Soil Classification and Properties

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J.Jayapal B.E., M.E Asst Professor RMK Engineering College, Thiruvallur District
UNIT I
INTRODUCTION
Chapter 1: Nature of Soil

Definition of soil: It is defined as an unconsolidated material, composed of solid particles,
produced by the disintegration of rocks.
Origin of soil:
Soils are formed by weathering of rocks due to mechanical disintegration or chemical
decomposition, when the rock surface is exposed to atmosphere for long duration. The soil
formed is classified in to residual soil and transported soil.
Residual soil:
If the soil stays at the place of its formation just near or above parent rock, it is known as
residual soil. The properties of the residual soil resemble that of the parent rock in general in
many aspects. The thickness of the residual soil formation s generally limited to a few meters.
Transported soil:
When the soil has been deposited at a place away from the place of origin, it is called the
transported soil. The Engineering properties of Transport soil at the place of deposition are
entirely different form the properties of the rock. Most of soil deposits are transported soil only.
Transported soils are further classified based on the transportation agents such as water, air, wind
etc.
(1) Water transported soil: Running water carries large quantities of soil either in
suspension or by rolling along the bed water erodes hill and deposits soils in the valleys.
It is also known as alluvial deposits. Deposits made in lakes are called lacustrine deposit.
Water carries soils to ocean are called marine deposits.
(2) Wind transported soils: The particles size of the soil depends upon the velocity of wind.
The finer particles are carried far away from the origin. Soil deposits by wind are also
called Aeolian deposits.
Marine deposits: These are mainly confined along a marrow belt near the coast in the south –
west coast of India. These are thick layers of sand above deep deposits of soft marine clays.
These deposits have very low shearing strength and are highly compressible. They contain a
large amount of organic matter. These are soft and highly plastic.
Different types of soils:
(1) Bentonilte: It is a type of clay with varies high percentage of clay mineral montmorillonite. It
results for decomposition of volcanic ash.
(2) Clay: It consists of microscopic and sub microscopic particles derived from the chemical
decomposition of rock. The soil size is known as 0.002 mm.
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(3) Sand: It is a coarse grained soil, having particle size between 0.075 to 4.75 mm. The particles
are visible to eyes
(4) Silt: It is fine grained soil particles size 0.002 to 0.075 mm. The particles are not visible to
eyes.
(5) Gravel: Course grained soil size from 4.75 to 80 mm.
(6) Cobbles: These are large size of particles ranging from 80 to 300 mm.
(7) Kankar: Impure
(8) Loam: It is a mixture of sand, silt and clay.
Cohesive and Cohesive less soil:

Soil in where the absorbed water and particle attraction act such that it deforms plastically
at varying water contents are known as cohesive soil.
The soil compose of bulky grains are cohesive less soil. Many soils are mixture of bulky grains
or clay minerals and exhibit some degree of plasticity. Such soil termed as cohesive. If plasticity
effect is insignificant then it is called cohesive less.
Eg: Non plastic silt, sand gravel.
Inter relationship between n and e:

The sectional area perpendicular to the plane of paper is assumed as unity, the heights of the
block will represent the volumes. The volume of solids may be represented as Vs = 1. When the
soil is fully saturated, the voids are completely filled with water.
1/ n = V/Vv = Vv + Vs/ Vv
1/n = 1 + 1/e = (1+ e) / e (Note Vv / Vs = e )
n = e / (1 + e)
Also 1/ e = (1/n) - 1 = (1-n) / n e = n / (1-n )
Water content: w = Ww / Ws * 100 %
1) Unit weight of water: γw = Ww / Vw
2) Bulk unit weight of soil = γ or γb = W / V

ρ or ρb = M/V
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Chapter 2: Phase Relationship
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Interrelationship of different parameters:

We can establish relationships between the different parameters defined by equations 1.1
through 1.8. In order to develop the relationships, the block diagram is made use of. Since the
sectional area perpendicular to the plane of the paper is assumed as unity, the heights of the
block will represent the volumes. The volume of solids may be represented as Vs = 1. When the
soil is fully saturated, the voids are completely filled with water.
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Chapter: 3: Soil Classification
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Sedimentation Analysis or Hydrometer Analysis
Testing objectives:
Distribution of soil particles having sizes less than 75 micron (Fine Grained soils) is often
determined by a sedimentation process using a hydrometer to obtain the necessary data such as
the borderline between clay and silt. Using this test the GSD or grain size distribution for soils
containing appreciable amount of fines is obtained.
Need and Scope:

Properties of fine soils are highly dependent upon the fractions of clay and other components.
HA test is carried out to obtain these fractions.
Particle sizes:
Silts have sizes ranging between 2 and 75 micron and clays are finer than 2 microns.
Sedimentation analysis is used only for the soil fraction finer than 75 microns. Soil particles are
allowed to settle from a suspension. The decreasing density of the suspension is measured at
various time intervals. The procedure is based on the principle that in a suspension, the terminal
velocity of a spherical particle is governed by the diameter of the particle and the properties of
the suspension.
In this method, the soil is placed as a suspension in a jar filled with distilled water to which a
deflocculating agent is added. The soil particles are then allowed to settle down. The
concentration of particles remaining in the suspension at a particular level can be determined by
using a hydrometer.
Specific gravity readings of the solution at that same level at different time intervals provide
information about the size of particles that have settled down and the mass of soil remaining in
solution.
The results are then plotted between % finer (passing) and log size.
Step 1 - Taring the weight of the Beaker
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Step 1 a - Taking 50 g of oven dry soil in a beaker
Step 2 -Making % 4 solutions of dispersing agent
Step 2 -Mixing the solution thoroughly
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Step 3 -Take 125 cc of mixture prepared in step 2 and add it to the soil taken in step 1
Step 4 - This should be allowed to soak for about 8 to 12 hours
Step 5 - take a 1000cc graduated cylinder and add 875 cc of distilled water plus 125
CC of dispersing mixture from step 3
Step 6 - Record the temperature of the cylinder of step 4
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Step 7 - Put the hydrometer in the cylinder of step 5 and record the two corrections Fm and Fz
Fz=6 and Fm=1, the two corrections are obtained
Step 8 - Mix the soil prepared in step 3 using a spatula Pour it into the mixer cup; wash the soils that
stick to the sides of the beaker using distilled water
Step 9 - The mixer cup add distilled water to the soil in mixer cup to make it about two-thirds full.
Mix it for about 2 minutes using the mixture
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Step 10 - Pour the mix into the second graduated 1000-cc cylinder. Make sure that all of the soil
solids are washed out of the mixer cup. Fill the graduated cylinder with distilled water to bring the
water level to 1000 cc mark
Step 11 - At the end of step 10, you should have these two cylinders
Step 12 - After each reading the hydrometer is put into the transparent cylinder (R)
Index Properties of Soil

Atterberg limit:
 Liquid limit
 Plastic limit
 Shrinkage limit
Liquid limit (WL) - change of consistency from plastic to liquid state

Plastic limit (WP) - change of consistency from brittle/crumbly to plastic state
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Stages of consistency:
Liquid limit: Water content at which a groove, cut with a standard grooving tool, in soil taken in the
cup of standard liquid limit device classes for a diameter of 13 mm when the cup imparted 25 blows it
is denoted by WL. It is the boundary between plastic and liquid state of consistency. It is the minimum
water content at which the soil mass still flows like a liquid.
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Plastic Limit: It is denoted by Wp. It is the boundary between semi solid state and plastic state of
consistency. It is the minimum water content at which the soil mass can still be deformed without
cracking. It is defined as the water content at which the soil mass can be rolled into a
Thread of 3 mm dia and the thread first show sign of cracking.
Shrinkage Limit: It is denoted by Ws. It is the boundary between solid state and semi solid state of
consistency. It is defined as the maximum water content at which there is no reduction in volume of
soil mass accompanying reduction in water content.
Shrinkage limits determination:
Ws = (Vd / Md) γw - (1/G)

Where
Md = Mass of dry soil
Vd = Volume of dry soil
G = specific gravity
γw = Unit weight of water
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SOIL PROPERTIES:
Soil classification based on Atterberg Indices
1. Plasticity Index :
2. Flow Index
3. Toughness Index
4. Consistency Index
5. Liquidity Index
Atterberg Indices:
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Example 1:
The following test results were obtained for a fine-grained soil:

WL= 48%; WP = 26%
Clay content = 55%
Silt content = 35%
Sand content = 10%
In situ moisture content = 39% = w
Classify the soil, and determine its activity and liquidity index
Solution:
Plasticity index, IP = WL : WP = 48 : 26 = 22%
Liquid limit lies between 35% and 50%.
According to the Plasticity Chart, the soil is classified as CI, i.e. clay of intermediate plasticity.
Liquidity index:
= 0.59
The clay is of normal activity and is of soft consistency.
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Plasticity Index:
Ip = WL – Wp
Flow Index:
W1 –W2
If =
Log 10 W2/W1
Soil classification based on plasticity Index:
Pp Plasticity Index Plasticity

0 Non – Plastic
<7 Low plastic
7 - 17 Medium plastic
>7 High plastic
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Density Index (ID):

It is the ratio of difference between maximum void ratio and natural void ration to the difference
between the maximum void ratio and minimum void ratio.
ID = e max - e / e max – e min
emax = void ratio at loosest state.

emin = void ratio at densest state.
e = Natural void ratio.
Density Index Soil classification

< 35 Loose
35 to 65 Medium Dense
65 to 85 Dense
> 85 Very Dense
Compaction:
It is the process due to which rapid reduction in volume takes place due to sudden
application of loads causing ramming, tamping, rolling and vibration.
Reduction in volume occurs due to expulsion of pore air and rearrangement of particles.
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Field compaction methods:
There are three methods of compaction in field:

1. Rolling - rollers
2. Ramming – Rammers
3. Vibration – Vibrators
Rollers: Types
(1) Smooth wheel rollers:
Having three wheels with two large smooth faced steel wheels in the rear and one smaller
smooth faced drum in front weighing from 20 to 150 kN. These are most suited for compacting
coarse grained soils, but moderately used for cohesive soils also.
(2) Sheep foot rollers:

It consists of hollow cylindrical steel drum on which a series of projecting feet are
mounted. The weight of the drum can be varied by filling it partly or fully with water or sand and
they are mounted either singly or in pairs on a steel frame which is towed by pneumatic tractors.
Sheep foot rollers are mostly suitable for compacting cohesive soils. The kneading action
produce better bond between compacted layers. These are net effective on coarse grained soils.
(3) Pneumatic tyred rollers:

This roller size ranges from very small to very heavy rollers. The tyre pressures are of the
order 250 kN/m2 and tyre loads are about 7.5 kN per tyre.
These are suitable for both cohesive less and cohesive soils. The action of pneumatic tyred rollers
is a combination of passive and kneading.
(4) Vibratory rollers:

When the vibrator is mounted on a drum, it is called a vibratory roller.
These rollers are suitable for compacting cohesion less soil.
(5) Rammers:
These are used for compacting soils in places where use of rollers are not feasible.
Mechanically operated type comprise of pneumatic and internal combustion type. Weight of
rammer is from 300 to 1500 kN. Internal combustion type jumping rammers known as frog
rammers, weigh up to 10 kN.
(6) Tampers:
These are hand operated rammers consists of block of iron about 3 to 5 kN in mass,
attached to a wooden rod. It is lifted for about 0.3 m and dropped on the soil to be compacted.
Tampers are used to compact soils adjacent to existing structures or confined areas, such as
trenches, behind bridge abutments. It can be used for all types of soils.
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Factors affecting compaction:
(1) Water content:

