Z Questions Exams

Contents
I Exams 1
1 Introduction to Computers 3
1.1 Exams-ComputerAutoCAD1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Exams-ComputerAutoCadDrawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 Exams-ComputerCProgram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.6 Exams-ComputerDataModeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.7 Exams-ComputerDataModelingOther . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.8 Exams-ComputerDataStructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.9 Exams-ComputerFortran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.10 Exams-ComputerGraphics1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.11 Exams-ComputerGraphics2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.12 Exams-ComputerIntroduction1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.17 Exams-ComputerMaple1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.22 Exams-ComputerMatlab1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.23 Exams-ComputerMatlab1Part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.24 Exams-ComputerMatlab1PartOther . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.25 Exams-ComputerMatlab2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.26 Exams-ComputerMatlab2Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.27 Exams-ComputerProcessModeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.28 Exams-ComputerProgrammingAlgorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.29 Exams-ComputerProgrammingLanguages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.30 Exams-AER101AVarious1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.33 Exams-AER101BVarious1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.34 Exams-AER101BVarious2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.35 Exams-BalloonAndAltitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.36 Exams-BalloonAndFlight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.37 Exams-ConceptAltitudeSpeed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.38 Exams-EngineTurbofanAndJet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.39 Exams-EngineTurbojet1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.40 Exams-EngineTurbojet2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.41 Exams-Propeller2Blade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.42 Exams-Propeller3Blade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
v
vi CONTENTS
2 Thermodynamics 23
2.1 Exams-AdvancedThermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2 Exams-ThermodynamicCombustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3 Exams-ThermodynamicConceptsTurbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.4 Exams-ThermodynamicCondenser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.5 Exams-ThermodynamicCycleIdealRankine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.6 Exams-ThermodynamicCycleRankine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.7 Exams-ThermodynamicCycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.8 Exams-ThermodynamicDevicesBoiler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.9 Exams-ThermodynamicEntropyTurbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.10 Exams-ThermodynamicNozzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.11 Exams-ThermodynamicPistonCylinderTurbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.12 Exams-ThermodynamicProcessExpansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.13 Exams-ThermodynamicTurbineNozzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3 Fluid Mechanics 27
3.1 Exams-AER301BConcepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2 Exams-BLConcepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.3 Exams-BLConcepts1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.4 Exams-BLConcepts2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.5 Exams-BLThermal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.6 Exams-Dehumidifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.7 Exams-DuctHagenPoiseuilli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.8 Exams-DuctHeat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.9 Exams-DuctsSeries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.10 Exams-DuctVarious . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.11 Exams-EqBCAndBL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.12 Exams-EqBCAndBLPart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.13 Exams-EqManipulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.14 Exams-EqManipulationModified . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.15 Exams-EqModified . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.16 Exams-EqNSAndSimplification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.17 Exams-EqNSAndSimplificationPart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.18 Exams-EqNSConceptsAndIntegOfP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.19 Exams-EqNSFlowModels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.20 Exams-EqPotentialFunction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.21 Exams-EqPotentialFunctionInvIrrotIncompBC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.22 Exams-EqPotentialFunctionInvIrrotIncompBCOvalRankine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.23 Exams-EqSteadyInvIrrot2D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.24 Exams-EqTransformationGridBC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.25 Exams-EqTransformationManipulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.26 Exams-EqUnsteadyPotential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.27 Exams-EqVorticityTransport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.28 Exams-EqWave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.29 Exams-Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.30 Exams-Jet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.31 Exams-NeedleElbow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.32 Exams-OrificeMeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.33 Exams-PipeBL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.34 Exams-PipeFriction1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.37 Exams-PipeFrictionAndIntegOfCp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.38 Exams-PipeInclinedPipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.39 Exams-PipePipeJunction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.40 Exams-PipeSuddenExpansion2Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.41 Exams-PipeValve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.42 Exams-RadiatorHeat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.43 Exams-TunnelCoutte1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.44 Exams-TunnelCoutte2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.45 Exams-TunnelCouttePoiseuilli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
CONTENTS vii
3.46 Exams-TunnelPoiseuilleFlowFirst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.47 Exams-TunnelPoiseuilleFlowSecond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.48 Exams-TunnelPoiseuilleFlowThird . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.49 Exams-TunnelWindClosed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.50 Exams-TunnelWindManometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.51 Exams-ViscousFlow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4 Hydraulics and Pneumatics 47

