21

Paper 3

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN GEAR TRIBOLOGY

H. Blok*

The paper deals primarily with two theories which, in the last decade, have been increasingly incorporated in
the theory of gear lubrication and enable both gear designers and lubricant technologists to approach the
various tribological problems in gears in a more rational manner. These theories are as follows: (1) A theory
predicting the temperature required for judging the risk of scuffing, i.e. the conjunction temperature occurring
in the area of closest approach between the meshing tooth faces. This theory combines the classical theory of
flash temperature with a thermal network theory, the latter being novel and aiming at the prediction of the bulk
temperature component of the conjunction temperature. (2) T h e theory of elastohydrodynamic lubrication
which has proved increasingly helpful in predicting both the coefficients of tooth friction and the occurrence
and severity of various kinds of tooth wear.

INTRODUCTION tures, as postulated in 1939 for non-additive mineral

GEARTRIBOLOGY, including the selection of gear lubri- oils (6), are referred to reference (7).
cants, has long been a highly empirical affair. This is
particularly true of the prediction and control of the Notation
various fribological phenomena that take place in the B Length of band-shaped conjunction zone.
meshing zone of gears, and that, like the tooth-frictional b .
Thermal contact coefficient [=(K. p c ) ~ ~ ~ ] ,
heat and the risks of scuffing and pitting, become in- where K denotes heat conductivity, p den-
creasingly important in gear design. sity, and c specific heat per unit mass.
Nowadays there are mainly two theories which enable E' Representative modulus of elasticity, defined
gear designers and lubricant technologists to judge prob- by 1/E' = ~(l--v,")/E,+(l-~,~)/E~, where
lems in gear tribology in a rational manner. The flash El and E2 are the moduli of elasticity and
temperature theory ( ~ )(2)t (3) is the older of the two, v 1 and u2 are Poisson's ratios of the rubbing
the theory of elastohydrodynamic lubrication (4) having materials 1 and 2.
taken some 25 years longer to develop to a workable stage. Hmin Dimensionless group
Recent developments in these two theories, and their =(hm*n/R)[E'R/(To ~z)ll~al.
application to gear design, form the main subject of the hmin Minimum film thickness.
present paper and will be concisely surveyed in the next L Dimensionless group,
section. The paper will also deal with certain recent {=c~,*E'[?,V~/(E'R)]~/~.
refinements in elastohydrodynamic theory and in the M Dimensionless group,
flash temperature theory or, rather, in the more general {=( w/E'R)[E'R/(vovz)l 'j2).
theory of conjunction temperatures as adapted to gear
design.
Q Heat current, i.e. rate of heat flow.
4 Heat flux.
Readers interested in a much more detailed survey are R Radius of conformity, defined by 1/R =
referred to an extensive memorandum about a series of l / R l + l / R 2 , where R , and Ra denote the
lectures the author held in Japan in 1968 (5). Those radii of curvature of the two rubbing sur-
interested in the somewhat special, but increasingly faces in their band-shaped conjunction zone
important, subject of the constancy of scuffing tempera- and in their unloaded and undeformed state.
The M S . of this paper was received at the Institution on 23rd March Rc Constrictional thermal resistance.
1970 and accepted for publication on 16th April 1970. 32 T Local flash temperature.
* Professor of Mechanical Engineering, University of Technology, Tb,1, Tb,a Bulk temperatures of the rubbing bodies 1
2 Mekelweg, De& The Netherlands.
t References are given in Appendix 3.1. and 2.
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22
J3.
Average bulk temperature [=+(Tb,I+ To,
Maximum conjunction temperature
c= Tf+Tb,ad.
Maximum flash temperature.
Sum velocity [-V,+V,], where V , and
Vz denote the tangential velocities of the
rubbing surfaces in the direction across,
and with respect to, their band-shaped
conjunction zone.
Unit load, i.e. load per unit length of the con-
junction zone.
Width of the conjunction zone.
Representative pressure coefficient of vis-
cosity.
Representative viscosity.
OVERALL VIEW ON RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
I N GEAR TRIBOLOGY
This survey will be introduced by utilizing the unifying
ideas the author developed previously about the basic and
typifying engineering characteristics of the task of
mechanical engineers in general (S), i.e. the control over
flows of force of various kinds of energy and of matter,
which also includes combinations of two or more of these
kinds of flow. As to be expected, the same ideas, as re-
flected in what follows, also prove to be fruitfully applic-
able to gear tribology. This is particularly true of the
effects, both beneficial and adverse, of the constriction that
the various flows concerned undergo in the conjunction
zone between any pair of meshing tooth faces.
