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AnElementaryTreatiseonCurveTracing 10534750
AnElementaryTreatiseonCurveTracing 10534750
C U RV E TR AC I N G
M A C M I LLA N A N D C O .
, LI M DIT E
L ND N B M $ Y C LC
O O 1 O A A UT T A M DR S
A A
MEL B RNE OU
T HE M A C M I L L A N C O M PA N Y
N EW Y OR " BO ST O N C H C G O I A
D LL S
A A S A N F A NC S C O
R I
T HE MA C MI LL A N CO . O F C A NA DA LT D .
T ORO N TO
A N E LE M E N T A R Y T R E A T I S E
ON
CURVE T R A C I N G
P E R C I V A L F R O ST , S c D . .
, F R S
. . .
OF S T .
J H N S C LLEGE C M BR DG
O
'
O , A I E
F O UR T H E D I TI ON
RE V I S ED BY
R .
J . T . B E LL, M A . .
, D Sc. .
LEC UR R
T E IN M H EM
AT AT I CS UN V ERS Y
, I IT OF GL SG
A OW
M A C M I LL A N A N D C O .
, LIM I TE D
ST . MA R T I N S S T R E E T ’
, L O ND O N
COP YRI G HT .
E diti
Fir s t on p rin ted 1 8 7 2 .
S d Editi
econ on 1 892 .
Thi d E d iti
r on 1 91 1
th E diti
.
F ou r on 1 91 8 .
G L AS G OW : P R I N T E D T T HE U N I ERS I T Y P RESS
A V
BY R OB ER T M C LE HO S E ND C O LT D
A A . .
P R EF A CE
a misnomer .
good .
0
In c tting Off s o m n y vital p r ts of a complete treatise
u a a ,
a n d Al gebr ic l G eometr hi t
a stes m ac arr him with
y ; s ay y a
weak points .
a tifi ces
r The solution Of great number Of eq ations
. a u
'
g o n o m et
y reversion O f series etc
r , cc r te numeric al , .
,
a u a
O f work n d O f a w nt O f individ
a lity in the m nner in
a ua a
pu le over
zz .
present s e u .
,
a
solutions ; ll this will prep are the student for the dis
a
P l ne P ol ri tion
a a za .
given clear ideas when the st dent enters upon the syste
,
u
instr ctive a st dy
u u .
PR E FA CE
s ave the st dent tro ble I m y Observe th at I h ave
TO u u a
v al es u , /6 = J I O 5 ; nd
N
1 1 a ,
x y = a x + by + for a v riety Of v l es Of a b c a a u , ,
c .
spe king f
a rve a the loc s f the eq tion f ( 9c y) O
O a cu s u O ua , , ,
’
the c rve f ( y ) 0
u oc, : .
u a .
’
C M B R DGE
A I ,
J a nu a ry , 1 89 2 .
PREFA C E T O RE V I S E D E DI T I ON
a a a a
R J T B . . . .
G L SG W N mb 1 9 1 7
A O , ove er, .
C ON T EN T S
C HA PT ER I .
N R DUC RY H E REMS DE F N NS
I T O TO T O . I I TI O . T R C NG
A I B Y P OI NS
T .
S MME R Y Y T
RTS
.
3—
.
4 Th ms f w ki ge ore or or n
5 D fi i ti s e n on
6 C v s t d b y p i ts
ur e rac e o n
7 Symm t y e r
E mp l s 1 xa e .
C H A P T ER I I .
O RD RS SM LL Q U N ES F RMS P R B L C CURV ES NE R
E OF A A T I TI . O OF A A O I A T HE
O d s f s m ll q
r ti ti s er o a u an e
St d ds f v ishi g q ti ti s
an ar O an n u an e
G p hi st ti f p b li
ra vs
c co n ru c on O ara o c cu r e
T i g fy rac n th i gi O
m z cx
”
n e ar e or n
Sh p t y p i t a e a an o n
E mp l f p i t f i fl i
xa e O a o n o n ex on
A lg b i l p s t ti e f sp
ra c a re re e n a on o a cu
T g t t uvan en o a c r e
M s f vt ea u re O cu r a u re
Ci l f v t rc e o cu r a u re
Ex mp l s 1 1 a e .
C H A PT E R I I I .
FORMS P R B L C CURV ES
OF A AN F N E D S NCE E MPLES
O I AT AN I I IT I TA . XA OF
R C NG CURV E
T A I R G N ME R C L CURV ES L US R NS
S . T I O O T I A . I L T A TI O OF
H E RY
T E Q U NS RULES
O OF PPR M T N AT I O . F OR A OX I A IO .
2 6—
28 F ms f p b li v s t g t dist f m th i gi
or o ara o c cu r e a a rea an ce ro e or n 20
29 31-
E mp l s f fi di g t g t t
xa ev wh it is p ll l
o n n a an en o a cu r e, e re ara e
t is d th p si ti n f p i t f i fl i
o an ax ,
an e o o o a o n O n ex on
CON T ENT S
P AGE
E xa mp e ls Of t rac i ng c u r e v si n wh c h y i can be e xp re ss de
te r ms o f a: e xp li i tl y
c
C v s p s ti g h g s f t ig m t i l f
ur e re re e n n c an e O r o e r ca u nct on i s
I ll s t ti s f h y f q ti s
u ra on O t eo r o e ua on
C di ti
on f p i t f i fl i
on or a o n O n ex on
G p hi s l ti
ra f q ti s
c o u on O e ua on
W ki g f m l f
or n pp i m ti
or u ae or a ro x a on
I ll s t ti s f m th ds f pp i m t i
u ra on O e o o a ro x a on
Ex mp l s I I I a e .
C H A PT E R I V .
FO RMS CURV ES
OF IN T H NE G HB UR H D
E IH R G N S MPL O OO OF T E O I I . I E
NGEN S D REC
TA T . I TI O N M UN CUR V URE MUL PLE P N S
AN D A O T OF AT . TI OI T
OFW B R NC H S
T O A E . CUR V URE B R NC H ES MUL PLE P N S
AT OF A AT TI OI T .
MUL PLE P N S
TI OI T OF H G H ER RDERS
I O .
54 F ms f v or O cu r e s h
n e ar tigi e or n
5 5—57 S i mp l t g t e an en
5 8— 60 62 C i
,
f vt on c o cu r a u re
60 6 1
, C i l d di m t rc e a n a e er o f cu r a t u re v
63 E mp l s f v t xa e O cu r a u re
64 T an ge n t t o u1 + u 1 v1 +us+ =0
66 T angen t t o m u t p s li l e po i ts
n Of t wo b ran c he s
67—
69 F o rm o f vl wl + u 3 + 0
70 7 1
, v l wl —
i —
i -
u4 0
72 , 73
7 4 75
, v1
?
w, 0
76, 77 v1
2
ti u4 +
—O
l
+ w,
2 "
7 8 , 79 121
82 , 8 3 M l ti p l
u e po i ts f hi gh d s
n O er o r er
E mp l s I V xa e .
C H A PT E R V .
F RMS B R NC H ES W H SE NGEN S
O OF A H RGN '
O TA T AT T E O I I A R E T HE
C RD N E ES OO I AT AX .
84 88 F m s wh ord y f d iff t d s f m g it d
en x an a re o e re n or er O a n u e
89 T t t iv m t h dsen a e e o
90 R l s f j t i g t ms
u e o r re e c n er
91 W k d mp l s or e e xa e
E mp l s V xa e .
CON T EN T S
C H A P T ER VI .
A SY MP TES P N S
TO . N ERSEC NOI T N F N E D S NCE
OF I T TI O AT AN I I IT I TA .
S Y MP ES P R LLEL A H T OTES A A TO T E AX .
R tili
ec d vili
n e ar an symp t t s cu r n ear a o e
I t s ti f v s wi th th i symp t t s
n er e c on O cu r e e r a o e
C mp i
o f si g l
ar s o n O sy m p t t s wi th t g ts t p i ts
n u ar a o e an en a o n
fi fi io d m l ti p l p i ts t
n e x o n an fi i t dis t u e o n a a n e anc e
W k d or mp l
e e xa e
D t mi t i f symp t t s b y p i ts f i t s ti t
e er na on O a o e o n O n er e c on a
i fi i t d is t
an n n e an c e
W k d or mpl s
e e xa e
M th d b y p p
e o i m ti a ro x a on
C s s f l i fi it
a e O or a o ne n n e
S id whi h th v li s
e on c e cu r e e
V i ti s i th d t m i ti f symp t t s whi h
ar e e n e e er na on o a o e c are
p ll l t th s
ara e o e a xe
E m p l s f s y mp t t s
xa e O a o e
E mp l s V I xa e .
CH A PT ER V I I .
a CURV ES .
S i mpl mp l s f s y m p t t s
e e xa t p ell l t th
O sa o e no ara e o e a xe
Ill st ti b y m l ti p l p i ts t fi i t dist
u ra on u e o n a a n e an ce
Ge ne ra l s t t m t f th m th d f fi di g b y pp im
a e en O e e o o n n a ro x a
ti th s
on sym p t s whi h
o e t p
a ll l t i th to e c are no ara e o e er
s
a xi
S id whi h th v li s
e on c e cu r e e
C s f p b li sym p t t
a e O a ara o c a o e
I v s ti g ti f p p p b li symp t t
n e a on O a ro er a ra o c a o e
E mp l s f p b li symp t t s
xa e O ara o c a o e
P ll l tili
ara e sy m p t t s
re c n ear a o e
Di t m th d f p si
re c e o O ex an on
Ob s v ti s
er a l ti g t th sid whi h th v li s
on re a n o e e on c e cu r e e
H m g
o o s v s d th i symp t t s
en eo u cu r e an e r a o e
E xamp les V I I .
C H A PT E R VIII .
CURV L NE R S Y MP ES I I A A T OT .
1 36 —
1 38 I fi i t b h s wh
n n e d y
ranc t f th s
e en a: an are no o e am e o r d er Of
m g it d a n u e
E mp l s V I I I xa e .
C ON T EN T S
C HA PT ER I X .
H
T N LY C L R NGLE PR PER ES
E A A TI H A N LY C L
T IA . O TI OF T E A A TI A
NGLE TR I A
RT S
.
s p ll l g m d D G s t i gl
.
140 — 1 4 3 N wt e on
’
ara e o ra an e ua
’
r an e
1 44 M di fi d f m i whi h t h t i gl is m p l y d i this
o e or n c e r an e e o e n
w k or
1 45 — 1 47 S t t m t d p
a e f f p p ti s f th t i gl
en an ro o o ro er e O e r an e
1 48 E mp l s f th
xa f th t i gl e O e u se o e r an e
E mp l s IX xa e .
CH A PT ER X .
H F R H DEGREE T E OU T .
Dg ti e f v s f h f my
e ne ra on O cu r e O t e or
mz
cx
n
G l di ti s f si g l p i ts
e ne ra co n on or n u ar o n
E mp l s f si g l p i ts
xa e O n u ar o n
A ssis t d iv d f m m p tm ts
an ce er e ro co ar en
M th ds f d t ti g is l t d p ti s f
e o v O e ec n o a e or on O a cu r e
Symm t i l v f th f th d g
e r caf cu r e O e ou r e re e O
Exam p le sX .
C HA P T ER X I .
S Y S EM C R C NG CURV ES REPE NG C R V ES
T ATI T A I OF . ATI U .
1 94 R l s f s ys t m t i t i g
u e or e a c rac n
1 9 5 —1 9 7 W k d or mp l s e e xa e
1 99 - 2 02 Cl ss f p ti g v s
a O re ea n cu r e
E mp l s X I xa e .
C H A PT ER X I I .
G V E CURV E I N .
2 1 0 2 1 2 Difii lti f th i v s p
cu ss es O e n er e ro ce
2 13— 2 15 F i s t s t ps t w ds t h s l ti f th p b l m
r e o ar e o u on o e ro e
2 1 7—2 2 2 M th d f m ki g
. e o f th ly ti l t i gl
O a n u se O e an a ca r an e
223 U f th l f sig s
se O e ru e o n
225 E mp l s f xa f l f si g s e O u se O ru e O n
2 26 2 3 1 U
-
f p ti l
se o v s d mp tm ts ar a cu r e an co ar en
E mp l s X I I xa e .
C L SS F ED L S
A H C RV ES D SCUSSE
I I I T OF T E U I D
I ND E x
I N T R OD U C T OR Y T HE OR E M S
’
famili ar .
Of as v anish then
,
f ( x) will be ind n tic lly equ l to
, e a a
a (ao
B ) to n f ctors “ . a ,
a nd m b the n roots Of t bt
2
e a
n -
r
"
, nd a c
r
z
. a
a , s re al
: it a ,
corresponding to the n v l es O f y cc a u
2
IN T ROD UCT OR Y T HE ORE M S
PLA TE
( 3) If fl y) nd ¢ ( x y ) be homogeneous functions
at, a , Of
a; a n d y e ach Of 7 dimensions
,
nd then 7. , a
fl yx ) a w i bx y
—
I + k y _ f,( l m )
n-- n‘ l "
,
W y)
.
(15 : ¢ (l m ) .
( B
0L , ) h s a a l
as follows
—
, ,
—
theorem a e g a g
, ( r
g ( 1 )( r
y 1
,
f
r 7
'
r r r
a n) nd a az , a
is written an d so on whence ,
f (x
(5) where
is a ration l homogeneous f nction Of the 8 degree the c rve
a u
th
, u
th
, r
I NT R OD U CT OR Y T HE ORE M S
we m ay m ake the equ ation ( i ) homogeneous , by m e ans
of ( ii ) Obt ining ,
a
u n +
u 0 ,
the origin A ny other combin ation Of the two equ ations gives
.
2y + x —6 m+ 5 3
2 y + (x 1 ) (x + x 2
sh ape ne r ( 1 0) is given b y fig 1 a , . .
OP OQ OR a
, given b y w + y
,
re
so
3 3
th t if 6
a
\b be the inclin tions Of th ese lines to Ox a
—1
,
,
will be an d since t n
¢ = cot b OQ a n d OR will be
3 a ,
DEFINI T ION S .
figure . F ig 2 . .
ax es were m de indefinitel
y sm ll
a a .
RA CING BY POINT S T .
Ex 1 . . T ke the c rve y
a u h
u n
g —1 )
When l, 2,
6 4 y = o, —1 5 —2 4 —2 1 , , ,
0 45, ,
1 20,
23 1 , 38 4 .
cc = nd s y abo t
a a u
whence a ( 3 2 2 ) a e
z
.
When
%
I
E 1, i
E T 2;
— —1 2 8
7 "
T , 7 T" , ?
3 2 m= 0 5 a 1 6a, 2 7 a , 3 2a , 25a 0 49 a, a,
— i —2 5 6
, , , ,
32g = 0, —
ia -
,
—
8a , , a , 3 2 a
8 l
,
l
i
s
a, O 3 3
a, a,
z 3, 1, 2,
3 2m —4 00 a, —8 6 4 a, 7a 3 2a 1 60a, 8 9 6a ,
—l o00 —2 5 9 2 —1 6 0a —1 7 9 2 a
, ,
3 2g a, a, —
} a —1 6a
, , , .
F ig 9
. . The points e ar m pped in the fig re s fa s sp ce will
a u a r a a
a llow .
I f x —
a 3/ ,
ch anges from to — %a .
a ll do btf l u u .
the curve .
( )
2 If the equ a tion be n o t ltered when — m n d — g a e a a r
,
’
,
’
y Ox cont a ined a n
y p r t of the curve a n d the figure were a ,
position .
Fig 1 1
. .
point P ( cc g ) on the c rve there will be a point Q ( g 513) lso
,
u , a
—
.
,
S imil arl y if y
— x ) m ay be s bstit ted for ( a
y ) with u u
3 - 3
,
4 2 4
,
ua , .
E xamp l es I .
1 . E m pl o
y the m e tho d giv en in A r t 3, t o. pr v o e the f ll wi
o o ng
(I ) If a tangent to a c ir l c e who s q e e u at o n i is
2 2 = a zb2 2
/( a
2
x +y 5 )
m ee t an e llips wh s q ti n is /
e, o e e ua o
f
e
.
z
a
2
in P a nd Q pr v o e
ill s bt d ri ght gl t th r llips
,
that P Q w u en a an e a e ce n t e o f the e e .
(2 ) T he e q ti ua f hyp rb l is
on o a e o a
t
.
—
g 2x
S h w th t th t w h rds
e a e o c o wh ch i p ss thr a o u gh (0 a nd s bt d
u en
i ght gl t th ri gi
r— i li d t l
,
Or
°
a an e a e o n, are nc ne o at a ng es 1 35 an d
1
co t 5 .
2 . C s tr
on u ct the l i oc of the f ll wi
o o ng e q u at o n i s
4
( ) g
1 3 a xg 2 2 a 2x2 O .
( )
2 x 4 2 2
a x + 2 a xg
/
2
a
2
g
2
3 r th r v s wh s q
T a ce e cu e o e e u at o n i s are
g iv en bl
e o w, b y m ea n s Of
p rt i l r p i t s
.
a cu a o n
( ) g
1 = x —2 x2
+ a
3
.
( )
2 x 3
+g 3 —
3 xg = 0a .
3= 2
( ) g x (x
3 —a ) .
O RDERS OF S M A LL Q U A N T IT IES
10F inite qu antities are s aid to be e x actly equ al when
.
de finition .
11 . N ow
with reg rd to great an d sm ll things it must
,
a a ,
, a
or min te u .
O RDERS OF S MA LL Q UA N T I T IES
T ? 6 ,
leoc
—a ba + ca
l
’
d egree Of cc racy a u .
th an u .
12 F OR MS OF PA R A BOLIC CURVES NE A R T HE O RIGIN
c rves g = x y = x g = w
u c lled p r bolic curves fro m
2
,
3
,
4
,
a a a ,
F ig 1 3
. . being the chose n v alue Of x In the figure OA = A B is .
,
corresponding to a a e a OL a a ,
r a a
3 ,
l) , are 148
c , are
than as .
Oa 4
’
as .
g re ter
a th n th at Of g = nad ll the c u rves diverge very
3
cc , a a
t he sh pe is as in fig 6 turned thro gh
a right ngle .
,
u a a .
hood Of the origin will be seen here after ; the student should
,
exer ise himself in dra wing the forms for di fferent v alues O f
c
( )
1 T ke the c se in which
a m is O dd a n d n is even an d a , ,
the fig re u
to ches the x is of a a e ~
u rv e u a
,
x t O
a n d the S h pe is
,
a
R
F a
a ,
u u
thro gh itu .
4 4
when 0 i positive fi when 0 is negative s ,
x .
represented b y -
5 which is therefore the eq tion f ,
ua O
the t ngent
a .
to g i g respectivel
, y
,
.
,
a a F ig 1 4
. .
OM = a: ,
3
a
CUS PS .
vice vers a .