4.1 Exams-Hydraulic1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.2 Exams-Hydraulic2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.3 Exams-HydraulicValve1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.4 Exams-HydraulicValve2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.5 Exams-HydraulicValvePipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.6 Exams-PumpAxial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.7 Exams-PumpHydraulic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.8 Exams-PumpHydraulicCylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5 Gas Dynamics 51
5.1 Exams-AER201BVarious . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.2 Exams-Backstep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.3 Exams-DiffuserBL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.4 Exams-DiffuserIntake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.5 Exams-DiffuserIntakeComparison1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.6 Exams-DiffuserIntakeComparison1Part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.7 Exams-DiffuserIntakeComparison2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.8 Exams-DiffuserIntakeHalf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.9 Exams-DiffuserIntakePart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.10 Exams-DiffuserRamjet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.11 Exams-DiffuserShock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.12 Exams-DiffuserStraight2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.13 Exams-DiffuserStraight2Part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.14 Exams-DiffuserStraight3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.15 Exams-DuctHeat1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.16 Exams-DuctHeat2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.17 Exams-EqHeat1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.18 Exams-EqHeat2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.19 Exams-NozzleConv1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.20 Exams-NozzleConv1Part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.23 Exams-NozzleConvDivDiv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.24 Exams-NozzleConvDivExpansion1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.25 Exams-NozzleConvDivExpansion2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.26 Exams-NozzleConvDivMOC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.27 Exams-NozzleConvDivModes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.28 Exams-NozzleConvDivNS1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.32 Exams-NozzleConvDivNSTank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.33 Exams-NozzleConvDivNSTankAnalytical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.34 Exams-NozzleConvDivNSTankExtra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.35 Exams-NozzleConvDivOther . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.36 Exams-NozzleConvDivWaterTable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.37 Exams-NozzleConvInvNSatExit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.38 Exams-NozzleDiffuserConcepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.39 Exams-NozzleDivMOC1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.40 Exams-NozzleDivMOC2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.41 Exams-NozzleExit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.42 Exams-NozzleExitWake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.43 Exams-NozzlePM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
viii CONTENTS
5.44 Exams-NozzleQuasi1DAnalytical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.45 Exams-NozzleSupersonic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.46 Exams-PlateTE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.47 Exams-ProbePitotStaticDuctVariableArea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
5.48 Exams-TankNozzleConvBlowdown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
5.49 Exams-TunnelWedge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
5.50 Exams-TunnelWedgeModified . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
5.51 Exams-TunnelWindSupersonic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.52 Exams-WallInclined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.53 Exams-WaveInteractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.54 Exams-WaveIntersection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.55 Exams-WaveMotionWall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.56 Exams-WaveReflectionHorizontalWall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.57 Exams-WaveReflectionShock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5.58 Exams-WaveReflectionVerticalWall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5.59 Exams-Wedge1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5.60 Exams-Wedge2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.61 Exams-WedgeAtAlpha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.62 Exams-WedgeBL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.63 Exams-WedgeRect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.64 Exams-WedgeRectConeCylProbe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
6 Aerodynamics 75
6.1 Exams-AdvancedAeroVarious . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
6.2 Exams-AER401AConcepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
6.3 Exams-AER401AIntroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
6.4 Exams-AER401Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
6.5 Exams-AER441Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
6.6 Exams-AERUnsteadyConcepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
6.7 Exams-AirfoilAerodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
6.8 Exams-AirfoilAndWing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
6.9 Exams-AirfoilAtAlpha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6.10 Exams-AirfoilBiconvex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6.11 Exams-AirfoilCamberLineSteadyState1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.12 Exams-AirfoilCamberLineSteadyState2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.13 Exams-AirfoilCamberLineThinAirfoilTheory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.14 Exams-AirfoilCamberLineThinAirfoilTheoryDetail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.15 Exams-AirfoilCamberTwoLines1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.16 Exams-AirfoilCamberTwoLines2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6.17 Exams-AirfoilCamberTwoLinesSubSup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6.18 Exams-AirfoilCircularArc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6.19 Exams-AirfoilCompressibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6.20 Exams-AirfoilCp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6.21 Exams-AirfoilCpIntegration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
6.22 Exams-AirfoilCpPart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
6.23 Exams-AirfoilCpTransonic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.24 Exams-AirfoilDiamond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.25 Exams-AirfoilDiamondSym1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
6.29 Exams-AirfoilDragStraightCos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
6.30 Exams-AirfoilDragStreamVelCos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
6.31 Exams-AirfoilDragStreamVelLinear1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
6.32 Exams-AirfoilDragStreamVelLinear2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
6.33 Exams-AirfoilDragStreamVelSin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
6.34 Exams-AirfoilDragStreamVelSinImproved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
6.35 Exams-AirfoilIntegOfCpTestingDatcom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
6.36 Exams-AirfoilIrregular1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
6.37 Exams-AirfoilIrregular2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
6.38 Exams-AirfoilNACA1406AtAlphaInv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
CONTENTS ix
6.39 Exams-AirfoilNACA1406AtAlphaSubSup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
6.40 Exams-AirfoilNACASymBL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
6.41 Exams-AirfoilNozzleDiffuser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
6.42 Exams-AirfoilParabolic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
6.43 Exams-AirfoilParabolicArc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
6.44 Exams-AirfoilParabolicArcSub . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
6.45 Exams-AirfoilPitching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
6.46 Exams-AirfoilPlungingPitching2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
6.47 Exams-AirfoilPlungingPitchingCamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
6.48 Exams-AirfoilPlungingPitchingPlateFlat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
6.49 Exams-AirfoilPlungingPitchingPlateFlatOther . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
6.50 Exams-AirfoilSin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6.51 Exams-AirfoilSuddenAlpha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6.52 Exams-AirfoilSuddenAlphaGust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
6.53 Exams-AirfoilSymmetric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
6.54 Exams-AirfoilTriangular1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
6.58 Exams-AirfoilTriangularTruncated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.59 Exams-AirfoilVel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.60 Exams-AirplaneAeroConcepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
6.61 Exams-AirplaneComparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6.62 Exams-AirplaneDragDC9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6.63 Exams-AirplaneDragTransport1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6.64 Exams-AirplaneDragTransport2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.65 Exams-AirplaneEllipticalLoading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.66 Exams-AirplaneF16Drag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
6.67 Exams-AirplaneF16Hydraulic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
6.68 Exams-AirplaneJetPerformanceAtAltitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.69 Exams-AirplaneJetPerformanceAtSeaLevel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.70 Exams-AirplaneNozzleDiffuser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.71 Exams-AirplaneParachute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
6.72 Exams-AirplanePitotTube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
6.73 Exams-AirplaneSupersonic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
6.74 Exams-AirplaneSupersonicTransport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.75 Exams-AirplaneTwinTurbojet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.76 Exams-AirplaneWingGeneralLoading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.77 Exams-AirplaneWingGeometryGeneralLoading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
6.78 Exams-Altitude1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
6.79 Exams-Altitude2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
6.80 Exams-AltitudeAndAeroConcepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6.81 Exams-Automobile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6.82 Exams-Bee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6.83 Exams-Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
6.84 Exams-Bump2Edges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
6.85 Exams-Cone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
6.86 Exams-ConeAirfoilParabolic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
6.87 Exams-ConeCylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6.88 Exams-ConeCylinderAirfoilSin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6.89 Exams-ConeCylinderConeCylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6.90 Exams-ConeCylinderDiffuser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6.91 Exams-ConeDrag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.92 Exams-ConeDragAnalytical1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.93 Exams-ConeDragAnalytical2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.94 Exams-ConeDragLinear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.95 Exams-ConeHemiSphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.96 Exams-ConePart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
6.97 Exams-ConePartDifferentGiven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
6.98 Exams-Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
6.99 Exams-CylinderCircularBL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
x CONTENTS
6.100
Exams-CylinderCircularBLBetter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
6.101
Exams-CylinderShaftBearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
6.102
Exams-CylSemiAirfoilCamber2Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
6.103
Exams-Missile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
6.104
Exams-MissileComparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
6.105
Exams-MissileConcepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
6.106
Exams-MissileDrag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
6.107
Exams-NoseCylPowerLaw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
6.108
Exams-NoseVarious . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
6.109
Exams-PlateCurved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
6.110
Exams-PlateFlat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
6.111
Exams-PlateFlatAtAlpha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
6.112
Exams-PlateFlatBL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
6.113
Exams-PlateFlatBLSixth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
6.114
Exams-PlateFlatBLSixthPlus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
6.115
Exams-PlateFlatFlap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
6.116
Exams-PlateFlatHypersonic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
6.117
Exams-PlateFlatIntegOfPAndTau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
6.118
Exams-PlateFlatIntegOfPTank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
6.119
Exams-PlateFlatMoving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
6.120
Exams-PlateFlatShockExpansion1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6.121
Exams-PlateFlatShockExpansion2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6.122
Exams-PlateFlatSteadyState . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
6.123
Exams-PlateInclinedLiquid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
6.124
Exams-PlateOscillating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
6.125
Exams-PlatePlunging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
6.126
Exams-ProblemsUnsteadyAero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
6.127
Exams-RankineHalf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
6.128
Exams-RankineHalfShield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
6.129
Exams-Room . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
6.130
Exams-Singularity1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
6.131
Exams-Singularity2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
6.132
Exams-SingularityConcepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
6.133
Exams-Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
6.134
Exams-SphereAndBL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.135
Exams-SphereSolid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.136
Exams-TankAndPanel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.137
Exams-TankStreamAndVelPotentialFunction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
6.138
Exams-TheoryThinAirfoil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
6.139
Exams-TheoryThinAirfoilUnsteady . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
6.140
Exams-WallVertical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
6.141
Exams-WindEnergy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.142
Exams-WingAerodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.143
Exams-WingAeroCoefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
6.144
Exams-WingAirplaneVarious . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
6.145
Exams-WingDelta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
6.146
Exams-WingDeltaModified . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
6.147
Exams-WingDeltaModifiedAnalytical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
6.148
Exams-WingDeltaReverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
6.149
Exams-WingElliptical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
6.150
Exams-WingEllipticalGeneralLoading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.151
Exams-WingEllipticalLoading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.152
Exams-WingEllipticalOther . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.153
Exams-WingGeneralLoading1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.154
6.155
Exams-WingGeneralLoading2Part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
6.156
6.157
6.158
Exams-WingGeneralLoadingOther . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
6.159
Exams-WingGeometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
6.160
Exams-WingGeometryCompressible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
CONTENTS xi
6.161
Exams-WingParabolicLoading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
6.162
Exams-WingRect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
6.163
Exams-WingRectAnalytical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
6.164
Exams-WingRectBL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
6.165
Exams-WingRectBLChanged . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
6.166
Exams-WingRectBLOther . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6.167
Exams-WingRectDelta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6.168
Exams-WingRectDeltaArrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6.169
Exams-WingRectDeltaPart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
6.170
Exams-WingRectDiamond1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
6.171
Exams-WingRectDiamond2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
6.172
Exams-WingRectDiamond2Easier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
6.173
Exams-WingRectIntegOfCp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.174
Exams-WingRectIntegOfCpxCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.175
Exams-WingRectModified . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
6.176
Exams-WingRectPlateFlat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
6.177
Exams-WingRectPlungingPitching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
6.178
Exams-WingRectPlungingPitchingDifferentGiven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
6.179
Exams-WingRectTap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
6.180
Exams-WingRectTapDeltaArrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
6.181
Exams-WingRectTapDeltaArrowOther . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
6.182
Exams-WingSubsonic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
6.183
Exams-WingTap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
6.184
Exams-WingTapDrag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
6.185
Exams-WingTapOther . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
6.186
Exams-WingWake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
7 Computational Fluid Dynamics 149