The constriction presented to the flow of the gear
lubricant by the convergence of the meshing tooth faces
in front of, and partly inside, their conjunction zone
results in perhaps the only beneficial effect. In fact, this
constriction opens up the possibility for the present flow
of matter to generate pressures in the lubricant film
elastohydrodynamically. Through this generation of pres-
sures the lubricant film is made into a veritable construc-
tional element in that it is enabled, within certain limits
and without breaking down, to support the flow of force
to be transmitted between the meshing tooth faces through
their conjunction zone, i.e. through the film concerned (9)
(10)-
The constriction presented by the conjunction zone to
the above flow of force gives rise to a concentration of
stresses-and thus to the risk of mechanically over-
stressing the tooth materials-that is usually imminent in,
and in the vicinity of, constrictions. This stress concen-
tration forms the subject proper of Hertz’s theory for dry
elastic contact between counterformal surfaces. His theory
has long constituted the foundation to one of the principal
gear design calculations, the one accounting for the risk of
pitting.
However, it is being increasingly recognized that this
particular kind of design calculation is in need of refine-
ment for the effects of lubrication. This has been demon-
strated by Dawson in a disc machine (11), and later by
others in rolling bearings (12)-(15). These investi-
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H. BLOK
gators were able to account elastohydrodynamicallyfor the
deleterious influence that is exerted on pitting by what is
here termed a ‘secondary’ constriction of the flow of
force. This particular constriction and the consequent
local increase in stress concentration are caused by the
asperities that will penetrate the lubricant film whenever
the elastohydrodynamic regime is only of the marginal or
partial type, as is quite usual on tooth faces. In fact,
Dawson succeeded in achieving significant correlations of
pitting endurance with an index of the severity of contact.
This index is the ‘relative minimum film thickness’,
hmin/hr,in which ratio h,,, is the minimum film thickness
calculated from elastohydrodynamic theory (4), and h, the
composite height of the asperities.
Another kind of secondary stress concentration is
caused by the ‘Petrusevich spike’ (16) which, in a wide
range of fully elastohydrodynamic conditions (4)(17),is
at least theoretically shown to occur in the film pressure
distribution near the outlet of the lubricant film.
The above-mentioned constriction of the flow of force,
in combination with the sliding of the meshing tooth faces
on each other, entails yet another kind of constriction-
that of the flow of thermal energy, i.e. of the frictional
heat generated in the self-same conjunction zone which
accordingly has to be conceived simultaneously as a heat
source.
This frictional heat may be generated fully or partially
by the viscous shear in the lubricant film. The former
occurs when elastohydrodynamic lubrication should
result in a full fluid film. On meshing tooth faces, however,
the latter seems to be the rule rather than the exception.
Accordingly, the heat will then be generated at least in
part by the boundary friction on contacting asperities.
Unfortunately, theory has not yet been developed to the
point where it allows a reasonably reliable prediction of
the coefficients of tooth friction that are required in calcu-
lating the frictional heat and its effects. (For a survey of
empirical correlations for these coefficients, see reference
(51.1
There are several effects of this ‘constrictional’ heating
in the conjunction zone, which from thereon extends into
either adjoining material. First, the conjunction zone, in
analogy to the stress concentration incurred by its con-
striction of the flow of force, will also, through its equal
constriction of the frictional heat, cause a ‘temperature
concentration’ to occur in either adjoining tooth face
material. This concept of ‘temperature concentration’ is
identical with that of the classical concept of ‘flash
temperature’ (1)-(3)- In particular, the maximum flash
temperatures, as they occur within the conjunction zone,
exert a significant influence on the welding or scuffing
tendency of the two materials when direct contact, even if
only intermittently, can no longer be prevented (6) (7).
Further, one has to account for a related effect which ap-
parently has not so far been recognized. This is another
effect of the constriction offered by the conjunction zone
to the frictional heat generated therein. I n fact, in its
two-way flow away from this zone into the bulk of the
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 RECENT DEVELOPMESITS IN GEAR TRIBOLOGY
thermally mating bodies (i.e. the two adjoining gear
blanks), the heat will have to find its way on either side
through a ‘thermal skin’. During meshing this skin, as is
characteristic of flash heating, extends only to a compara-
tively small depth underneath either tooth face [see
Appendix B of reference (5)l.