( )
1 — 1)
i
,
then
The first appro xim tion gives 7 5 s o th at if OM 1 a 7 :
, , ,
, u a
,
’ ’
z
2
,
F ig 1 6
. .
3
h a ve been S P S in the nex t fig u re since 3 5 onl y ch anges
’ "
, ,
,
r
a a
3
rr nged in the order n 5 + 3 5 + 2 5 The second app o xi 7
2
. r
F ig 1 7
. . m tion would give the form E P R n d the third would not
a
’
,
a
,
a e ,
a
NG EN T S TA .
C rv t re O f c rves
u a u u .
v nishes
a s id to be ltim t ly eq l when the r atio Of
,
are a u a e ua ,
it depends v anishes .
CUR V A T URE
If A Q be made to diminish inde fi nitel y P Q and p Q will ,
Fig 2
. . point A and its m agnitude be such th t P Q = p Q ltim ately
,
a u ,
of u/rv a tu r
c n d its di a meter the dia m ete of cu v a twre
e, a r r .
F ig 2
. . them Cutting p P Q in p then Qp is intermedi ate in m agni
,
’
,
’
2 4 S ince for
. circle A Q /p Q is finite when the circle
,
a ,
2
O f either A Q P Q or A P /P Q since A P = A =
/
g
Q
2
Q AQ
2 2
+ P , ,
2 2
ultim ately .
E xamp l es II .
F i d th f rm s
n e o ,
n ea r th ri gi
e o n, o f the cu r v s wh s q
e o e e i
u at o ns
3
(1) a
2
y x5 .
( ) y
2 4
are?
7 z fi
(3 ) y a x .
( 4)
2
a x
3 5
y .
(5 ) ( ) y
6 2
— 2= 3
( 8 ) (y x) x rigi at the o n .
( 9) y t th p i nt ( 0 a e o ,
( )
I O — x) t th p i nt ( I 3
a e o ,
f + f = f t th p i ts wh r it m ts th s
( )
1 1 xy c a e o n e e ee e axe .
= x —
) t th p i nts ( t
4 2 2 2 3
( ) y (
1 2 a a a e o z a,
F i nd th di m t rs f rv t r t th rigi f
e a e e o cu a u e a e o n or the cu rv s e
2= 2 = 2 mx + nsc 2
( 1 3) y 4 a xx ( 1 4) y
(I 5) a
y( x a ) ( x 2 a) r z .
C H AP TE R III .
OF THEOR Y OF E Q U A T I ONS R U LE S F OR .
APPR OX I MA TI ON .
an d the wa
y in which the curves bend when ,
090 t A A A
a
1 , where OA = 1 GA = 2 OA = 3 etc
2 , 3 , 1 , 2 , 3 , .
the x is Of cc are 2 3 4
a , , , ,
A 2P 2 = 4 , A 2P 3 = 8 ,
On th at through A3 , me sure a A 3 Q2 = 9 ,
A 3 Q3 = 2 7 ,
A4, A 4R 2 = 1 6 ,
OBP 3 Q3 y x
3
,
OBP 4 Q4 y x
4
,
from the origin and it will be re dily seen from the results
, a
for the v ertic al heights differing very m ateri lly fro m the a
A 2 7r = 2 % A 3 Ic = 5 g, A 4p 8 , A 5 O = 1 1 15
'
, A 6 7 = 1 4g , and
, ,
N e ar
the origin the appro xim ate form of the curve is
th at Of y = cc ; and when cc is very gre at Of y = ac whose
2
, ,
3
,
—
a
—
. .
a: 1 y = 0 ,
n d if 9: then
, y =a
f ( l f ) ; there 2
is the t angent .
3 0 A lthough
. the Di fferenti al C lculus gives some ad an a v
then an d B = OL + OL ; therefore
2 3
77
( OL
2 f
is the t ngent which is p arallel to the xis Of cc if OL= —
a ,
a , 3
nd B
4
a 7 7 .
31 A ga in there is
. point of infi exion ne ar b If ( 06 B )
,
a .
,
be this point Of infi exion since the curv e must lie on O ppo ,
F ig 8 .
When w + a cc + b ( x —oc) + B
.
1 11 .
2 §
2
.
3x 2
When a and b v nish all these a ,
'
cubic al parabola cy T ,
2 3
distance between a an d a ’
Ex 3 . .
y = a
EX A M PLES OF T R A CING
x :
ne ar ( a , y =a
( 3a , y a ( cc 3a ) ,
Ex 4
(x a ) (x 3 a)
( 2 a)
. .
x x
y re a l for y positive an d
, y = i a ,
c
c : so ,
near ( a = 2 a cc —a
(
2
y ) , ,
y = %a w
(
2 —3 a ) .
Ex 5 (y —4) x 2
S ince cc -
, , a ,
only necessary to e xam ine the form for positive v alues Of cc '
=0 1 —
.
When cc = 0 y I , , , ,
cc < 2 y<
— 1 o 0< y < 1 r
—1
. . ,
cc = 2,
y = 0 , 1, ,
w> 2 . or y > l.
w 00 y 0
0;
ne ar ( 0 y = 4 c
c
—l ) = —4
, ,
(0 2 (y c,
—4
,
(0 , cc,
<
2 .
-
y = 8 <
w
( 2 , 2 (y
<
2 .
When c
c 0 y(y :
,
2
OI y> 1 )
'
cc y =0 or i l,
—
,
g , y =0,
or $1 ,
E )
OI
”
y > 1 ;
00 . = ;
as y co
y ne a r 0 or i ] gives (
y y
— y or ,
2
,
O Mac —
,
cc ne ar 4 or s gives ( cc
, ,
—2 ( cc g) ;
z
r
3 , a lso ne a r ( 00 y = x co
3 4
.
F ig 1 4
. .
This curve ffords nother illustr tion O f the m anner in
a a a
or y 2
4 8a i 2
8 a ) (cc 6 a ) ( oc + —
J { ( cc
Since the curve is sy m m etric al with respect to both ax es ,
—7
.
When x = 0 y = 0 or ,
1
3
c
r < 6a , y is real ,
cc 6a, y a J( 9
4 1 ) = a (7 ne arly ,
cc 8a , y = a ( 7 l ) ne arl y
-
,
nea r ( 0 ;% , cc
z = -l
f 2
,
cc : i ( 1 —% ) y ne rly ;
3 a
ne ar { 0 let ,
then retaining
,
x =
2 —4 a J< >
2 4 —
—
za
z
z
—2 0 ( 1 a -
) 0m;
ne ar ( 1 0a let ,
then y = 2
20a§ = ne arl y ;
taking { 6a an d
{ 8 a ,
as new origins
a r a a r
7r c
c
,
a 7r , ,
but on the Opposite side of Occ for the dist nce on either ,
a 7
side .
When cc % y vr,
ne r cc é w if t sm t S y = cos £ = 1
a ,
f u -
,
onl ar to Oc c an d l a t s rectum 2 ,
u .
F ig 1 6
. . The figure is c lled the c rve Of sines a u .
=
y cc c
c
3
.
37 . A ga in ,
if y t an x, then since ,
t an ( 7r + c
c =
) tan cc , an d tan ( 7r —) —t n
c
c a as,
the curve repe ats itself after every interv al of ; and the 7r
When a = 0 y = 0; cc % y = 1 ; y,
= ; 7r, oo
F ig 1 7
. .
an d ne a r the origin y = cc .
ILLUS T R A T I ONS OF T HE T HEORY OF E Q UA T I ONS 29
PLA T E
The fig res for the other common trigonome tric l 1 1
38 . u a
39 . Man y
the properties O f the Theory Of E q ations
Of u ,
cc Of the n degree th
.
points where ce = a .
= "
When cc is very l rge y oc is a curve whose form a ,
By A rt. 3
hence for the form of the curve a t any point { on
,
,
y =f ( 0t)
=
y f (a ) is the equ ation Of the tangent .
( a
,
if =
y 5 ¢( ) will be the first a
pp o xim 2
. a r a
( )
2 E ver y eq tion O f an even degreeua m st h a ve an even u
vice vers a .
f ( OL) 0
”
.
—
,
—
.
y = x ( x —1 ) ( x l ) x —x x + x 2 s
4 3 2
.
4x — 3c 3
or cc = 1 cc g or
2 nearly ;
there m y be points Of infl ex ion where 1 2 x —
1 , ,
2
a 6 cc ,
an d c
c (q
F ig 2
. . The figu res denoted b y 1 2 3 shew how the hy perbol a
, , , ,
r =a(
g
i
( % g) is the condition for equ a l A
r
2 3
roo ts .
or y 30t cc 2 a if y q x r 0 be a tangent 3a q
2 3
, ,
2
,
2 06 = r
"
. an d (E )r
z=
( %q )
3
The oots Of
49 . r ar e given by the
points Of intersection Of two p arabol as
= cc2 , and
y
The figure shews how the c ases of real or impossible or
equ al roots m ay arise from the rel ative positions Of the ,
2
, , a .
q anutity o f x , ,
y ,
applic ation .
a e neglected to be y r espectivel we
“
r
a , y y y ; ,
, , 2 , 3,
F C T
. . . C
EX A M PLES OF A PPROXI M A T I ON
when OL
3
is n eglected , y2 is O bt ined from
a
fdd )
’
a 0L fi ( 3/ i ) “
i“
a
Ex 1 . . To c a nd
ec p tan x in a s cen d in g p o wer s of c
c .
By G regory s series ’
c
c tan a; g tan
3
c
c tan 5
c
c 3, tan a: 7
tan cc c
c, and tan cc so
Third tan a; , + § cc
3 3
) %cc
5
x + %x
3
+(
1
3,
—
)x
5
.
F ourth t n so , a c
c % ( cc gd
”
fi n ”
? a ?s: ex 5 93
3 7
am cl + w +
c "
a: +
3 2
c
e u sa ) a n
a
c gcc
3 — 2
1 5
c
c
5
g gs x
i ? - -
Ex 2 To exp a n d r a (1 e co s
g ) in a scen d in g p ower s
m
. .
f
o e, a s fa r as e
3
, wher fi e s in 11 , and e is a s m all
p ro
p er f i
r act on .
cos m e s in m ge s in m cos m g z 2
e co s m + e s in m ge s in m cos m )
2
a(1
z 3 z
r .
or a
5
(y c
c ) (y 2 cc) a r
3
.
2
( 4 xy y
?
)
5
2 cc ( y 2
0 ,
i
() C ommencing with y = x for the second appro x i mation ,
3 3 3 2 2
4a x a x
9 —93 "
5
y
—
y
a ( y 2 x )
F or the third ,
—
=
y cc
x+
-
5
“
3 5 6
3x l5x 4x
96 + + +
“
2
a 0
,
( )
11 C om m encing with y 2x for the second appro xim ation ,
(
z
1 4 x y)
—
cc y
y x
3
4 96
m
?
F or the th rd i
2 2 2
= 2x
1 cc
{ 4x (y 2x)
y a
2
c
c
y
2 2
1 c
c 4x
E
<
2 2
4x
cc 1 2
a
4x3 1 6x5 2 x6
°
2 “ 5
a a a
l) —
, , ,
equ ation t n ( 72 { m z) n
, 4
a z 7 vr 7 .
ne arly ; cot z = OL —z
,
.
v alue when n = 1 is
, ,
"
1
.
— —% —
,
Z = OL( 1 OLZ )
'
I
OL
3
(l OLZ )
'
5
The solutions a e 0 n d i ( a a a %a in r ,
a
'
1 — —% ‘ 3 -
5
v lues gives cc = 2 5 7 2 7
a the e ror introduced b y ° ’
r
Examples III .
1 S
hew that the tan gent t o the cu rv e y = x (x2
y) is p r ll l a a e to
pi s rv i
.
Or at the o nt $
3, and cu t the cu e aga n whe e r x =3 .
2 . Sh dist n b tw th tw t ng nts t th rv
ew that the a ce e ee n e o a e o e cu e
y
= (x
x d r wn p r ll l t th is f x is gas
2
a a a e o e ax o , .
3 F i nd t h s h p f th rv y —2y = — t th p i nts f
e a e o e cu e
2
i4 x2 a e o o
i nt rs ti wi th O nd t i nfi ni t dis t
. .
e ec on cc, a a an e an ce .
4 Sh w th t if th f rm f th
. e v l p rt f th rv
a , e o o e o a a o e cu e
s
2 = x (x 1 ) ( x —2 )
be r pr s t d n r th tw v rti s b y t w p r b l s h vi g th i r
e e en e ea e o e ce o a a o a a n e
s i n id t wi th Ox th l t s r t m f is d bl th t f
,
ax e co c en , e a u ec u o o ne ou e a o
th th r
e o e .
5 S h w th t i th
. e s f A t 32 E 2 iii wha , BJ 3 th
n e ca e o r x en a e
f rm f th rv is li k fig 1 0 pl t wi th th t g nt s t th
. .
, ,
.
, ,
o o e cu e e . a e e an e a e
p i nt s f infi i p r ll l t O
,
o o ex o n a a e o x .
Tr th
a ce rv s 6 y = e cu 7 y =(e .
2
x3 .
5
x 2
8 .
y
6= x
( —l 3
)x . 9 .
y
3=
( —l )
cc x4
. 10 .
—y = x3
p i ts
rv y = c‘1 2 + 4 8 —6 4
11 . Sh w th t th r
e a e e ar e o n of infl exion at ( 2, ( 4 0) ,
in
the c3
2
cu e c . cc x .
C H A P TE R IV .
F OR MS OF CU R V ES IN T HE
NE I GHBOU R H OOD OF
T HE OR I GIN . S I MP LE TA NG ENTS DI RE C TI ON .
the origin since b y tr nsform ation Of coo rdin ates any point
,
a ,
the r apidity with which the curve deflects itself from the
t ngent i e the degree O f c rv ature
a ,
. . u .
ing this when requ ired however tro blesome the operation , u
m y be
a .
( )
1 x an d y m ay be O f the s a me order of sm a ll qu ntities a .
( )
2 c
c m y be sm ll comp red
a with y in other
a words a , ,
( y
3 ) m y be sm a ll comp reda with x a .
th t ax l bccy l cy —
,
a, b c d be finite qu antities
, ,
.
SIMPLE TA NG ENT .
in the form u +u +u m
1 2 3
56 . C onsider
first the case in which u the fu nction of , ,
first appro xim ation to the rel ation which mus t e x ist b e
tween x and y for the p art Of the c rve ne r the origin for u a ,
u a
we m ay write
a
( 1
H ence u
1
= 0is the t ngent to the c rve
a u at the origin .
ax + by
b o u ho od O f the origin
r .
DIRECT I ON A N D A MO UN T OF CURVA T URE
59 The proof th t the two curves h ave the s me c rva
. a a u
ture m ay be given th u s .
the points P P ; it m ay be s h wn a in A t 5 7 th t
'
,
e , s r .
,
a
" ’
P T zP zu
z,
chosen ,
( )
1
h b + na + d = 0 an d s ay .
H ence
b z
c a bd a e
2
2 ’
b i
)
an d the r d us a i
— bd l— ’
2 (b z
c a -
a e
z
)
The diam ete of curvature m ay also be found directly
61 .
'
F ig 4
. . an d the di am eter Oi
'
c u rvature
3L _y_lt m tel
b —a y u i a .
conic Of curv ture since the defl ection fro m the tangent for
a ,
c n be dra
a wn with the same t ngent the defl ection for a a ,
o rigin .
curvatu re at ( 1 1 ) is ,
s imil rly y
a 2 (x —3 ) represents the second t ngent a .
Ex 3 . .
fi To n d the ta n gen t a n d cir cle o f cu r v a tur e a t a
2 2 =
oin t ( a B ) of the cu r ve ax + b y
p ,
F or x y write , B+ n ,
then an d aa
2
+ bB = l ,
2
2 ( OLE l a ) + a 5 + bc —( a a 5 +
G - 2 2
( 1 OL
a A ) = b ( 1 —B ) p nd a og + bBA O a
, ,
a u ,
‘
whence ( a Oi b B )p a b ( a a s )
Z
a bz 2 2
.
z
,
ab (f
2 2
77 ) (a
z
oc .
2
b 2
B (
)
2
2 a oc
f + 2 b ) 0 ,
I
b
therefore if , ( x y) be
,
the centre referred to the origin al ax es ,
—(
2 2
b 2
2
a oz
.
(b
3
a a )a .
S imil arl y
H ence su bstituting in
,
aa
2
+ bB
2
1
’
(f ld ytld a b l
a
— ,
—)
o o
—y ) =
. .
a, o cu r v e x a x .
Le t y = b+ n , then
11
2
) ( CM '
$5 2
,
01‘
W hence ,
as in A rt 6 1 .
,
the diameter Of curv ature
( 5 46
2
)
4
Lt
2 645 2
3 b}?
(a
4
3 ’
u lt m tel y i a .
a b( 8 6
3
3a )
If 3 a
C OR the di ameter s nfini te 3 = 8 b3 i i
= 0 i true to
q u an tities of the
2 2
,
s
s
a
f nctions succeeding u
u
l
.
l
.
0,
0
its axis p arallel to any given line m x + n y = 0 for 1 m ay ,
3
—b
. .
Ex 1 . .x ( y
— a ) a > h 2
,
is y Ja = b com es from ,
W e i-N b
giving b y either of the methods of A rt . 67 ,
neglectin g
powers of x above the squ are ,
2
changi ng the S ign of \ /b , for the other branch we ha ve
33
2 =O
F ig 6
. . The figure shews ho w e ch branch bends a .
Ex 2 . . a
2
( x
2 — —yx
4
x
2 2 =0 .
tion which give rise to terms Of the second order the form s ,
‘
4 “ f 2
b yz 2
0
'
Ex 3. . x y a x .
by ax
y
4
$ 4
$ 3
0
1
4
b ) 4
by ax 2a b 4
‘ “
y
4
x
4
x
3
( t a T
b )
by ax 4
.
by ax 2 a l)
Ex 4 . .
y
4 2 2
2a y 2a x 2 2
3ax 3
x
4
0 ,
?
(x )( 2a)
2 2 2
y( 2 a y ) x a x .
3
_ x2 _ 3x
N ear ( 0 , y
2 - ’
2a
3x 3x
ia l
ne r ( aa 2 y —a § or y
,
a
2 2 3
,
near ( 2 a 2 y = 4 a 5 or y = 2 a f ;
,
a
2 2 3
,
2
near ( 0 J ) 2 2a 2 J 2 aaq
= 2 a c
c or x — 24
J2 a n;
2 2 2 2 :
ne ar ( a a J2 ) —2 2 J2 n
, , .
,
, 5
, or a
2
. a
3
,
near ( 2 a a J2 ) —2 a 2 J2 a n= 4 a f or 7
, ,
2
.
3
,
7
( B
a , ) be such a point n d consider th t if x = ot + f nd ,
a a a
( 0L
,
‘
Q§
z 2 2
(4 a ) f + P 77
3
a 9 aa . 4a +
B
4
2a 2
B
2
2a z
a .