7.1 Exams-AER401BConcepts1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
7.2 Exams-AER401BConcepts2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
7.3 Exams-AER401BIntroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
7.4 Exams-CFDConcepts1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
7.6 Exams-CFDConcepts11AndEqs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
7.14 Exams-CFDConcepts9AndEqs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
7.15 Exams-CFDEqClassification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
7.16 Exams-CFDTaylor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
7.17 Exams-CFDWave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
7.18 Exams-CFDWaveFortranCode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
7.19 Exams-EqCFDTransformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
7.20 Exams-EqConceptFCNC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
7.21 Exams-EqGridBC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
7.22 Exams-Grid1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
7.23 Exams-Grid2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
7.24 Exams-GridAirfoilTE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
7.25 Exams-GridAirfoilTEAirfoil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
8 Aircraft Performance and Optimization 161

8.1 Exams-PerformanceAircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
8.2 Exams-PerformanceAirplaneJet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
8.3 Exams-PerformanceCeilingGlideRangeEndurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
8.4 Exams-PerformanceClimbCeilingRangeEndurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
8.5 Exams-PerformanceLanding1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
8.6 Exams-PerformanceLanding2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
xii CONTENTS
8.7 Exams-PerformanceLevelCeilingRangeEndurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
8.8 Exams-PerformanceLevelClimb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
8.9 Exams-PerformanceLevelClimbGlide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
8.10 Exams-PerformanceLevelClimbOther . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
8.11 Exams-PerformanceLevelClimbOtherOther . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
8.12 Exams-PerformanceLevelTurnPullupdownVn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
8.13 Exams-PerformanceLevelTurnPullupdownVnOther . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
8.14 Exams-PerformanceLevelTurnVn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
8.15 Exams-PerformanceTakeoff1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
8.16 Exams-PerformanceTakeoff2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
8.17 Exams-PerformanceTakeoffLanding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
8.18 Exams-PerformanceTrends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
8.19 Exams-PerformanceTrendsOther . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
8.20 Exams-PerformanceVarious . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
9 Continuum Mechanics 169

9.1 Exams-BeamCantilever1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
9.4 Exams-BeamRect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
9.5 Exams-ContinuumBalanceLaws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
9.6 Exams-ContinuumIndex1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
9.7 Exams-ContinuumIndex2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
9.8 Exams-ContinuumIntroduction1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
9.16 Exams-ContinuumStress1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
9.22 Exams-ContinuumTransformation1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
9.27 Exams-ElasticityBeamCantilever1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
9.28 Exams-ElasticityBeamCantilever2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
10 Instrumentation and Control 179

10.1 Exams-ControlBlock0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
10.4 Exams-ControlBlock2Related . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
10.6 Exams-ControlBlockFunction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
10.7 Exams-ControlBlockSystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
10.8 Exams-ControlSystem1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
10.9 Exams-ControlSystem2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
10.10Exams-MeasurementConceptsUncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
10.11Exams-MeasurementControlElementsUncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
10.12Exams-MeasurementIntroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
10.13Exams-MeasurementIntroductionUncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
10.14Exams-MeasurementTransducersUncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
10.15Exams-MeasurementTransducersUncertaintyPart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
CONTENTS xiii
10.16
Exams-MeasurementUncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
10.17
Exams-Microcontroller1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
10.18
10.19
10.20
Exams-Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
10.21
Exams-SignalPart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
II Cengel 187
11 1 189
11.1 Cengel-P1-1C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
11.2 Cengel-P1-2C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
11.3 Cengel-P1-3C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
11.4 Cengel-P1-4C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
11.5 Cengel-P1-5C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
11.6 Cengel-P1-6C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
11.7 Cengel-P1-7C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
11.8 Cengel-P1-8C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
11.9 Cengel-P1-9C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
11.10Cengel-P1-10C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
11.11Cengel-P1-11C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
11.12Cengel-P1-12C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
11.13Cengel-P1-13C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
11.14Cengel-P1-14C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
11.15Cengel-P1-15C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
11.16Cengel-P1-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
11.17Cengel-P1-17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
11.18Cengel-P1-18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
11.19Cengel-P1-19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
11.20Cengel-P1-20C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
11.21Cengel-P1-21C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
11.22Cengel-P1-22C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
11.23Cengel-P1-23C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
11.24Cengel-P1-24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
11.25Cengel-P1-25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
11.26Cengel-P1-26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
11.27Cengel-P1-27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
11.28Cengel-P1-28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
11.29Cengel-P1-29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
11.30Cengel-P1-30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
11.31Cengel-P1-31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
11.32Cengel-P1-32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
11.33Cengel-P1-33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
11.34Cengel-P1-34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
11.35Cengel-P1-35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
11.36Cengel-P1-36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
11.37Cengel-P1-37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
11.38Cengel-P1-38 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
11.39Cengel-P1-39 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
11.40Cengel-P1-40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
11.41Cengel-P1-41 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
11.42Cengel-P1-42C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
11.43Cengel-P1-43C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
11.44Cengel-P1-44C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
11.45Cengel-P1-45C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
11.46Cengel-P1-46C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
11.47Cengel-P1-47C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
11.48Cengel-P1-48 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
11.49Cengel-P1-49 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
11.50Cengel-P1-50 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Chapter 1
Introduction to Computers
1.1 Exams-ComputerAutoCAD1
Choose the correct answer.
Which in the following commands does not cause a Regen in Release 14?
(a) Thawing a layer
(b) Zoom extents
(c) Changing a layer’s linetype
(d) Zooming in or out by 2000 times
Under which pulldown menu is the HATCH command located in Release 14?
(a) Edit
(b) Draw
(c) Tools
(d) None of the above
Briefly answer the following.
(a) List four of the object snaps, explaining each with a sketch only.
(b) Identify at least 2 ways to cancel a command.
(c) Give the command, entries, and actions needed to draw a circle, beginning with two tangents
and the radius.
(d) Explain the difference between COPY and MOVE commands.
(e) The MOVE, COPY, TRIM, EXTEND commands are located in the pull-down menu.
(f) Give the command and entries required to produce a 0.5 radius fillet on two intersected lines.
(g) Give the command and entries required to draw a reverse image of an existing object and remove
the existing object.
(h) How do you access the dialog box that controls / displays layer properties?
(i) What does a coordinate entry of 2,3 result in, if the last point entry was -3,4?
(j) Explain the difference between the layer properties OFF and FREEZE.
3
4 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
1.4 Exams-ComputerAutoCadDrawing
Give the command and entries required to generate the following drawing in AutoCAD Release 14.
1.5 Exams-ComputerCProgram
Write a ”C” program to calculate and print the result of multiplying two matrices. You should use
the #define statement. The inputs, outputs, analysis and variables should be clearly presented
before the program.
1.6 Exams-ComputerDataModeling
Match the Given Relationship to its Type in the following Table.
Relationship Type
[1] Airplane :: Landing [A] Sequence
[2] Chalk :: Blackboard [B] Whole and Part
[3] Stall :: Crash [C] Tools
[4] Hot :: Boiling [D] Action
[5] Heat Transfer :: Entropy Change [E] Cause and Effect
[6] Airplane :: Wing [F] Characteristics and Types
[7] Balloon :: Lighter than Air Vehicle [G] Classification
[8] Aileron :: Wing [H] Degree of Intensity
[9] Troposphere :: Stratosphere [I] Part and Whole
[10] Aerodynamicist :: Aerodynamics [J] Association
You are required to develop a database for a College System in order to organize information related
to Students, Departments, Professors, Courses, and Sections.
(a) Develop an ERD for a simplified model of the above system. Show on your ERD important
entities together with attributes and various relationships.
(b) How would you implement your ERD into a working database? What types of reports can you
generate from your database?
1.7 Exams-ComputerDataModelingOther
Match the Given Relationship to its Type in the following Table.
1.8. EXAMS-COMPUTERDATASTRUCTURE 5
Relationship Type
[1] Airplane :: Landing [A] Sequence
[2] Chalk :: Blackboard [B] Whole and Part
[3] Stall :: Crash [C] Tools
[4] Hot :: Boiling [D] Action
[5] Heat Transfer :: Entropy Change [E] Cause and Effect
[6] Airplane :: Wing [F] Characteristics and Types
[7] Balloon :: Lighter than Air Vehicle [G] Classification
[8] Aileron :: Wing [H] Degree of Intensity
[9] Troposphere :: Stratosphere [I] Part and Whole
[10] Aerodynamicist :: Aerodynamics [J] Association
Develop an Entity Relationship Diagram (ERD) for an Airport Management System. Show on your
ERD important entities (such as Airports, Hangers, Flights, . . . etc.) together with attributes of each
entity and various relationships among the entities.
1.8 Exams-ComputerDataStructure
Match the Answer to its Question in the following Tables.