After meshing, the heat accumulated in the skin will
diffuse increasingly deeper into the tooth material con-
cerned. Thus, when one relies upon cooling through an
oil jet-i.e. upon recapture of the heat back through the
tooth face by means of the flung-off oil-this heat should
not be given the time to diffuse to rather inaccessible
depths. This means that the jet should be aimed as close
to the exit of the meshing zone as possible. It would indeed
follow from an unpublished numerical evaluation of the
pertinent problem that was performed in 1967 by
de Winter, that the ‘fling-off heat transfer’ bears much
greater potentialities than had been previously realized
[see section I V of reference (5)].
In 1962 the author felt that a need was developing for
the flash temperature theory to be extended to what he
calls ‘the theory of conjunction temperatures’. The latter
temperatures had previously been defined as the sum of
two components, one being the flash temperature and the
other the bulk temperature. In 1937 the flash temperature
theory had already been published in a workable form
(1)-(3) and certain refinements (discussed later in the
paper), which were published only recently (7), were also
developed at that time. On the other hand, the ability to
predict bulk temperatures was still comparatively poor
and thus presented a bottleneck in the increasingly
accurate prediction of the maximum conjunction tem-
peratures that was being required in estimating the risk of
scuffing. Moreover, a rational theory of bulk temperatures
was also needed for these temperatures as criteria for
other phenomena. For instance, both the minimum thick-
ness and the friction in elastohydrodynamic films in con-
junction zones are controlled by the representative
viscosity, which is defined as the viscosity at the inlet to
the film and thus has to be taken at the bulk temperature
of the rubbing bodies bounding the film.
It then proved that such a theory of bulk temperatures
could conveniently be developed in the form of a ‘thermal
network theory’, which in 1963 was successfully verified
experimentally by Landheer [see references (5) and (7); for
a less extensive thermal network theory, independently
developed by Bathgate and Yates, see reference (IS)].
The present theory takes due allowance of the fact that in
gear transmissions the various frictional heat sources, and
thus their bulk temperatures and representative viscosities,
interact in that each is connected to, and through, all the
others by a variety of thermal paths, such as provided by
the shafts, the casing, and, if any, the oil bath.
In the thermal network representing the gear trans-
mission to be considered, the thermal response of each
heat source is defined by its heat-generating charac-
teristic, describing the relationship between its bulk
temperature, or its representative viscosity with the gear
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23
oil used, and the frictional heat generated. The intercon-
necting thermal paths are represented by the thermal
resistances to be assigned the heat-transferring elements
concerned. Thereupon, by analogy, one may evaluate all
the bulk temperatures by means of the powerful evalua-
tional procedures that had long been developed for elec-
trical networks.
The concept of thermal resistance had long been known,
but in the present application to gear transmissions it
proved that a variant of this concept, i.e. the ‘constric-
tional’ thermal resistance, had still to be introduced. This
variant is typical of thermally contacting solid surfaces,
both conformal and counterformal, and would appear to
have been ignored by Bathgate and Yates (IS).
Thermally contacting conformal surfaces, in so far as
they are also in direct mechanical contact and not separated
completely by a fluid film, are characterized by tiny
areas of actual contact that are highly dispersed all over
the conjunction zone. Thus, these areas act thermally in
shunt, and it is through them that the major part of the
heat flow has to force its way, For the basic data required
for calculating the total constrictional resistance of con-
formal surfaces, as a function of the compressive force
and other influential quantities, the reader is referred to
the wealth of literature compiled by Moore et al. (19).
For basic data on the constrictional thermal resistance
of counterformal surfaces, whether sliding or rolling, one
may rely upon the flash temperature theory. It is thus
seen that even in the bulk temperature theory or, say,
in the thermal network procedure, the flash temperature
theory plays a useful part.
In this connection it is noteworthy that in rolling
bearings, which are often used in the smaller gear trans-
missions and thus require consideration here, both of the
above kinds of constrictional thermal resistances act in
series. One kind is that typical of conformal surfaces which
in the present bearings are found between the inner ring
and the shaft and also between the outer ring and the
housing; the other occurs on counterformal surfaces,
i.e. between each rolling element and the inner and outer
raceway.