2
3 ao< .
3
OL
4
0
M ULT IPLE POIN T OF T WO BR A NCHES
therefore ,
m aking 5 very sm ll a ,
4a 2
a . 9 d oL 2
( l ,
whence a { or
= 0 an d — an d %a ne r
9 ly ; J 1 3
i g
-
8
a a
, , y a , .
0 0 a nd y
'
3 2
4y 4a y , or
y i a,
when y a, x
4
3ax 3
2a 2
x
2
a
4
0
.
an d y (y 3x 2a ) a
z
.
the p arabol a
If the hyperbol ( 2 ) be constructed ( 1 ) a nd a ,
—
,
F ig 7
. . points S O determined e the points e e and f f in the ar ,
’
, ,
’
c rve
u .
The student m ay also find the sol tions O f the biqu adr tic u a
b y the intersections O f a y = x a n d y ( x —a ) (x
2
Of in fl e x ion .
form Of y
N e ar ( 0 a ) S ince the equ ation c n be written
, a
2 ‘
(a +x
M ULT IPLE POIN T OF T WO BRA NCHES
if we write a + n for y we h ave the p rabolic form , a ,
x
2
2 a" 0
72 . When u
,
is a f cto r of
a u 2 a nd u the equ ation being
0 ,
wl + ’
02
and therefore by
0 or u
1 + A x
3 =0 °
Ex 1 . . a
x+ 2 y)
—
3
1 6x
y 2x +
)
2 2 2
3a xy ax y 2ax (x a O ,
or 2 3 a n ea ly -
'
r .
D
M U LT IPLE POIN T O F T \V O BRA NCHES
The g iding asymptote is 2 a x + y = 0 nd since the
u
3 4
a
2
,
a
y,
for l rge v aalues O f x is gre a ter in the curve th a n in the ,
branches lie above the asy mptote ; the curve cuts the lower
branch in two points only one Of which s g ven n the ,
i i i
F ig 1 0
. . figure .
r .
,
Ex 2
. . a
3
(y
2
x
2
) 2a 2
(v
3
x
3
) ay
4
x
5
0 .
y =i x n d the ne x
,
t a ppro xim ati ons a e
a r
a (y -x
) 2x 2
0 , a
z
( y + cc) 4x
3
0 .
or a { ( y 4a ) if } 2 ?
cc) ,
x 2a x a x ——a 0 5 2 3 3 2 1 5
1 6 .
a
2
y x
3
, an d x
2
(y a ) 2a y z —1
1 6
a
3
0
,
II a .
2 1
.
ax + by = i (
so th at gener lly when u e xis ts this curve
,
a , 3 ,
has a ceratoid
cusp at the origin [ see A t 1 8 r .
2 2
( ax
4
y ax y y
x—by) —
z 3
a x
Near the or g n i i ( a
2
0 or by = a x i
,
T ,
bf
—
.
, , , , .
where y = a x = or (a , oo
2
a >b .
2
2
,
ne xt appro x im ation i ,
v z .
( 0 + %v ) + u 0 or c
1 E71 Dx 2
2
5 , , 2
”
,
,
a r .
where y =0 , x
Z —x —ex 3 4 =0,
x —3 % nearly ;
an d
ne ar the points ( 0 ,
if y it can then be shewn
that ] x 7
- -
% x an d 2
0
— x l c : -» 5
-
,
2
a .
F ig 1 4
. . 3 n= 7 $
The directions of the curve t the points where the curve ,
a
( 1 -
a —3 a 2 )x4
3 ( ii )
When all four points e re al these lines form two pairs ar , ,
being u v + u + u +1 1
0 3 4
.
Let u1 E ax + by ,
v
1
u
3
s
f (x , y) .
b a)
’
2
(a
f( b a )
g —u
§
c
_ ltim ately
l
.
f
o the two br a n ches thr ou gh the or igin o f the cu r v e
z 2
(a x y ) (4a y) x .
2 2
xz y
2
wy w 56 )
t hey a re
%a an d 5 J5 éa , an d i n the r tio a
en eo s functions
u e sufficient to shew how they can be
ar
g
dealt with in ll ordin ry c ases a a .
(u 1 t2 ) ( u 1 uz ) (u 1 wz) u
5 +
Ex 1 . .
( y
— x )( y
—2x ) —y = a
z 2 4
a (y a ( y+x ) a —
( y 2 w)
near ( 0 a ) , ,
2x + y — =o a
2 ax = y 3
. Fig 1 7
. .
Ex 2 . . a (y
Through the origin there is a br anch of the form of
2a (y a n d there is a lso a conjug ate point c alled
a point circle x + y 0
- 2 2
.
,
Ne ar ( a O) y + x — a = 0
, , ,
near ( 00 ) a
y +
,
x =0cc ,
3 4
. F ig 1 8
. .
Ex 3 . . a (y —y —x 4 4 =0 .
n e ar the origin
a (y —
,
x) an d
2
x
near ( a O) , y + x — a =
,
o . F ig 1 9
. .
a (y —x) — 2a + ay — x =0
z 3 4 4 5
Ex 4 . . z .
Ne ar the origin
a (y — x) —
,
ax = 0 or y 2 3 4
near ( 0 —a ) if y
,
n+ 3 x = 0;
if x —a + f 3 a y + 5 = 0;
, ,
ne r a
2
ay —
,
near ( 00 ) x =0oo
4 5
F ig 2 0
‘0
. .
, , .
z 2 3
Ex 5 . . 2a ( y x ) (y x ) 4az (y x ) 2 x5 xy .
0
h
2
4a (y 2
x )
2
4 ax ( y x ) x
4
EX A M PLES
is the ne xt approx i m te equ tion and it gives two coinciden t a a ,
y x + x /2 a then 2
,
— —
2
— —
( )
93
2
( y x) (y
2 3
)+
5
4a x+ -
4 ax x x
i 0L
x (y —
6
33
or x {4a (y
«
2 -x 2
) 4a 2
x) + x } 4
ax
2
(y -x 2
) ;
5
25
1
:
x
whence 2 a ( y x) is the p p ro xim ation which a ,
where y O 2 a x 4ax + 2 x O or x ( x a ) 0;
,
2 3 4 5
,
3 2
near a 2 a x y 4 ax y x y
, 2x ( x a ) 0 2 2 3 4 3 2
( 90 awa
?
a )
The rectiline ar asy mptote is y 2 x —4 a the guiding :
,
F ig 2 1
. .
parabolic asymptotes e x i J 2 a y ar
2
.
E xamp les I V .
2x
1 .
(y 1) .
z= 2
2 .
(2 a x )y (
x f25 a ) x .
S h w th e at the br anch e s at ( 3 0)
5a
; cu t 0x a t ang e ls 60
°
a nd 1 20
°
th r di s
e a u o f cu rv atu r e o f each br a nch is a J3 .
3 .
Pr v o e that the r di s
a u o f cu rv a tu r e at the p i nt wh r
o e e x=y is 30 .
4 .
(a
S h w th t t h e tr s f th
a ir l s f r v t r f th br h s
e c en e o e c c e o cu a u e o e a nc e
thr gh th
ou ri gi n t th p i t s
e o a ) nd th t th gr
a re a t st e o n a, : a a a e ea e
br d th f th l p m s r d p r ll l t 03/ is {
ea o e oo rl y ea u e a a e o f a nea .
5 I n th . rv f A t 81 sh w th t th diam t r f rv t r t
e cu e o r e a e e e o cu a u e a
( 4 ) is v ry li ttl l ss th n 4 3
.
,
a, a e e e a a .
6 D is ss th
. s f A t 82 wh
cu e ca e o r .
, en
i( ) t = = w nd ( ii ) t = ¢ M 2 v2 2 a 2 v2 2 .
EX A M PLES
7 . x4 y
‘ 2 a x3 a
2
( x y)
2
O.
Sh ew r is
t hat the e a ce ato r id sp t th ri gi nd find th f rm
cu a e o n, a e o
of the cu rv n r (
e ea a, Pr v th t th r is l y t ng nt b sid s
o e a e e on o ne a e , e e
the ax is f x whi h p ss
o , c a e s thr gh th ri g i n d th t m th t g t
ou e o ,
an a ,
e an en
o f the i li n ti n t th
nc a o o e ax is f is g iv b y th q ti
o x, en e e ua on
a ppr i m
ox ate to its v l a ue b y the m e tho d of A t rs . 47 a nd 49 .
(
x2 x2 2 2
8 . x6 +y 6
y ) O .
S h w th t th rv nsis ts f f r l ps d
e a e cu e co o ou oo an that the r di s
a u of
rv t r f h b n h thr gh th ri gi is 2
,
cu a u e o e ac ra c ou e o n a .
9 F i nd th f r ms f th b r
. h s t th
e org o e a nc e a e o i i n, fo r the two cu rv se
x4 ms? j y a
z z
erg
/
3
0
and x4 a
n/ {f /
a t 2
a
g
/
3
O.
1 0 T he . cu rv e, fig 2 0
.
,
A rt 88 . is p r ll l
a a e to 0x where,
it m eet s
the c u rv e
3 a 2(y -
x )
2
+ 8 a x l
3 --
5 x4=
0,
2
3 a 3/ ( y 2 x) x
2
(x a ) (5 x 3 a) 0 .
r th l s t rv
T ace e a cu e , and sh ew ro u gh ly whe r e the th r p i n ts
ee o of
i nt rs ti
e si t t d
ec o n are ua e .
C H APTER V .
‘
x
4
ax
2
y bxy 2
cy
3
O,
the simpler eq ua tion x
would m ke 2
of the
+ ay = 0 a bxy2
order x an d cy of the order x nd the eq ation wo ld be
- 5
,
3 6
,
a u u
x an d 3
; will s a tisfy the equ a tion x + a y 0 which there
= 2
, ,
results .
BRA NCHES TO UC H ING A XES A T T HE O RIGIN 59
t erms .
e q tion I
ua S
s ppos ition
u .
fore since for a short dist nce long this c rve whose form a a u ,
whose form is
i y is of the order x n d the result is
“ - 6
,
a
'
s ch a s
u 0 u does not necess arily belong to , ,
the terms which can give the first approx im ation to every
branch of the curve passing thro gh the origin ; th t is the u a ,
60 BR A NCHES TO UCHING A XES A T T HE O RIGIN
‘
functions are not arranged in order of m gnitude for a all
‘
T he e q u atio n of the c u rve is
xy
3 2
+ xy
5 — — =0 y
7 7
x .
sm all .
x
2
y +y
2 5 —x 6 =0 .
y
7
a, e of the
r orders x and x while those ret a ined a e of 11 14
, r
the order x 7
.
x
3
+ y
x —y = 0 3 5
.
—
,
xy
?
3
occy which is gre
”s
ater th an the term y
r e
5 5
r
y ,
origin
If y be neglected x —y and y which x is sm all
.
5 2 3 5
, , ,
as
form of a branch ‘
.
y = x y x =y n d x
2
,
2
, a
2
62 BRA NCHES TO UCHING A XES A T T HE O RIGIN
we m ay reject all the terms e xcept that which contains the
highest power of x .
involuntarily .
Ex . 1 . ax (y —) — = 0
x
‘
l
y
4
.
N e ar the origin
y of the s am e order gives ,
x an d
= x i xg af ; x y sm all gi v es a x =
/ y ; y x sm a ll give s
2
y z , z ,
ax = y
3
which contradicts the ssumption if x and y a e
4
,
a r
F ig 2 3
. . ax
3
y gives the4
direction of bending a t an infinite dist a nce .
Ex . 2 . x
4
a zy
2
b y 2 2
0 .
N e ar the origin a x + b y b x /a a nd x ,
2 2 - 2 3 2
,
3
F ig 2 4
. . closer to the ax is of x th an these p arabol s a .
5
Ex . 3 . x
N ear
the origin x m y be rejected and the branches a e ,
5
a ,
r
—
, , ,
(
a, i a ) a e points in the curve ne r which y
r $ 2 5 an d , a :
x —
5 3
Ex 4 . . 3b x y
N e ar the origin , xy
3
m ay be neglected compared with y ;
3
x
2 = 3 by a nd 3x = 4 by
32
here x , u
BRA NCHES TO UCHING A XES A T T HE O RIGIN 63
Where x = 4b , y = oo or 1 6
3
where x y ,
x
2
4 bx 0 ,
where x y or
2b ,
4b ,
where y 2 6, x 2 b 2 b or , , (3 g) b ne arl y ;
near ( 2 b , if x 2b
f y ,
2 1) m
y = x ( 1 + OL) W here
—2 b)
,
an d
2
(x
or ( — 2
x b )
2 -
6 ba ( x 2 b) + 6 6 2
oc
2
+ 0 ,
$ $ £ 0 + 6 6W
0
2 2
6 ba ; 9 5 3 5a e+3
2
,
Ex 5 . . ax
3
y axy
3
0 .
also when x = a 00 or a
, y ,
: .
2 7 (x or x —a an d %a ne arly . F ig 2 7
.
Ex 6 . .
(y
2
x
2 2
) 6 axy 2
zax 3
a x
z 2
0 ,
2 2
(y 4ax ( 2 a )
2 2
x 3 ax) x .
or i—a x ne rly a .
Ne ar ( 2 a J2 ) ,
a , Fig 2 8
. .
if y = J2 + n a ,
‘
near ( a O) ,
4a y a f
,
0 ~
2 2 2 l
.
Ex . 7 .
y
4
2 axy 2
3a x 2 2
x
4
0
‘ 2 2
( 4a
2 2
(y ax ) x x
2
o a
—
branches through the origin N e r ( i a JS a
—
.
,
if x = t JS —
‘
lf = Sa f 2 Fig 2 9
y a . .
.
,
ILLUS T R A T IONS
th at the curve is p ar llel to 0x at the points
S hew a
,
° °
,
°
Ex . 8 .
—x ya
3
Ne ar the origin if y : x be sm ll
,
a ,
4 z z 2
x ax y 2a y O,
x
2 — y or
a flay,
an d y is
3
sm
,
ll comp
cc a red
x with
6
x
, ; x an d y of the a
4
F ig 1 . .
a sy mptote at ( 8 a 3 2 a ) too fa to be shewn in the figure
,
-
, r .
Ex 9 x
6
ax
4
y cx
z 2
y d xy 3
ey
“
0 .
If x and y a c ey = 0 ,
2 - 2
4 2 2
a ,
6 4
,
cubic al p ar abolic asy mptotes since with this rel ation the ,
F ig
s . 3, 4 .
The two fig res correspond to 4 cc an d d u
z
.
‘
Ex . 10 . x
6
a
z 4
y a x
2 3
y
3
a zy
2
0 .
N e ar the origin if x y sm ll y , a ,
2
ax 0 ,
y x sm ll x My
5 z z 2
a x y a , O ,
y 0
=
3 2
an d
2
x +a , x + ay O;
F ig 5 . .
the origin is therefore a triple point .
.
The following e x mples will serve for practice of
92 . a
A rt 90 . .
ILLUS T RA T I ONS
The curves which I h ave selected can be traced com
letely b y the methods alre ad y described an d will be useful
p ,
Ex . 1 . axy
2 3
a y 0 .
Ex 2 . x .
—i xy
‘
— y
3
0 4
a
3
a :
-
.
Ex 3 . . x
4 —a2xy —ay3 =
N ear ( O
— y = 0;
,
ax + y
2 = 0 an d x
3
a
ne r (
a 00 cc x =
4
ay
3
x
4
ax
2
y ay
3
0 .
+ a y = O;
2
an d
2 2
x y x
4 3
x ay . F ig 9
. .
Ex 5 . . axy
2 z 2
a y by 3
0 .
N e ar
the origin a xy and by m ay be rejected comp ared 2 3
2 2 4 2 2
,
a u
the origin .
x
4
a xy
2
by 3
0 ,
if x be neglected
4
y therefore x w as improperl y ,
ax = b
4
3 3 2 3
, ,
F C T
. . .
EX A M PLES
is the only asym ptote The figure drawn
'
2b nearly .
Ex . 6 . x
5 — y— y
a x
a
a
2 3 =0 .
Ne ar ( O O) 2
0 an d
4 3
0;
—y = 0
, , ax y x a y
Fig 1 1 e r ( 00
n a co
) ,
x
5
a
2 3
.
— y—
. .
Ex . 7 . x
5
a z
3
ay
4 =o .
N e ar ( 0 a x
g 3
O an d x
4 3
O
—y = 0
, y a y
Fig 12
. .
ne ar ( co ,
co
) , x
5
a
4
.
Ex . 8 . x y
N e ar ( O x
4
ay
3
;
—
,
Fig 1 3
. . e
n ar ( 00, cc
) , x 3
+a
2
y 0
= an d y
2
ax = 0 .
“
Ex 9 . . x y
3 z
a x
3 2
ay 0 .
Near ( O , a x
z 2
y ;
“
e r ( 00
n a ,
cc
) , x 3
+ ay
2 = 0;
near ( 00 xy z
a
3
0 .
Ex . x
5 — ax
4
Ne ar the origin ,
x +a
2
xy y
4
r ejecting x 0
4 2 3
a
y x ,
y ,
w + a y = 0;
3 2
near ( 00 ) ,
co , x + ay =
5 4
when x = a , y = 0 or a,
near ( a O) , ,
Fig 1 5
. .
(a , a ) .
Examp les V .
1 . T r ace the cu rv e
(x
2
+y 2 2
) Saxy 2
2 ax 3
2a x2 2
0 .
s a ce o 6; ea .
2 Sh w th t th symp t t f th rv x (y x) —y = 0 t
e a e a o e o e cu e a - 2 4
cu s
rv t fi nit d is t n t p i nt t whi h th r v r n
.
the cu e a a e a ce a a o a c e cu e u s
p r ll l t th xis f y F i nd t wh t p i nt th rv is p r ll l t
a a e o e a o . a a o e cu e a a e o
the a xis f x o .
3 F i nd th p i nts in th l p t whi h th rv x xy y = 0
e o e oo a c e cu e 4
a
z
a
3
is p r ll l t th x s
.
a a e o e a e .
E XA M PLES
4 . F i nd
r p i nts wh th t
the th ee o e re e angent at (a , a ) in the cu rv e
. s rv g i n
o f A rt 9 1 ( 3 ) m e et the cu e a a .
5 Dr w th
. rv a xy by 0 e cu e x4 a
2 3
.
S h w th ff t f v ryi ng th m iddl
e e e ec o a e e r
te m in the f ll wi ng
o o fiv e
cu rv s e :
5 x5
6 . x 7 .
8 . x5 a xy
3
+ by
4=
0 . 9 . x5
10 . x5
2
a xy
2 by 4 0 .
T race the f ll wi ng rv s
o o cu e
4= 2 3
4a 2x2y2
11 .
y + ax
5 bzxyz . 12 .
( x2 + y ) .
13 . x 4
4ax y 2
4 dazy2 3=
ax 0 . 14 .
z
a xy
15 . x 5
ay
“ 2 bx3y + 62 xy2 = 0
'
. 16 . a
2 3
y a
z
hy2 2 2
a xy z
é
O .