Table 1.
Question Answer
[1] What is an abstract data type? [A] logical organization into groups of 8
called a byte
[2] What abstract data type would be used [B] the computer language determines the
to store a whole number? most efficient number of bytes to repre-
sent a data type
[3] What is a user-defined data type? [C] a group of primitive data types defined
by the programmer
[4] What is a pointer? [D] a variable whose value is an address
of another pointer variable
[5] What is a pointer to a pointer? [E] grouping together of related data
[6] How is memory organized within a [F] reducing the number of times data is
computer? copied within memory
[7] Why don’t you directly specify the [G] a key word of a programming lan-
number of bytes to reserve in memory to guage that specifies the amount of mem-
store data? ory needed to store data and the kind of
data that will be stored in that memory
location
[8] Why would you use a structure? [H] arranging data without having to
move it in memory
[9] Why would you use a pointer in a pro- [I] a variable holding the memory address
gram? of another location of memory
[10] Why would you use a pointer to a [J] an integer: byte, short, int, or long
pointer in a program?
Table 2.
Question Answer
[1] What is an array? [A] a way to group things together by plac-
ing one thing on top of another and then
removing them one at a time from the top
[2] What is a linked list? [B] it can grow and shrink in size dynam-
ically at runtime
[3] What is a tree? [C] the last node on a branch and does
not have any child nodes
[4] What is a hashtable? [D] a collection of one or more memory lo-
cations
[5] What is a graph? [E] a data structure consisting of nodes,
each pointing to the next and the previous
[6] What is a stack? [F] sequentially in memory
[7] What is a queue? [G] an organization of data where data is
stored at the back and removed from the
front using the FIFO method
[8] What advantage does a linked list have [H] a table in which each entry consists of
over an array? a hashed key and a value
[9] How are elements of an array stored in [I] a data structure where data is stored
memory? in nodes that are arranged in branches
[10] How is a leaf node? [J] a collection of two finite non-empty
sets of vertices and edges
1.9 Exams-ComputerFortran
Write a FORTRAN program to solve the quadratic equation, x2 + A1 x + A0 = 0. Your code should
allow values of A1 , A0 to be input and the resulting roots, x1 , x2 to be output.
1.10 Exams-ComputerGraphics1
(a) The standard drawing sheet size A0 has dimensions (mm) of
i. 594 X 841
ii. 201 X 297
iii. 841 X 1189
(b) The projection technique that has the direction of projection perpendicular to the viewing plane,
and the viewing direction perpendicular to one of the principal faces is,
i. Orthographic Parallel Projection

ii. Axonometric Parallel Projection
iii. Oblique Parallel Projection
(c) A sketch is usually carried out using,
i. Freehand drawing
ii. Instruments
iii. A computer
(d) A schematic is a diagram that represents the elements of a system using
i. Realistic Pictures
ii. Abstract Graphical Symbols
iii. Plots
(e) To show frequency of occurrence, use
i. Data Table
ii. Bar Chart
1.11. EXAMS-COMPUTERGRAPHICS2 7
iii. Histogram
(f) To show distribution of observations, use
i. Bar Chart
ii. Histogram
iii. Map
(g) An example of a computer aided design (CAD) software package is,
i. Solidworks
ii. Auto CAD
iii. Both (a) and (b)
(h) DPI stands for
i. Don’t Place Into

ii. Document Per Inch
iii. Dots Per Inch
(i) The proper resolutions for an internet image and a printed page are, respectively
i. 72 PPI and 300 DPI

ii. 172 PPI and 300 DPI
iii. 300 PPI and 72 DPI
(j) Microsoft Paint creates Bitmap images called
i. Vector Images
ii. Raster Images
iii. JPEG Images
1.11 Exams-ComputerGraphics2
(a) Effective graphs almost often
i. Use only one independent variable per plot

ii. Plot more than one data series on a set of axes
iii. Both (a) and (b)
(b) Tecplot is a
i. Computer aided design software package