It is admitted that for rough estimates of the bulk
temperatures in gear transmissions both kinds of con-
strictional thermal resistances may be neglected in com-
parison with several other, non-constrictional, thermal
resistances, such as that between the casing and the
ambient air, but for more accurate estimates the constric-
tional thermal resistances of both kinds will have to be
included in the thermal network representing the gear
transmission to be considered. The one relating to the
meshing zone of each pair of gears is to be found from a
suitable time average over a meshing cycle, the conjunc-
tion zone between each meshing pair of tooth faces show-
ing dimensions varying with the tooth load and the radii
of curvature of the tooth faces [see Appendix C of
reference (5) and ‘Refinements in conjunction temperature
theory for gear design’ later in the paper].
Another effect of the thermal skin, i.e. thermal stressing,
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is induced by the steepness of the temperature gradients
that are bound up with the thinness of this skin. This
thermal stressing may well aggravate surface fatigue, or
pitting, in that it superimposes itself upon the stress field
set up under isothermal conditions by the pressures
exerted in the conjunction zone. For Hertzian pressures,
and assuming a uniform coefficient of friction so that the
frictional heat would be distributed semi-elliptically,
Kelley (20) succeeded in evaluating the thermal stresses
by means of the well-known method of the thermal
potential.
For frictional heating by viscous shear in cases repre-
sentative of elastohydrodynamic conditions, the thermal
stresses were considered by Dowson et al. (4).
A final effect of the thermal skin lies in the non-uniform
thermal expansion of the two rubbing materials. This
effect may be described as 'thermal bulging' since it tends
to decrease the elastically effective radius of curvature of
either rubbing surface, particularly in the conjunction
zone. Consequently, the conjunction zone tends to
become narrower and, therefore, the pressures in this zone
to become greater, and the elastohydrodynamic minimum
film thickness tends to become smaller than would be the
case under isothermal conditions (7) (21) (22). There is
even a possibility that sufficiently severe thermal bulging
might develop into a thermally unstable state, and thus
might conceivably provide for a scuffing mechanism (7).
The next two sections will deal in more detail with the
above-mentioned refinements, both in elastohydrodynamic
theory and in the theory of conjunction temperatures, that
are deemed particularly important for gear design.
REFINEMENTS IN ELASTOHYDRODYNAMIC
THEORY FOR GEAR DESIGN
The simplest form of elastohydrodynamic theory deemed
still significantly applicable to gears is the one specified
by the following limitation (a) and basic assumptions (6):
(a) gears having tooth faces with band-shaped con-
junction zones;
(6) the flow in the lubricant film is assumed not only
to be steady, but also inertialess, isothermal, and in-
compressibIe, while the lubricant is considered New-
tonian.
This form has proved its worth in a variety of appli-
cations (4), but there is still a need for certain refinements,
such as those mentioned below.
The first refinement is concerned with the rationaliza-
tion of the dimensionless representation of the theoretical
results.
Dowson and Higginson (4) applied dimensional
analysis in the most familiar way, i.e. to a list of the seven
influential variables concerned. However, their result, a
set of four dimensionless groups, is not yet as rational as
possible. In fact, this set can be condensed to one com-
prising only three such groups, without any loss of gener-
ality. This can be achieved, as the author showed prior
to 1951, through suitably non-dimensionalizing the set of
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equations and conditions of uniqueness which, after all,
determines the present elastohydrodynamic problem
completely in the analytical sense, and thus contains
much more information than the mere list of the influen-
tial variables.
Of course, Dowson and Higginson's four groups are
not incorrect, but they can be so combined as to form an
equally complete set of only three groups [see references
(23)-(25)]. The latter kind of sets, being more concise,
open up possibilities of condensing the representation,
both in numerical and graphical form, of the results
obtained in the present form of elastohydrodynamic
theory; for instance, these results may thereby be plotted,
both simply and synoptically, as a family of curves, two
of the three dimensionless groups being used as the co-
ordinates and the remaining one as the parameter of the
curves. The first such plot was published by Peppler (26),
who borrowed it from the author. In 1965 Moes (27),
who was then the author's assistant, published an up-
dated plot of this kind. These plots are recommended for
future usage of the present form of elastohydrodynamic
theory [see also reference (&I.
