromatic dispersion parameter D(λ) expresses how much a light pulse will broaden per km of length
travelled if it has a spectral width of ∆λ.

Optical detectors
The optical detector performs the opposite function from the source: It converts optical energy to electrical
energy. The commonly used detector is the photodiode, which produces current in response to incident
light.

P-N photodiode
The simplest photodiode is the p-n photodiode. It is essentially a reverse biased p-n junction.
When revere biased, the electrical field sweeps mobile carriers to their respective majority sides. A
depletion region is therefore created. This barrier has the effect of stopping the majority carriers crossing
the junction. However, the field accelerates minority carriers to the opposite side of the junction, forming
the reverse leakage current to the diode. Thus intrinsic conditions are created in the depletion region.
A photon with an energy hν ≥ Eg incident in or near the depletion region will excite an electron from
valence band into the conduction band, and hence leave an empty hole in the valence band
(photogeneration of an electron-hole pair). Carrier pairs so generated near the junction are separated and
swept (drift) under the influence of the electrical field to produce a current in the external circuit.

Responsivity of the photodiode

The efficiency of conversion from optical energy to electrical energy is measured by the use of responsivity
of the photodiode, which is the ratio of the output current of the detector to its optic input power.
Typical values of peak responsivity for the best photodiodes working at 1.5 µm are of the order of 10 A/W.

14
Connectors
Connectors are relatively simple devices which are used to connect two fibre ends so that long transmission
distances can be achieved. Also, couplers have to be used to couple light from an optical source to a fibre
and to couple light from the fibre onto the detector surface. All of these connections and coupling cause
losses. Typical connector or coupling loss values are between 0.1 dB to 3 dB.

Fibre-optic System Design

Fibre-optic communication systems can be classified into three broad categories:
(1) point-to-point links;
(2) distribution networks; and
(3) local-area networks (LANs).

Point-to-point Link
This has the simplest architecture but the most demanding performance specifications because such links
are normally trunk lines carrying the maximum amount of information over the longest distances.

15
The key system requirements which must be specified in system design are:
(a) The desired (or possible) transmission distance;
(b) The data rate (channel bandwidth); and
(c) The bit error rate.

The design requires an analysis of the limitations imposed by fibre loss and fibre dispersion. Both vary
with the wavelength, therefore the choice of the wavelength is a major design issue.
Then the receiver, transmitter and fibre are selected without overlooking the essential requirement of their
compatibility. Cost versus performance and system reliability is also considered.
Finally, link power budget and bandwidth budget analyses are carried out to ensure that the desired system
performance can be achieved.

The Power Budget

The power budget calculation determines whether the power produced by the transmitter will be adequate
to overcome the fibre loss and the other losses so that an adequate amount of light reaches the detector in
order to achieve a minimum bit error rate.
The power budget calculation considers the losses between two of the nearest repeaters / regenerators, and
hence determines the spacing of the repeaters.

The Bandwidth Budget

The other consideration is to determine whether the system bandwidth will be adequate. Since there is an
inverse relationship between the bandwidth and the rise time, the system rise time limit can be expressed as
2 2 2
ts ≤ tt + t f + t r
where ts, tt, tf, and tr are respectively the rise times of the system, the transmitter, the fibre and the receiver

Rise time
The rise time is the time it takes for the output to change from 10% to 90% of its final value when the input
is a step function.

16
 90% t
w
Amplitude
Pulse width
10%

tr tf

Example:
The specifications of the components used in a 80-km fibre-optic transmission link are given as follows:
Transmitter: Emission wavelength = 1550 nm
Spectral width = 0.1 nm
Output power delivered to fibre = + 10 dBm (1 mW ⇒ 0 dBm)
Rise-time = 0.1 ns
Receiver: Rise-time = 0.1 ns
Minimum power at 10 Gbps (BER = 10-9) = − 30 dBm
Fibre: Total length: 80 km,
Attenuation = 0.3 dB/km
Dispersion = 2 ps/nm/km at 1550 nm
Connector loss per km of fibre: 0.25 dB

Determine whether the system can successfully transmit a bit rate of 10 Gbps by performing power and
rise-time budget calculations. Assume a maximum bit rate of 0.7 / (total system rise-time).

Solution:

The input power to receiver is − 34 dBm (10 − 24 − 20 dB) which is less than the required power (− 30
dBm). Therefore, there is a shortfall in the power budget. The system rise-time is:

104 + 256 + 104 = 142 ps

Therefore, the maximum bit rate is 0.7 / 142 × 10-12 = 4.9 × 109 or 4.9 Gbps. This is not within the
required bandwidth budget (i.e. it is less than 10 Gbps, which means that the system would also not
conform to requirement as far as bandwidth is concerned.) The bandwidth and the power budget
requirements are not met, therefore, this system is not viable unless some changes to loss or power and also
the rise-time are made.

17
 Questions (Optical Fiber Communications)
1. What are the advantages of optical fiber communication system?
2. Describe an optical fiber. What is its function in a telecommunication system?
3. What is refractive index? What is the refractive index of a vacuum?
4. Describe the functions of core and the cladding in an optical fiber. Why are their refractive
indexes different? Which one has to be greater and why?
5. Why is it necessary to meet the total internal reflection requirement inside an optical fiber?
6. What is an acceptance angle? Why do we need to know what this angle is?
7. What is attenuation in an optical fiber? List of three major causes of attenuation in an optical fiber
and explain its mechanisms.
8. What are modes in an optical fiber?
9. What is dispersion? What are main types of dispersion in an optical fiber?
10. What is spontaneous emission?
11. Explain the working principle of LED.
12. What is stimulated emission?
13. What is population inversion? How to realize it?
14. What is the function of optical detector?
15. Explain the operating principle of a P-N photodiode.

Exercise Problems (Optical Fiber Communications)

1. Suppose a laser diode radiates red light with wavelength of 650nm. What is the energy of a single photon?
2. Assume you have a glass rod surrounded by air as shown. Find the critical incident angle.

glass rod: n1=1.6

air: n2=1

3. What is the acceptance angle for the fiber when n1 = 1.48 and n2 = 1.46?
4. For a specific fiber NA = 0.275 and n1 = 1.490. Find the critical propagation angle which equals 90º-θC .

18