ii. Family of visualization software tools
iii. Symbolic manipulation package
(c) A sketch is usually carried out using,
i. Freehand drawing
ii. Instruments
iii. A computer
(d) A schematic is a diagram that represents the elements of a system using
i. Realistic Pictures
ii. Abstract Graphical Symbols
iii. Plots
(e) Graphs are the most widely used form of illustration in many disciplines? Why?
(f) Anatomy of a graph: Briefly describe the function of each of the following elements of a typical
graph,
A Ordinate
B Abscissa
C Scale markings on an axis
D Axis label
E Plot area
F Caption
G Plot symbols
H Plot bar
I Plot line
J Legend
1.12 Exams-ComputerIntroduction1
(a) Which program(s) can you use to view and manage the contents of your computer?
(Select all that apply).
i. Netscape Navigator.
ii. My Computer.
iii. Recycle Bin.
iv. Windows Explorer.
(b) Which of the following statements is NOT true?
i. You can move a file or folder to a new location by dragging and dropping it.
ii. You can rename a file or folder by right-clicking it, selecting Rename from the shortcut menu,
typing the new name and pressing <Enter>.
iii. A plus symbol (+) next to a folder in Windows Explorer indicates the folder is locked and
cannot be modified or deleted.
iv. Holding down the <Ctrl> key while you’re dragging and dropping something copies it instead
of moving it.
(c) Which of the following procedures can you use to change the size of a font in Word?
i. Select the text and select the size from the Font Size list on the Formatting toolbar.
ii. Select the text, right-click it, choose Font from the shortcut menu, select the font size and
click OK.
iii. Select the text, select Format → Font from the menu, select the font size and click OK.
iv. All of the above.
(d) Which is NOT a way to create a table in Word?
i. Select Table → Insert Table from the menu.
ii. Click the Insert Table button on the Standard toolbar.
iii. Select Insert → Table from the menu.
iv. Select View → Toolbars, Tables, and Borders to view the Tables and Borders toolbar and
click the Draw Table button on the Tables and Borders menu.
(e) Excel will calculate the following formulas except:
i. =B7+24
ii. =B7+B3
iii. 10+60
iv. =10+60
1.13. EXAMS-COMPUTERINTRODUCTION2 9
(a) Because the Internet is so large, it is divided into several different organizational domains. Men-
tion two types of these domains. For each domain type, mention its name, abbreviation, and
purpose. Also, mention two basic components of TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / In-
ternet Protocol) and the function of each.
(b) The main work in ”writing” a technical report lies in the research and preparation of the ma-
terial. Mention a ”typical” structure of a report you would write on the subject of Aeroplane
Aerodynamics. Briefly describe each part of your report.
(c) Choose the correct answer. A footer is:
i. A type of measurement used in Australia.
ii. Text that appears at the bottom of every page in a document.
iii. A tool used in reports to cite your sources and any quotations.
iv. A special type of tab stop.
(d) Choose the correct answer. What type of orientation does a document have when it is laid out
so that it is wider than it is tall?
i. Portrait.
ii. Side.
iii. Landscape.
iv. Horizontal.
(a) A problem is
i. a sequence of steps that leads to a solution
ii. an opportunity for improvement
iii. the difference between your current state and your previous state
(b) A problem statement is
i. a given list of quantities
ii. a process that involves design
iii. a clear concise description of the issues that need to be addressed by a problem solving team
(c) A solution to a problem is its
i. management in a way that successfully meets the goals established for treating it
ii. function that when substituted into it satisfies the equation
iii. required parameters
(d) Two characteristics of difficult problems are
i. complexity and ambiguity
ii. single goal and concise description
iii. brief statement and clear objective
(e) A technique for solving problems is
i. right hand rule
ii. hide and seek
iii. divide and conquer
(f) A computer case (chassis) includes
i. the motherboard
ii. the keyboard
iii. the mouse
(g) An example of an input device is a
i. screen
ii. tablet
iii. speaker
(h) An example of an output device is a
i. keyboard
ii. mouse
iii. monitor
(i) In order to cool off the CPU, most computers use
i. a diode
ii. a fan
iii. a refrigerator
(j) Access times is lowest for
i. floppy disks
ii. hard disks
iii. memory sticks
(a) A keystroke combination is:
i. Pressing two or more keys at the same time, for example pressing the <Shift> and <Tab>
keys at the same time.
ii. A way to lock your computer to prevent unauthorized access. To unlock the computer,
simply retype your keystroke combination.
iii. Using the keyboard in conjunction with the mouse.
(b) You can move a window to a different position on your computer screen by dragging it by its:
i. Status bar.
ii. Title bar.
iii. Move handle.
(c) Which key deletes text before, or to the left, of the insertion point in Word?
i. <Page Up>
ii. <Delete>
iii. <Backspace>
(d) Which of the following procedures can you use to change the size of a font in Word?
i. Select the text and select the size from the Font Size list on the Formatting toolbar.
ii. Select the text, right-click it, choose Font from the shortcut menu, select the font size and
click OK.
iii. Both A and B.
(e) A footer is:
i. A type of measurement used in Australia.
ii. A tool used in reports to cite your sources and any quotations.
1.16. EXAMS-COMPUTERINTRODUCTION5 11
iii. A special type of tab stop.
(f) Excel will calculate the following formulas except:
i. =B7+24
ii. 10+60
iii. =10+60
(g) Which is the fastest method to find the total of a cell range in Excel?
i. Select a blank cell, click the AutoSum button on the Standard toolbar, select the cell range
and click <Enter>.
ii. Select a blank cell, type ”= SUM”, select the cell range, type ”)” and click <Enter>.
iii. Select the cell range, click the AutoSum button, and the Name box in the Formula bar will
display the total.
(h) Mention a ”typical” structure of a technical report. Briefly describe each part of the report.
(a) A problem statement is
i. a given list of quantities
ii. a process that involves design
iii. a clear concise description of the issues that need to be addressed by a problem solving team
(b) The fundamental problem of aerodynamics is the
i. study of mass, momentum, and conservation laws
ii. design of the jet engine
iii. the calculation of forces and moments about a body
(c) A technique for solving problems is
i. right hand rule
ii. hide and seek
iii. divide and conquer
(d) A computer case (chassis) includes
i. the motherboard
ii. the keyboard
iii. the mouse
(e) An example of an input device is a
i. screen
ii. tablet
iii. speaker
(f) An example of an output device is a
i. keyboard
ii. mouse
iii. monitor
(g) In order to cool off the CPU, most computers use
i. a diode
ii. a fan
iii. a refrigerator
(h) A memory in which the information is stored last is on top and is retrieved first is known as
i. PROM
ii. stack
iii. buffer
(i) A computer program that translates one program instruction at a time into machine language is
called a/an
i. interpreter
ii. compiler
iii. simulator
(j) A computer program that converts an entire program into machine language is called a/an
i. interpreter
ii. compiler
iii. commander
1.17 Exams-ComputerMaple1
What is the basic data structure in Maple. Give an example.
What does each of the following Maple command do? Give an example of using the given command.
Show the result of executing the command.
(a) print
(b) expand
(c) factor
(d) solve
(e) for . . . do . . . od:
Write a Maple function to calculate the area ratio given the Mach number using the following rela-
tion, 3
3
A (5/6) 1 2
= 1 + M
A∗ M 5
Write a Maple procedure for the Isentropic Flow Relations in air,
2/7 2/5
T0 P0 ρ0 1
= = = 1 + M2
T P ρ 5
Your procedure should use Maple commands and handle the four possible situations,
CASE INPUT (GIVEN) OUTPUT

h (REQUIRED)
i
T0 T0 P0 ρ0
1 T T , P , ρ , M
h i
P0 T0 P0 ρ0
2 P , , , M
hT P ρ i
ρ0 T0 P0 ρ0
3 ρ , , , M
hT P ρ i
T0 P0 ρ0
4 M T , P , ρ , M
1.21. EXAMS-COMPUTERMAPLE5 13
Test Case 4 of your Maple procedure usinghyour personalicalculator by simulating the calculations
for a Mach number of, M = 2.5 and obtain TT0 , PP0 , ρρ0 , M .
(a) State which of the following Maple statements is wrong and correct the statement.
i. Eq := x + y
ii. print(B;
iii. X,Y := 4;
iv. if i > 5 then print(i);
v. for i from 0 to 10 by 2 do print(i);
(b) Write Maple code to obtain each of the following.
P10 π

i. y = x=1 sin 10 x
∂ 2 z(x,y) Rb
ii. The derivative, ∂x ∂y , and the integral, y = a
sin (x) dx
(2,−1)
iii. The solution, x, y, to the system of equations; a1 x + b1 y = c1 , a2 x + b2 y = c2
iv. The plot of the function, ex sin (x), from x = 0 to 1
v. The results of adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing two numbers A and B
1.22 Exams-ComputerMatlab1
(a) State which of the following Matlab statements is wrong and why.
i. A = [1, 2, 3; 4, 5, 6; 7, 8]
ii. B = [1 2 3 4] + [3 ; 3 ; 3 ; 3]
iii. X = Sin(4)
iv. y = [1 2 ; 3 5]ˆ2
v. z= sin(3.5+cos(4.5))
(b) Write Matlab statements to calculate each of the following.
P100 x

i. y = x=1 x2 sin 100
R1
ii. y = 0 sin (x) dx
iii. The solution to the system of equations,
3x + 5y + 7z = 9, 30x + 15y + 17z = 92, x + 2y + 9z = 19
iv. The best third order polynomial to fit the following data,
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
y 0 2 7 13 32 46 59 77 90
i.e. find a, b, c, d where y (x) = a + bx + cx2 + dx3
v. The roots of the polynomial, x3 − 7x2 + 40x − 34.
1.23 Exams-ComputerMatlab1Part
State which of the following Matlab statements is wrong and why.
(a) A = [1, 2, 3; 4, 5, 6; 7, 8]
(b) B = [1 2 3 4] + [3 ; 3 ; 3 ; 3]
(c) X = Sin(4)
(d) y = [1 2 ; 3 5]ˆ2
(e) z= sin(3.5+cos(4.5))
1.24 Exams-ComputerMatlab1PartOther
Find which of the following Matlab statements is wrong and why:
(a) A = [1, 2, 3; 4, 5, 6; 7, 8]
(b) B = [1234] + [3; 3; 3; 3]
(c) X = Sin(4)
(d) y = [12; 35]2
(e) z = sin(3.5 + cos(4.5))
1.25 Exams-ComputerMatlab2
Write a Matlab program to calculate the following:
P100
(a) y = x=1 x2 sin(x/100)
R1
(b) y = 0 sin(x)dx
(c) find the solution for the system of equations given by 3x+5y+7z = 9, 30x+15y+17z = 92, x+2y+9z =
19
(d) Given the following data
Find the best thitd order polynomial to fit the data (i.e. find a,b,c,d where y(x) = a + bx + cx2 + dx3 )
1.26 Exams-ComputerMatlab2Other
Write Matlab statements to calculate each of the following.
P100 x

(a) y = x=1 x2 sin 100
R1
(b) y = 0 sin (x) dx
(c) The solution to the system of equations,
3x + 5y + 7z = 9, 30x + 15y + 17z = 92, x + 2y + 9z = 19
(d) The best third order polynomial to fit the following data,
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
y 0 2 7 13 32 46 59 77 90
i.e. find a, b, c, d where y (x) = a + bx + cx2 + dx3