Further, the use of a complete set of only three dimen-
sionless groups permits a refinement in the popular
formula that Dowson and Higginson fitted to their own
numerical results, and that covers the entire range they
explored [see (4), formula (7.1)]. Naturally, this formula
is expressed in terms of their own set of four dimension-
less groups, but it can readily be verified not to present
the best fit conceivable, i.e. in being incompatible with
the author's set of three dimensionless groups. Fortu-
nately, through minor adjustments in this formula one
may achieve both compatibility and a better fit, as fol-
lows :
H min. = 1.56M-0.125L0.55 . (3.1)
This formula is expressed in terms of the following
complete set of only three dimensionless groups :
W
M =-(-)
E'R
E'R
TOVZ
1!2
. . (3.2b)
L = aO*E' - . . (3.2~)
These three dimensionless groups have been so chosen
that three of the seven influential variables, viz. minimum
film thickness (hmin), unit load (W), and representative
pressure coefficient (ao*)of the viscosity of the lubricating
oil (to be specified later on), appear in a separated form;
that is, in none of the above three groups do two, let
alone all, of the present three variables appear simul-
taneously. (The meaning of the remaining four influential
variables is given in the notation.) For other, equally
complete sets of three dimensionless groups, which can
easily be so constructed as to separate three other influen-
tial variables, the reader is referred to references (23)-(26)
-reference (26) containing the earliest such set.
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 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN GEAR TRIBOLOGY
By substituting definitions (3.2a)-(3.2c) into equation
(3.1) one may express the minimum film thickness, h,,,,
explicitly in terms of a power product of the other six
influential variables. The intriguing fact is then disclosed
that, notwithstanding in the pertinent range of Dowson
and Higginson the elastic deformation is quite appre-
ciable, the minimum film thickness is barely influenced
by the elastic characteristics of the two rubbing surfaces.
This is evidenced by the extreme smallness of the power,
-0.025, to which the representative modulus of elasticity,
E’, is raised in the explicit formula concerned. This
observation led Greenwood (24) to the idea that for a
simplifying approximation one may conveniently change
over to another complete set of three dimensionless groups,
to be so constructed that E‘ will appear in only one of
these groups, viz. in the group a,*E’( W/E’R)lI2.
In the present notation this group is identical with
M1l2L. The approximation consists in dispensing en-
tirely with the influence of E‘, i,e. through splitting off a
suitable power of the present group from equation (3.1).
This requires the multiplication of both sides of the
equation by (M1/2L)0.05, the result being:
Hmin(M1‘2L)0‘05
= 1.56M-0”0L0~60 . (3.3)
For steel-on-steel gears that are lubricated with normal
gear oils in any normal range of operating conditions,
falls in the fairly narrow range from about 0.764 to 0-906.
Substituting the average value, 0.835, equation (3.3) may
be approximated to f8.5 per cent throughout the present
range, and in explicit form, by:
hmin= 1-30W-0’1R0’4
(qoVz)0.7a0*0.6(3.4)
where E’ is indeed conspicuous by its absence.
Now, at the design stage there are usually some un-
certainties about at least three of the influential variables
on the right-hand side of equation (3.4), i.e. unit load, W,
representative viscosity, rl0, and representative pressure
coefficient, aO*, of viscosity. These uncertainties will
reflect themselves in uncertainties about the minimum
film thickness, hmi,, that will easily exceed the maximum
approximation of k8.5 per cent inherent in equation
(3.4). Therefore, at least for the gears concerned, it would
appear permissible to utilize the simpler equation (3.4)
instead of equation (3.1). This seems justifiable also
because of the inaccuracies that are inherent in the present,
conventional elastohydrodynamic theory owing to its
underlying assumptions, now to be discussed briefly.
Among these assumptions the one about the isothermal
character of film flow is bound to break down at the
sliding velocities of magnitudes normally occurring at the
tips and roots of the tooth faces of gears with band-shaped
conjunction zone. However, judging from refinements
worked out in various papers (28)-(31)~where the effects
of the variation of temperature, and thus of the viscosity,
have indeed been considered, often in conjunction with
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25
those of the compressibility of the oil, one need not expect
anything really spectacular in the way of a decrease in
minimum film thickness. Therefore, it is thought that, at
least for gear design purposes, there is not much sense in
applying such intricate refinements before having ascer-
tained the relative importance of other refinements,
those accounting for the effects of the variations in elasto-
hydrodynamically influential factors, such as tooth load
and sum velocity, Vz,that occur throughout any meshing
cycle. These variations cause the basic assumption about
the steady character of the film flow to break down.
Accordingly one will have to consider the non-steady
cases where the wedging action, the only pressure-
generating action considered even in the comparatively
simple non-isothermal elastohydrodynamic theory (28)-
(31), is variable so that it brings about a simultaneous
squeezing action of the two rubbing surfaces. Hitherto,
however, the elastohydrodynamic effects of squeezing
action have been considered only in isolation, i.e. in the
absence of tangential velocities or, say, of wedging action
of the surfaces [see reference (32) for band-shaped con-
junction zones and (33) for circular ones].