At low water content, the soil is stiff and offer more resistance to compaction. As the
water content increases, the soil mass becomes more workable and the particles have classes
packing.
The γd increases with an increase in W till the optimum water content is reached. At this
stage the air voids attain approximately a constant volume. Further increase of W, the air voids
do not decrease, but the total voids increases and the γd decreases. Thus the dry
density is achieving up to the OMC due to forcing air out form the soil voids. After OMC, it
becomes more difficult to force air out and to further reduce air voids.
(2) Amount of compaction:

Increasing the amount of compactive effect is to increase the maximum dry density and to
become the OMC.
The maximum dry density does not go on increasing with an increase in the compactive
effect. After certain increase in compactive effect, the increase in dry density become smaller and
smaller, final after a stage reached beyond which there is no further increase in dry density with
the increase in compact effect.
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UNIT II
SOIL WATER AND WATER FLOW

The soil water is broadly classified into two categories:
1. Free water
2. Held water
Held water: It moves in the pores of the soil under the influence of gravity. It is retained in
the pores of the soil. It can‟t move under influence of gravitational force.
Free water: Free water flows one point to other point wherever there is a difference of total
head. The rate at which the head reduced along flow passage is called hydraulic gradient
The flow of free water in soil is just like laminar flow in pipes.
Held water further classified into
(1) Structural water
(2) Adsorbed water
(3) Capillary water
1. Structural water: It is chemically combined water in the crystal structure of the mineral
in the soil. This water can‟t be removal without breaking the structure of the mineral. A
temperature of more than 300º C is required for removing the structure water.
2. Adsorbed water: The water held by electrochemical forces existing on the soil surface is
known as adsorbed water. The quantity of adsorbed water depends upon the colloidal
fraction in the soil. The adsorbed water in important only for clay soils. For coarse
grained soil its amount is negligible (or) zero. The adsorbed water is also same times
called hygroscopic water. The amount of water in an air- dried soil is defined as
hygroscopic water. Since air drying remains free and capillary water.
3. Capillary water: The water held in the interstices of soil due to capillary forces is called
capillary water. Capillary water exists in soils so long as there is an air – water interface.
As soon as the soil is submerged under water, the interface is destroyed, and the capillary
water becomes normal.
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Capillary rise in small diameter tubes: If a glass tube of small diameter open at both
ends is lowered into water, the water level rises in the tube.
hc = 4 Ts cos θ / γw d
Where θ = angle of contact between the water and wall of tube.
Ts = Surface tension
Surface tension: The air interfaces behave like a stretched membrane (or) a skin. The surface
tension exists at the interface.
It is defined as the force /unit length of a line drawn on the surface.
The surface tension of normal is 0.073 N/m @ 20º C.
It decreases with an increase in temperature.

d = diameter of tube
hc = height of capillary rise
γw = unit weight of water
For clean glass tube and pure water θ = 0; hc = 4 Ts / γw d
If γw taken as = 9810 N/m3

Then hc = 4 x 0.073 / 9810 d = 0.3 / d cm.
Capillary rise in soils:

A soil mass consists of a number of interconnected pore spaces (interstices) which act as
capillary tubes of varying diameter. Capillary tubes in soils depend upon the size and grading of
the particles. As the capillary rise is inversely proportional to diameter of capillary tube, capillary
rise is small in coarse grained soils and it is very large in fine grained soils.
The space between water table and ground level is divided into two region :
1. Zone of aeration
2. Zone of capillary saturation
The height to which capillary water rises in soil is known as capillary fringe. It includes zone of
capillary saturation and part as zone of aeration.
Terzaghi and peak (1948) gave a relationship between maximum height of capillary fringe and
the effective size as
(hc) max = C/ e D10
C = constant, depend on shape of grain and impurities

e = void ratio
D10 = Effective size of particles
If D10 is in mm, C varies between 10 to 50 mm2; (hc) max is given in mm.
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Bulking of sand:
If a damp sand in loosely deposited, its volume is much more than that when the same
sand deposited in a loose dry state. This phenomenon of increase in volume of sand due to
dampness is known as bulking of sand. The increase in volume due to bulking is between 20 to
30 % for most sands.
Permeability:
A porous material which contain interconnected interstices are said to be permeable.
Definition of permeability:
It is defined as the property of a soil due to that, the soil permits water to flow through it.
In other words, the permeability is the ease with which water can flow through it. In highly
pervious soil permeability is more. In an impervious soil, the permeability is low.
Uses of permeability:
Permeability is very important in many Engineering applications such as;
 Evaluation of settlement of buildings
 Yield of wells
 Seepage through and below water structures
 Hydraulic stability of soil masses and
 For design of filters used to prevent piping in hydraulic structures.
Hydraulic head:
The total head at any point in a flowing fluid is equal to the sum of the elevation or
datum head, the pressure head and velocity head.
Datum head (z) = vertical distance of point above datum
For flow problems in soils, the down stream water level is taken as datum.
For flow through soils, velocity (v) is extremely small, the velocity head is neglected.
The pressure head (p/γw) is equal to the head indicated by a piezometer. With its tip at that point
therefore the total head of water in soil engineering problems equal to datum head + pressure
head alone.
The line joining the piezometric levels at various points is called a piezometric surface. It is also
called hydraulic gradient line (HGL).
The sum of pressure head + Elevation head is known as piezometric head.
Consider two vessels A and B containing water at different levels and connected by small tube
containing soil sample.
The total head at point 1 is h and at point 3 is zero. This total head at point 1 is known as
hydraulic head. It is equal to the difference in elevation of eater levels at the entry and exit points
in soil masses. It is also known as loss of head through the soil.Denoted by „h‟
The loss of head / unit / sec of soil through which the flow takes place is known as hydraulic
gradient i., i = h/ L, Where L = length of soil specimen.
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Darcy’s Law:
The flow of free water through soil is governed by Darcy‟s law
He states that, for laminar flow in a homogeneous soil, the velocity of flow V s given by
V ∞I, V = Ki
Where K = coefficient of permeability
i = hydraulic gradient
The discharge through the soil q is obtained by q = VA
= KiA
A = cross sectional area of soil normal to the direction of flow
The coefficient of permeability has the dimension of velocity (L/T).
Unit : mm/sec or cm/sec.
The coefficient of permeability depends up on the particle size and many factors.
Typical values of coefficient of permeability
S.No Soil type K mm/sec Drainage properties

1. Clean, gravel 101 to 102 Very good
2. Coarse and medium sand 10-2 to 101 Good
3. Fine sand, Loose sand 10-4 to 10-2 Fair
4. Dense silt, Clayey soil 10-5 to 10-4 Poor
5. Silt clay and Clay 10-8 to 10-5 Very poor
Determination of coefficient of permeability:

(a) Laboratory method:
1. Constant head permeability test
2. Variable head permeability test.
(b) Field methods:
1. Pumping out test
2. Pumping in test
(c) Indirect methods:
1. Computation from particle size and its specific surface
2. Computation from the consolidation test data‟s
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Constant head permeability test:
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Variable (Falling) head test:
Factors affecting permeability of soil:
Particle size:
K is directly proportional to square of particle size (b)
K of coarse soil is more than that of fine soil. The K of coarse sand may be more than one
million times as much as that of clay.
Structure of soil size:

The size of flow passage depends upon the structural arrangement of soil particles. For
same void ratio, the K is more in case of flocculated structure as compared to that of dispersed
structure. Stratified deposits have greater permeability for flow parallel to plane of stratification
than that of perpendicular to the plane
Shape of particles:
For same voids ratio, rounded particles has greater permeability than that of angular
particles because angular particle has greater specific surface.
K α 1/ S
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Void ratio:
For a given soil, the greater the void ratio, the higher is the value of K
K = 1.4 K 0.85 e2
Where K 0.85 = Permeability of soil with void ratio 0.85
Properties of mass:
K α γw , K 1/ α μ
K α T 1/ α μ
Degree of saturation:
K of particle saturation size 1 cm than that of fully saturated soil because partially
saturated soul, air is filled in voids that reduces K.
Impurities in water: Foreign matter plug the flow space reduces K.
Seepage:
It is defined as the flow of water through a soil under hydraulic gradient. Hydraulic gradient
exists only if there is a hydraulic head. It means datum head and pressure head of water.
By virtue of the viscous friction exerted on water flowing through soil pores; an energy
transfer is affected between the water and the soil. The force corresponding to this energy
transfer is called the seepage force (or) seepage pressure. Thus, seepage pressure is the pressure
exerted by water on the soil through which it percolates.
Quick sand condition:

The seepage pressure is the main factor for quick sand condition of flow through soil. The
seepage pressure always acts in the direction of flow. If i = hydraulic gradient,
Z = thickness of soil, then Ps = it  w = seepage
Therefore, force / unit volume = iZ  w
The vertical effective pressure may be increased (or) decreased due to seepage pressure
depending on the direction of flow, when the soil under water is
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Submerged water σ‟ = Z  ‟  Ps
= Z  ‟  iZ  w
When the flow is downward  + sign
When the flow is upward  - sign
When the flow takes place in an up ward direction, the seepage pressure also act in upward
direction and therefore effective pressure is reduced. If the seepage pressure become equal to the
pressure due to sub of soil, the effective pressure become zero. In this condition, cohesive less
soil losses its full shear stress and soil practice have a tendency to move up in the direction of
flow. This phenomenon of lifting of soil particles is called quick condition or boiling condition or
quick sand condition.
σ‟ = Z  ‟ – Ps = 0 (Note: Ps = Z  ‟)
Introduction to flow net:
The mathematical equation governs the flow of water in soil is
 2h  2h
  0 Called Laplace equation in two dimensions.
x 2 z 2
It means sum of change of gradient in x and z directions is zero.
Graphical form of solutions to Laplace equation for two-dimensional seepage can be presented
as flow nets. Two orthogonal sets of curves form a flow net:
 Equipotential lines connecting points of equal total head h

 Flow lines indicating the direction of seepage down a hydraulic gradient
Two flow lines can never meet and similarly, two equipotential lines can never meet. The space
between two adjacent flow lines is known as a flow channel, and the figure formed on the flow
net between any two adjacent flow lines and two adjacent equipotential lines is referred to as a
field. Seepage through an embankment dam is shown.
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The solution of this equation requires the determination of the potential form of „h‟ at any point
with the flow plane (xz) from the several quantities of in this several quantities of
to engineers can be determined. Ex hydraulic gradient, permeability, quantity of flow
But it is very difficult to solve hence there is a graphical method of solving this laplace equation
called flow net.
The flow net can be plotted by observing following properties:
Properties of Flow net:

Assumption made in the construction of flow net:
1. The flow is two dimensional
2. Water and soil are in compressible
3. Soil is isotropic and homogeneous
4. The soil id fully saturated
5. The flow is steady ie, flow condition do not change with time.
6. Darcy‟s law is valued.
Characteristics of Flow net:

1. Every intersection between a flow line and potential drop line should be at right angles.
2. Discharge between any two adjacent flow lines is constant and the drop of head between
two adjacent potential drop lines is constant.
3. The ratio of the length and width of each field x/l is constant
4. The ratio is generally taken as unity ie, the flow net consists of square flow grids.
5. Smaller the dimension of the flow grids, greater will be the hydraulic gradient at velocity
of velocity of flow through it.
6. In a homogeneous soil, every transition in the shape of the curve is smooth, being either
elliptical or parabolic in shape.
Different methods of construction of flow net:

1. Graphical method
2. Soil models
3. Solution of laplace equation
4. Electrical analogy method
5. Plastic method
Procedure for drawing flow nets:
At every point (x,z) where there is flow, there will be a value of head h(x,z). In order to
represent these values, contours of equal head are drawn.
A flow net is to be drawn by trial and error. For a given set of boundary conditions, the flow net
will remain the same even if the direction of flow is reversed. Flow nets are constructed such that
the head lost between successive equipotential lines is the same, say h. It is useful in
visualizing the flow in a soil to plot the flow lines, as these are lines that are tangential to the
flow at any given point. The steps of construction are:
1. Mark all boundary conditions, and draw the flow cross section to some convenient scale.
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2. Draw a coarse net which is consistent with the boundary conditions and which has orthogonal
equipotential and flow lines. As it is usually easier to visualize the pattern of flow, start by
drawing the flow lines first.
3. Modify the mesh such that it meets the conditions outlined above and the fields between
adjacent flow lines and equipotential lines are 'square'.
4. Refine the flow net by repeating step 3.
The most common boundary conditions are:
(a) A submerged permeable soil boundary is an equipotential line. This could have been
determined by considering imaginary standpipes placed at the soil boundary, as for every point
the water level in the standpipe would be the same as the water level. (Such a boundary is
marked as CD and EF in the following figure.)
(b) The boundary between permeable and impermeable soil materials is a flow line (This is
marked as AB in the same figure).
(c) Equipotential lines intersecting a phreatic surface do so at equal vertical intervals
Application of flow net:
The graphical properties of a flow net can be used in obtaining solutions for many seepage
problems such as:
1. Estimation of seepage losses from reservoirs: It is possible to use the flow net in the
transformed space to calculate the flow underneath the dam.
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2. Determination of uplift pressures below dams: From the flow net, the pressure head at any
point at the base of the dam can be determined. The uplift pressure distribution along the base
can be drawn and then summed up.
3. Checking the possibility of piping beneath dams: At the toe of a dam when the upward exit
hydraulic gradient approaches unity, boiling condition can occur leading to erosion in soil and
consequent piping. Many dams on soil foundations have failed because of a sudden formation of
a piped shaped discharge channel. As the stored water rushes out, the channel widens and
catastrophic failure results. This is also often referred to as piping failure.
Fac tors affecting suction :

1. Particle size – smaller size pore
hc γ w – maximum
2. Water content: Smaller the water content, greater will be the suction
3. For a given water content, soil suction increases
4. Soil structure :
The size and volume of inter connected space depends upon the structure of soil. It
changes due to change in the structure.
5. Temperature:
Rise in temperature results in decrease of surface tension and hence decrease in soil
suction. Fall in temperature increases soil suction.
6. Denseness of soil:
Increase in denseness of soil results in decrease in the size of the pores of soil and hence
increase in soil suction. At low density, the soil will be relatively loose with larger pores,
resulting in decrease in soil suction.
7. Angle of contact:
The mineralogical composition of soil governs the angle of contact
between the soil particle and water. Soil suction decreases with increase in the value
of.
Soils suction is maximum, when  = 0 because P = hc γ w
hc = 4Ts cos  / γw d
8. Dissolved salts in pore water:
Impurities such as dissolved salts etc increase the surface tension, resulting in
increase in soil suction.
Effective stress
The pressure transmitted through soil mass by soil particles and through their points of contact is
called total stress. It is decreased by σ
Similarly the pressure transmission through soil
σ‟ = σ - u
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At any point σ = γH
u = γwHw
Pore Water Pressure

The pressure of water in the pores of the soil is called pore water pressure (u). The magnitude
of pore water pressure depends on:
 The depth below the water table.

 The conditions of seepage flow.
Under hydrostatic conditions, no water flow takes place, and the pore pressure at a given point is
given by
u = w.h
where h = depth below water table or overlying water surface
It is convenient to think of pore water pressure as the pressure exerted by a column of water in an
imaginary standpipe inserted at the given point.
The natural level of ground water is called the water table or the phreatic surface. Under
conditions of no seepage flow, the water table is horizontal. The magnitude of the pore water
pressure at the water table is zero. Below the water table, pore water pressures are positive.
Principle of effective stress:
The principle of effective stress was enunciated by Karl Terzaghi in the year 1936. This principle
is valid only for saturated soils, and consists of two parts:
1. At any point in a soil mass, the effective stress (represented by σ‟) is related to total stress ()
and pore water pressure (u) as
σ‟=  - u
Both the total stress and pore water pressure can be measured at any point.
2. All measurable effects of a change of stress, such as compression and a change of shearing
resistance are exclusively due to changes in effective stress.
Compression = f1 (σ‟)
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Shear strength = f2 (σ‟)
In a saturated soil system, as the voids are completely filled with water, the pore water pressure
acts equally in all directions.
The effective stress is not the exact contact stress between particles but the distribution of load
carried by the soil particles over the area considered. It cannot be measured and can only be
computed.
If the total stress is increased due to additional load applied to the soil, the pore water pressure
initially increases to counteract the additional stress. This increase in pressure within the pores
might cause water to drain out of the soil mass, and the load is transferred to the solid grains.
This will lead to the increase of effective stress.
Effective stress in unsaturated zone:
Above the water table, when the soil is saturated, pore pressure will be negative (less than
atmospheric). The height above the water table to which the soil is saturated is called the
capillary rise, and this depends on the grain size and the size of pores. In coarse soils, the
capillary rise is very small.
Between the top of the saturated zone and the ground surface, the soil is partially saturated, with
a consequent reduction in unit weight. The pore pressure in a partially saturated soil consists of
two components:
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Pore water pressure = uw

Pore air pressure = ua
Water is incompressible, whereas air is compressible. The combined effect is a complex

relationship involving partial pressures and the degree of saturation of the soil.
Effective stress under Hydrodynamic condition:
There is a change in pore water pressure in conditions of seepage flow within the ground.
Consider seepage occurring between two points P and Q. The potential driving the water flow is
the hydraulic gradient between the two points, which is equal to the head drop per unit length. In
steady state seepage, the gradient remains constant.
Hydraulic gradient from P to Q, i = h/s
As water percolates through soil, it exerts a drag on soil particles it comes in contact with.
Depending on the flow direction, either downward of upward, the drag either increases or
decreases inter-particle contact forces. A downward flow increases effective stress.
In contrast, an upward flow opposes the force of gravity and can even cause to counteract
completely the contact forces. In such a situation, effective stress is reduced to zero and the soil
behaves like a very viscous liquid. Such a state is known as quick sand condition. In nature, this
condition is usually observed in coarse silt or fine sand subject to artesian conditions.
At the bottom of the soil column,
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During quick sand condition, effective stress is reduced to zero.
Where icr = critical hydraulic gradient
This shows that when water flows upward under a hydraulic gradient of about 1, it completely
neutralizes the force on account of the weight of particles, and thus leaves the particles
suspended in water.
The importance of effective stress:
At any point within the soil mass, the magnitudes of both total stress and pore water pressure are
dependent on the ground water position. With a shift in the water table due to seasonal
fluctuations, there is a resulting change in the distribution in pore water pressure with depth.
Changes in water level below ground result in changes in effective stresses below the water
table. A rise increases the pore water pressure at all elevations thus causing a decrease in
effective stress. In contrast, a fall in the water table produces an increase in the effective stress.
Changes in water level above ground do not cause changes in effective stresses in the ground
below. A rise above ground surface increases both the total stress and the pore water pressure by
the same amount, and consequently effective stress is not altered.
In some analyses it is better to work with the changes of quantity, rather than in absolute
quantities. The effective stress expression then becomes:
´ =  - u
If both total stress and pore water pressure change by the same amount, the effective stress
remains constant.
Total and effective stresses must be distinguishable in all calculations. Ground movements and
instabilities can be caused by changes in total stress, such as caused by loading by foundations
and unloading due to excavations. They can also be caused by changes in pore water pressures,
such as failure of slopes after rainfall.
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PROBLEMS
Example 1:
For the soil deposit shown below, draw the total stress, pore water pressure and effective stress
diagrams. The water table is at ground level.
Solution
Total stress
At - 4m, σ = 1.92 x 4 = 7.68 T / m2

At -11m, σ = 7.68 + 2.1 x 7 = 22.38 T / m2
Pore water pressure

At - 4 m, u = 1 x 4 = 4 T / m2
At -11 m, u = 1 x 11 = 11 T / m2
Effective stress
At - 4 m,  = 7.68 - 4 = 3.68 T / m2
At -11m,  = 22.38 - 11 = 11.38 T / m2
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UNIT – III
STRESS DISTRIBUTION, COMPRESSIBILITY AND SETTLEMENT

Geostatic stresses: When the ground surface is horizontal and the properties of the soil do not
change along a horizontal plane, the stresses due to self weight are known as Geostatic stresses.
Vertical stresses due to a concentrated load:

Boussinesq gave the theoretical solution for the stress distribution in an elastic medium
subjected to a concentrated load on its surface.
Assumption made by Boussinesq:

1. The soil mass is an elastic medium, for which the modulus of elasticity E is constant.
2. The soil is homogeneous ie., has identical properties at different points.
3. The soil is isotropic ie., it has identical properties in all directions.
4. The soil mass is semi infinite, that is, it extends infinitely in the downward direction and
in lateral direction
5. The soil is weight and it is free from residual stresses before the application of load.
Polar stress σR at a point P (x,y,z) is given by σR = (3/ 2П) Q cos β / R2
Where R = polar distance between origin O and point „P‟

β= angle which the line OP makes with vertical
Then the vertical stress (σZ ) at a point O is given by
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σZ = 3Q x 1
2 2 5/2
2ПZ (1+(r/Z) ) )
σZ= IB (Q / Z2 )
Where IB = 3 x 1
2 5/2
2П (1+(r/Z) ) )
IB is known as the Boussinesq influence coefficient for the vertical stress distribution.
The intensity of vertical stress just below the load point is given by
σZ= 0.4775 (Q / Z2 )
The vertical stress σZ decreases rapidly with an increase in r/z ratio

Note:
At r/z = 5 or more the vertical stress become very small hence neglected.
Isobar:
An isobar is a curve joining the points of equal stress intensity. An isobar is a spatial curved
surface of shape of an electric bulb. The curved surface is symmetrical about the vertical axis
passing through the point. Isobar of intensity 0.1 Q/ unit area
σZ = IB (Q / Z2 )
0.1 Q = IB (Q / Z2)
IB = 0.1 Z2
Similarly isobars of value IB = 0.25 Z2
Different intensity of loading such as 0.2Q, 0.3Q etc.