CH AP TE R V I .
T T
A S Y MP O E S . I T OF I NTERSECTI ON A T A N
PO N S
I NFI NITE DI S TA NCE A S Y MP T OTE S P ARALLEL
.
T O T HE A XES .
origin very gre at comp ared with the nit distance employ ed u
SY MPT OT ES A .
point whose coordin tes s tisfy the equ ations whether the
a a ,
l arge .
I NT ERS E CT I ON AT A N IN FINI T E DISTANCE
to the in te rs ection of curves with straight lines especially ,
so on .
infinite distance .
in 1 2
, n points
, .
interpret ation .
0 x + 4a x—0 =O
2 2
.
,
e qu ation of the ( n —
) degr ee we m ust conclude th at
th
r ,
infinite distance .
distance .
line not only p sses through the ple point but also is
a r- a
a a r
of + 1 r .
If y —
102 m x = 0 p ss thro u gh an
. ple point at an a r-
whose eq u tion is a
x y ( )
x
2
b y z
0
.
0y + 0 y —6 y = o .
3 2 2
,
sy m m
, ,
my x —h z
an d
6 .
ay ,
F ig 1 7
. . A t —a the tangent is y 3
-
(x + , Tg
°
2 4
.
, a
dist nce being the i ntersections with the two asy mptotes
a .
x (y —x) — = o
2 3
Ex 1 . . a ,
O y +0 y.
3
.
2
+ 0.y a
3 =o ,
F ig 1 8
. . point of infi exion .
x +y — 5 x y=0 5 5 3
Ex 2 . . a .
x
5
( x a
5
ax
3
( x —)=0a ,
0
IN T ERSECT ION AT AN INFINIT E DISTA NCE
H ence there are two points of i n
tersection at an infinite
distance if oz —a and y + x + a = 0 is therefore the
,
.
,
—5 a y = 0 L z —
i 0
“
5 4
ax
3 =
y ,
a x = y = g a,
Ex . 3 .
37
2
(x
2
37
2
) 2 ay 3 3
za x 0 .
given b y a
g i 2 a y 2 a O 2 z 3 4
,
or
The roots a e impossible for the upper sign hence the
r
the points ( 1 1 J 3 ) a } or % a % a ) n d ,
a
-—a
1 5
a nea rly
,
. Fig 21
. .
N ea r the origin y = a x ; ne ar ( 0 2 a ) 4 q + x = 0
,
3 2
, ,
.
Ex 4 (x —b ) x
3
— )—
. .
,
2 2
x
y(y x
a
3
a
3 =
INT ERS E CT I ON AT AN IN F INI T E DISTA NCE
and is therefore an asym p tote ; so is y = b ; y
- x = oz
. m ee ts
the curve where
—
w} 2
2a
y x % (a b) is an asy mptote .
N e ar ( O y x
E
,
3
3
ne ar ( a b) , , y b 3 ( x a ) .
F ig 20
. . It will be foun d th at with the pro p ortions of a and b
,
origin .
F rom the way in which the curve has been drawn in the
qu adr ant y Ox it ap p ears as if t angent could be drawn
’
,
a
follows
Le t the r adius y + m x = 0 m eet the curve and the
a sy m p tote in points P a nd Q respec
tiv ely and let P M Q N be pe rp endicul ar to Oy
, , .
2m (m + 1 )
a ccording as
am ( 2m + 1 ) or b(2 + m)
m +§ 2 —) m —= 0
r r .
CA SE OF x A LONE INFINIT E
1
T
CU
—
8
r a ,
a
A B C
y ( 2)
consider s ch form u a as
the negative end but the second term h s two values when
,
a
article th t there m st be
a very gre at v riety of forms
u a a ,
If y b be a single root of so th at
( 3/ where f ( b) is not ero 1
z ,
we h ave y b+ ¢ ( y ) 1
0;
-
+
f1 ( y )
-
r 8
“f
b) 1
1 f b b e not ero z
y
=b
b
( )
7 4
56
1
FCT
. . .
SY M PT OT ES PA R A LLEL T O T HE A XES
A
b
¢( )
ing as ls ne
g a tive or Pos iti ve .
fa )
b
When — is odd the c rve lies above the sy mptote
r s ,
u a at
p r llel to 0x
a a .
(y b) 4
x
4
+ ay
3
(y b) x 3
a x
7
a
s
0 ,
the second an d third terms will give correct appro xim tion a a
—
.
, ,
the order x .
rej ected .
Ex 1 .
( x
.
— a )y —a x = 0 2 2
.
x a an d y a sy mptotes 2 2
are a .
Near ( a , co x — a
A SY M PT OT ES PA R A LLEL TO T HE A XES
x — a
3
a
21n
b 3
ne ar { cc , y + a + b
2
( 2
If y the points of intersection a e given b y r
—a O
an d y —
,
x = a + b is therefore a n a sy mptote .
N e r the origin
a ,
ne ar (a a )
, ,
near { a ,
F ig 24
. . The fi gure is dr wn for b = a ne arly a .
—b
,
y
the other root gives impossible v alues f x ; in the figure o
y = —a ne arl y .
3 2
(x )y (y b) x2
Ex 4
. . a .
x =a an d (y
N e ar (a , x
near ( 00 b) ( y b) b /x
,
2 3
.
xy
2
(y x ) ag
g
2 bx y 2
b 2
x
2
0 ,
0
—2 b there will be tw points t infinity or
.
I f ,8 = a o a
— —2 b will be
, ,
(3b
2
a
2
) x
2
2 ( a + b) ( 2 b a
2
) x+ a ( 2 b a )
s
0
,
point .
point is p r llel to 0x if
a a n d to O
y if S= B q but a
2
,
Ex 5 .
(
. x — a )( x — 2 a) y — x
2
+ 4 y ¥ O 2 2
a
2 3
a
4 - .
where x fin nd —2 a
,
a .
Ne r ( a a ,
x aco 2 a /y 2
,
ne r a
a , x co a 2 a /3 y 2
,
near ( 2 a 00 ,
x 2a 4 a /3 y 2
,
near ( 00 a ) ,
near ( 00 a ) y a a
, /x
2
,
ne ar ( 0 , x 4a y
'
3 z
,
near ( 0 2 a ) ,
x 7 0 ,
7 ,
near ( 2 a 2 a ) ,
2a ; 55 ,
0 »
2
.
2 2
Ex 6 . .
( xy ah
) b d (c
oth ax es a e sy mptotes
B r a
ne ar ( 0 x,
i bJ( d /y)
cc ,
near ( 00 y b [a
When x= 0 =c— a /d
2
y , .
a b) = —
,
2 x ( xy — b ol ; 2
whence ( 2 cx a b) = b ( a — cd )
2 2 2
,
S ince x xy( a
2 2
) = b5 , x 18
p o mtiv e .
cusp .
Ex 8 . . xy
2 2
2 a xy 2
b y 2 2
2a b 2 2
b 4
0 .
0x is an asymptote n d ne r ( 00 ( xy ,
a a —b ) 2 2
,
b / an d b )/x
2
(2a
2 2
y x, .
A sy mptotes
par llel to Oy a e x = i b which intersect a r ,
x—
, ,
_
i
< ;b in the
2
critic a l c se in which 2 a = b the c u rve is a
2 2
equation is ( x b ) y b x 2 2 2
.
C H APT E R V II .
p arallel to either x is a .
a at an infini t e d istance
re cert in p r bolic asymptotes ,
a a a
of m gnit de
a u .
which the c rve lies when it first comes into sight from n
u , a
Ex . 1 .
S ince
a ,
z a, e ua
asy mptote .
r .
, a .
Whence
£6
_
—
2
b2
y
$x + b a
a
3 3
Ex . 2 . x y 3axy O
.
asy mptote .
y + x — a ( 1
3
x
therefore neglecting oc ,
.
2
,
a
3
, which g ives
the s me res lt
a before u as .
A SYM PT OT ES N OT PA R A LLEL T O T HE A XES
Ex . 3 .
(x a )y
3
(y 23 011
2 2
.
§
4 ax 4a x
ty
o
3/ y
y x the sy mptote crossing the curve
a 4a 0 is a ,
S ee a more general c se p ge a ,
a 84 ,
P l ate IV .
, fig . 25 .
,
a e a u
which n be dr wn thro gh P
ca a u .
th su
which w e xists the ppro xim tion for the sides of the
a
l ,
a a
Fn —l(
b + ox
1
) dc
'
u - a
n l ’
sa
y;
H 1
)
-
v ex
s ay
—l
.
vn
0 ,
x
e_
.
g.A rt 1 1 9 , E x 1
. . .
If dc + e = 0
Z m u st be e xpanded
nfl
, as far as
-
71 1
2
(b
2
1 x u bF a )=k
as far as ~
,
" 3
b e co m e s ,
s ay . So
93 72
11
—1 jn ’
dc c
2
e hc k
m
5 2
<gc + hc + 7c
2
ax by + c + 2
$
0
Fn ( b a )
where c
-
1 ’
2fh
or more gener ll y a ,
—
( a x by )
2
where
A S Y MPT OT ES N OT PA RA LLEL T O T HE A XES
In this c ase the infinite branch h s parabolic form in a a ,
follows
”
F rom ( a x by) c x we obtain y 3 2
which
’
I)
u
m ust be substit ted in u
This gives
( d) "
o
F n _1 b ,
a +
(
o
(a x by) 2
cx l
2
by gc bl
’
( c x)
’ ’
ax ,
Th s u b —
( y ax é x c
’
x is infinite .
Ex 1 . . x v (
x
3
(y —x) = t
a y .
H ere x
A SYM PT OT ES N OT PA RA LLEL T O T HE A XES
taking the first two three and four terms as s u ccessive
By , ,
(y
—
(y x “
— —
z
(y
2
a)
2
x ax + 2 a .
a a x
2 2 nd a x hence ( i ) is wh t I h ve c lled q u asi
'
a
2 '
1
a a
, , a a
a e proper
r sy mpto tes the l tter being ltim atel y more
a ,
a u
origin is x a y é
i The two dot ted lines m arked 1
= ‘ 3 2
F ig 3
. . .
N t o e . a
<
y
therefore th l t s rectum e a u
(
2
) (v 2 x) 3
Ex 2 . .
y y x 9 cx .
3
9 cx
Then ( y x)
2
3 cx
4 [3 0 c
H EW
A SY M PT OT ES N OT PA R A LLEL T O T HE A XES
1 30 The following c rves
. u a ff ord e xamples of these
pecu li ri ties
a
Ex . 1 y (y
—
,
intersection .
F ig 5
. . ne ar the origin y = 4
3 c
2 2
x ,
Ex 2 .
(x 2y ) ( x y)
2
6a ( x
2
y) 0 .
N e a r the origin x y gy /a ,
- 3 2
ne r ( 0 a J3 )
a ,
4 7 5x ; ,
7
ne r ( a J 6
a y 25
,
.
Fig 6
. . In the figure the sy mptote is not meant to be a tangent
,
a
‘
Ex 3 . .
(x 2y ) ( x 2
y )
2 3
a. x ( y) 0.
The sy mptotes e ( x
a 0 nd ( x 2 y) 0 ar y)
2
,
a
2
.
( x — y) % /
2
x n d ( x + 2 y )
a /
3
x ,
a
2 -
a
3
.
Fig 7
. . x + y = 0is the t angent t th origin a e .
Ex . 4 . 2x ( x y )
2
3a ( x 2
37
2
) 4a y 2
0 .
( x —y)
— 3 a ( x x
2
y
= a or 2 a , .
,
a a u
F ig 1 0
. . the curve lies on the s me s ide t both ends a a .
a sy mptotes x = n d b a a .
x a a ,
Fig 1 1
. . th t the c rve lies on opposite sides t the two ends
a u a .
{ x
2
s o th t when b = a the br nch o n the a , ,
a
-
1 33 . T ake ,
as a n e xample the c rve ,
u
—x y a
3
N e ar ( co cc th first
e ppro x im tion is a a x+ y 0 the
:
,
second gives x + y H5 a ) .
ax by (b
5
a
5
) x /b
2 4
a,
y sm ll comp red
a with x g x = ay a 1 v es
2
,
A S Y M PT OT ES N OT PA R A LLEL T O T HE A XES
No wwithou t further e xamin tion we might be d isposed
, a ,
x
5
(x oz )( x or) bx ( x
5
+ ax
3 2
cz )
2
0
—b + ct ) x4 —a ( 1 0a + a
,
or ( 5 a 0 .
appro x im tion a
y —a ) —s ( b f
ax
3
a (b 2 a)x 2
5mx 3
06 1
0 .
the second .
$ 4
£0 3
]
3
x
2
y
2
wy 3
9
4
a my 2
0 ,
A S Y MPTOT ES TO H OM OGENEOUS CUR V ES
the forms at the origin being y nd = a y and 3 = a x2 , a x2 ,
near ( a a ) 3 5 + a 7 = 0
, ,
2
i .
F ig 1 4
. .
be negative .
n
th
degree ill strates the m an n er in which the continuity
,
u
Ex 1
. .
—
( y x) (y
H ere the three asy mptotes a re al and ( 0 a ) ( 5a re , , , ,
. ar a ,
- 3 2
av a u
'
, ,
(y ) (y
2
Ex
. 2 . x 4x) ( y 2 x) 2a x .
member const nt a .
as a check .
5
Ex 1
. . x r
N ote
the sy mmetry with respect to x = y and th t x = y ,
a
N e ar the origi n x 2 a y a nd y = 2 a x ; ,
4 :
3 4 3
Fig 2 0
. . an d x + y 0is n asy mptote a .
5 5 ax y 2 2 5
0
Ex 2
. . x y .
where x y 5a .
N e r the ori gi n x
a 5 ay a nd y 5 ax
,
3 2 3 2
lim 5 a x y /( x —x y
,
ne ar ( 00 x+y oo +y ) a
2 2 4 3 4
.
Ex 3 . x —
. x y
— b xy + y = 0 5
a
2 2 2 2 5
.
order of m agnitu de a x + b y 0 ,
2 2
.
F ig 2 2
. . The figure is dr wn for a b but looks too much as if a ,
Ex 4
. .
y
2
( 3x —4y) — x = 0 3
a
4
.
N e r the origin
a 6 4 y + a x = 0; ,
5 4
/2 7 x
2 4 2
a
y
nea r those of the cross asymp tote ,
( 3x 4 y) /y
3 4
F ig 23
. .
4a 3 .
Ex 5 . .
{ (y
x —) — }y x a
2 2 3
y+ 2 = oi $
= x3x 3,
"
y
F ig 2 4
y .
.
Ex 6
. . 4a 2
(y x ) (y
2
x ) 8ax 3
(y x )+x
5
+y
5
0
.
The symptote is
a x y
—
1 3—
5
a O
ne ar the origin where ,
x an d y are of the s ame order ,
y
— x=Q
m m y + x =0
4a ( y — x) —
,
2
x) 4 a x ( y x) + x 2
{ 2a ( y
2 4
x } ,
2 2
0 .
1+
t herefore
< > 1 32
4a
(y
5
x )
5
4
x
<)
1 Q
a
{M y w) wi +i +Q
2 2 .
2a a
x
2 —3x 5
whence
.
shewing th t there is a am ph id c sp touc hing ( i )
a r o u .
0 or y —
x x /a ,
- 2
.
‘
To find the side of the sy mptote on which the c rve lies a u
o f x as f
ar a s x ;
3
5 ax 4
1 0( l fia
g )x
2 3
8 g
‘
J i a 2 x3 0 ,
an d or .
3
2
4
a x
2 1
.
ILLUST R A T I ONS
If y = 0 ,
x
2
+ 8ax + 1 6 a
2 = 1 2 a2 ;
Fig 2 5
. .
2a —
( i JS )
2 2 a tan T g 7 r 5
or 2 a tan £ 1
5 7 .
Ex 7 . .
(
2
x y
2 2
) 4y 2
y 0 .
oz
, 3 an d ,y so th a t the eq tion -
of the,
c rve m y be ua u a
2m 2 =
(a
2 13 33 2 —( CL
2
an d 2 yx
ne r the origin x + y 0; ne ar
a g) ,
4 = l
7 ,
x = 22
i 2 ( 1
y y
whence w= y t l
a nd —w= y i 1
a u a ,
a
F ig 2 6
. . se t the c rve where y g nd
c u a
Ex . 8 .
y (y x ) (y
2
2x ) 3a ( y x x )
2
2a x 2 2
0
.
cross sy mptotes a y x a or 2 n d y 2 x
a g nd re a, a a a
(y —w ) —w ( y
— w— (
) r —w 4 2
a
N e r the origin
a y 2a x ,
4 2 2
,
ne r —
a —a where th c rve crosses the a x is x Ox
2
3 ,
e u
’
F ig 2 7
. .
y ( —2 x + 3 a) 1 3y = 9£
EX A M PLES
E xamp les V I I .
1 r th rv
. T ace nd p r v t h t th
e cu di t s e x
5
a o e a e co o r na e
o f th p i t t whi h it is p
e o nll l t 0 a d 2 rl y c a ra e o c are i a an a n ea .
d s h w th t th p i t f t t f n is ( 20
.
(c, an e d t h t th
a e o n o co n ac o o e an a e
th r is i li d t 0 t gl
,
o e nc ne o x a a n an e
3 Tr th
. v y (y a ce 2 ) 0 e cu r e x 3
x .
Pr v th t th li s j i i g th igi d th p i ts t whi h th
'
o e a e ne o n n e or n an e o n a c e
cu rv is p r ll l t Oy i li d t O t gl s wh s t g ts
e
°
a a e o are nc ne o r a an e o e an en a re
J 2 s in 1 5 and J 2 co s
4 he w that the c u S rv e 24
y + a y
x
2 —x4 = 0i nters ect s its a sym pt o te s
p i s s dis sf
.
at o nt who e tan ce m Oy ro a re
2a J 2 .
th p i ts w h r v P l is p r ll l t
0x ,
5 .At
x= i la
g J2 ;
e
‘ th o n
d y T g p ss s thr
= an
e re
x
e
a
cu
e
e,
ou
at e
gh the
V .
,
fig 2 3,
.
p i nt s wh r it is
o
a a
e e
e o
p r ll l t Oy
a a e o u
6 Tr th . rv (x ace d s h w th t t h
e cu e an e a e
r dii f m th ri gi t th p —i ts wh t—
a ro h rv is p r ll l t
e o n o e o n e re e cu e a a e o
a rei li d t 0x t gl s t
nc ned t 2 rl y o a an e an
1 25
4
an a n 1
n ea .
7 S h w th t th r is
. s p t th ri gi i th rv
e a e e a cu a e o n n e cu e
2 3 3
2
( x a) ( x +3 ) a x ,
a n d a no the r a t an i nfi i t dis t n e an ce .