Finally, it is thought that the evaluation of an elasto-
hydrodynamic theory for the unsteady states where the
wedging and squeezing action are combined might well
promote insight into the damping influence exerted by the
lubricant film between meshing tooth faces on the dynamic
loading, vibrations, and noise of gears.
Reverting now to yet another basic assumption-the
Newtonian behaviour of the lubricating oil-it should
be observed that most investigators have confined them-
selves to an exponential viscosity-pressure relationship,
77 = rl0 exp (crop), where T~ is the atmospheric viscosity
at the representative temperature of the film and a. the
pressure coefficient of viscosity at that same temperature.
However, in reality most oils show nun-exponential
viscosity-pressure relationships, and thus pressure coeffi-
cients of viscosity that are no longer independent of
pressure. Fortunately, judging from previous work of
the author (34) (35), the effect of such relationships
on elastohydrodynamic minimum film thickness can be
accounted for to a good approximation through replacing
ao, in all the results so far obtained, by a representative
pressure coefficient, ao*, defined as follows, and already
utilized in equations (3.2~)and (3.4):
cr0* = [Irn&
0 . .
?(PI dp]-’ (3.5)
At any given temperature this representative coefficient
can be evaluated from measurements of viscosity that
extend to pressures, p , of only about 1500 or 2000 bar
(roughly 20 000-30 000 lbf/in2). In fact, in reference (35)
the contribution of any higher pressures to a0* has been
shown not to exceed a few per cent, and thus is estimable
sufficiently accurately by extrapolation. However, as has
been demonstrated by Roelands (36), for any non-addi-
tive mineral oil one may arrive more simply at quite
accurate estimates of ao*, i.e. solely on the basis of his
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26
correlations of ao* with the usually known viscosity-
temperature characteristics at atmospheric pressure (see
Table XIII-2 of reference (36) and reference (5) for
simplified correlational formulae).
In this connection it may be observed that the outcome
of attempts at refining the elastohydrodynamic theory for
non-Newtonian behaviour of oils have not so far con-
vinced the author of any real need of such attempts, at
least not for purposes of gear design and not in so far as
minimum film thickness is concerned. Nevertheless, the
latest known paper on this subject, by Dyson (37) on the
effects of viscoelastic behaviour, is worthy of mention.
Finally, most of the work performed so far on elasto-
hydrodynamic lubrication, including the above-mentioned
types of refinement, relates to band-shaped conjunction
zones. For gears having elliptical conjunction zones,
elastohydrodynamic theory is still available only in the
conventional form that is subject to the above-stipulated
assumptions (38)(39).Even so, it is thought that this con-
ventional form may serve as an essentially sound begin-
ning.
REFINEMENTS IN CONJUNCTION TEMPERA-
TURE THEORY FOR GEAR DESIGN
As has been previously pointed out, the conjunction
temperature theory falls into two separate theories, one
being the flash temperature theory, and the other the bulk
temperature theory. For refinements of the latter, already
described as the ‘thermal network theory’, the reader is
again referred to references (9, (a), and (18).
This section will be confined to refinements of the
flash temperature theory, and these will include two that
link up this theory with the thermal network theory and
which are important for the application of the latter to
gear design. All the refinements to be treated here will
relate to band-shaped conjunction zones. For estab-
lishing similar refinements for elliptical conjunction
zones, the basic results given in reference (3) may serve
as a starting point. Even with straight spur gears the band-
shaped conjunction zones between the meshing tooth
faces will not be parallel ones in actual service. In fact,
owing to non-uniform distortions and/or misalignment
such a zone may well show widths and, therefore, flash
temperatures that will vary along its length or along the
width of the tooth face concerned.
From the conventional theory of flash temperatures
(I) it may readily be derived [see Appendix B of reference
(7)] that the actual maximum flash temperatures will occur
where the tapered conjunction zone shows its greatest
width, w,,,, and that it will be proportional to (zu,,,/~)~’~
if w represents the uniform width to occur at the given
load with a parallel conjunction zone. It may thus be
concluded that flash temperatures are rather sensitive
towards the variation of the width of band-shaped con-
junction zones. This conclusion, of course, is also valid
for disc machines.