(e) The roots of the polynomial, x3 − 7x2 + 40x − 34.
1.27 Exams-ComputerProcessModeling
Match the Given Process to its Device in the following Table.
Process Device
[1] Heat Transfer [A] Turbine
[2] Fluid Transport [B] Nozzle
[3] Flow Acceleration [C] Compressor
[4] Lift Production [D] Diffuser
[5] Pressure Increase [E] Valve (Throttle)
[6] Energy Conversion (Kinetic to Internal) [F] Heat Exchanger
[7] Internal Energy Increase [G] Combustor
[8] Energy Conversion (Internal to Kinetic) [H] Duct
[9] Pressure Decrease [I] Concave Corner
[10] Flow Deceleration [J] Wing
1.28. EXAMS-COMPUTERPROGRAMMINGALGORITHMS 15
You are required to develop a DFD for Steady and Level Un-accelerated Flight (SLUF) of an Airplane.
(a) Develop a DFD for a simplified model of the above system. Show on your DFD important pro-
cesses together with various inputs and outputs to these processes.
(b) How would you implement your DFD into a working program? What types of data can you obtain
from your program?
Hint: Various equations for the required system are,

Newton’s Second Law: L = W, D = TR (SLUF)
Aerodynamics : CD = CD0 + KCL2 (Drag Polar of A/C)
Propulsion : TA = const (Available Thrust)
Definitions : L = 21 ρ∞ v∞
2
S CL , D = 12 ρ∞ v∞
2
S CD (Lift and Drag)
1.28 Exams-ComputerProgrammingAlgorithms
(a) What are six basic tools that aid in the development of a solution to a problem? Briefly describe
each.
(b) What are the four logic structures that ensure that the solution flows smoothly from one in-
struction to the next?
(c) What are the four basic types of modules? What is the function of each?
(d) What is cohesion and coupling of modules?
(e) What is the difference between parameter Call-By-Reference and Call-By-Value?
(f) What are three types of abstraction supported by programming languages?
(g) You are given a simple problem that requires the solution of the quadratic equation,
ax2 + bx + c = 0
For this problem, develop the following:
i. Problem Analysis Chart
ii. Interactivity Chart
iii. Input-Processing-Output Chart
iv. An Algorithm
v. A Flowchart
vi. A Computer Code (Use a Programming Language of Your Choice)
1.29 Exams-ComputerProgrammingLanguages
Fill in the cells of the following table using entries from column [A]. Column [L1] represents the C
programming language, column [L2] is for FORTRAN 77, and column [L3] is for Visual Basic.
# Issue [L1] [L2] [L3] [A] ANSWER
1 Usage 1 MS Office based application
2 System
3 Scientific application
2 Design Goal 1 Easy to implement
2 Ease of use and learning
3 Easily constructed and optimized
code
3 Paradigm 1 Component oriented and event-
driven
2 Imperative, Procedural
3 Imperative
4 Type Strength 1 Weak
2 Strong
5 Type Checking 1 Static
2 Dynamic
6 Type Safety 1 Safe
2 Unsafe
7 Basic Data Type 1 Integer, Floating Point, Logical,
Character Strings
2 Array
3 Integer, Double, String, Char,
Boolean
8 Input 1 READ(5,format) variables
2 scanf(format, &x);
3 Input <<prompt,>> x
9 Output 1 printf(format, x);
2 Print x
3 WRITE(6,format) expressions
10 Loop 1 For i=1 To N <<Step 1>>
{instructions}
Next i
2 DO nnnn I=1,N {instructions}
Nnnn CONTINUE
3 for ( <<type>> i=0; i<N; ++i)
{instructions}
1.30 Exams-AER101AVarious1
(a) The basic principle of aerodynamics was discovered by:

i. Orville Wright ii. George Cayley iii. Samuel Langley
(b) The forces produced by the airplane wing are:

i. lift and drag ii. thrust and drag iii. thrust and lift
(c) The sail-plane flight is:
i. heavier-than-air and powered

ii. heavier-than-air and un-powered
iii. lighter-than-air and un-powered
(d) The man who designed the ornithopter is:

i. Sir George Cayley ii. Leonard da Vinci iii. Count Von Zeppelin
(e) The glider pioneer is:

i. Sir George Cayley ii. Orville Wright iii. Otto Lilinthal
(f) The man who first introduced the idea of using a fixed surface for lift generation is:
i. Orville Wright ii. Sir George Cayley iii. Leonard da Vinci
1.31. EXAMS-AER101AVARIOUS2 17
(g) The brothers who built the first practical balloon are the:
i. Wright brothers ii. Reynolds brothers iii. Montgolfier brothers
(h) The man known for the development of the large rigid dirigible is:
i. Count Von Zeppelin ii. Sir George Cayley iii. Leonard da Vinci
(i) The source of aerodynamic force on the surface of an airplane:
i. pressure distribution ii. shear stress distribution iii. both i. and ii.
(j) The viscosity coefficient of a fluid:
i. decreases with temperature
ii. increases with temperature
iii. decreases with temperature for liquids but increases with temperature for gases
(a) The brothers who built the first practical balloons are the:
i. Wright brothers ii. Reynolds brothers iii. Montgolfier brothers
(b) The man known for the development of large rigid dirigibles is:
i. Count Von Zeppelin ii. George Cayley iii. Leonardo da Vinci
(c) The glider pioneer is:
i. Otto Lilinthal ii. Oriville Wright iii. Ludwig Prandtl
(d) The dirigible is:
i. lighter-than-air and un-powered
ii. heavier-than-air and powered
iii. lighter-than-air and powered
(e) The buoyancy force acting on a balloon is due to:
i. uprising air currents
ii. unbalance of the pressure force surrounding the balloon due to the negative pressure gra-
dient (dp/dz)
iii. difference in density between the surrounding air and the lighter gas inside the balloon
(f) The incompressibility assumption is accepted when the air stream velocity is:
i. larger than the speed of sound
ii. less than 30% the speed of sound
iii. less than the speed of sound
(g) In incompressible and steady flow, the cross-sectional area of a stream tube:
i. increases with the increase in velocity
ii. decreases with the increase in velocity
iii. decreases with the decrease in velocity
(h) The speed of sound in a perfect gas depends only on the:
i. pressure of the gas ii. pressure and temperature of the gas iii. temperature of the gas
(i) In the isothermal layer of the international standard atmosphere:
i. the pressure and density decrease with height at equal rates
ii. the pressure decreases more rapidly
iii. the density decreases more rapidly
(j) The geopotential altitude is a fictitious altitude for which the acceleration of gravity:
i. increases with altitude ii. decreases with altitude iii. is constant and equals g0 =9.8 m/s2
Answer the following.
(a) Draw neat sketches only for the tail group of an airplane and indicate the names of its compo-
nents.
(b) State the function of the horizontal tail (the stabilizer), the elevator, the vertical tail (the fin), and
the rudder.
(c) Sketch the flow field around an airfoil section showing the resulting aerodynamic forces.
(d) Explain, with the aid of neat sketches, the effect of streamlining on the flow field and on the drag
of the following two-dimensional shapes at Re = 105 ,
i. Flat plate normal to the flow direction with breadth d.