Isobars are useful for determining the effect of load on the vertical stresses at various points.
The zone within which the stresses have a significant effect on the settlement of stress id known
as pressure bulb. It is generally assumed as isobar of 0.1Q form pressure bulb. The area outside
the pressure bulb is assumed to have negligible.
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IB = 0.25 Z2
A number numerical value s of Z is selected and thus values of IB are calculated. Corresponding
to this value of KB , r/Z are formed and hence corresponding values of „r‟ are computed.
When r = 0, IB = 0.4775
Z units IB r/Z r
0.2 0.0100 1.92 0.38
0.4 0.0400 1.30 0.52
0.6 0.0900 0.97 0.58
0.8 0.1600 0.74 0.59
1.0 0.2500 0.54 0.54
1.2 0.3600 0.34 0.41
1.38 0.4775 0.00 0.00
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Vertical stress distribution on a horizontal plane:

The vertical stress at various points on a horizontal plane at a particular depth Z can be
obtained using σZ = I (Q / Z2 )
Let us consider Z = 2 m, then σZ = IB (Q / Z2 ) = Q/Z2

= Q/4
The values of σZ are computed for different values of r/Z after obtaining IB value.
IB = 3/ 2П x 1 / [1+(r/Z) 2]5/2
r/Z IB σZ
0.0 0.4775 0.1194Q
0.25 0.4103 0.1026Q
0.5 0.2733 0.0683Q
0.75 0.1565 0.0390Q
1.0 0.0844 0.0211Q
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Vertical stress distribution on a horizontal plane:

In this case radial distance r is constant as depth changes. The value of r/Z obtained for different
values of σZ = IB (Q / Z2 )
Let us consider r = 1m,
r/Z IB σZ
4.0 0.004 0.0064Q
2.0 0.0085 0.0340Q
1.0 0.0844 0.0844Q
0.667 0.1094 0.0845Q
0.5 0.2733 0.0687Q
0.4 0.3294 0.0527Q
0.2 0.4329 0.017Q
It is noted that vertical stress first increases and then decreases. The maximum vertical stress
occur at r/Z = 0.817. This corresponds to the point of intersection of the vertical plane with the
line drawn at 39º15‟ to the vertical axis of the load.
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Vertical stress due to a line load:
Let us consider an infinitely long line load of intensity q‟ per unit length, acting on the
surface of a semi - infinite elastic medium. Let the y - axis be directed along the direction of the
line load, the expression for the vertical stress at any point P having coordinates (x, y, z)
Consider a small length  y along the line load. The elementary load in this length will be equal
to q‟.  y which can be considered to be a concentrated load  σZ due to this elementary load
and is given by,
σZ = 2q‟/ п z
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Vertical stress under a strip load:

The fig shows an infinite strip of width B, loaded with uniformly distributed load intensity q per
unit area. The vertical stress at a point P situated below a depth z, on a vertical axis passing
through the centre of the strip.
The vertical stress at a point P due to an elementary line load is given by:
σZ = (q/ п) (2θ + sin 2 θ)
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Vertical stress under a circular area:
The load is assumed to be uniformly distributed load over the area.

R = radius of loaded area
q = Intensity of load
σZ = q [ 1- { 1/ (1 + (R/z)2)}3/2 ]
Note: When loaded area is very large in comparison with depth z, the σZ ≈ q
New mark Influence chart:

In particular sometimes, it is required to find out vertical stresses under a udl areas of
other shapes. For such cases, New mark‟s Influence charts are extremely useful. Let us consider
a uniformly loaded circular area of radius R1 , divide into 20 parts.
Then, the vertical stress at point „p‟ at depth „z‟ below the centre of loaded area due to load on
one sector (hatched part) be 1/20 of that due to load on full circle.
   
3/ 2
   
  1  
σZ = (1/20) q 1   2  
 1   R1   
   z   
 
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Equivalent point load method:
The vertical stress at a point under a loaded area of any shape can be determined by
dividing the loaded area into small areas and replacing the distributed load on each small area by
an equivalent point load acting at the centroid of the area.
In the fig θ = qa2 for each area. The vertical stress at any point below (or) outside the
loaded area is equal to the sum of the vertical stresses due to these equivalent point loads.
σZ = Q1 IB 1 + Q2 IB 2 + ………. Qn IB n
n
2
σZ = (1/z ) Є QiIB i
i=1
Q = point load = q x Area of each rectangle
The above equation gives fairly good result if the value of „a‟ is small. ie., equal to (or) less than
1/3 of depth z of point „p‟ at which the stress required.
σZ = 3Q/ 2пz2{ 1/ (1 + (r/z)2)}5/2] x 4
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Two - to one load distribution method:
The average vertical stress σZ depends upon the shape of the loaded area.
1. Square Area (B x B), σZ = qB2/ (B+z) 2

2. Rectangular Area (B x L), σZ = q (B x L) / (B+Z) (L+Z)
3. Strip Area qz = q (B x 1) / (B+Z) x 1
4. Circular Area (dia D), σZ = qD2/ (D+Z)) 2
   
3/ 2
   
  1  
σZ = q 1   2  
 1   r   
   z   
 
   
3/ 2
   
  1  
σZ / q = 1   2  
 1   r   
   z   
 
Newmarks Influence chart
It is more accurate method of determining the vertical stress @ any point under uniformly
distributed loaded area of any shape.
The main principle of this method is area between any two concentric circle is same.
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Preparation of Newmarks chart
1. Let As assume Depth Z = 5 m

Take suitable scale for plotting, say 1: 100, ie 5m = 5 cm
Draw the loaded area to this scale in a tracing sheet.
2. Determine the radius of each circle by the following method
Let σ Z / q = 0.1,0.2,0.3,0.4,0.5,0.6,0.7,0.8,0.9,1.0
 
  2/3
 1  = 1   z 
  r 2   q 

1    
  z  
  r 2  1
1     
  z      z 
2/3
 
1  
  q  
 
r 1
  1
z
2/3
 z 
1  
 q 
 
 
 1 
r=  2/3
 1  Z
  z  
 1   
  q  
σ Z/ q r
0.1 1.35
0.2 2.0
0.3 2.59
0.4 3.19
0.5 3.83
0.6 4.59
0.7 5.55
0.8 6.94
0.9 9.54
0.95 12.62
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4. Draw 10 circles of each radius as per the table. Divide the entire circle ie., 3600 into 24
parts ie., each part is 15º.
Westergaard equation for point load

Assumption:
1. Soil to be an elastic medium of semi - infinite extent.

2. Contain closely spaced numerous, horizontal sheets of negligible thickness
3. Soil sheep are infinitely rigid material which permits only downward deformation.
4. Lateral strain during loading is zero
Westergaard formula for vertical stress distribution in soil under point load
1  Q 
σZ =  2
Z 
3/ 2
 r 
2
 1  z  
  z  
Q
σZ = Kw .  2 
z 
1
Kw = Westergaard influence factor = 3/ 2
 r 
2
 1  z  
  z  
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Westergaard formula for vertical stress distribution under a uniformly distributed load (circular)
   
1/ 2
   
  1  
σZ = q 1   2  
 1   q   
   nz   
 
 1  2M 
η=  
 2(1   ) 
μ = poison‟ ratio
μ varies from 0 to 0.5 for elastic material
Uniformly loaded rectangular area:
1  2  1 1   1  2  1
σZ = q/2п cot -1 2  2  m 2  n 2    2  2  m 2 n 2
 
For large lateral resistant, the lateral strain is very small μ = 0
 1 1 1 
(σZ ) μ = 0 = q/2п cot -1  2m 2  2n 2  4m 2 n 2 
 
Consolidation
When a compressive load is applied to soil mass, a decrease in its volume takes place.
The decrease in the volume of soil mass under compressive stress is known as compression. The
properties of soil pertaining to decrease in volume under pressure are known as compressibility.
In a saturated soil mass having its voids filled with water, decrease in volume can takes place
when water expelled out of the voids due to applied compressive load. Such compression
resulting from a long term static load and the consequent escape of pore water is termed as
consolidation.
According to terzaghi every process involving a decrease in the water content of a
saturated soil is called a process of consolidation. The opposite process is called process of
swelling, which involves an increase in water content due to an increase in volume of voids.
When a soil layer is subjected to vertical stress, volume change can take place through
rearrangement of soil grains, and some amount of grain fracture may also take place. The volume
of soil grains remains constant, so change in total volume is due to change in volume of water. In
saturated soils, this can happen only if water is pushed out of the voids. The movement of water
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takes time and is controlled by the permeability of the soil and the locations of free draining
boundary surfaces.
It is necessary to determine both the magnitude of volume change (or the settlement) and the
time required for the volume change to occur. The magnitude of settlement is dependent on the
magnitude of applied stress, thickness of the soil layer, and the compressibility of the soil.
When soil is loaded undrained, the pore pressure increases. As the excess pore pressure
dissipates and water leaves the soil, settlement takes place. This process takes time, and the rate
of settlement decreases over time. In coarse soils (sands and gravels), volume change occurs
immediately as pore pressures are dissipated rapidly due to high permeability. In fine soils (silts
and clays), slow seepage occurs due to low permeability.
Components of Total Settlement

The total settlement of a loaded soil has three components:
Immediate settlement, primary consolidation, and secondary compression.
Immediate settlement:
Due to expulsion of air immediately after application of compressive load and a sudden
settlement or volume reduction occurs called immediate settlement.
Primary consolidation (or simply consolidation):

It is on account of flow of water from the voids, and is a function of the permeability and
compressibility of soil. In other words it is the volume reduction due to water squeezing out from
the voids when there is a long term continuous static load application.
Secondary compression:
After the reduction of all excess hydrostatic pressure to very minimum, further reduction in
volume of soil takes place due to reorientation or rearrangement of soil solid particles and due to
expulsion of highly viscous water from the place of point of contact of particle is known as
secondary consolidation.
Primary consolidation is the major component and it can be reasonably estimated. A general
theory for consolidation, incorporating three-dimensional flow is complicated and only
applicable to a very limited range of problems in geotechnical engineering. For the vast majority
of practical settlement problems, it is sufficient to consider that both seepage and strain take
place in one direction only, since the load applied on soil practically in only vertical direction.
ΔS = CC / 1 + eo x Log10 [σo‟ + Δσ‟ / σo‟ ]
Where‟
eo = Initial void ratio
CC = Compression Index
CC = 0.007 [WL – 10%] for over consolidated soil
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CC = 0.009 [WL – 10%] for normally consolidated soil
Co- efficient of compressibility:

a v = - ∆e / ∆ σ‟ = (eo - e) / (σ‟- σ‟o )
σ‟ = Final pore pressure

σ‟o = Initial pore pressure
e = Final void ratio
eo = Initial void ratio
Co- efficient of volume change mv :
mv = av / (1+ eo )
∆s = -mv Ho ∆ σ‟
Consolidated settlement determination:
1. p ∆s = -mv Ho ∆ σ‟
2. ∆s = H (Cc / 1+ eo) log10 (σ‟o + ∆ σ) / σo
Terzaghi‟s one dimensional consolidation theory
The total stress increases when additional vertical load is first applied. Instantaneously, the pore
water pressure increases by exactly the same amount. Subsequently there will be flow from
regions of higher excess pore pressure to regions of lower excess pore pressure causing
dissipation. The effective stress will change and the soil will consolidate with time. This is shown
schematically.
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On the assumption that the excess pore water drains only along vertical lines, an analytical
procedure can be developed for computing the rate of consolidation.
Consider a saturated soil element of side‟s dx, dy and dz.
The initial volume of soil element = dx.dy.dz
If n is the porosity, the volume of water in the element = n.dx.dy.dz
The continuity equation for one-dimensional flow in the vertical direction is
Only the excess head (h) causes consolidation, and it is related to the excess pore water
pressure (u) by h = u/w.
The Darcy equation can be written as
The Darcy equationn. can be substituted in the continuity equation., and the porosity n can be
expressed in terms of void ratio e, to obtain the flow equation as
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The soil element can be represented schematically as
If e0 is the initial void ratio of the consolidating layer, the initial volume of solids in the element
is (dx dy dz ) / (1 + e0), which remains constant. The change in water volume can be represented
by small changes ∆e in the current void ratio e.
The flow eqn. can then be written as
This is the hydrodynamic equation of one-dimensional consolidation.
If av = coefficient of compressibility, the change in void ratio can be expressed as eav')