8 .
y r ss s th
x5 ax
3
2 ax
2
y + y
=02 5
c o e e a sym p t o te at the th r ee
pi s i = rl y
.
o n t at wh ch
d i 2 x
1
3 T a an 61 n ea .
9 D s rib th s y m m try f th
. e c rv e e e o e cu e
6 — 03 —
3 ) y< s )
x2
e
a
a
s
60
2
.
y y g .
10 .
(y
2
x2 2 ) a
2
y
2
b2x2 0 .
D is ss th s s f > d < b d i th l tt r m i th
cu e ca e o a an an n e a e exa ne e
v ri ti s wh b >
,
a a <
on l2 en or ag
rv ‘
,
.
1 1 Tr th — 2
ace
“ O e cu e r
4
ax
2
a
2 2
a
.
y y y . .
S h w th t th _ t e t t h p i ts f i t rs
a ti wi th Oy nd
e c u r v a u res a e o n o n e ec on a
i th r t i
,
at ( ) a, a f 1 /5
a re n e a o o N .
Pr v th t wh li p r ll l t
o e a is tris t d b y th rv it
en a ne a a e o ec e e cu e, s
dis t f m is 22
a nce rl y ro a n ea .
12 Pr v th t ( —y o is p p r p r b li sym pt t
e a r a ro e a a o c a o e
rv (
. .
,
t tho e cu e x
1 3 S h w th t th p r b li sy m p t t f th l s s t nt t t th
e a e a a o c a o e o e c o e co ac o e
rv A t 1 2 7 E 2 is (y — +
.
2
cu e, r . 1 70 ,
x .
,
x .
C H APTER V I I l .
C U R V I LI NE AR A S Y MP O ES T T .
u ltim a tel
y v nish in ny infini te br nch of the c rve
a a a u .
y the
, term involving the highest power of y is the onl y
term which nee d be re t ined a .
is a y s H
t — mus t be > 1 therefore the indices of x
, s ,
r tion l
a a .
ar a a
CUR V ILINE A R A SY M PT OT ES
In tr cing rves the c se of x being gre t with
1 37 . a cu , a a
commencement in e h c se ac a .
a s y mptotes .
x +2 x y — b y =o 3 2 3 3 3
Ex 1 . . a .
x
2
by where x y x,
nd m
y be neglected comp red with 3
cc
5
, a a a
2 2 4 2
2a y 3
2a y 4a y
—
by x 2
( 1 I
x
3
—x2 1 l 3x3
9x 3
CURVILINE A R A SY M PT OT ES
whence for the second ppro xim ation ) a
ay = x2 1
2 2
ay x Sa x 6a ,
F ig 2
. . th l tter is inside the former fter this point
e a a .
a ccur te a .
1 9a
to Oy has for its coordin tes a 7 ) and 38a ne rly a .
Ex 3 . .
( + y ) —x y = 0 a x
5 5 3 3
.
I f x c n be rejected a y = x whi h ne r ( 00
5
a m akes ,
2 3
,
c , a oo
_
( 00 , g i
soving x =
y A g in x y c n be rejected ne a r
a
2 3
. a
3 3
a
/a
2
y + x 2x .
C URVILINE A R A SY M PT OT ES
Ex 4 . . axy
3
(x a )
4
y a
5
0 .
Ne ar ( 0 cc ,
x a /y
3 2
,
ne r ( 00
a
y a /x
5 4
,
ne r (
a co x ay co
3 2
,
ne r ( 0 a )
a , ] 5x ,
7 ,
ne ar ( a)a, 5 , .
intersection of the rv s y ( x a ) 2= nd xy = “
nd cu e
4
a
5
a
3 l a
z ,
a
4 (x a )
3
a
y
2
and ( 3x a )y
3
4a 4
0
.
Ex 5 . . axy
3
+( x a )
3
y
2
+a
5
0 .
N ear ( 0 ,
oo x = a
2
/y .
ne ar ( 00 ,
2 —a 5 /x3 ,
ne r (
a 7: oo
ne r ( 0 a )
a , ,
ne r ( 0, a )
a -
,
nea r ( a a ) , ,
a
y + 3 ( x a )
2 = 0 an d
which gives three neg tive v l es of a a u y , and
'
two positive ,
3
Ex 6 . . a ( y + x)
a
2
( a —a 2
) z O
.
N e ar ( 2a ,
00 x
ne r ( 00
a cc 2a y + x = 0
2 3 '
ne r ( 0
a ,
Where y = 0 x = a , ,
an d 2( i J5 —1 ) oza a n d 8a
,
suppose .
N er ( a a , y =
5;
ne r ( oca
a (1 —l ) ( oz 0 ,
— = 1 —2
,
2
an d oz oz a ,
ne r ( B
a a, y 0 ,
Fig 6 . .
CURVILINE A R A SY M PT OT ES
“
Ex 7 . .
y 2 ( 3x 4a) ay 2
a x
2 2
0 ,
(y
2
3a x 4a 2 2
) 8a 2
(x 2 a ) (x a
) .
N e ar ( cc cc
y
= 31
(
2
for a firs t appro x im ation ;
the proper symptotes a e y ( 3 i 2 J2 ) ( x a J2
a r
2
a
x4 2 2 2 3
Ex 8 3ax y 2a y ay
—y
. .
N ear ( co ,
co
) , x
4
a
3 =
ne r ( 0 2 a )
a , x ,
2
Fig 8
. .
a sy mp tote .
Ex 9 . . x7 —x y 4 3
+ a
3
y
4
x
a y
5 =O .
Ne ar ( 0 ,
oo x= a
2
/y
near ( 00 oo if x and
y a re of the s me order we h ave a ,
x y 2a 0 ,
2
4a
F ig 9
. .
an d for the nex t pprox im tion a a x= y + 2a
3 31
A g in if x
abe sm all x an d y m y be rejected there
, y ,
7 4
a ,
'
x
3 _a
y
2
+ x y
6 -
3 —a y2 + a 2 y ,
q dr nt x Oy r ns it m st be observed th at x + a y = 0
ua a
'
u ,
u
7 3 4
Fig 1 2 a
—a ) which
.
. . ,
Ex 1 3 .
( b ).o x y ab x
s 2
c y a
3 3 6
o x
3 3
y
2
0 .
c
3
( c
3
x
3
)y
2
{ ( a + b) y
e
3
a bx }x
3 3
0 .
N ea r ( c, 00 x = c{ 1
near ( 00 cc a bx
3
c
3
y
2
0 ,
F ig 1 3
. . near ( 0 , c
3
y ax
3
, or bx 3
.
E x 14 . .
yx
2
(y x ) ay
3
b yx 2
c x
2 2
0 ,
x
3
(y
2
by c
2
)x
2
a
y
3
0 .
Ne ar ( oo
y
2
c
/ x
Ne ar ( cc cc a re ,
—c x = 0 (i)
2 2
,
—yx + a y = 0
,
2
a
Ex 1 5 . .
(y x a ) y
3
b yx 2
mab x 2
0
.
N ear ( co ma) , y ma m 3
a
3
/bx the sy mptote y m a a
‘
m eetsthe c rve where x (m u l )a ,
the s ame point at which
the t ngent at ( 0 a ) meets it
a ,
.
EX A M PL E S
PLA T E
N e a r ( oo cc if x an d
y be of the s a me order of m gnitude a ,
=x+a +b
y
this cross sy mptote meets the c rve where
a u
y
3
yx
2
max 2
0 ,
or
the roots of which a re l n d bo th nega tive if 4m a < a + b re a a , ,
p tm
ar
ent x O y below the line x+ y 0
’
.
If ne ar ( 00, x y be l arge y + bx = 0 cc ,
2
.
Ne r ( 0 a m bx , y
2 3
( on l ) bxz
ne ar ( 0 a)
, , y x a i
c rve is p r allel to Ox
u a .
b= 2 < m <l a, ,
b= a )
1 <m <2 ’
and 2 b = 3 J3 a ,
m = 2;
the l st being a an intermedi te se in which there is a ca a
m ltiple point
u ,
v iz . where x = ( J3 —l ) a y = ( 3 —J3 ) a 2
,
.
E xamp l es V I I I .
1 . 1)
Pr v o that the cu
e e rv is p r ll l t Ox wh r a a e o e e x J2 1 ; a ls o that
the tang e nt at th e o n t pi t r s ts th rv in e ec e cu e at (7 , g) .
2 . ax
y
—(x a
3
)y
2
+a
5 =O .
)
5
—3 a x + 3 a 2 —ay
f?
(I
i F
-
EX A MPLE S
3 . (y b3y3 =o .
and sh ew
that the cu rv e cu t s o ne o f the r tili n r sympt t s
ec ea a o e a t an
ang e l co t
‘l
3 .
3 2
4 c y ( x 2 c)2x3 .
S w 3 2=
he that c y (x giv s th dir ti f th r v
e e ec on o e cu e nea r( co co
5 .
y
3 —y 2
6 x
4 6
3 6x5 2x = a
Sh e w that the p ro per p arab olic
'
a sy m p t o te is
2
51 3
" —
re2
Pr v th t th l p i t r p ts
o e a e oo n e ce a l en
g th { 3 on Ox, and that the
cu rv t r s t th p i ts f s ti
a u e a e o n o ec o n are in t he r tia o 1 4096 .
6 . x2y + a (y
S
hew that the rv ts th r tili n r nd p r p r p r b li cu e cu e ec ea a o e a a o c
as p s m dist
ym to te at the 2 fr m y Oy nd th t th t ng ts a e an ce a o
’
a a e a en
rv t th p i ts f s t i i li d t O t gl s t 2
,
t th o n o n a re nc ne x a an an
1
“
o e cu e a e o ec o e
and t n 2 Pr v th t th rv r s p r ll l t Oy t ( 4 4 )
a
‘1
. o e a e cu e un a a e o a a, a .
7 .
—xy 5 =0 .
Pr v th t if th t g t b d r w fr m ( O) t th r v th
o e a e an en e a n o a, o e cu e, e
p i t f t t is t dist f m th is f y d th t it
,
o n o 5
co n ac a a an ce a ro e ax o , an a s
in li ti n t Ox is n t v ry diff r t fr m t n 2 5 h w th t th 1
-
c na o o o e e en o a e a e
rv r ns p r ll l t Ox wh r = 2 d y = 22 rl y
.
2
cu e u a a e o e e x a , an a n ea .
8 If i E 14 p g 1 14 b= 3 n =4 pr v th t th g idi g
x .
,
a e a, c
2
a
2
o e a e u n
p r b l t h s th rv d i t rs ts th pr p r p r b li
.
, ,
a a o a ouc e e cu e an n e ec e o e a a o c
asym p t t t th p i t —4 1 6 )
o e a e o n a, a .
9 . x4
S h w th t x = x is t g t t th rv
e a tt i g it g i t n a an en o e cu e, cu n a a n a a
ngl t n ls th t th rv t O t gl t n 2
“
l 9 ’ “
1
a e a a o a e cu e cu s x x a a n an e a
2 3; .
1 0 Th . rv in A t 7 3 E 1 i t rs ts it g idi g sympt t
e cu e r . x n e ec s u n a o e
0wh r it m ts th rv 2y 3 y 2 =y / Sh wth t
.
, ,
2 xx3
+y 4
e e ee e cu e
2
x x 2
x 2
a e a
this l tt r r v h pr p r p r b li sym pt t ( g ) = 2 (y 2 )
.
z
a e cu e as a o e a a o ca o e x a a a
whi h it i nt rs t s in
c
2 2 ) nd r t
e ili n r
ec s y m p t t y + 2 =0 a, , a ,
a a ec ea a o e a .
1 1 Pr v th t (y o is pr p r p r b li symp t t t
e a a o e a a o c a o e o
r v E 5 p g 1 01 b t th t (y —x +
.
th e cu e, x h
a e u a as
l s r nt t
.
, ,
a c o e co ac .
T HE A N A LY T ICA L T RI A NGLE
1 42 equ ation is s id to be pl aced pon the tri angle
. An a u ,
ay
4
bx y 2 3
cx
g
y
2
dx y 4
ex
z
y +fx
2 2
gxy 0
F ig 2 0
. . is pl aced on the tri angle a in the figure the letters a Bnyfd s ,
'
e
a s an an ly er is th t if crosses be j oined s o
a z ,
s to form a , ,
a
side ,
eq ted to ero the loc s of the equ ation so
are ua z , u
i n finite dist nce if all the rej ected crosses lie on the same
a ,
s ide of the line s the right ngle o r near the origin if they
a a , , ,
term ;
or which p e re r
or d er x n d x respectivel y
“
1
a
’
4
.
sm all .
1 20 PR OPERT IES OF T HE A N A L YT ICA L T RI A NGLE
i If every term of the equ ation be rej ected e x cept the
.
,
of L .
comp red with those which form the equ ation which deter
a
the res lting equ ation gives one or more straight lines which
u
a e p ar allel to Oy
r the terms whose circles a e on L will r
sm all .
the sol tion of the res lting eq u ation gives the poin ts of
u u
as follows
of terms whose represent tives on the tri angle all lie on the
,
a
, ,
u , ,
a u
wy 3 =x ma + c
( my )
a a - a c
y y
H ence if all the terms in the eq u ation be rejected e xcept
,
,
'
, ,
term x yfi becomes a
a n d a s before a rejected term
, , ,
iv an d v a e evident r .
VI . u r
1 48 I sh all now shew the use of the tri angle b y apply ing
.
Ex . 1 . x
6 — 3 3=
+ 2a x y b y
2 3
P l ace the eq tion on the tri ngle an d draw the pol ygon
ua a , ,
2 a x —b y = 0 nd x — by = 0 2 3 3 2 Z
Fg . aa a .
—
. .
considered in A t 8 8 i x y + xy y x 0 7 — 7=
r .
, V z .
3 2 5
.
OLB g ves y 0 2 4
x i ,
By x
2
+y
3 = 0,
x —y 2 = 0,
da +
7
x =0 7
y .
where x = y = 1 or ,
Ne r ( 1
a if x = 1 + §i y = 1 + n the coeffi cient of
, ,
t herefore proceeding to 7 7
2
N e ar —a a
, ,
if x +5 y 5 = 3 n
—y meets the cu rve where x —y = 1 nd
.
, ,
A gain x , , a
ne r (1
a 5 5+
,
USE OF T HE A N A LYT ICA L T RI AN GL E
that ( fi m ust be a fac tor of the left side of this equ a
t
—M 2
Ex . 4 .
(y
2
X
? 2
) 2 axy 2
5 ax 3
0
.
‘
an d for the ne xt app o x 1mation b y moving By p rallel to r ,
a .
2 2
(
3 2
x x 5 a) 2 a xy 2x y O ,
whe n ce 8y 2
2 5 a (x 5 a ) .
y i gives
c 2 y = 5 x ne ar the origin
2 2
.
‘
da gives y + 2 ax = 0also ne ar the origin
2
x ) = 3 ax
2 2 2 3
.
To obt in the p roper asy mpto tes we write the equ ation
a ,
=x —
,
y
2
a x i J(
2
3 a x ) or —a x
3
i ama —
l
ea or (x
x — H e r
a —u m ,
2 2 5
a
, T2 .
Ex 5 . x 6
2b x y 3 2
2 ab x 4 2
b y 4
2 ab xy 2 2
31
2
11 2
1
2
0 .
Fig 3
. .
P l ce the equ ation on the tri ngle as in the fig re
a a u .
w— 2 bx y by or ( x
U circles 3 2 z 4 3
'
as a first pp o x im atio n
a t n infinite dist nce
r moving a a a
the line p r llel to itself it p asses thro gh two circ les whi ch
a a u
U S E OF T HE A N A L YT ICA L T RI A NGLE
belong to the ne x t ppro xim ation v i bx 2 xy a ,
z .
—2 a
4 —b a
2 2
,
whence by 2
—
,
,
2 abx a introduced giving 3 2 4
re , ,
2 ? 2 2 2 4 2
x (x
2
n a
4
) 2n 4
a xy (x n a ) O
2 2 2 2
)
4
x n a ,
4 2 3
or n a i 2n ay ,
Whence x n ai
z
n y,
d ouble point ( Ma ,
m y be written
a an d we sh all h ave the
forms ne ar ( ri a
,
ay i f an d ne ar (
z
n ay = x
,
f :
, ,
so cc
4 2 3
.
where ( x b y which x = 2n a or 2
,
2
Ex 6 . . x y 3 4
ax y
3
by 2
cx y 4
dx O .
l acing the equ ation upon the tri angle the bounding
P ,
1 4 gives n e r ( 00
-
y + c x = 0 ( ) a cc
3
11
—dx
,
4 5 gives ne ar ( 00
-
( iii )
3
*
cy ,
-
.
, ,
USE OF T HE A N A LY T IC A L T RI A NGLE
The circle corresponding to 2 lies within the qu dril ateral a ,
a a r u ,
b t points
u t the ne x t most import nt term to be t ken
ou a a
iv
( ) In the
. se of ( ii ) the ne xt ppro xim tion is
ca , a a
x
“
x
6
nd x
,
‘
Their ircles a p ssed thro gh in
7
,
a
"
9
c re a u
ax
z
y
3
by 2
dx O ,
ay
9
c
z
by 2
cd y
3
O .
y
7
m fi
x, an d a rn x
fi
ecly a
g
b 0 .
a 2) cl
two n d one a
or one root ;
one root
two n d one root a ,
or one root ;
one root .
F igs . 6, 7 ,
The fig res a u re dr wn for the two c ses of b c ( l being
a a , ,
corr espond to a + an d a
Ex . 7 3 5
a y n G
x y
5 3
ax
6
y a x
fi 2
0
.
y
3 —x3 0 ,
y
2
ax 0 ,
x
4
y a
5
0 Ox, being n symptote a a .
The s id e eoz
'
y x
3
2 a yx
4
a ( x a ) ( y a ) 4
0 on the
2
t a ngle
4 2
rl .
a nd J5
2 2
yx a i 1 )a .
2 2
( ) (y )
4
Ex . 9 . x x ay y c .
F ig 1 3 P l acing
on the tri ngle we s e th at at n infinite dist nce e
x —
. .
a , , a a ,
y
— x —2 a ) .
2
(a
2
3
0 +c
I n the ne xt ap p ro xim ation the term 2 x
is dded a .
When y c, x 0 ,
or
Ne ar ( 0 c) , , a x
2
C
z
n
-I
—
5
ne r J 45
5
2
a ( t a c, c ) :
i
7
,
a ,
through Jetc ,
2 2
a a c .
(x
2
ay )
2
4x 2
( x
2
ay ) 0 ,
or where x a
y an d 5 x a y;
2
,
2
y (y
—) c 20690 . an d yx
2 : 2a 3
.
USE OF T HE A N A LY T ICA L T RI A NGLE
PLA TE
These two c rves e dr wn for the cases of c = 2 a and V I Iu ar a .
or %
2 z
(
c x ay ) :
i ay , i +y .
‘ 2
l
. ar u s .
the secon d .