ii. Circular cylinder with diameter d.
iii. Streamlined body (airfoil) with maximum thickness d.
(e) Distinguish between ”skin friction drag” and ”form drag”.
1.33 Exams-AER101BVarious1
√
Right ( ) or Wrong ( X )? If wrong, correct the statement.
(a) The angle of attack of an airplane wing is the angle between the chord line and the horizontal
direction.
(b) The purpose of the camber is to decrease the airfoil drag coefficient.
(c) The NACA-2412 is a cambered airfoil section having a thickness ratio of 12 %.
(d) The mean line between the upper and lower surfaces of an airfoil section is called the chord line.
(e) During steady climbing, the thrust of the airplane is always greater than its weight.
(f) During steady climbing, the lift of the airplane is always smaller than its weight.
(g) The stalling speed of the airplane does not change with altitude.
(h) The engine is more suitable for aircraft use when it has a high (power/weight) ratio and a low
specific fuel consumption.
(i) The thrust produced by a propeller driven by a piston engine decreases with flight speed, while
that of a jet engine remains almost constant.
(j) Turbojet engines are more efficient than turbofan engines.
1.34 Exams-AER101BVarious2
√
Right ( ) or Wrong ( X )? If wrong, correct the statement.
(a) Increasing the angle of attack of an airfoil always increases the lift coefficient.
(b) The camber ratio of an airplane-wing airfoil-section is usually much smaller than the thickness-
to-chord ratio.
(c) The NACA-2412 is a cambered airfoil section having a thickness ratio of 12 %.
(d) The mean line between the upper and lower surfaces of an airfoil section is called the chord line.
(e) During steady climbing, the thrust of the airplane is always greater than its weight.
(f) During steady climbing, the lift of the airplane is always smaller than its weight.
(g) The stalling speed of the airplane does not change with altitude.
1.35. EXAMS-BALLOONANDALTITUDE 19
(h) The engine is more suitable for aircraft use when it has a high (power/weight) ratio and a low
specific fuel consumption.
(i) The propeller efficiency can never reach 100 %, due to the kinetic energy in the rotational motion
of the slipstream.
(j) The thrust produced by a propeller driven by a piston engine decreases with altitude, while that
of a jet engine does not.
1.35 Exams-BalloonAndAltitude
(a) In the troposphere layer of the standard atmosphere, the temperature decreases linearly with
altitude from 288 K at sea-level to 216 K at 11 km. Derive expressions for the variation of
pressure, density, and temperature with altitude in this layer only.
(b) A balloon
has a fixed volume
of 1500 m3 and empty weight of 250 kg. The balloon is filled with
3
helium ρ = 0.17 kg/m . If the balloon is carrying a payload of 500 kg, use the expressions
derived in part (a) to determine the maximum altitude that this balloon can reach. (NB: PSL =
101325 Pa)
1.36 Exams-BalloonAndFlight
(a) Explain how an airplane can fly. Illustrate your answer with neat sketches where necessary.
(b) A balloon has a fixed volume of 1200 m3 and its empty weight is 200 kg. The balloon is filled
with helium (ρHe = 0.17 kg/m3 ). If the balloon is carrying a payload of 800 kg, what is the
maximum altitude that this balloon can reach? Assume that the atmospheric air density varies
with altitude h [km] according to the following relation,

4.2553 kg
ρ = 1.225 (1 − 0.02257h)
m3
1.37 Exams-ConceptAltitudeSpeed
(a) (4 Marks) On a certain day the pressure at sea level is 101500 N/m2 and the temperature is 298
K. The temperature is found to fall linearly with height to 218 K at 11300 m, above which the
temperature is constant. Calculate the pressure, density, absolute and kinematic coefficients of
viscosity at (i) 10000 m, and (ii) 15000 m.
(b) (6 Marks) An airplane flies at an altitude of 8 km. The air speed indicator dial shows a reading of
150 m/s. Find: (i) the true air speed of the airplane, (ii) the equivalent air speed of the airplane,
and (iii) the Mach number of the airplane.
1.38 Exams-EngineTurbofanAndJet
(a) Draw a neat sketch for a turbofan engine. Indicate the name and function of the different
components. Why is this engine superior to the turbojet one?
(b) An airplane flies at an altitude where the atmospheric pressure is 54 kPa, at a speed of 970
km/hr. The frontal intake area of the jet engine is 0.8 m2 and the entering air density is 0.736
kg/m3 . A stationary observer determines that relative to the earth, the jet engine exhaust gases
move away from the engine with a speed of 1050 km/hr. The engine exhaust area is 0.558 m2
and the exhaust gas density is 0.515 kg/m3 . Assuming reasonably any missing data, calculate
accurately:
i. The fuel/air ratio of the jet engine.
ii. The thrust produced by the jet engine.
1.39 Exams-EngineTurbojet1
(a) Draw a neat sketch for a turbojet engine. Give the name and function of each component. Why
is the turbojet engine less efficient than the propeller?
(b) An airplane flies at an altitude where the atmospheric pressure is 54 kPa, at a speed of 970
km/hr. The frontal intake area of the jet engine is 0.8 m2 and the entering air density is 0.736
kg/m3 . A stationary observer determines that relative to the earth, the jet engine exhaust gases
move away from the engine with a speed of 1050 km/hr. The engine exhaust area is 0.558 m2
and the exhaust gas density is 0.515 kg/m3 . Assuming reasonably any missing data, calculate
accurately:
i. The fuel/air ratio of the jet engine.

ii. The thrust produced by the jet engine.
1.40 Exams-EngineTurbojet2
(a) Draw a neat sketch for a turbojet engine. Give the name and function of each component. Why
is the turbojet engine less efficient than the propeller?
(b) Consider
a turbojet-powered airplane flying at a speed of 850 km/hr at a standard altitude h =
3 2
12 km ρ = 0.31 kg/m and P = 1.94 ∗ 104 N/m . The turbojet engine has inlet and exit areas of
1.2 m2 and 0.93 m2 , respectively. Fuel is injected inside the engine at a rate of 0.05 kg of fuel
for every kg of air flowing thru the engine (i.e. the fuel-to-air ratio is 0.05). The velocity and
2
pressure of the exhaust gas at the exit of the engine are 450 m/s and 2.15 ∗ 104 N/m . Calculate:
i. The mass flow rate of air and fuel.

ii. The thrust of the turbojet engine.
1.41 Exams-Propeller2Blade
For a propeller engine of a two-bladed propeller, the airfoil section has the following characteristics:
α (◦ ) 2.8 4.3 5.7 8.7

Cl 0.533 0.647 0.751 0.945
Cd 0.0294 0.0382 0.0488 0.0728
The propeller blade has a chord of 20 cm. The flight speed is 360 km/hr and the rotational speed
is 2000 rpm. If the pitch angle β = 26.6◦ at 1.25 m radius, calculate:
(a) The helix angle, ϕ, and the angle of attack, α.
(b) The airflow velocity relative to the blade.
(c) Thrust, T, and torque, Q, produced by the blade element at sea-level.

1.42. EXAMS-PROPELLER3BLADE 21
1.42 Exams-Propeller3Blade
(a) A propeller driven airplane of wing area S and drag coefficient CD is flying at speed of V∞ in
standard atmosphere. The disc area of the propeller is A. Use simple momentum theory of
the propeller to show that the slipstream
p velocity Vs behind the propeller at steady level flight
(cruising flight) is given by: Vs = V∞ 1 + (S/A) CD .
(b) A small trainer airplane is powered by a 3-bladed propeller of diameter 2 m. the wing area is
16.8 m2 . At constant speed of 306 km/hr, the drag coefficient is 0.017. At a flight speed of 306
km/hr, calculate:
i. The slipstream velocity Vs behind the propeller.
ii. The thrust produced by the propeller.
iii. The engine brake horsepower, if the propeller efficiency is 85 %.
Chapter 2
Thermodynamics
2.1 Exams-AdvancedThermodynamics
(a) Write out a complete expression for the dissipation function in cylindrical coordinates.
(b) Write out an expression for the volumetric rate of entropy generation in coordinate-free notation.
(c) Consider the classic solution for the flow thru a round smooth tube of radius r0 with uniform
heat flux q W/m2 at the wall. In the fully developed laminar regime, the velocity and temperature
fields are given by, " 2 #
r
υx = υx,max 1 −
r0
" 2 4 #
qr0 x r 1 r
T − T0 = −4 − + , κ ≡ Thermal Conductivity
κ x0 r0 4 r0
where T0 is the absolute temperature at a point of origin located on the tube axis.
Use your expressions in (a) and (b) to show that,
κT02 2 16
ṠV,gen 2
= 2R − R3 + 2 + φR2
q Pe
where
 r0 υx,max