Another refinement of the flash temperature theory is
necessary in the frequent cases where two meshing gears
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H. BLOK
have two bulk temperatures, Tb,l and Tb,z,which, in
conflict with another basic assumption of the conventional
theory, are not equal. As has been shown in Appendix C of
reference (7), the maximum conjunction temperature, T,,
may then be assessed from the following formula to a
good approximation,
Tc = (3.6)
Tf+Tb,av . .
where Tb,avdenotes the average+(Tb, Tb,,)-of the
two bulk temperatures, and where T, stands for the flash
temperature as calculated from the formulae developed in
the conventional theory for equal bulk temperatures
(I) (2) (10). In a more exact formula there is a third,
corrective term, but this may be neglected under the
thermal and kinematic conditions that are representative
of gear practice [cf. Appendix C of reference (7)].
A second refinement linking up the theory of flash
temperature with that of the bulk temperatures, and which
thus aids in putting the theory of conjunction temperatures
on a firmer basis, bears upon the ‘constrictional thermal
resistance’ of the conjunction zone.
By analogy with electrical resistances, thermal ones are
defined as the ratio between the temperature drop across,
and the heat current (Q) through, the element to be
considered. Accordingly, the constrictianal thermal
resistance, R,, can be assessed on the basis of the following
definition, conveniently put in differential form for the
present purpose,
d (k) 3-7 = dx . . . (3.7)
where B denotes the length of the conjunction zone or,
say, the common width of the tooth faces, while T
stands for the local flash temperature, which varies with
the co-ordinate, x, in the direction of the width of the
zone. Further, q, depending on x, denotes the distribution
of the frictional heat that is absorbed by the tooth face
concerned.
This definition can be worked out by utilizing the con-
ventional flash temperature theory for expressing the
distribution, T, of the flash temperatures, in terms of
known influential factors. It has to be noted that, according
to the same theory, the total frictional heat will be parti-
tioned between the two rubbing bodies that thermally
contact each other in their common conjunction zone.
Consequently, either meshing gear is to be assigned its
own heat distribution, q or 42, and accordingly its own
constrictional thermal resistance, Rc, or Rc,2, respec-
tively.
Integration of definition (3.7) for parallel band-shaped
conjunction zones, in straight spur gears with Hertzian,
i.e. semi-elliptic, distributions, yields :
Rc,i = 0.478[bi.By‘(wVi)]-’ i = 1,2 (3.8a)
where b, denotes the so-called thermal contact coefficient
of tooth face material number i, as defined by
bi = (ki.pi.~i)1’2i = 1,2 . (3.8b)
where k,, pi, and ci stand for the heat conductivity, the
Vol 184 Pt 3 0
 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN GEAR TRIBOLOGY
density, and the specific heat (as usual per unit mass) of
the tooth face material concerned, Further, w denotes the
width of the conjunction zone, and V , the tangential
velocity of tooth face number i, having the same direction
as w, and with respect to the zone concerned.
Since both the width, w, and the velocities, V , and V,,
vary throughout any given meshing cycle, there will be
corresponding variations in either constrictional thermal
resistance, Rc, or Rc,2. However, it must be considered
that the duration of meshing cycles is several orders of
magnitude smaller than the time constant that is bound up
with the thermal inertia of the bulk-heating of gears.
Therefore, in accounting for the effect of the constric-
tional thermal resistances on the heat currents in the
thermal network representing the gear transmission con-
cerned, it suffices to take suitable time averages of Rc,l
and R,,, over one meshing cycle. In establishing such
an average one must allow for the fact that during part of
this cycle more than one pair of tooth faces is in mesh, so
that constrictional thermal resistances will then act in
shunt and will have to be combined into a resultant such
resistance.
The average constrictional thermal resistance thus
obtained for either gear may be conceived to be asso-
ciated with the pertinent side of the entire meshing zone.
It is, of course, constant, and acting in series has to be
added to another constant thermal resistance, the one to
be assigned the gear blank all by itself. I n the various cases
so far worked out by the author, these two thermal
resistances proved to be at least roughly of a similar
order of magnitude. A similar conclusion seems to hold
good for rolling bearings, but seems to have been over-
looked so far. In this connection the author may mention
doubts about the applicability of the flash temperature
theory to meshing conditions where elastohydrodynamic
lubrication plays a significant part. In passing it is noted
that in certain respects these doubts can be removed, at
least for the commonly occurring marginal or partial
regime of elastohydrodynamic lubrication [for further
considerations, see sub-sections B6 and B7 of reference
(711-
Finally, attention may be drawn to the role played by
the postulate about the constancy of scuffing temperatures
(6) in gear design (9) (10).