The figure of the curve is dra wn for the s ame rel ations Fig s. 1 8, 1 9 .
2 2
c)
nd c (y —
5
c a
2 (c 5 5 5 5 m
a )y ( 2 0 a ) 0i a ) .
If e 2 a,
y or 13c
-
, , and x 20 or 20 roughl y 5
if c a, y 00 or
'
20 , an d x
near
an d , 0 2c) 1 9 7 1 75 0 3 , ,
1 : .
responding v al es of x a e u r
x = 0 or ( + )
0 a x — a 0
5 5
.
F C‘
I
TO . I
USE OF T HE A N A L YT ICA L T RI A NGLE
To find the form of the c rve near this point let u
x nd a r
3
.
re
y
3
n S bstituting
. in the equ
u a tion of the c rve an d u
y)}
2
(c )(1
3 2 5
(1
5
’
ra ar +a
4 l3
(1 5 y)
5 15
r 0 r c (1 4y)
ro w s (a
s
a
5
>
<1 A w};
hence a (1
5
0 5
2a 5
oL ( c
5
a
5
)y }
2
10
0 { a
5
(0
5
( 05
4a 5
)a
5
o< .
{(c
5
a
5 2
) a
l°
}y 0 ,
1°
)5
2 5 2
{ (
3 5 5
}
5
c a ( c 4a c a ) a q .
When 0 a,
—2c y = 2—
c, and
when 0
,
2 a,
y 220 ,
an d 3017 75 .
curve is 4m ( m + 1 ) ( 2 m + D or 4m 4m + 1 0; and
5 3 2
,
3
2 2 nd
, , 22 the corresponding v al es of y being obt ained
a ,
u
Ex 1 0 6. . x7 —2x y — 5 2
a x
3 2 2
y + 4a x y + 2 a x
3 3 5 2
F ig 2 0
. .
Pl ace on the tri angle n d c all the cir les corresponding ,
a c
32 390
20 2
a)
? s
a x
i
y (y 4 x) .
0
3
=
y
This equ ation determines two asy mptotes the curv e ly ing ,
where i J 3 ( 4 ¢ J 3 ) x i 3J 3 5 ) a 2 2
.
EXA M PLES
3 . x ° 2
y 2 o3x4 y
6 2
c x 2 o°xy c
2
y
2
0.
Pr v th t O is
o e sym pt t th t w br h s f th rv b i g
a x an a o e, e o a nc e o e cu e e n
on th s m side f Ox a e e o
S h w th t th rv is p r ll l t Ox wh r y =—1 x d y = 5x
.
1
e a e cu e a a e o e e an
6
a ppr i m t l y
ox a e .
4 . x5y 2 3 2 4
ax y + n a y
4
a xy n 2a 4x2 0 .
Sh w th e at the r ise on ly o ne pi o n t at i
wh ch the cu rv r s p
e un ara ll l
e
t o Oy, b y t r i ac ng the cu rv s e
3 x4 y x
a y
3
4 n2 a 4x 3a 4
O,
a nd 2 x y3 2 2
n a 3x
2
3 nay4 0, n 4 .
Sh w h e o w the cu rv li s wi th r sp
e e e ect t o the g u idi ng a sy m p t t s o e .
5 . n2x6 2 n2 cx4y 2
n c2x2y 2 x
2 nc y“ y6 O.
6 . x6 +y
“ ay
5
+ x ay ( —cx) x3 = 0 .
i d th p i ts t whi h th tw t g ts t th rv
F n e o n a c e o an en o e cu e at the rig i n
o
i nt rs t th r v nd wh n 0 sh w th t th di m t r
e ec .
e cu e, a e : a, e a e a e e o f cu rv t r
a u e
a t f th s p i nt s is
o ne o e e o la
A t th p i t s w h r t h rv is p r ll l t Oy
.
e o n e e e cu e a a e o
when c = a and 2a .
7 . x6 +y °
ay
6 a
2
yx3 0 .
Sh w th t th t ng nt fr m th ri gi
e a e a e o e o n to the rv is in lin d t
cu e c e o
gl t rl y E m i p i ts t whi h th
.
O 1 1 2
n e the
-
t n
x a a n an e an 3 ea . xa o n a c e
curv r ns p r ll l t Oy
e u a a e o .
C H A PTE R X .
SPE C A L I C UR VE OF T HE F OU R TH DE GR EE .
a a ,
( a
, b) is a lw y s 0; an d y = 4 a x is the s me as
a
2
,
a
SINGUL A R POIN T S
”
x+a = 0
e xamined .
fo nd we e p art of it
u r .
desp air .
m ltiple points
u .
intersection .
a ,
multiple points .
y (y
—a —
) ( y B) ( y
it is e sily seen th at the equ ation for determining the v al e
a u s
e
2
a a
homogeneous f nctions of or B i u , ,
v z .
f( ( xv 8
4 )
E u n +un -
1 +
we h ve a
nu —
(n —Mi l
B) =Ob
y ( ii ) an d ( iii ) .
Therefore
n n _1 1 ) u 1 + n u 0= 0
is n equ ation which m y be used inste d of or with the
a a a ,
e q tions
ua ar e to be pplied a
2
Ex . 1 .
(y
If ( x y) be , a m ltiple point writing y + n for y
u , ,
(y
2
0;
t herefore equ ating the coefficient of 7 to ero
,
7 z ,
6 y ( y —a ) = 0 2 2 2
.
(i )
ga in writing x + § for
A ,
x an d eq ting the coeffi cient of
ua
f to ero z ,
2
4x ( 2 x 3
3a ) 4x ( 2x 4
3a ) O
.
y
= 0 , t a, an d x= 0 ,
—2a ,
n e r (0 i a )
a , ,
by i 2 aq ) + 9 x O or i 8 ; 9 x 0; 3
a
2 4
, a»
3 4
n e ar 2a i a ) , ,
by ( i 45 0 or i 3 2 n + 8 1 a § 0 2
,
3 2 '
n e ar a,
by a
6
+ (a an 2a 2
0 .
3a y 4 2
a
6
+ { ( d a
2
a
f }
2 2
0 ,
ie
. . by or y 4 2
3a y 6a 4
§
2
0 ,
2
25 2
.
H ence the three l tter points two cer toid cusps a are a ,
The other points of the c rve which satisfy the equ tion u a
Thus if y = 0 x ( 2x + 3 a ) i a ,
2 3
.
(x + a ) ( 2x
2
a ) 0 .
2x 3
3ax 2
a
3
0 ,
a = x2 , an d
y
g iving onl y one v a l e of x i — 2 a ne a rl y u v z
4
x , nd , a
p r llel to Ox
a a .
F ig 2 6
. .
2 2
(y 2)
2 2
Ex . 2 . x ) (x 1 ) (x 2 (y + x 2
2 x) .
If x + 5 y + 7 be written for x
, 7 an d
y ,
at a singul ar point
th oe ffi cients of f n d 7 v nish ;
e c a 7 a
y ( 2x
2 —
g 4x 3 l
2
i
x
2
3x 8 (x 2 x) ,
2
and 1 ) (x 2) 4y ( y 2 x)
y (x (1 1 )
2
x .
= 0 x = 0 or 3 x —
,
( ) y
a 2
§ +
x — ,0 the roots of which ,
2 1- -9
2 ,
d
( ) (y
4 2 2 x ) ; or y = 3 x —2 x; - 2 2
whence ( x 1 ) ( x 2 ) 4 ( 4 x 4 x)
2
,
01
'
w—2 = 1 6 x or x y = §
Dm ,
2
T
2
to Oy .
(y + 90 — 2 w)
2 —2 w) ( w 2 2
Dam —x(x
which gives { y
2
+ x
2—
2 x —2 ( x —1 ) ( x
whence x = 2 an d x — % e ch give eq al v al es of T a u u
y
A lso where x = 0 2y = 2 y ;
, y
=
2 and 0 ,
2 4 2
.
N ear ( 0 2 y ,
2
1
2 x y = i x ne arl y
2 1 2
, r .
Ne r < 1 a ,
5
2
Fig 2 7
. . te n
Ex 3 . . xy
2
za y 2
ax
2 2
3a x 3a3
0
.
y
— 2 x —3 a =0
2
a
2
,
an d
“ n ( f
N e ar ( 0 oo x —2 a
2
/y ;
ne ar y = a x,
2
ne ar a ) , ( 2a
2
F ig 2 8
. . or 8 7; 8r .
SING ULA R POIN T S
A llthree eq ations u are s atis fi ed by x —a , y an d,
from ( i ) and ( ii ) ,
( x
2
M ax )( 7a)
a
2
x 3 2 a (x a )
2
— —
,
or ( x a ) (x 5 a )
2 =
2 2 2
3 (6y 2
x l 4a x a ) (x 5 a) 3
( 3x + a ) O,
hence if , y = i 4a + m
—2 ‘
2
we obtain f ;
ne ar 06 2 7 ay + 8 5
, 0 2 3
,
9 ( 3 y —x ) y 9 1 4 a xy 3 2ax 2 2 2 2 3
F ig 1
. . a sy mptote being y = ( x —a)
2 2 2
T .
b y the a sy mptotes .
a u
(,
l m ) a e g iven b yr a n d if x n b e , 1 , ,
film l
‘4
( x1 ~
~
r
2 )
2
1 6a m ( al
2
1 6 af ( l, on ),
7\ n d
a such th t ” q— m“ 0 (i) a ( : .
D I V I S I ON IN T O C OM PA RT M E NT S
Let f( l terms in X etc
A, m u
,
.
—
) f (l , m) LA Ma ,
2
,
.
H ence b y ( i ) Lm Ml O where L m ( 2 a l 6m )
, ,
“
4
an d M m
(
4
Bl 2a m) 4m 5
( al
2
Blm mm )
2
,
000 0 2
4 al 38 l m 2 (a 17
B m 3
,
74
2 3
.
an d 36l 2
1 65 . S u ppose
the equ tion of curve to be p t in the a a u
coincident curves .
D I V I S I ON IN T O COM PA RT M EN T S
1 66 We e th u s en abled to n ame certain comp artments
. ar
within which the c rve c annot lie when one point has been u ,
doubtf l ca ses u .
2
Ex . 1 . xy x (
The four sy mptotes a are represented in the figure v i z
n d the circle x + y —
, .
x Ox B OB a = 0b y
' ' ’ ’
y Oy A OA 2 2 2
, , , , a
’
ab d .
a ,
r , ,
which the c rve must lie nd sin e none of the five lines u ,
a c
,
’ ’
,
’
, ,
y c ,
must be empt y ; w hence the c u rve
m ay be re adil y dra wn .
2 3 2
3 yx 2a xx O,
y
2 (x + y ) —4 a
2 2 2 = 0 ( A rt .
DIVISI ON IN T O C OM PA RT M ENT S
The figure represents three forms of the curve a denoting ,
.
F ig 3 . .
the c se in which the curve divides into two is drawn with
a ,
Cb
< c< a
§
.
Ex 3 . . x
6 —3 axy ) = 0 .
N e a r —a O)
.
ne ar ( 0 a ) x + a= 0
, , , ,
.
3
) (x
3 3 3 3 4
(x +y y a ) 3 a xy O ,
F ig 1
. . an dthe for m would be obt ined perhaps more e asil y if the a
Ex 4 . . x
6
y
6
a
2
( x a )( x
3
y
3
3 axy ) 0 .
Fig 2
. .
has only one root which is positive an d ne ar ( 0 a ) 3 7 4x , , , , 7 ,
Ex 5 . .
(y 2x + 2 a)( x 2 y + 2 a) ( x + y 2 2
) xy +b
3
(
3
x + 57
3 —) 3
3
Q
N ear ( 0 a ) , , x a
2 2
bn 3
O
this with the symmetry with respect to x = y is sufficien t
, ,
lie and therefore the sides of the asy mpto tes at which the
,
the ax es .
2 2 2
) (z
2 2 2
(y ) (
2
Ex 6 . . az a a xy x y a ) O .
two points coincide where any one of the three meet the
curve .
DIVISION INT O COM PA RT M EN T S
The asymptotes a e (x a ) 0 and (y a x) 0 r
2 2 2
—
.
N e ar ( a ( x a ) =co
/y ;
2
a
—
,
ne ar ( 00 ( a xoo
y ) a xy a
y
2 2 2 s
,
ne ar ( 0 O) x
, y O an d a x y
, 0 ,
2 3
,
n e a r ( a O) , a § ( a§ + y ) a y 0
2 ,
4 2 2 3
or f y2 = 0 an d 2 a f y 0
+ = ,
2
.
Ex 7 . .
( x
2
y
2
) (x a )y
3
a
2
(x
2
y
2
a
2
) (x
2
y
2
0
.
term a x y y a ( x a ) 2 3
,
3 2
.
If x = 0 y
— a,
—
(y a ) (y
5 2 2 2
ordin te common to
a
y
2 = ax an d (y — ) a x
2
+ 5a
2
x —4 a
3 =0 .
,
'
, ,
’
y 2a 0 .
y
2
0giving the two
coincident points in the circle r adius 2 a , .
The other f ctor gives one positive root near ga and two
a
, , ,
2 4a ) = 7 a 2
.
x
4
8 ax s
5a 2
x
2
32 a x 3
3 2a 4
0 .
DIVISI ON IN TO COM PA RT M ENT S
If x
2
we have ( n a
= 4 a ”, a) a The axis of ) ( n+ 2 x —% - 2
therefore i 35a
_ 2
,
R an d S
— —
.
nearly .
where
B (a a )( 5 ,8
2 2 2 2 2
A 2a (2a . 5a )8 , ,
B B ( 2a B (a 0L)
3 2 3 z z 2
,8 ) ( 2 o( )
2
OL 2a . 5a oc,
0 : 3& 2
)( a a
2
( oz +
2 .
2
5a 2
) ,
2
D 3,8 ( OL
2
B)
2
6 ,8 2
OL a( a .
) 8 a ,8 a 2
,
2 098 )5 26
3 3 2 2 2
E (a oz . a ( 6 0L
Thus it c n be shewn th at the cu rve bends upwards at P
a
‘
,
5 5 2
x y 2a xy O,
y and x
an d
2 2
a
y
ence the division into comp rtments since x an d y a e a
2 2
r
—y
for the curve ( A ) 4
5
,
a
If y x, ( x 2 x) x 2 2
2 b (x 3
a
3
) O,
the roots of which are the absciss ae of the points of inter
section of 2
x y gas 0 ,
2
( x 2a) b (y 2 x) .
. x = 2a .
7 being a nd 6 a The
a c a se a belongs to the v alue of b
. .
points .
Fig 2
. .
The curve corresponding to B is drawn completely The (
.
~
4 a ) ; the asy m ptotes being too distant to be
,
v l es of c
a u .
3 3 3 2 3
xy 4x y ay 3a xy a x O.
The sy mptotes a e y
a r O, x a O ,
an d y a: 2x 1 a 0
.
N e ar y
3
a x
2
0 .
4xy ( x a
2
) a x
2
(y a ) 0,
4x( n a
2 2
) a
6
(x a ) ,
'
b O at
( ) ,
( )
0 O tr y ing
r, x %a y 2 a y a O ,
3 2 3
,
when e c —a or 2
l 1 )a ,
-
152 SPECI A L CURVE OF T HE F OUR T H DEGREE
171 .
(y
2 —
éY
The curve being sy mmetric al with respect to Oy we need ,
x2 : i J( 1
so th at if 4 a be positive an d not greater th n 1 or neg
,
u
,
. a ,
a
2
y ( %y
the solutions of which a re the common ordin tes of a
(y ( ii )
an d x 44 ( y a ) 0 ( iii ) 2
1 .
f ( y Bfl y ) oc 0 .
B o nn , 1 85 2 .
154 SPECIA L CURVE OF T HE F OURT H DEGREE
of intersection of the asy mptotes of the curve which do not
lie on Oy i ( i 2 —2 ) and ( i , v z .
,
2
79
ii
( ) ( ) iv
,
n d vi
( ) an d th at for n y v l e of a the s y stem of
a ,
a a u
,
’
, ,
either in OB or B y .
, a .
a =1 .
C orresponding
to some l arge positive v l es of the a u u
, ,
, a
, ,
in CF .
the former .
, ,
p arabol as ( ii ) an d ( iii ) to ch u .
two points on GE D nd D O ne ar D a .
c se ; ( iv )
a n d ( v ) give two points in GE D and D O f u rther
a
from D -
.
,
t
,
a nd B
y ;
’
B ,
an d 8 being
’
the c rves which a ppro
,
’
a ch u
, .
should be noted how the curve B ppro ches the asy mptotes a a .
1 7 5 There will a
. lso be a c sp for some negative v al ue u
iv
( ) a n d v
( ) an d therefore
,
a multiple point .
F ig 1
. .
In the fig re the curves m arked oz nd w a e the c ases
u . a r
is the hyperbol a ( vi ) .
4
OL
— —( x
, ,
4 4 2
x OL
whence 2a f+ u
, )y 0
gives the tangent at ( or O) fOr
,
an y v alue of CC .
SPECIA L CURVE OF T HE F OURT H DEGREE
Ne ar ( a ,
+M = O,
e r
n a
—2 a —
( 5 nl{ a
2
near —) a
—{
,
2
a
e r — —1 — )
n a 7 a a
—
, ,
z
f (t a a i
At a point ( 0 B ) where the curve crosses
, Oy
If ( 0 B ) is
, ordin ary point the form there is given b y
an ,
—
{ B (B 1 ) (B
If ( 0 B ) is a multiple or conj u g te point the form is
, a ,
g iven b y
{ 3 + (tfi — 1 )}
2
w { (B
3 — l ln = 2 2 2
{ 3 + ( tfi — 1 ) } w —
2
6 (B
2 2
as B or > 1 .
3< B —
(B ) (B l — 3
—1
B 1 é ne arl y ,
,a
an d a+1 = +
I
I —
F ne rly a ,
as in A rt . 1 71 .
is as follows
The equ tions to be s tisfied besides th at of the rve a e
a a cu r
—w }+ (é y 2
y (y
—1 —
) (y 2 )
a3
{ 2 w —y
2 2 —
y
SPECI A L CURVE OF T HE F OURT H DEGREE
an d ,u is to be determined s o th at these eq ations u a nd the
eq u ations of the c u rve a e simult neously s atisfied r a .
( )
a I f x = 0 (
y y
— 1 ) (y
.
an d 2
%y y
therefore y (y
—2 ) —4 (y
s o th a t when a is given the l a st eq tion gives the v alues ,
ua
=g
[
an d 4 (a + for a cusp
—( é y
.
( b) If 2w 2 -
y
2
y
2 —w 2
therefore
an d fro m the equ tion of the c u rve a ,
2
2 ( 29 + y
therefore %y + y
2
1 —(3 2 ) (y )
:
y a ,
an d =
y
which gives the position o f the sing l ar point for any v alu e u
of a .
3a —2= 2 /3 or a — —l or
+ N ,
1
whence y .