=avu) since any increase in effective stress equals the decrease in excess pore water pressure.
Thus,
The flow eqn. can then be expressed as
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(or)
By introducing a parameter called the coefficient of consolidation,
The flow equationn. then becomes
This is Terzaghi's one-dimensional consolidation equation. A solution of this for a set of

boundary conditions will describe how the excess pore water pressure u dissipates with time t
and location z. When all the u has dissipated completely throughout the depth of the
compressible soil layer, consolidation is complete and the transient flow situation ceases to exist.
Solution of Terzaghi theory:
During the consolidation process, the following are assumed to be constant:
1. The total additional stress on the compressible soil layer is assumed to remain constant.
2. The coefficient of volume compressibility (mV) of the soil is assumed to be constant.
3. The coefficient of permeability (k) for vertical flow is assumed to be constant.
There are three variables in the consolidation equation:
1. The depth of the soil element in the layer (z)

2. The excess pore water pressure (u)
3. The time elapsed since application of the loading (t)
Take care of these three variables, three non-dimensional parameters are provided:
1. Drainage path ratio, Z = z/ H, where H = drainage path which is the longest path taken by the
pore water to reach a permeable sub-surface layer above or below.
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2. Consolidation ratio at depth z, Uz , which is the ratio of dissipated pore pressure to the initial
excess pore pressure. This represents the stage of consolidation at a certain location in the
compressible layer.
3. Time factor:
The figure is symmetrical about the horizontal line at Z = z /H = 1
For double drainage conditions, pore water above this location flows upwards whereas water
below this location flows downwards. Thus, the horizontal line at Z = 1 is equivalent to an
imperious boundary. For single drainage conditions, only either the top half or bottom half of the
figure is to be used, and the drainage path is equal to the thickness of the compressible layer.
The above graphical solution shows how consolidation proceeds with time at different locations
for a particular set of boundary conditions, but it does not describe how much consolidation
occurs as a whole in the entire compressible layer.
The variation of total consolidation with time is most conveniently plotted in the form of the
average degree of consolidation (U) for the entire stratum versus dimensionless time T, and this
is illustrated below.
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There are useful approximations relating the degree of consolidation and the time factor, viz:
For U 0.60, T = (  /4).U2

For U > 0.60, T = 1.781 ? 0.933 log10(100 - U %)
Laboratory consolidation:
Objective: To determine the consolidation properties of disturbed or undisturbed soil by
conducting one dimensional consolidation. The following properties are to be determined.
1. Rate of consolidation under a natural load
2. Degree of consolidation at any time.
3. Pressure void ratio relationship
4. Co - efficient of consolidation at various successively increasing pressures.
5. Compressive Index (Cc)
6. Co - efficient of compressibility (Cv)
Materials used:
Consolidometer containing the following : Loading frame, specimen ring , consolidation cell,
porous stone to be kept at top and bottom of specimen 2m guide ring outer ring, water jar,
pressure pad, steel ball, rubber gasket, dial gauge, occurrence to 0.002 mm.
There ate two types of consolidation cell:
1. Fixed ring cell: - top porous stone is permitted to move downward as the specimen
compresses
2. Floating ring cell: - both bottom and top porous stones are free to move to compress the
specimen towards middle.
The loading machine is capable of applying steady vertical pressure up to 1000 kN/m2 to the soil
specimen. During the test, the specimen is allowed to consolidate under a number of increments
of vertical pressure such as 10, 20, 50,100, 200,400,800,100 kN/m2 and each pressure increment
is maintained constant until the compression virtually ceases. Generally 24 hours. The vertical
compression of the specimen is measured by means of a dial gauge. Dial gauge readings are
taken after the application of each pressure increment at the following total elapsed times.
0.25,1.00, 2.25,4.0,6.25,9.00,12.25,16.00,20.25,25,36,49,60 min and 2,4,8 and 24 hours.
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The dial gauge reading showing final compression under each vertical loading also recorded.
After completion of consolidation under the desired maximum vertical pressure, the specimen is
unloaded and allowed to swell. The final dial gauge reading corresponds to the completion of
swelling is recorded. The specimen is taken out and dried to determine the water content and the
weight of soil solids.
This consolidation test data are used to determine
1. Voids ratio and coefficient of volume change
2. Coefficient of consolidation
3. Coefficient of permeability
Normally consolidated and over consolidated clays: (NC and OC clays)
Soils are often subjected to uniform loading over large areas, such as from wide foundations, fills or
embankments. Under such conditions, the soil which is remote from the edges of the loaded area
undergoes vertical strain, but no horizontal strain. Thus, the settlement occurs only in one-
dimension.
The compressibility of soils under one-dimensional compression can be described from the
decrease in the volume of voids with the increase of effective stress. This relation of void ratio
and effective stress can be depicted either as an arithmetic plot or a semi-log plot.
In the arithmetic plot as shown, as the soil compresses, for the same increase of effective stress
Ds', the void ratio reduces by a smaller magnitude, from De1 to De2. This is on account of an
increasingly denser packing of the soil particles as the pore water is forced out. In fine soils, a
much longer time is required for the pore water to escape, as compared to coarse soils.
It can be said that the compressibility of a soil decreases as the effective stress increases. This
can be represented by the slope of the void ratio and effective stress relation, which is called the
coefficient of compressibility, av.
For a small range of effective stress,
The -ve sign is introduced to make av a positive parameter.

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If e0 is the initial void ratio of the consolidating layer, another useful parameter is the coefficient
of volume compressibility, mv, which is expressed as
It represents the compression of the soil, per unit original thickness, due to a unit increase of
pressure.
In the above figure, OP corresponds to initial loading of the soil. PQ corresponds to unloading
of the soil. QFR corresponds to a reloading of the soil. Upon reloading beyond P, the soil
continues along the path that it would have followed if loaded from O to R continuously.
The pre consolidation stress, 'pc, is defined to be the maximum effective stress experienced by
the soil. This stress is identified in comparison with the effective stress in its present state. For
soil at state Q or F, this would correspond to the effective stress at point P.
If the current effective stress, ', is equal (note that it cannot be greater than) to the pre
consolidation stress, then the deposit is said to be normally consolidated (NC). If the current
effective stress is less than the pre consolidation stress, then the soil is said to be over-
consolidated (OC).
It may be seen that for the same increase in effective stress, the change in void ratio is much less
for an over consolidated soil (from e0 to ef), than it would have been for a normally consolidated
soil as in path OP. In unloading, the soil swells but the increase in volume is much less than the
initial decrease in volume for the same stress difference.
The distance from the normal consolidation line has an important influence on soil behaviour.
This is described numerically by the over consolidation ratio (OCR), which is defined as the
ratio of the pre consolidation stress to the current effective stress.
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Note that when the soil is normally consolidated, OCR = 1
Settlements will generally be much smaller for structures built on over consolidated soils. Most
soils are over consolidated to some degree. This can be due to shrinking and swelling of the soil
on drying and wetting, changes in ground water levels, and unloading due to erosion of overlying
strata.
For NC clays, the plot of void ratio versus log of effective stress can be approximated to a
straight line, and the slope of this line is indicated by a parameter termed as compression index,
Cc.
Estimation of pre consolidation stress:
It is possible to determine the pre consolidation stress that the soil had experienced. The soil
sample is to be loaded in the laboratory so as to obtain the void ratio - effective stress
relationship. Empirical procedures are used to estimate the pre consolidation stress, the most
widely used being Casagrande's construction which is illustrated.
The steps in the construction are:
• Draw the graph using an appropriate scale.
• Determine the point of maximum curvature A.
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• At A, draw a tangent AB to the curve.
• At A, draw a horizontal line AC.
• Draw the extension ED of the straight line portion of the curve.
• Where the line ED cuts the bisector AF of angle CAB, which point corresponds to the pre
consolidation stress.
UNIT IV
SHEAR STRENGTH
Shear strength of soils:
Soils consist of individual particles that can slide and roll relative to one another. Shear strength
of a soil is equal to the maximum value of shear stress that can be mobilized within a soil mass
without failure taking place.
The shear strength of a soil is a function of the stresses applied to it as well as the manner in
which these stresses are applied. Knowledge of shear strength of soils is necessary to determine
the bearing capacity of foundations, the lateral pressure exerted on retaining walls, and the
stability of slopes.
The shear strength of a soil is its maximum resistance to shear stresses just before the failure.
Shear failure of a soil mass occurs when the shear stresses induced due to applied compression.
Load exceeds the shear strength of soil. The shear strength in cohesion less soil results from inter
granular friction alone. In all other soil it results both from internal friction as well as cohesive
soil.
Principle planes:
At every point in a stressed body there are three – planes on which shear stress is zero called
principal planes. The plane with maximum compressive stress is called major principal planes.
The plane with minimum compressive stress is called minimum principal planes. The principal
plane subjected to intermediate stress is called intermediate principal plane.
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Generally the stresses on a plane which is perpendicular to intermediate principal plane are used
for analysis.
Mohr Circle of Stresses:

In soil testing, cylindrical samples are commonly used in which radial and axial stresses act on
principal planes. The vertical plane is usually the minor principal plane whereas the horizontal
plane is the major principal plane. The radial stress (σr) is the minor principal stress (σ3), and the
axial stress (σa) is the major principal stress (σ1).
To visualize the normal and shear stresses, a graphical representation of stresses called the Mohr
circle is obtained by plotting the principal stresses. The angles measured counter-clockwise is
positive.
Draw a line inclined at angle θ with the horizontal through the pole of the Mohr circle so as to
intersect the circle. The coordinates of the point of intersection are the normal and shear stresses
acting on the plane, which is inclined at angle θ within the soil sample.
Normal stress
Shear stress
The plane inclined at an angle of 45 º to the horizontal has acting on it the maximum shear stress
1   3  3
equal to, and the normal stress on this plane is equal to 1
2 2
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The plane with the maximum ratio of shear stress to normal stress is inclined at an angle

of 45  to the horizontal, where α is the slope of the line tangent to the Mohr circle and
2
passing through the origin.
Mohr – coulomb failure theory:
When the soil sample has failed, the shear stress on the failure plane defines the shear strength of
the soil. Thus, it is necessary to identify the failure plane. Is it the plane on which the maximum
shear stress acts, or is it the plane where the ratio of shear stresses to normal stress is the
maximum?
For the present, it can be assumed that a failure plane exists and it is possible to apply
principal stresses and measure them in the laboratory by conducting a triaxial test. Then, the
Mohr circle of stress at failure for the sample can be drawn using the known values of the
principal stresses.
If data from several tests, carried out on different samples up to failure is available, a
series of Mohr circles can be plotted. It is convenient to show only the upper half of the Mohr
circle. A line tangential to the Mohr circles can be drawn, and is called the Mohr-Coulomb
failure envelope.
If the stress condition for any other soil sample is represented by a Mohr circle that lies below the
failure envelope, every plane within the sample experiences a shear stress which is smaller than
the shear strength of the sample. Thus, the point of tangency of the envelope to the Mohr circle at
failure gives a clue to the determination of the inclination of the failure plane. The orientation of
the failure plane can be finally determined by the pole method.
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The Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion can be written as the equation for the line that represents the
failure envelope. The general equation is
Where  f = shear stress on the failure plane

c = apparent cohesion
 σf = normal stress on the failure plane
 Φ= angle of internal friction
The failure criterion can be expressed in terms of the relationship between the principal stresses.
From the geometry of the Mohr circle,
Rearranging,
Where
Limitation of Mohr – coulomb theory:

1. It neglects the effect of  σ2
2. It approximates the curved failure plane with
3. When a Mohr envelope is curved then the actual of failure plane is slightly smaller than
that of Bmax. Hence the angle α failure plane as found is not correct.
4. For some clayey soil there is no fixed relationship between σ and  on the failure plane.
The theory can‟t be used for such stresses.
Laboratory methods of shear strength determination:
Direct Shear Test
The test is carried out on a soil sample confined in a metal box of square cross-section which is
split horizontally at mid-height. A small clearance is maintained between the two halves of the
box. The soil is sheared along a predetermined plane by moving the top half of the box relative to
the bottom half. The box is usually square in plan of size
60 mm x 60 mm. A typical shear box is shown.
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If the soil sample is fully or partially saturated, perforated metal plates and porous stones are
placed below and above the sample to allow free drainage. If the sample is dry, solid metal plates
are used. A load normal to the plane of shearing can be applied to the soil sample through the lid
of the box.
Tests on sands and gravels can be performed quickly, and are usually performed dry as it is
found that water does not significantly affect the drained strength. For clays, the rate of shearing
must be chosen to prevent excess pore pressures building up.
As a vertical normal load is applied to the sample, shear stress is gradually applied
horizontally, by causing the two halves of the box to move relative to each other. The shear load
is measured together with the corresponding shear displacement. The change of thickness of the
sample is also measured.
A number of samples of the soil are tested each under different vertical loads and the
value of shear stress at failure is plotted against the normal stress for each test. Provided there is
no excess pore water pressure in the soil, the total and effective stresses will be identical. From
the stresses at failure, the failure envelope can be obtained.
Advantages of the Direct Shear Test
 It is easy to test sands and gravels.