In the first place it has to be noted that this postulate
was advanced solely for non-additive mineral oils. Even
for this limited class of oils various investigators have
expressed doubts about the validity of the postulate, but,
as the author showed in a recent critical review (7), in the
evaluation of their own tests, whether in disc machines or
gear rigs, these investigators overlooked certain refine-
ments, such as have been set forth above.
Nevertheless, it is admitted that even when consider-
ing non-additive mineral oils there must be limits to the
range of validity of the postulate. However, as long as
gear designers cannot be provided with limits that are
specified in a form workable to them, they may be referred
to charts such as the one in which the author plotted the
Proc lnstn Mech Engrs 1969-70
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27
uncertainty range of the scuffing temperatures assessed
for a series of non-additive mineral oils that covered a wide
range of viscosity grades (10). For a slightly amended
chart, see reference (40). A more extensive chart was
recently published by O’Donoghue and Cameron (41)~
who included the somewhat lower scuffing temperatures
obtained with softer steels, again with non-additive
mineral oils.
Unfortunately, nothing much is known about the
variation in scuffing temperatures with e.p. oils, and even
less about the phenomena causing this variation. It is
hoped that test programmes such as the co-operative one
suggested by Paterson (42) and recently adopted by
the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Develop-
ment, will shed more light on this question in the not too
distant future.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
As has already been brought out by Lavoie (43) in his
enlightening review on trends in gearing, gear tribology
has provided one of the most important breakthroughs in
modern gear technology. It may also be maintained that
this breakthrough has already increased the demands for
tribologic design calculations that are more refined than
those previously available.
More accurate estimates of the risk of scuffing call for
refinements in both the theory of flash temperatures and
that of bulk temperatures, and also for the interlinkage of
these two theories that is required for predicting maxi-
mum temperatures in the conjunction zone between
meshing tooth faces. The refinements in the flash tempera-
ture theory should include those for the maldistribution
of the tooth load and for the inequality of the bulk
temperatures of the two meshing gears. The refinements
in the bulk temperature theory, and also the aforemen-
tioned interlinkage, can best be performed through a
‘thermal network’ representation of the gear transmission
to be considered. T o such a network the concept of ‘con-
strictional thermal resistance’, which is typical of the con-
junction zones both on tooth faces and in rolling bearings,
comes natural, although so far it seems to have been over-
looked.
There is a demand for rationalized correlations of
coefficients of tooth friction. Such correlations would serve
not only the aforementioned purposes but also that of
establishing refined predictions of the cooling require-
ments of gear transmissions.
The theory of ‘fling-off heat transfer’ by lubricating
oils impinging upon and centrifugally flung off the gear
teeth may well promote a fuller exploitation of the
potentialities inherent in this method, so as to reduce both
the risks of scuffing and pitting.
The numerical results of the conventional elastohydro-
dynamic lubrication may well continue to serve as a useful
basis of comparison for the elastohydrodynamic per-
formance of meshing tooth faces. Therefore, it is recom-
mendable to present these results in as synoptical a form
Vol184 Pt 3 0
28 H. BLOK

as possible, i.e. in terms of one of the complete sets of only COPE,D. L. and HAINES, D. J. ‘Interferometric determi-
three dimensionless groups that have been discussed. nation of elastohydrodynamiclubrication contact pressures’,
Proc. Znstn mech. Engrs 1970-71 184 (Pt l), 633.
For improving the prediction of the elastohydrodynamic
performance of meshing tooth faces, and thereby inter aliu BATHGATE, J., KENDALL, R. B. and MOORHOUSE, P. ‘Thermal
aspects of gear lubrication’, Wear 1970 15, 117.
that of the risk of pitting, the elastohydrodynamictheory
MOORE, C. J., ATKINS, H. and BLUM,H. A. ‘Subject classi-
should be generalized so as to cover the ‘breathing’that is fication bibliography for thermal contact resistance
typical of the dynamic conditions to which lubricant films studies’, A.S.M.E. Paper 68-WAIHT-18, 1968.
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surface damage’, in Handbook of mechanical wear 1961,151
(University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor) .
A P P E N D I X 3.1 LING, F. F. and Mow, V. C. ‘Surface displacement of a
convective half-space under an arbitrarily distributed fast
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