3 2 J )
3 —
2 g
T ne rl y a .
A g ain , 3y 2 fg/3
e ,
so or %y + y —l 2
th erefore — i nearly 2 7
.
when x = 0 ,
y
— ( y
l 2 + 2 0 with the lower sign of A
( ) , ,
the pper and lower sign ; the d ark lines and conjug te
u a
v alue 0
1 80 . The case of two asy mptotes is given by the equ ation
a i m/( l yma n.
2
x a
—1 and in no point if
, ,
it be
Where it meets Oy ,
2
9 i1 11
(y
an d
-
y 0;
1 60 SPECI A L CURVE OF T HE F OURT H DEGREE
PLA T E
XI I . therefore the ordin ates of such points a re the common ordi
n ates of y + ( %y x
2
,
_ = w
(
2
(y
4
%
an d
directions .
—3 and
.
,
a is 1 ,
how to form the sy stems of curves cor
,
co
responding to di fferent v al es of u u
,
. .
F ig 1
. .
When a
1 83 3 the critic l m gnit des
. being posi , a a u , a
,
F ig 3
. .
R determi ning the multiple point q n d conjugate point
,
a f
r .
+ 4/u ( y
2
x
and (y
With these v al u es
2
0
6
(y v
( )
1 86 The par abol a ( iii ) is fix ed for ll v alues of a and
. a
,
a , ,
meets the ax is of y .
m eets the a x is of y .
of y .
,
Z .
,
v alue .
Q T Q S then b iv
y ( ) x = gTM corresponds ,
to ,
2
a or l ne arly as s hewn in A rt 1 7 1 g
5
-
,
. . .
r a
where it is greatest .
Fig 4
. . series of ovals .
1 92 . a = 09 by
(y
2
+x
2
) { ( ty 1) + w}
2 2
If y 0 ,
x
2
H 1 + J( 1 s u ppose ,
if x = 0, y
2 —2 y = i 2 c, or
Ne
a r (on ,
a
2
y ( 40a
3
2a ) 5 0 ,
near ( 0 when 2 0 1 gx
, t gx ne arl y ,
2 —n = 0 or q
2
,
:
.
an d (5y —1 ) ( y
which a e e sil y obt ined from the condition
r a a .
of the hyperbol a
x( 5 y —4 1
(5 y 2 ) (w —%y
an d the curve x y) 4 0
2
y( 2 2
.
traced for nd g i P A Q an d P Q a ,
v z .
’ ’
.
v alues of y is s atisfied .
,
’
a
is 40 ( 1 y ) x I f then y s in 0x 2 0sec 6
2 2 2
.
,
.
E xamp les X .
2
l .
( x a
2 2
)y (y 2
b2)2x .
i d
F n the m u t l ipl p i nts nd tr th r v
e o a ace e cu e
br h h p int f infi l ipl
.
,
pi t
o n .
2 . ay x ( a ) x3 x ( a ) .
S h w th t
e a
‘ ‘
2 6 a , 01 a ) is p int f infi xi a o o e on .
3 A ppl y t h
. e m etho d f m p rtm nts t dr
o co a e o aw the cu rv s e
( ) a xy3 c
2
( x2 + y2 a
2
) .
She w that, in o rd r th t th r m y b si ng l r p i
e a e e a e a u a o n t, 4 c2 = 3 ~/3 a 2,
and that the t wo br h s i li d t
an c e t gl s
are nc ne o a an e T 7 11 and
1
{ gm
( 6) x4 —c ) 2
.
r
T ace the cu e f o r the t wo c a rv s s 0 § nd =
e a a c a J2
r v ts 0x wh r —%a rl y
.
Pr v th t th r
o e tw l aps in th t g l b tw n th
e e are o oo e ac u e an e e ee e
dividi ng li s d th t t th p i nts wh r th l ps
ne an p r ll l t a a e o e e e oo ar e a a e o
0x y = —§ n rl y
,
,
a ea .
4 .
(y —4 a ) .
Sh d a e the co m p r tm t s
a pi d b y th rv
en u n occud sh e e c u e, an ew t hat it
cu ts 0x an d Oy at dis t n s n rl y 3
a ndce fr m th rigi n
ea a a a o e o .
5 .
( 3x 2
y
2
2 ax) y 3
4a 2
x x (
2
+y
2
3 )
3
012
0 ,
6 .
( xi —4 > a
i
.
S h w th t t th tw p i nt s wh r th rv ts th sympt
e a a e o o e e e cu e cu e a o te in
th q e dr nt x Oy it is q ll y i n li d t th sym p t t
ua a , e ua c ne o e a o e .
(y —x —a
3—
)y (y
x (y —y (y2 —ay
2
8 Dr w th sy s t m s
a e e of cu r v s rr sp ndi ng t diff r
e co e o o e e nt vl sa ue of
q ti ns
.
p in th e e ua o
an d PW
S Y ST E MA T IC T R A CING OF CURVES
a = 0; or
rrangement which would give distinct com
any a
p t
arm ents within which the c rve must lie u .
If not Obvio s for other reasons the side of the asy mptote
u ,
p arallel to the axes and other pec liar points which would ,
u
d ifiicu lti s will illustr ate the applic ation of these ru les
e , ,
Ex 1 . .
y (b
2 —) x .
lie .
11 If x = 0or a
.
,
if x 00
iii Near ( 0 . b y = ax ,
2 2
ne ar ( 0 b) 2b q
,
ax ,
2
ne r ( a
a ,
by —a 2
near ( a i b) 2b n a f
, ,
2 2
.
iv N e ar ( .
) y co ,
co ,
%a ( y + xy
2
x
2
) + ax
2
by 2
0 ,
S Y ST E MA T IC T RA CING OF CURVES
N e a r ( 0 b) 4b 2 2 : 2a 2
x
2
—2 J2
, , ,
ne ar ( a J 2 b) , , 4b fl = 2a (
2 2
2
a
f) .
i 7 r/4 .
2 2
Ex 4
. . a y
2
(x b) 2
(a
2
x ) (b x a
2 2
) .
T he
curve is sy mmetric al with respect to the ax is of x .
When x i 0 y a
/b ,
2
,
x a
2
/b , y 0 ,
x= x y =Q
x= b y = x .
N e ar y =a b
/ a /b ) x
2 2 2
near ( a /b 2
( 1 ,
a / )y f
b = 2 2 2 2
,
near ( t a y
,
= + 2a
2
ne ar ( b 00 ,
x b= ( a
2
F ig 4
. . The d ark lines correspond to b a the curves m arked ,
oz an d B correspond to b
. an d a .
Ex 5
. .
( a
3
y x
4 2
) a
4
(x za) ( x 2 2
a
2
) 0 .
I f x _i a a two
- -
alues v
y , , ,
y 2 a two v alues
4
x 2a , , ,
x 00 y 00
a nd y =0 gives no re al valu es of x .
N e ar ( i a, a ) ,
77
2
i 2af ,
near ( 2 a ,
2 4
a ) , (a
3
rg 4 2 2
$
)
a
3 2
3 61 6
5
2
5
(2 i
N e ar ( ao oc a
3 —
y x
4
i a x
2 2
.
SYS T E M A T IC T RA CING OF CURVES
the curve near s ch p articul ar points s m ay h ave turned
i
of u a
an
y sing l ar points u .
2
(y (x )
2 2 2
Ex . 1 . ax ) ay
y aJ 2 i3a ne arl y fi 7 .
x= y= %a or a roughl y .
If x —a y i a 2
(y
2
,
-
2
y
4 '
a
3
y i a
“
0 .
The lower sign gives no sol ution ; but with the u pper sign
y
— % a n d % a ne arly a ,
x %a and %a n early ,
N e ar ( 0 2 a o x 4 oz 7 2 a x ;
,
0 z
.
2 3
. ;
2
»
an d as oz i %a ne rly 7 .i ne arly a , 7 .
at P an d Q where y = a x meets it
2
.
2 4
)y
3 2
Ex 2 . . axy ( x a a x O
.
e r ( 00
n a x 2
y
2
a
4 =0,
near ( 00 ,
oo a —
y x
2
+ 3 a x —3a 2 = 0 ,
( 00 i s ? a (y
e r (a a )
n a , 3a n $ 0 ,
2 3
.
a<y + a ) s z
x —a )@
3 s 2
0 ,
—<
w
whence y a, x a,
a nd 4a , y 6 7 a , 40
'
a
'
,
°
3 7a ,
nearly .
2 2 2 a 3 2 2
) 2a ( y ) (y )
s
Ex 3 a (y x x a x x y
'
. .
a
y (y a )
2
ax x (
2
2 ax a
2
) x
2
y
2
0 .
If x = 0 , y
=0, or a, two v al u es ,
if y = a, x= 0 , or s ay ,
if y = 0 , ( J
i 2 —1 ) a ,
if x= ( i J2 —1 ) a ,
y nd ( y
—a ) —
T =0,
a
2
When x= -
a, y
3
w hence y = 2a, or
N ear ( 0 , y x 2x 3
/ a
2
0 ,
e r (0 a)
n a , , 77
2
ax 0 ,
ne r ( oz a )
a , , ( 3a
2
2 a oz a
2
)5 2 01 37 2
0 ,
( 2 oz+ a ) §
. 20m 0 ,
955 5 m
95 : 1 3 77 .
S Y ST E MA T IC T R A CING OF CURVES
N e ar ( so oo x
2
a (y —2 ) a ,
an d
y
3
3a y 2
a
2
y 2a 3
0 ,
F ig 1 0
. . lines y = 2 a and ,
Ex 4 . .
(y
2
az ) (y
2
b x) 4
x ic “
.
When y x =0 ,
2
92
2
b) 4
i c
4
i '
9
2
W b) w .
F ig 1 1
. .
The three p arabol a s a e dotted in the figure r .
Le t c = ( 1 —n )( a — n )f
4 2 2 4
,
( 1 x n )f
2 2
x ,
therefore x
2
lies between ( 1 )f and ( 1 + n )f n
2 2
—( a + b) x }2 + ( x2 —
.
,
If n 0 {y,
2
f
2 2
) 0 shewing , that
F ig 1 2
. . there are two conjug te points a .
SYST E MA T IC T R A CING OF C UR V E S
'
Ex 5 . .
y
2
(x y)
2
(x y) 2a (x y) 11
2 7
3 4a 2
it
3
0.
N ear
the origin the tri ngle shews th at y a
5
4a 2
x
3
0 .
y
2
2 ay 4a 2 0
,
whence
N e ar ( oo oo
2 (x + —4 a
2 = 0 ,
x+ y =
‘ -
’
2a , or a,
an d x y a 0 .
or
therefore this asy mptote touches the curve at a
.
a< 9?
m + 2 9( 52 + ” 90 z
4 a x 0 2 3
,
y ( x + y) ( y + wy
2
2 90 ) 4 0W 0 ,
To solve write ,
y zx, then
0 ,
so that if = 2 u z
2
,
which the par allel lines meet so that in e ch case the curve ,
a
2y —
. . .
When or x=1 , y = 0,
3
3y 2
N e ar ( O ( x —y ) lx giving
, a cer a toid cusp 2 3
, ,
2
x+ y :
fi x ,
2
x ;x 2y .
N e ar ( co )
5 4=
0
'
,
co , x + 2y .
or ne arly x = § y
, ,and x __
2 5
1 f
F ig 1 4
. . It I S p arallel to Ox where x = 5 y nd x ,
a
2 : 23 1
2
Ex 7 . .
6
x a
2
y
4
a z
2 a
y
3
a zy
2
0 .
Fig 1 5
. . l acing the equ ation on the tri angle the forms at the
P ,
origin a e y + a x 0 x + a y 0 an d x + a y 0
r
2
,
2
,
3 2
.
Fig 1 6
. . the tangent to the Ioop in x Oy ’
.
( ) (x
2 3
Ex . 8 . 4y x y a y . b) 5
.
,
’
becomes y (y x oz) x
’
3 ’ ’ ’
5
.
origin a e y ( y —x ) x r
’
3 ’ ’
2 ’
5
If x = zy z ( z ’
an d the v l es of z in this equ a
’
,
5
a u
an d y x = ( x
2
the a2
of which s the two rectang l ar I u
F ig 1 7
. .
whose common absciss a is ne arly if m be this v al e let u ,
z — zz — l r z mw
z — z)
i -
z z .
m
¢( ) 5m + 4 —m ) .
REPE AT ING CURVES
The equ ation of the symptote is a by ( i)
—m y = 2
, ,
x
’ ’
oz ( l or x
’
and when x
’
oz, y
’
= Tig oz ‘ .
N e ar the origin 2 ’ ’
2 5
, oz
y x ,
ne r ( 0 oz)
a , , 17 90
'
ne ar ( oz oz) if
, ,
therefore f ) 5 5 or 5 7 7 5 :
, 1 : .
MO ) a =
y
— 3
whence if a —
7
b y =
= —
5
,
b — 1—
1 1
b , or "
Tgb
l
' ‘
nearly .
Fig 1 8
. .
CURV ES R E PE A T I N G .
F O T
. . . M
R EPEATI N G CURVES
200 Take the equ ation of the curve to be
.
f ( sin y s in x) 0 , ,
f ( f 7) , 7 O ,
Oy meet ( iv ) in 8 .
which corresponds to 10 .
F or 7 xM OM x 7 b y ( iii )
, ,
§ = sN ON =
y b iv
y ( )
, .
multiples of 115 m
201 In order to facilit ate the tracing of any cu rve such
.
,
as ( i ) b y constructing
,
s ffi cient number of points the a u ,
”
, ,
in x 1 .
s in x
3
t an y 4 3a sin x tan y
3
0
.
f
i
5
3
3a i 5 = o .
O, O D E
, ,
.
the curve t au x t n y 3 t an x t an y 0 3
a
3
a .
—% ) is f + n= 0
,
at the point ( 1 ~
2
7 r, 7r .
The point b lies in the line x = f/2 y which cont ins the ,
a
OA B .
those which produce the Lemnisc ate form an d the conj gate u
point .
p
from the origin along the asy mpto te for the p articul ar c ase ,
L emniscate Of F ig 3 . .
—( ¢
,
E xamp l es XI .
2
1 . 2y ( a
2
+ x 2
) 4 ay ( a 2 x
2
) (a 2
x 2 2
)
Pr v th t th ro tw sps th t g ts t whi h t th rv
e a e e are o cu ,
e an en o c cu e cu e
at dis t n g fr m 0 l th t th rv t r s t th p i nts wh r
a a ce a o x, a s o a e cu a u e a e o e e
th rv r ss s Oy v ry rly i th r ti 1 1 6
e cu e c o e a re e nea n e a o .
2 . x2 ( y
3 2
4 a 2) + 314 6a y 2 2
4a4 0 .
Sh ew that the r di s
a u rv o f cu at u r e w he r e the cu rv r ss s is 4
e c o e
5
a .
I f it r ss Oy c o at B an d 0 pr v ,
o e tha t 0B 00are ,
th r dii f
e rv t r
a o cu a u e
at C, B .
3 x5 = x2 ( —y ) (x 2 2
43 2
)
Sh ew that the t wo l psoo on the n egat iv sid
e e of y Oy
’
ru n p r ll l t
a a e o
ne ar Pom ts ( 1
—I 96 )
Sh ls p r ts rv idi s ymp t
.
x6 = x2 2
(
2
4 i1 ) (x 4J 2 )
to t s
e cu t the l ps wh r = 4
oo e e x 2 n ea1
5
ly .
5 .
( x +y 2 2 2
) 6 a xy + 2 xx3 = 0 2
.
Sh ew that the r e a re th r l ps
ee oo ,
an d that the tange nt s are p r ll l
a a e
to 0x where x+ 4a
5 : 0and x =
g a n ea rl y .
2 2
6 . x 5
(x y )( x
2 2
5 xy 2y 2
) .
Pr v o li s j i i g th ri g i wi th th p i ts
e that the ne o n n e o n e o n o f c o n tact o f
tan g t s t th thr
en l ps whi h o p ll l t Oy
e ee oo c are ara e o are x + 2y = 0,
3x =2
y 3 x =4 r
y gh ly
,
ou .
7 .
(y —x 2
) (y —x3 — 2 =
) yx 0 .
E m i th f rm s whi h rr sp d t th sid s
xa ne e o c co e on o e e of the q u adr i
ltrl
a e a th tr i gl Sh w onwhi h sid f th e an e . e on c e o e t wo g u idi ng
p r b li symp t t s th rv li s t th f r ds
a a o c a o e e cu e e a e ou en .
2 3 2 1 4 2 =0
y + § J2
5 4
8 . x y ax a y + a xy g a x .
sh w th t th g idi ng p r b li symp t t ts th rv wh r
e a e u a a o c a o e cu e cu e e e
x= rly nd th t th s m i bi l p r b li sym p t t ts th
75
7
a n ea ,
a a e e -cu ca a a o c a o e cu e
curv in th q dr t x Oy
e e ua an
’
.
3x2 2 —0
9 x7 y 3 a 2(x5 y )+
5
4 a
y
S h w th t th r
e sps d d bl p i t ; th t th r di
a e e are t wo cu an a ou e o n a e a us
of rv t r t th p i ts wh r th rv m ts th
cu a u e a s is ; nd e o n e e e cu e ee e ax e 3a a
th t th br
a h s f th d bl p i nt m k
e q l gl s wi th y = x
an c e o e ou e o a e e ua an e .
,
eac h b i ng t n e a
EX A M PLES
10 . x 3
y
2
( y x2 ) (y 2 x2) (y 3 x2 ) .
POin tS (t )
l
a nd 3 9
)
a Fa 3 67 17 56 6
3 2 2 2 2
(y x ) x (x 1 ) (x
3x 2 3
y (y 2 x) 4 5 x2 .
U s e the m e tho d f o co m p rt m
a ent s f r m th s d f r m
o e e co n o ,
an d o bs rv
e e
fr om the fi rs t f rm th o
2
a t x cann o t li b tw e 1 d 4 e ee n an .
2
12 s in x co s
.
y .
is n ea rl y 32
3 .
13 . si x y sy u
2
cos
2
a co .
Tr th p tt rn
ace rr sp di g t = § d 1
e a e co e on n o a an .
14 . t s y t y g 2
au x ec
2
an x s ec a
2
.
Tr th p tt r
ace rr sp di g t th
e ili ry ir l s i ns rib d i
a e n co e on n o e au x a c c e c e n
a nd ir ms r ib d b t th sq r s wh s sid s
c cu c e x i 1 a d ou e ua e o e e are : an
i ] a nd x =
y y
: :
,
( s y si y si x 2 y 0
2 2 2 2 3
15 .
) 6 co u x a co s u a cos .
Dr w th r p ti g rv i th t w s s i whi h th
a e e ea ili ry n cu e n e o ca e n c e au x a
th sq r f rm d b y y i 1 d x = i 1
e ua e o e : an .
C H A P TE R XI I .