 It is economically cheapest
 Large samples can be tested in large shear boxes, as small samples can give
misleading results due to imperfections such as fractures and fissures, or may not be
truly representative.
 Samples can be sheared along predetermined planes, when the shear strength along
fissures or other selected planes are needed.
Disadvantages of the Direct Shear Test
 The failure plane is always horizontal in the test, and this may not be the weakest
plane in the sample. Failure of the soil occurs progressively from the edges towards
the centre of the sample.
 There is no provision for measuring pore water pressure in the shear box and so it is
not possible to determine effective stresses from undrained tests.
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 The shear box apparatus cannot give reliable undrained strengths because it is
impossible to prevent localized drainage away from the shear plane.
Tri axial test:
The triaxial test is carried out in a cell on a cylindrical soil sample having a length to diameter
ratio of 2. The usual sizes are 76 mm x 38 mm and 100 mm x 50 mm. Three principal stresses are
applied to the soil sample, out of which two are applied water pressure inside the confining cell
and are equal. The third principal stress is applied by a loading ram through the top of the cell
and is different to the other two principal stresses. A typical triaxial cell is shown.
The soil sample is placed inside a rubber sheath which is sealed to a top cap and bottom pedestal
by rubber O-rings. For tests with pore pressure measurement, porous discs are placed at the
bottom, and sometimes at the top of the specimen. Filter paper drains may be provided around
the outside of the specimen in order to speed up the consolidation process. Pore pressure
generated inside the specimen during testing can be measured by means of pressure transducers.
The triaxial compression test consists of two stages:
First stage: In this, a soil sample is set in the triaxial cell and confining pressure is then applied.
Second stage: In this, additional axial stress (also called deviator stress) is applied which induces
shear stresses in the sample. The axial stress is continuously increased until the sample fails.
During both the stages, the applied stresses, axial strain, and pore water pressure or change in
sample volume can be measured.
Types of shear tests based on drainage and their applicability:
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There are several test variations, and those used mostly in practice are:
UU (unconsolidated undrained) test: In this, cell pressure is applied without allowing drainage
Then keeping cell pressure constant, deviator stress also applied and it is increased up to failure.
CU (consolidated undrained) test: In this, drainage is allowed during cell pressure application.
Then without allowing further drainage, deviator stress is increased keeping cell pressure
constant.
CD (consolidated drained) test: In this case drainage is allowed both during cell pressure
application and deviator stress application. The rate of loading must be slow enough to ensure no
excess pore water pressure develops.
Significance of Triaxial Testing
The first stage simulates in the laboratory the in-situ condition that soil at different depths is
subjected to different effective stresses. Consolidation will occur if the pore water pressure which
develops upon application of confining pressure is allowed to dissipate. Otherwise the effective
stress on the soil is the confining pressure (or total stress) minus the pore water pressure which
exists in the soil.
During the shearing process, the soil sample experiences axial strain, and either volume change
or development of pore water pressure occurs. The magnitude of shear stress acting on different
planes in the soil sample is different. When at some strain the sample fails, this limiting shear
stress on the failure plane is called the shear strength.
The triaxial test has many advantages over the direct shear test:
• The soil samples are subjected to uniform stresses and strains.
• Different combinations of confining and axial stresses can be applied.
• Drained and undrained tests can be carried out.
• Pore water pressures can be measured in undrained tests.
• The complete stress-strain behaviour can be determined.
Total stress parameters:
UU Tests:
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All Mohr circles for UU test plotted in terms of total stresses have the same diameter.
The failure envelope is a horizontal straight line and hence
It can be represented by the equation:
CU & CD Tests:
For tests involving drainage in the first stage, when Mohr circles are plotted in terms of total
stresses, the diameter increases with the confining pressure. The resulting failure envelope is an
inclined line with an intercept on the vertical axis.
It is also observed that cCU  cCD and CUCD
It can be stated that for identical soil samples tested under different triaxial conditions of UU, CU
and CD tests, the failure envelope is not unique.
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Effective stress parameters:

If the same triaxial test results of UU, CU and CD tests are plotted in terms of effective
stresses taking into consideration the measured pore water pressures, it is observed that all the
Mohr circles at failure are tangent to the same failure envelope, indicating that shear strength is a
unique function of the effective stress on the failure plane.
This failure envelope is the shear strength envelope which may then be written as
Where c' = cohesion intercept in terms of effective stress

' = angle of shearing resistance in terms of effective stress
If σ ‟n is the effective stress acting on the rupture plane at failure,  n is the shear stress on the
same plane and is therefore the shear strength.
The relationship between the effective stresses on the failure plane is
Vane shear test:

The undrained shear stress of soft clays can be determined in lab by vane shear test. The
apparatus consists of a vertical steel rod having four thin stainless steel plates (vanes) fixed at its
bottom. As per IS 2720 – 1980, the height „H‟ of vane is twice the overall diameter D. The
diameter of rod is 2.5 mm and height 60 mm. For conducting test in lab a specimen of 38 mm dia
and 75 mm height is taken in a container. The vane is gradually lowered into the specimen till the
top of the vane is at a depth of 10 to 20 mm below top of soil. The torque is applied gradually to
the upper end at the radius 6º / minute. Torque applied is continued till the soil failure takes
place.
The shear strength of soil is
T
 D2 H D3 
   
 2 6 
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If top of vane is above soil surface at the drop of vane inside soil is H1.
T
 D H1 D 3 
2
   
 2 12 
Pore water pressure parameters:
The difference between the total and effective stresses is simply the pore water pressure u.
Consequently, the total and effective stress Mohr circles have the same diameter and are only
separated along the s - axis by the magnitude of the pore water pressure.
It is easy to construct a series of total stress Mohr Circles but the inferred total stress parameters
have no relevance to actual soil behaviour. In principle, the effective strength parameters are
necessary to check the stability against failure for any soil construction in the field. To do this,
the pore water pressure in the ground under the changed loading conditions must be known and
in general they are not.
In an undrained triaxial test with pore pressure measurement, this is possible and the effective
stresses can then be determined. Alternatively, in drained tests, the loading rate can be made
sufficiently slow so as to allow the dissipation of all excess pore water pressure. For low
permeability soils, the drainage will require longer times.
In undrained tests, the general expression relating total pore water pressure developed and
changes in applied stresses for both the stages is:
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Du = Du1 + Du2 = B.Ds3+ B.A.(Ds1 - Ds3) = B[Ds3+ A(Ds1 - Ds3)]
Where u1 = pore water pressure developed in the first stage during application of confining
stress3,
u2 = pore water pressure developed in the second stage during application of deviator stress
, and
B and A are Skempton's pore water pressure parameters.
Parameter B is a function of the degree of saturation of the soil (= 1 for saturated soils, and = 0
for dry soils). Parameter A is also not constant, and it varies with the over-consolidation ratio of
the soil and also with the magnitude of deviator stress. The value of A at failure is necessary in
plotting the effective stress Mohr circles.
Consider the behaviour of saturated soil samples in undrained triaxial tests. In the first stage,
increasing the cell pressure without allowing drainage has the effect of increasing the pore water
pressure by the same amount.
Thus, there is no change in the effective stress. During the second shearing stage, the change in
pore water pressure can be either positive or negative.
For UU tests on saturated soils, pore water pressure is not dissipated in both the stages (i.e.,u =
u1 + u2).
For CU tests on saturated soils, pore water pressure is not dissipated in the second stage only
(i.e.,u = u2).
Stress strain behaviour of sands:

Sands are usually sheared under drained conditions as they have relatively higher
permeability. This behaviour can be investigated in direct shear or triaxial tests. The two most
important parameters governing their behaviour are the relative density (ID) and the magnitude
of the effective stress (s¢).
The relative density is usually defined in percentage as
Where emax and emin are the maximum and minimum void ratios that can be determined from
standard tests in the laboratory, and e is the current void ratio. This expression can be re-written
in terms of dry density as
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Where gdmax and gdmin are the maximum and minimum dry densities, and gd is the current dry
density. Sand is generally referred to as dense if ID > 65% and loose if < 35%.
The influence of relative density on the behaviour of saturated sand can be seen from the plots of
CD tests performed at the same effective confining stress. There would be no induced pore
water pressures existing in the samples.
For the dense sand sample, the deviator stress reaches a peak at a low value of axial strain and
then drops down, whereas for the loose sand sample, the deviator stress builds up gradually with
axial strain. The behaviour of the medium sample is in between. The following observations can
be made:
 All samples approach the same ultimate conditions of shear stress and void ratio,
irrespective of the initial density. The denser sample attains higher peak angle of shearing
resistance in between.
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 Initially dense samples expand or dilate when sheared and initially loose samples
compress.
PROBLEMS
Example 1:
A UU test is carried out on a saturated normally consolidated clay sample at a confining pressure
of
3 kg/cm2.The deviator stress at failure is 1 kg/cm2.
(a) Determine its total stress strength parameters.