I NVE R SE P R OCES S . A C U R VE B E NG G I I V EN ,
TO F I ND I T S EQ U A TI ON .
of an lgebraic al eq tion
a ua .
all the const ants which would a ppe a r in the gener a l eq tion ua
‘
a curve might be distinguished from a c ircle b its fl a tnes s
y
where it meets the ax es but it wo u ld be h ard to distinguish ,
with s u ch a degree .
O cusp is o b vious
r .
the lowest powers from the forms near the origin ; at the
s me time there might be im agin ry branches which would
a a
eq tion
ua .
INVERSE PR OCESS
Where y : 0 the
, equ ation reduces to
y x
2 2
( x 0 .
eq ation to be
u
x=c n d it will be fo nd th at = or = 3 ne rl 2 2
,
a
y gc y 0 u
y ,
a ,
therefore 30 ozo
B 0 0 2 2
,
or oz + B0 30 .
—
,
{ if 30 B RCH Bx) 4 1 0 CY }
2 2
1 90 U 3 ,
we h ave ( oz Bx) 4 y (x x)
2 2
,
oz —
'
hence B =4
y B 0 gc
2
d 2
,
2 2 2 2
—6
,
an d
therefore oz
.
B
an d by ( )
A %a
The resulting equ ation is
4
y
whence at the m ltiple point y u nearly n d ne r the a a
origin ( y —i em) ( y
,
2 t
0 2
.
This does not coincide wi th the equ tion in the tex t but a ,
m y be represented b y x
a ma y 3 2
.
, ,
and = t a
y .
( 2 a,
2 ) s apoint in th
a e curve
a n d it is e asily seen th t ,
a a
tex t .
Ex 3 T ake fig 1 7 Pl III
. . .
, . .
red cible to
u
y
— 2 x = x
y
— x B x nd
a
2
y
2
+ x,
=
y x ; -
,
a
2 2
sented b y y
=6 x or y
=8x or 2
dx
2
,
4 3
,
3
,
to be given b y y —a + 2 x — x e
2 2
.
az —
y 2 x> z
y
2
exh usted
a .
E x 4 T ake fi g 2 6 P l I II
. . .
,
. .
2
y 00 x both 2
e,
represented b y the eq tion
ar ua
2 6y 3
ozx
3
y Bx
5
0 .
S ince
there is a m ltiple point u ne ar ( 1 , the equ tion a
— — —
.
,
=O
y B
3 2
y 6y a ,
INVERS E PR OCESS
PLA T E
X VI I .
must be —
( y 1 ) (y
2
6 = B+ 2 ,
y y y gu ,
re
therefore g 6 2 and 6
We h ave now rrived at the fin al eq tion a ua
( w—2 ) (y - —w2
i ) y + 2 wy
2 3
Ne ar ( 2 x ,
oo s o th t the curve lies to a
N e ar ( 1 let x = 1 + 5 y 1 + 7
, , 7 ,
s ince y
— i
3 2
2
(y 1 ) (y a) ,
whence
therefore ( fl 2 9 % 5 an d 7 2 —5 or —5 2 2
, 7
5
2
,
J 4
,
to be ne arer to 2 .
essenti l pointsa .
D B Y (I nn T R IA NG LE ME T H O .
co n t in in g c ir l
a which indic te terms of n e q tion give
'
c es a a ua ,
x nd y s f
a s degree is concerned ; so th t if there be
a ar a a , ,
e a ,
a u uc a
, tc f
r, s, e . a
gr m B OA F in Ox take
a
’
OA n d in O
y t ke
, ,
a a
, ,
a c c
t h s if we neglect y + ”
x 00 y u ,
s 3’
,
s’
,
p red with Bx or x
a f omp red with x which is the c se
“ ” r’ s’
c a
2
,
a ,
since / /
f
r s f
r
’
8 .
enco nters when moved p r llel to itself tow rds the right
u ,
a a a
F. C T .. N
M E T H OD BY T HE T RIA NGLE
angle the e xception being when the s am e factor w hi ch gives
,
intersection .
th c rve
e u W m s t then trust to o ingen ity or if we
. e u ur u , ,
nd y —
,
wy s
y + x 7 3 2
y
_w7
0 ,
M E T H OD BY T HE T RI A NGLE
which lso g ves the line corresponding to the symptote so
a i a ,
a a ,
,
a
neg tive gives onl y one ch nge nd y has only one positi ve
a a ,
a
v l e as in the figure
a u .
in other respects .
F C T
. . .
M E T H OD BY T HE T R IA NGLE
x
3
will pp aren tl y represent the infinite br anches
= d2y a ,
The eq ation u
ozx
y
2
By
s
y x
3 4
y dx 5
ex
4
0
represents all the above forms which correspond to the
sides of the polygon the c oefficients being chosen s o s to
,
a
a s mptote
y .
2
u .
tried is therefore
k
s / 96
i y
A pply ing De s C a rtes
r u le of signs ’
:
x> 0 y + gives ,
y gives
consistent with one or more two val es of y u ,
y + gives
x gives
consistent with one one or more v l e of y a u ,
y 1 v es
g
consistent with no one v l e of y a u .
2y z
y
i—2 —
> a a
2
s y+ a > o.
=
one giving y a little gre ater and the other a little less th n a
a ) ( i ) gives y = a —
, .
N e ar ( oo a /x whereas ( ii ) gives
,
3 2
,
an d ( a a) an d th at the ne x t
,
ppro x im ation to the
,
a
at ( 2 a ,
N e ar ( 4a 77 :
e
near ( a —a )
,
(0 ,
oo
A g ain
the curve represented b y ( i ) cuts the asymptote
,
= a where x = %a
y
—m y y is known from the equ ation
.
,
A lso if x , ,
m ( m + 1 ) y —( m 2m 3 ) a y 2 m (m l)a = 0
2 4 3 3 4
, ,
4
9y 3la y 3
4a 4
0 ,
whence y a and a a —% —
— ne rly so th t the loop is
2
1 g ,
a
‘
I f we a ssign v al u es to y an d ppl y the u le of signs a r
to x .
(y ne r b x = B ne r ( 00 a
) b 2
x (y —
a ; a
y y y
a) = — O ; also ne ar —
, ,
2
which is a point of the
'
2
a,
curve ,
M E T H OD BY T HE T RI A NGLE
The bounding polyg on contains the circles corresponding
to the following terms
a (x — — — w 2 2
y)
3
( y a )
where y is an d x + 6x +
y yy = 0has no re al root 2 2
.
a
2
(x y)
2
(y a ) x
3
ozyx
2
By
2
x y xy
3
6x y2 2
0
.
Ne a r a,
ax
2
(x a ) 2a 2
xy
3
x y ozx
2
y 0 ,
an d
y can be determined b y the app arent v alues of y when
x —a i ,
v z . nd y = 0
, The eq ation so a . u
2 B+ 4 a = 3 a , B = —% ai
v in
an d the equ ation of
-
the curve is
a
2
(y x )
2
(y a x )
s
2 a yx 2
4 a xy
2
4xy
3
x
2
y
2
0 .
It only rem ains to see how fa this agrees with the given r
curve
—
.
When y = a ( x a) ,
2
x 4a lmost e xa ct , a .
When y = x x (x a) 0 ,
3
,
N e ar ( a) y
oo — a 2 a x
3 ‘2
The tangent at —a
.
,
i y + x + a = 0 meets the , v z .
, ,
or y = 0 an d
2
whose roots a e impossible r ,
ET H OD B Y PA RT IA L CURVES M .
(w
z —c2) = 0 ,
curve .
F ig 8
. . 22 8 The curve represented ( Pl X V I I fig 8 ) can be con
. . . .
i( x
2
y
2 2
) 4a 2
x
2
}( x
2
$
9
2
4 62 2
) “a s
0 °
When x= 0 one
,
v l e of y is % a b y the fi gure ; whence
a u ,
4a 2 — y oza
2
/1 6 4a 2
2 a /4 5 ,
2 : 2a —/9 0 a .
Fig 1 1
. .
contrive th at the p arti al c rves sh all be c t b y the g v en u u 1
been by d) 0
( ax (
2 2 2
1 ) (y 0) oz x .
tri ngle a .
Fig 1 2
. . The equ ation of the c rve in fig 1 2 is of the form u .
( x
2
+y
2
2 0x) ( y 2
m 2
x
2
) +m
2
) x 2 0} oz
2
0;
F ig 1 3
. . an d since the curve in fig 1 3 crosses the p rti al lines in . a
( x
2 --
iy
2
2 0x) ( y 2 —m x ) 2 2
+m
2
)x 2 0}
— oz a x +
2
( by 0 .
Examp les XI I .
cu e n fi 2 0 m ay b e ou n fig 1 9 e e ent ha Of the cu e,
g
wh s q is dis v r d rv b i s ri l i
. .
,
o e e u ati on to b e co e e , t he c u e e ng ym m et ca w th
r sp t t
e ec p r i l rv s
o x 0
’
x ; the di d d d li s
a t a cu e are in cate b y otte ne .
F g r
or l m pl s f th
en e a is h p t r q t
e xai n s m y b i n
ev s t i
o g t d c a e e ua o a e e a e
t r p r s nt th rv s 1 2 6 9 1 3 1 5 1 8 2 0 2 1 2 5 2 8 t d i
,
o e e e e cu e , , , , , , , , ,
1 ace n
P] V . .
CLA S S I F I ED LI S T OF THE CURV E S
D I SC U S SED .
E T N
( Plat gfgiiiigb )
er
Q UA I O
I “ 8 3/ x c
v
2
( 1)
II . 5 y = x2 + 3173
II . 6
H 7, 8, 9 » 1 0
( )( —3 a)
II . 11
x a x
(y 2 —4 ) x
2 _ bz
x(y -
x )
x (y
0 920 a x=
2
0
$3 + y3 —3 a xy = 0
x —
(y x)
2=
a
y
2
— 2
y)
—
2 x (x y) 2—
3 a (@2
—2 )
(x —a
z= 3
)y e
—b)y = c3
—
( y x) (y a
s
(y
x
2— 2 =
y y x a (x
-
b)2 —b (y —a)
2
W + 2 “ 2
9
—a x —3 a % —3 a
3=
2 0
2
y( b2 —x)
CL A SSIFIED LIS T O F T HE CURV E S
Q UA RT IC CU R V ES .
E T N Q UA I O
x4
3 axy 2
2 ay3 = 0
4
90
xy —
2 4=
4
90 + a 3/ O
a
2
(x ) (x 3 a )
a
x ( x —2 a )
—
y (y l >
o
—l >
<x - 2 >
jg
“ 100c1 x 2 2
x
4
0
= x (x
y
( y + x)
3
a
4 2
2a g + 2 a z 2
x 2 3 ax3 + x4 = O
y
— — —
< y> < a
x x > —ix
4—
a
4=o 2 z
z
x
4
a wj a
y
3
O
x
4
a ny
?
a
2
y
2 by3 0
2 2 2 =0
y (y
h
x ) (y
2 2 x) 3 a (y x x ) 2a x
3/
2
(
2
x
?
y ) 2 ay
/
3 2a x
3
0
CL A SSIFIED LIS T OF T HE CURVES
EQ T N
UA IO
( x2
—ag) z
a
4
a
3
(y —x) —2 2
a (/
g
2 -
x2y = 0
2
CURV ES OF T HE F I F T H DEG RE E .
z
.
-5 —2 a3x2 4
--
5 a
3
xy
—2 a
3 2
y +y
5 =
0
a
3
Qy —2
x 2
)
(_
y
—x) — 2 az
4
+
3
ya — x5 =
4
0
—4 ax3(y —x) + 2 x5 —x4y = 0
,
2 a 2 (y
x5
x5 3 bx3y bxvf 0
zé —x ya
3
z
é —az 3y —2 a 2xy2 + a 2y3 = 0
x 5
a xy
3
0
5
2 13 :
3 0
x5 —a zy —y4 = 0
3
a
x3y2 —2 2 2
a x
y + x
a
4 —b5 = 0
14 xé —aa3 g —bx2y2 + y5 = 0
x5
x3 —5 ax2y2 + y5 = 0
5 — 2 3 —‘
b2 2 5 =
0
'
x a x
y xy + y
‘
2
y ( 3 x — 4y)
3 — 4 =
a m o
4 a2 Qy —8 ax3 (y
2
x (y — x) 3—
av = 0
;
4
'
a my3 (x ~
a xy —
3
(x
x (xz — a ) — = 0
y
2
y
5
x ( x z —ay>2 — 4
y < y
—c>=o
—a )3 2 1 -
—4 a x3 = 0
2
CLA SSIFIED LIS T O F T HE CURVE S
.
EQ T N
UA IO
—3/
a
G
x6 = 0
6
x dxy3 i e “
y
x6 a
z " 3 2
O
y a x
y
x6 2 a 2x3y b3y3 O
m m u x 3
y
3=
0
a ( x5 + y5 ) q
2
x3y + x 2 4
y O
G Z
C
y ( a
. b) c3x3y a bxfi 3
c x3
y
2
0
x6 2 a 2x? b3y 3 O
x6 2 690331 2 2 a bm4 [ fi/g 4 2 a b2xy2 2
a bzx2 O
6 6 5
y + x a
y + a ( ay cx x3
) =0
2
(y 3 a )z = o
x6 —y 6
+ 61 3 0
9 3 a xy) = 0
x6 a
)( x3 i- y3— 3 axy ) = 0
(y 2 x + 2 a )(x 2y +
—a ) = o 3
2
(y ax
)(
2
x a
)
2
+y 2
a
2
) O
( 56
2
096 3
a
2
( i
x — 2
a
2
)( x2 + y2 4 a 2) = 0
( y 2 33 + 2 a ) (x 2y + 2 a ) x23/ 2
XIV 16 x6 z 4 '
2 3 3 2
a
y + a x
y a xy O
.
iw(a x ) a
2 2
}y 3
0
07
x7 fi y“ a
4
g/
3
ax
2
y
4
x7 x 4y3 a
3 4
ax 5
y y
x7 03 2
6 3
6
9
—
0 y)0 Q
5
0 6 0
XIV 2 2
( x 3 a
.
a a
)( 2 x) 2
CLA SSIFIED LIST OF T HE CURVES
CUR V E S OF T HE EIG H T H D E G REE .
E T N Q UA I O
a
s 5
y .r
z fi
y x
5
y
3
ax
e
y
e z
a x 0
4
( at? a ( x 2 a )? (x2 a
2
) O
3 3
s in x + s in y 3 a s in x s in y = 0
si 3
u x tan3 g
/ 3 a s in 33 tan y O
l i l
An a yt ca T r ang e, 1 1 7 -1 2 2 , 1 7 1 , i l Dg e e nerat o n o f c u r i
v s 2 4 8 3 1 35 e -
v 23
, , , .
1 93 . Dg e f
ree o a cu r e,
i ls s A l yti l T i gl 5 8
.
ls
.
,
exam p e o f, 34 61 117
s s
.
C t s R l f Si g s 1 9 5 1 9 6
.
,
to a ym p to te , 7 9 -8 2 , 88 -9 5 D es ar e
’
u e o n
s
.
D b l p i ts 4 5 85
.
, ,
t o t ange nt , 1 5 , 3 9 , 4 4 ou e o n
li l i
.
t i fi i ty 9 5 9 8
, , .
at mu t
p e p o nt, 4 5 , 4 9 , 5 1 , 5 4 a n n
i
.
, , .
a t p o n t o f in fl e xio n , 4 2 , 4 8 , 4 9
s
.
cu r n e ar, 1 0 7, 10 8
s v s 1 00
.
sym pt t s t 1 00
.
,
p arab o c , 64 , 6 5 , 9 3 , 1 0 8 a o e o,
ll l
. .
p ara e , 95 , 9 8 .
ll l
para e to axe , 8 0 s I fi i
n p i t f 5 1 5 2 2 30 3 1
e x o n, o n o
ll s
.
, , , , , ,
n o t p aral e to a xe , 88 -92 42 4 8 4 9
si t i fini ty 7 2 9 7
. .
, ,
qu a 6 9, 1 08 a n
d i i
.
, ,
Is l t d p t i s f v 1 49
.
e term n at on o f, 7 4 o a e or on o a cu r e,
d i i
. .
v s
.
, , , , .
ho w cu r e ap pro ac he , 8 1 , 9 1 ,
92 . M th d f m p tm ts 1 4 3
e o o co ar en ,
ii i f p ti l v s 2 00
.
A u x l ary e u at o n, 2 9 q o ar a cu r e
M lt i p l p i ts 5 4 5 5 4 1 34
. .
,
u e o n
B
, ,
t i fi it y 7 2 80 95 9 8
.
, ,
eer, A 152 a n n
d t m i ti
.
.
, , , ,
e er f 85 1 37 na on o , ,
.
Change o f o r g n, 3 1 3 7 ii
s d N wt s L m m s 1 6
.
,
P ll l g m 5 8 1 1 7
,
i s
. .
,
i i i l sl i
.
, , , , ,
f 32o
v t 1 7 40 d s q iis
.
,
Cu r a ur e , Or er o f u ant t e , 9 , 5 8 7 9
ii
.
, ,
i l f 1 8 4 1 43
.
c rc e o Or g n chan ge o f, 3, 1 37
s v
.
i f 40 4 1
.
, , , ,
c on c o hap e o f c u r e near, 39 4 5 , 5 8 .
s l i s v
, . ,
di m t f 1 8 4 1 4 4
,
a e er o , , O cu at ng b ranche o f c u r e , 5 5 .
t m ltip l p i t 5 4
.
,
a u e o n
P b l s mi b i l
,
vilin sympt t s 5
.
Cu r e ar a o e , , 69 , 9 3, ara o a, e cu ca , 21 2 4, 64 ,
10 7
sp 5 1 5 1 35 P b li sympt t s
.
Cu , , , . ara o c a o e , 64, 65 , 9 3,
ra mp h id 5 1 6 5 1 o 108
v s 1 2 20
.
, ,
k t id 5 1 3 1 6 5 1
.
,
era o , , , , . cu r e , , .
INDEX
T he nu mber s r e er tof p a ges .
Pi
o nt , con u gate, j 5 , 5 1 , 5 3, 1 35 . i s
T he ory o f e u at o n , 2 9 q
d l i l l i l
.
ou b e , 4 5 , 85 , 9 5 , 9 8 T r ang e t he A na yt ca , 1 1 7 -1 22 ,
lil
.
,
m u t p e , 5 , 4 5 , 5 4 , 1 34 1 7 1 , 1 93
i i f i s s
. .
4 8, 4 9 28
s l i v s s q i s i v lv
. .
o f o cu at on , 5 cu r e Who e e u at on n o e,
si l
.
ngu ar, 5 , 1 3 7 1 77
Pi s i s i i i
. .
65 10 8
S i g l p i ts 5 1 3 7
, .
Q u arterly J ou rnal 1 35 2 n u ar o n ,
i i i l s l ti S l t i f q t i s 32
, , .
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