(b) If another identical sample is tested at a confining pressure of 4 kg/cm2, what will be the
vertical axial stress at failure?
Solution:
(a)
From the plot, note thatUU = 0 and
(b)
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UU tests on identical samples yield the same failure deviator stress (σ1f + σ3f ) at all confining
pressures. Therefore, the vertical axial stress at failure,
Example 2:
Results of CU tests conducted on two saturated clay samples are given. Determine the shear
strength parameters.
Sample1 Sample2
2
Confining pressure ---------------- 4.8 kg/cm 6.3 kg/cm2
Axial stress at failure -------------- 6.8 kg/cm2 9.3 kg/cm2
2
Pore water pressure at failure --- 3.8 kg/cm 4.8 kg/cm2
Solution:
For sample 1 :
For sample 2:
From the plot, one can obtain
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Example: 3 Verify that stress paths A, B, and C of Fig.1, and A and D of Fig. 2 are correct
as Shown.
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Solution:
The initial conditions for all stress paths in Fig.1 are pv +h) / 2 = v =h and q
Final conditions are following equations:
For stress path A, σ v = σ h; so
Thus the stress path A moves out on the p-axis by an amount v= h ,
For stress path B, vh / 2 ; so
These values are the(p,q) coordinates of the end of stress path B. Thus the q and p both increase
by an amount q = v /4 and p = v , which means that the stress path has a slope of
1/3 or is inclined at 18.4as shown in Fig.1.
For stress path C, h0 and v increases by some amount.
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So q = v /2 and p = v / 2. Therefore the slope of the stress path must be 1 or inclined at

45his solution also holds for stress path A in Fig. 2. Here initial conditions are non-
hydrostatic, so
The final coordinates for path A are
So q = v /2 and p = v / 2, which is the same as for stress path C in Fig.1.
For stress path D in Fig. 2, v decreases while h increases. Initial ( po, q o) are the same as
path A in this figure, while the final values of ( pf, q f) are
The actual slope of the stress path depends on the relative magnitudes of v and h , but in general
it trends down and out as shown in Fig.
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UNIT- V
STABILITY OF SLOPES
Broad classification of slopes
Natural – Hill
Man made – Railway, Highway, Earth dam.
Causes for failure of slopes:

Sliding of slopes due to gravitational forces,
Due to seepage of water,
Excavation near the bare slope.
Objective of slope stability:

1. Determination of the potential failure slope.
2. Determination of forces tending to cause slip.
3. Determination of force tending to stabilize the mass of the earth
Types of slopes:
1. Infinite slopes
2. Finite slopes
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Types of slope failure
1. Rotational failure
a. Slope failure or face failure
b. Toe failure
c. Base failure
2. Translational failure
3. Compound failure
4. Wedge failure
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PROBLEMS
A 7 m deep cut with a slope of 1:1 is to be made in a cohesive soil. The soil has cohesion of 25
kN/m2, the angle of friction is 15°, and the bulk unit weight18kN/m3. (a) Find the factor of safety
with respect to cohesion. (b) What will be the critical height of the slope?
Solution. (a) For a 1:1 slope i=45°, so from Table 9.2 Taylor's stability number0.083.
Therefore the factor of safety with respect Cohesion is
Fc= C / γHSn=18 X 7 X 0.083=2.39.

(b) The critical height is given by
Hc=FcH =2.39 x 7= 16.73 m.;
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TWO MARKS QUESTION & ANSWERS
1. Define soil?
Un cemented or weakly cemented accumulation of mineral and organic particles and
sediments found above the bedrock, or unconsolidated material consisting of discrete solid
particles with fluid or gas in the voids.
2. Define Soil Mechanics

According to (ASTM) Soil Mechanics ids define as the application of the laws and principles
of mechanics and hydraulics to engineering problems dealing with soil as an engineering
material.
3. List the Main Types of Soils

The types of soil are Granular: gravel, sand, (silt) Cohesive: (silt), clay Organic:
marsh soil, peat, coal, tar sand Man-Made: mine tailings, landfill waste, ash, and aggregates.
4. Define Void Ratio

The void ratio of a soil is defined as the ratio of volume of voids to the volume of solids.
5. Define specific gravity.

It is defined as the ratio of the mass of a given volumes of solid gains to the mass of equal
volume of water at the same temperature
6. Define Density
The density of a substance is the mass per unit volume of that substance. For water
this is denoted by w, and its value is about 1000 kg/m3. Small deviations from this value may
occur due to temperature differences or variations in salt content. In soil mechanics these are
often of minor importance, and it is often considered accurate enough to assume that w =
1000 kg/m3.
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7. Draw the phase diagram
8. Define water content.

By definition the water content w is the ratio of the weight (or mass) of the water and the
solids,
w = Ww/Wp.
9. Define soil Index
emax = maximum void ratio corresponding to the loosest state, emin = minimum void ratio
corresponding to the densest state, and e = void ratio of the sample.
10. What are the factors that affect hydraulic conductivity?

The hydraulic conductivity is influenced by a number of factors including:
- Effective porosity
- Grain size and grain size distribution
- Shape and orientation of particles
- Degree of saturation
- Clay mineralogy
11. Give an empirical correlation between PSD and permeability.

An empirical correlation between PSD and permeability has been developed
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k = c (D10)2 cm/s Where 100 < c < 150 Developed by Hazen for uniform, loose, clean sands
and gravels.
12. Define degree of saturation.

The degree of saturation is defined as the ratio of volume of water to the volume of voids
13. What are assumptions made to derive the equation governing two dimensional steady
state seepage?
Several assumptions are required to derive the equation governing two dimensional steady
state seepage.
• The soil is completely saturated
• There is no change in void ratio of the porous medium
• The hydraulic conductivity is isotropic
• Darcy‟s law is valid
• The water is incompressible
14. What are the steps in the construction of a flow net?

Steps in Drawing a Flow Net
1) Define and clearly mark a datum.
2) Identify the boundary conditions (EP, FL, LCP).
3) Draw intermediate equipotentials and flow lines. - draw coarse mesh with a few EPs and
FLs
4) Verify the coarse mesh is correct.
- Are the boundary conditions satisfied?
- Are all flow tubes continuous?
- Are EPs z FLs? Only if isotropic medium - Mostly “squares” ?
5) Add additional EPs and FLs for suitable refinement of the flow net.
6) Calculate desired quantities of flow and heads.
15. Define Seepage velocity.
The actual velocity of water flowing through the voids is termed as seepage velocity.
16. What are the factors that affect the permeability of a soil mass?
Some of the factors, which influence permeability, are
• Grain size
• Viscosity
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• Temperature
• Void ratio
17.Give the formulae to determine the vertical stress, radial stress Tangential stress,& shear
stress under a point load
18. What is immediate settlement?

The settlement which is caused by the elastic deformation of dry soil and of moist and
saturated soils without any change in moisture content.
19. What is primary consolidation settlement?

The settlement which results of volume change in the saturated cohesive soils because of
expulsion of the water that occupies the voids space. Give the formulae to determine the
vertical stress, radial stress Tangential stress, & shear stress under a uniformly distributed
load
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20. Give the formulae to determine the vertical stress, horizontal stress under a circular load.
21. Define Permeability.

The ease with which water can flow through a soil mass is termed as permeability
22. What is laminar flow?

Flow of fluids is described as laminar if a fluid particles flow follows a definite path and
does not cross the path of other particles.
23. Define quick sand

Sand is said to be quick sand condition when the flow is upward under a hydraulic gradient,
which reduces the effective stress to zero.
24. What is Frost Heave?

Water migrates upward from the water table to the capillary fringe. When the atmospheric
temperature falls to the freezing point & the ice is formed. This results in an increase in the
volume of the soil. This is known as frost heave.
K=Cd
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25. Give the Allen Hazens Formula
26. Estimate the value of k of a soil with an effective diameter of 0.2 mm.
27. What is Darcy‟s law?

For laminar flow in a homogeneous soil the velocity of flow (v) is given by
V= Ki
K= co-efficient of permeability
I-hydraulic gradient.
28. Define seepage.

Seepage is the flow of water under gravitational forces in a permeable medium. The flow is
generally laminar.
29. List the assumptions made in the Lap lace‟s equation

The following assumptions are made in the derivation of the Laplace equation.
• The flow is laminar.
• Water & soil are incompressible.
• Soil is isotropic & homogeneous.
• The soil is fully saturated.
• The flow is steady ie. Flow condition does not change with time.
• Darcy‟s law is valid.
30. What are the approximate methods of determination of vertical stress under loaded areas?
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• Equivalent point load method
• Two to one load distribution method
• Sixty degree distribution
31. What are the reasons for compression of the soil?

• Compression of solid particles & water in the voids.
• Compression & expulsion of air in the voids.
• Expulsion of water in the voids.
32. What are the stages of consolidation?

The stages of consolidation are
• Initial consolidation
• Primary consolidation
• Secondary consolidation
33. What is a principal plane?

At every point in a stressed body, there are three planes on which the shear stress is zero.
These planes are known as principal planes.
34. What are the limitations of coulomb‟s theory?

The limitations of coulomb theory are
• It neglects the effect of the intermediate principal stress.
• It approximates the curved failure envelope by a straight line which may not give correct
results.
35. Give the Coulomb‟s shear strength equation.

The Coulomb‟s shear strength equation is given by,
S= c+s tan j
C= cohesion
j = Angle of internal friction
36.What is Unconsolidated- Undrained condition?
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In this type of test no drainage is permitted during the consolidation stage. The drainage is
also permitted in the shear stage.
37. What is consolidated- undrained condition?

In a consolidated- undrained test, the specimen is allowed to consolidate in the first stage.
The drainage is permitted until the consolidation is complete.
38. What is the main cause of slope failure?

Slope failures occur when the rupturing force exceeds resisting force.
39. What are the factors affecting permeability tests?

The following five physical characteristics influence the performance and applicability of
permeability tests:
(1) position of the water level,
(2) Type of material - rock or soil,
(3) Depth of the test zone,
(4) Permeability of the test zone, and
(5) Heterogeneity and anisotropy of the test zone.
40. Define effective stress.

Effective stress equals the total stress minus the pore water pressure, or the total force in the
soil grains divided by the gross cross-sectional area over which the force acts.
41. Define Critical Depth.

If there is no distinct change in the character of subsurface strata within the critical depth,
elastic solutions for layered foundations need not be considered. Critical depth is the depth
below the foundation within which soil compression contributes significantly to surface
settlements. For fine-grained compressible soils, the critical depth extends to that point where
applied stress decreases to 10 percent of effective overburden pressure. In coarse-grained
material critical depth extends to that point where applied stress decreases to 20 percent of
effective overburden pressure.
42. What are the rules to be followed while construction of flow net?
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1. When materials are isotropic with respect to permeability, the pattern of flow lines and
equipotentials intersect at right angles. Draw a pattern in which square figures are formed
between flow lines and equipotentials
2. Usually it is expedient to start with an integer number of equipotential drops, dividing total
head by a whole number, and drawing flow lines to conform to these equipotentials. In the
general case, the outer flow path will form rectangular rather then square figures. The shape
of these rectangles (ratio b/l) must be constant.
3. The upper boundary of a flow net that is at atmospheric pressure is a "free water surface".
Integer equipotentials intersect the free water surface at points spaced at equal vertical
intervals.
4. A discharge face through which seepage passes is an equipotential line if the discharge is
submerged, or a free water surface if the discharge is not submerged. if it is a free water
surface, the flow net figures adjoining the discharge face will not be squares.
5. In a stratified soil profile where ratio of permeability of layers exceeds 10, the flow in the
more permeable layer controls. that is, the flow net may be drawn for more permeable layer
assuming the less permeable layer to be impervious. the head on the interface thus obtained is
imposed on the less pervious layer for construction of the flow net within it.
6. In a stratified soil profile where ratio of permeability of layers is less than 10, flow is
deflected at the interface
7. When materials are anisotropic with respect to permeability, the cross section may be
transformed by changing scale as shown above and flow net drawn as for isotropic materials.
in computing quantity of seepage, the differential head is not altered for the transformation.
8. Where only the quantity of seepage is to be determined, an approximate flow net suffices.
If pore pressures are to be determined, the flow net must be accurate.
43. Write a note on piping.

Piping and Subsurface Erosion: Most piping failures are caused by subsurface erosion in or
beneath dams. These failures can occur several months or even years after a dam is placed
into operation. In essence, water that comes out of the ground at the toe starts a process of
erosion (if the exit gradient is high enough) that culminates in the formation of a tunnel
shaped passage (or "pipe") beneath the structure. When the passage finally works backward
to meet the free water, a mixture of soil and water rushes through the passage, undermining
the structure and flooding the channel below the dam. It has been shown that the danger of a
piping failure due to subsurface erosion increases with decreasing grain size. Similar
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subsurface erosion problems can occur in relieved dry-docks, where water is seeping from a
free source to a drainage or filter blanket beneath the floor or behind the walls. If the filter
fails or is defective and the hydraulic gradients are critical, serious concentrations of flow can
result in large voids and eroded channels.
44. Define Porosity
Soils usually consist of particles, water and air. In order to describe a soil various parameters
are used to describe the distribution of these three components, and their relative contribution
to the volume of a soil. These are also useful to determine other parameters, such as the
weight of the soil. They are defined in this chapter.
An important basic parameter is the porosity n, defined as the ratio of the volume of the pore
space and the total volume of the soil, n = Vp/Vt.
45. What is Degree of saturation?

The pores of a soil may contain water and air. To describe the ratio of these two the degree of
saturation S is introduced as
S = Vw/Vp
Here Vw is the volume of the water, and Vp is the total volume of the pore space. The
volume of air (or any other gas) per unit pore space then is 1 - S. If S = 1 the soil is
completely saturated, if S = 0 the soil is perfectly dry.
46. Define water content

The water content is another useful parameter, especially for clays. It has been used in the
previous chapter. By definition the water content w is the ratio of the weight (or mass) of the
water and the solids,
w = Ww/Wp.
47. Define stress path.

A convenient way to represent test results, and their correspondence with the stresses in the
field, is to use a stress path. In this technique the stresses in a point are represented
by two (perhaps three) characteristic parameters and they are plotted in a diagram.
This diagram is called a stress path.
48. What is the significance of soil mechanics?
Soil mechanics has become a distinct and separate branch of engineering mechanics
because soils have a number of special properties, which distinguish the material
from other materials. Its development has also been stimulated, of course, by the
wide range of applications of soil engineering in civil engineering, as all structures
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require a sound foundation and should transfer its loads to the soil. The most
important special properties of soils will be described briefly in this chapter. In
further chapters they will be treated in greater detail, concentrating on quantitative
methods of analysis.
49. Write a short note on shear.
In compression soils become gradually sti_er. In shear, however, soils become
gradually softer, and if the shear stresses reach a certain level, with respect to the
normal stresses, it is even possible that failure of the soil mass occurs.
This means that the slope of sand heap, for instance in a depot or in a dam, can not
be larger than about 30 or 40 degrees. The reason for this is that particles would
slide over each other at greater slopes.
50. What is creep?

The deformations of a soil often depend upon time, even under a constant load. This
is called creep.
51. Define plastic limit.

The transition from the plastic state to the solid state is called the plastic limit, and
denoted as wp . It is defined as the water content at which the clay can just be rolled
to threads of 3 mm diameter. Very wet clay can be rolled into very thin threads, but
dry clay will break when rolling thick threads. The (arbitrary) limit of 3 mm is
supposed to indicate the plastic limit. In the laboratory starting with a rather wet
clay sample, from which it is simple to roll threads of 3 mm, performs the test. By
continuous rolling the clay will gradually become drier, by evaporation of the water,
until the threads start to break.
52. Define liquid limit.

The transition from the liquid state to the plastic state is denoted as the liquid limit,
wl. It represents the lowest water content at which the soil behavior is still mainly
liquid.
53. What are methods available for determination of k for a soil sample?
• Constant Head permeability test
• Falling Head Permeability Test
• Horizontal Capillary Test.
54. Volumetric shrinkage of a soil is 90 %. What is the linear shrinkage.
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Volumetric shrinkage = 90%
Linear shrinkage = 100 [ 1- (100/190)1/3 ] = 19.24%
55. What are the conditions to be satisfied for a soil to be classified as well graded gravel?
Conditions: Fines (< 75 micron) = ≤5%
Cu > 4 and Cc between 1 and 3.
56. The soil suction pressure, PF is 1.92. Calculate the capillary rise and capillary
potential for the soil.
Suction pressure, PF = 1.92
Log 10 hc = PF =1.92
Capillary rise, hc = 83.176 cm
Capillary potential = 10 x 0.83176 = 8.1376 kN/m2
57. Differentiate between density and unit weight of soil

Density is calculated with respect to mass of the soil.
But unit weight is calculated with respect to weight of the soil.
58. What do you understand by consistency of soil?

Consistency refers to the state of clay whether the clay is soft of stiff in nature.
59. What is effective stress principle?

Total stress acting on soil is shared, soil solid and soil water. Effective stress represents total
stress devoid of pore water pressure.
60. For a given soil, the coefficient of permeability increases with an increase in void ratio.
Why ?
Flow of water in soil medium is a primary function of voids present in the soil.Hence higher
the void ratio, higher the coefficient of permeability.
61. Mention the assumptions of Boussinesq‟s solution.

The soil mass is elastic, isotropic, homogeneous and semi infinite.
The soil is weightless. The load is a point load acting on the surface.
62. What is stress path?

It represents the line joining the locus of various stress points in stressed zone.
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63. How liquefaction of sands can be prevented?
It can be prevented by densifying the soil mass through vibro – floatation and any other
ground improvement technique.
64. Name the different types of slope failures?

Face failure, toe failure and base failure.
65. What are the limitations of Culmann‟s method of stability analysis?

A plane failure surface if not a correct assumption for a homogeneous soil.
It is applicable for only homogeneous slopes.
66. A loose uniform sand with rounded grains has an effective grain size D10 equal to 0.3
mm. Estimate the co efficient of permeability?
K = C (D10)2 Where C may be taken as 100 and D10 in cm.
Hence k = 100 x (0.03)2
= 9 x 10-2 cm/ sec.
67. State the conditions of classify coarse grained soil by IS method

(i) More than half the total material (soil) by mass a larger than 75  IS sieve size.
(ii) Gravel more than half the coarse fraction is larger than 4.75 mm IS sieve size.
(iii) Sand more than half the coarse fraction is smaller than 4.75 mm IS sieve size.
68. Distinguish between volumetric shrinkage and shrinkage ratio

Volumetric shrinkage: The decrease in volume of a soil mass, expressed as a percentage
of the dry volume of the soil mass, when the water content is reduced from a given
percentage to the shrinkage limit.
VS = (wt – w s ) SR.
Shrinkage ratio is defined as the ratio of a given volume change expressed as a

percentage of dry volume t the corresponding change in water content above the shrinkage
limit expressed as a percentage of weight of the over dried soil.
SR = γ d / γ w
69. List the factors affecting the permeability of soil
(i) Grain size
(ii) Properties of the pore fluid.
(iii)Void ratio
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(iv) Structural arrangement of soil particles.
(v) Entrapped air and organic impurities.
70. State Mohr coulombs equation for determination of shear strength of soils both for
total and effective stress condition.
Total stress condition
Effective stress condition
71. Distinguish between Bouissinesques and Westergaards stress energy

Bouissinesqs
Isotropic soil – soil mass to be fully isotropic
Soil mass would behave in all direction in a similar fashion.
Westergaards stress – Non isotropic – soil mass would not behave in all direction in a
similar fashion – downward deformation of soil mass as a whole without allowing it to
undergo and lateral defaormation.
72. Distinguish between discharge velocity and seepage velocity

Discharge velocity = calculated based on the total cross sectional area of soil.
Seepage velocity = based on area of voids.
73. What are the three conditions for which stability analysis of an earth dam is carried
out?
End of construction
Sudden draw down
Steady seepage
74. A purely cohesive soil sample of undrained cohesion 25 kPa is subjected to a cell
pressure of 100 kPa in a UU triaxial test. Will the sample fail? Why?
The sample will not fail.
Mohr circle is a point that lies on the normal stress axis (well below the strength envelope)
75. The critical hydraulic gradient of a sandy soil having specific gravity of solids of 2.7 is
1.0. Find its porosity.
2.7 – 1 / 1 + e = 1
e = 0.7
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n = 0.7 / 1 + 0.7 = 41.2 %
76. The pressure at the base of a square soil having specific gravity of solids of 2.7 is 1.0
Find its porosity.
150 x 2 x 2 / (2+ z)2 = 50
z = 1.46 m.
77. What is the significance of shrinkage limit?

(1) The shrinkage limit is a useful parameter for the study of expansive and shrinkage
behaviour of a clay soil.
(2) It is used for calculating the shrinkage factors which helps with design problem of the
structures made up of the soils or / and resting on soils.
(3) It gives an idea about the suitability of soil as a construction material in foundation;
road embankment and dams
79. List the different methods of applying compaction to a soil in the field and in the
laboratory?
Field:
1. Rolling
2. Ramming
3. Vibration
Laboratory: Dynamic.
80. How many boundary conditions can be defined when the flow is confined? Is the flow
through an earth dam confined flow or unconfined flow?
(i) Four boundary conditions for the confined flow:
(ii) Flow through an earth dam is an example of unconfined flow.
81. What do you understand by residual soil and transported soil?

Residual soil: A soil that is formed by weathering of the parent rock and still occupies the
position of the rock from which id has been formed is called a residual soil. Residual soils
are not as common as transported soil.
Transported soil: Any soil that has been transported from its place of origin by wind,
water of some other agency and has been deposited is called a transported soil
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Soil Classification and Properties

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Soil Classification and Properties

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Chapter 1: Nature of Soil

Different types of soils:

(5) Gravel: Course grained soil size from 4.75 to 80 mm.

(7) Kankar: Impure

(8) Loam: It is a mixture of sand, silt and clay.

Cohesive and Cohesive less soil:

Inter relationship between n and e:

1/n = 1 + 1/e = (1+ e) / e (Note Vv / Vs = e )

Also 1/ e = (1/n) - 1 = (1-n) / n e = n / (1-n )

Water content: w = Ww / Ws * 100 %

1) Unit weight of water: γw = Ww / Vw

2) Bulk unit weight of soil = γ or γb = W / V

Chapter 2: Phase Relationship

Interrelationship of different parameters:

Chapter: 3: Soil Classification

Sedimentation Analysis or Hydrometer Analysis

Need and Scope:

Step 1 a - Taking 50 g of oven dry soil in a beaker

Step 2 -Making % 4 solutions of dispersing agent

Step 2 -Mixing the solution thoroughly

Step 4 - This should be allowed to soak for about 8 to 12 hours

Step 6 - Record the temperature of the cylinder of step 4

Index Properties of Soil

Liquid limit (WL) - change of consistency from plastic to liquid state

Shrinkage limits determination:

Ws = (Vd / Md) γw - (1/G)

The following test results were obtained for a fine-grained soil:

Plasticity index, IP = WL : WP = 48 : 26 = 22%

Liquid limit lies between 35% and 50%.

The clay is of normal activity and is of soft consistency.

Soil classification based on plasticity Index:

Pp Plasticity Index Plasticity

Density Index (ID):

ID = e max - e / e max – e min

emax = void ratio at loosest state.

Density Index Soil classification

Field compaction methods:

There are three methods of compaction in field:

(2) Sheep foot rollers:

(3) Pneumatic tyred rollers:

(4) Vibratory rollers:

Factors affecting compaction:

(1) Water content:

(2) Amount of compaction:

SOIL WATER AND WATER FLOW

The surface tension of normal is 0.073 N/m @ 20º C.

It decreases with an increase in temperature.

For clean glass tube and pure water θ = 0; hc = 4 Ts / γw d

If γw taken as = 9810 N/m3

Capillary rise in soils:

(hc) max = C/ e D10

C = constant, depend on shape of grain and impurities

Datum head (z) = vertical distance of point above datum

Typical values of co- efficient of permeability

S.No Soil type K mm/sec Drainage properties

Determination of coefficient of permeability:

Constant head permeability test:

Variable (Falling) head test:

Factors affecting permeability of soil:

Structure of soil size:

Impurities in water: Foreign matter plug the flow space reduces K.