 Pe ≡ Peclet Number = x0 κ
α = r0 , α ≡ Thermal Diffusivity = ρCP

r
R= r0 and ṠV,gen,friction

υx
2
 φ ≡ Irreversibility Distribution Ratio = = 4µκT0 r0 q

ṠV,gen,heat−transfer
h i
1 1

(d) Plot the irreversibility map ṠV,gen κT02 /q 2 versus R for φ= 0, 4, 2, 1 for the above convective
heat transfer flow and discuss your plot.
Note: Assume that the local temperature difference, T − T0 << T0 .
2.2 Exams-ThermodynamicCombustion
(a) (5 Marks) Octane (C8 H18 ) is burned with 250 percent theoretical air, which enters the combustion
chamber at 25o C. Assuming complete combustion and a total pressure of 1 atm, determine (i)
the air-fuel ratio, and (ii) the dew-point temperature of the products.
23
24 CHAPTER 2. THERMODYNAMICS
(b) (5 Marks) Methane (CH4 ) is burned completely with the stoichiometric amount of air during a
steady-flow combustion process. If both the reactants and the products are maintained at 25o C
and 1 atm and the water in the products exist in the liquid form, determine the heat transfer for
this process. What would your answer be if combustion were achieved with 50 percent excess
air?
2.3 Exams-ThermodynamicConceptsTurbine
(a) (2 Marks) What is the difference between reversible work and availability?
(b) (2 Marks) Consider a process during which no entropy is generated (Sgen =0). Does the irre-
versibility for this process have to be zero?
(c) (6 Marks) Steam enters an adiabatic turbine at 6 MPa, 600o C, and 80 m/s and leaves at 50 kPa,
100o C, and 140 m/s. If the power output of the turbine is 5 MW, determine (i) the reversible
power, and (ii) the second law efficiency of the turbine. Assume the surroundings to be at 25o C.
2.4 Exams-ThermodynamicCondenser
(a) (4 Marks) Sketch two types of condensers and briefly describe each type.
(b) (6 Marks) A surface condenser operating at a pressure of 25 kN/m2 condenses 1.8 ton/hr of
steam. The steam enters the condenser with a dryness fraction of 0.98 and is condensed but
not undercooled. Cooling water enters the condenser at a temperature of 293 K and leaves at
328 K. Determine the flow rate of the cooling water.
2.5 Exams-ThermodynamicCycleIdealRankine
(a) (2 Marks) Why is the Carnot cycle not suitable as an ideal cycle for all power-producing cyclic
devices?
(b) (8 Marks) A steam power plant operates on a simple ideal Rankine cycle between the pressure
limits of 3 MPa and 50 kPa. The temperature of the steam at the turbine inlet is 400o C, and the
mass flow rate of steam thru the cycle is 25 kg/s. Show the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect
to saturation lines, and determine, (i) the thermal efficiency of the cycle, and (ii) the net power
output of the power plant.
2.6 Exams-ThermodynamicCycleRankine
(a) (4 Marks) Sketch a block diagram and a T-s diagram for the ideal reheat Rankine cycle.
(b) (6 Marks) Consider a steam power plant which operates on a reheat Rankine cycle and has a net
power output of 150 MW. Steam enters the high-pressure turbine at 10 MPa and 773 K and the
low pressure turbine at 1 MPa and 773 K. Steam leaves the condenser as a saturated liquid at a
pressure of 10 kPa. The adiabatic efficiency of the turbine is 80 percent, and that of the pump
is 95 percent. Show the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to saturation lines, and determine:
(i) the quality (or temperature if superheated) of the steam at the turbine exit, (ii) the thermal
efficiency of the cycle, and (iii) the mass flow rate of the steam.
2.7 Exams-ThermodynamicCycles
(a) (4 Marks) What are the basic ideas behind all the modifications to increase the thermal efficiency
of a power cycle?
(b) (6 Marks) Mention three methods of increasing the thermal efficiency for the simple ideal Rank-
ine cycle. Sketch T-s diagrams to illustrate these methods.
2.8. EXAMS-THERMODYNAMICDEVICESBOILER 25
2.8 Exams-ThermodynamicDevicesBoiler
(a) (3 Marks) Briefly mention the function of the following: (i) economizer, (ii) evaporator, (iii) super-
heater, (iv) reheater, (v) air preheater, and (vi) burner.
(b) (7 Marks) A boiler delivers 5400 kg/hr of steam at a pressure of 750 kN/m2 and with a dryness
fraction of 0.98. The feed water of the boiler is at a temperature of 313 K. The coal used for
firing the boiler has a calorific value (CV) of 31000 kJ/kg and is used at a rate of 670 kg/hr.
Determine the thermal efficiency of the boiler.
2.9 Exams-ThermodynamicEntropyTurbine
(a) (2 Marks) What three different mechanisms can cause the entropy of a control volume to change?
(b) (2 Marks) Can the entropy of an ideal gas change during an isothermal process? Why?
(c) (6 Marks) Steam expands in a turbine steadily at a rate of 25000 kg/hr, entering at 8 MPa and
450o C and leaving at 50 kPa as saturated vapor. If the power generated by the turbine is 4 MW,
determine the rate of entropy generation for this process. Assume the surrounding medium is
at 25o C.
2.10 Exams-ThermodynamicNozzle
(a) (4 Marks) What is the function of a nozzle?
(b) (6 Marks) A convergent-divergent nozzle is supplied with steam at a pressure of 1 MN/m2 and
temperature of 498 K. Supersaturated expansion according to the law pv1.3=const occurs in the
nozzle down to an exit pressure of 0.32 MN/m2. The exit diameter of the nozzle is 25 mm. If the
flow through the nozzle is chocked, determine: (i) the exit velocity, (ii) the mass flow rate, and
(iii) the throat diameter.
2.11 Exams-ThermodynamicPistonCylinderTurbine
(a) (5 Marks) A piston-cylinder device contains 5 kg of argon at 400 kPa and 30o C. During a quasi-
equilibrium, isothermal expansion process, 15 kJ of boundary work is done by the system, and
3 kJ of paddle-wheel work is done on the system. Determine the heat transfer for this process.
(b) (5 Marks) Air flows steadily thru an adiabatic turbine, entering at 1 MPa, 500o C, and 120 m/s
and leaving at 150 kPa, 150o C, and 250 m/s. The inlet area of the turbine is 80 cm2 . Determine
(i) the mass flow rate of the air, and (ii) the power output of the turbine.
2.12 Exams-ThermodynamicProcessExpansion
An ideal gas [for which Cv = (3/2) R] occupies a volume of 4 m3 at a pressure of 8 atm, and a
temperature of 400 K. The gas expands to a final pressure of 1 atm. Compute for each of the
following processes; the final volume, temperature, work done, heat absorbed, and the change in
internal energy.
(a) the expansion is reversible isothermal
(b) the expansion is reversible adiabatic
(c) the expansion takes place into vacuum

26 CHAPTER 2. THERMODYNAMICS
2.13 Exams-ThermodynamicTurbineNozzle
(a) (4 Marks) Briefly compare the impulse turbine to the reaction turbine.
(b) (6 Marks) Steam leaves the nozzles of a single-stage impulse turbine with a velocity of 1000 m/s.
The nozzles are inclined at an angle of 24 degrees to the direction of motion of the turbine blades.
The mean blade speed is 400 m/s and the blade inlet and exit angles are equal. The steam enters
the blades without shock and the flow over the blades is considered to be frictionless. Draw the
velocity triangles then determine: (i) the inlet angle of the blades, and (ii) the force exerted on
the blades in the direction of their motion if the mass flow rate of steam is 1.11 kg/s.
Chapter 3
Fluid Mechanics
3.1 Exams-AER301BConcepts
(a) For flow over a body, is laminar flow or turbulent flow preferable? Explain.
(b) How does making the pressure gradient more adverse (dP/dx ¿ 0) affect each of the following
boundary layer characteristics? (i) δ, (ii) xtr xsep , (iii) ∂ 2 u/∂y 2 w , (iv) τw
(c) What is turbulence? Briefly mention the characteristics of turbulent flows and explain why there
is a need for turbulence modelling.
(d) One form of the Navier-Stokes Equation (NSE) is given by,

" #
2
∂(u0 ) ∂(u0 v 0 ) ∂(u0 w0 )

∂ ū ∂ ū ∂ ū ∂ P̄ 2
x − component : ρ ū + v̄ + w̄ =− + µ∇ ū − ρ + +
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z
i. Briefly explain the steps involved in developing this equation from the laminar flow NSE.
Also state the assumptions involved.
ii. Identify the ”Reynolds Stress” term(s) in the equation above.
iii. Are the Reynolds stresses true stresses in the usual sense? Explain.
iv. What is ”eddy viscosity”? Is it a fluid property? Briefly discuss the differences between
virtual viscosity and kinematic viscosity.
v. Explain how the shear stress term,τ , is handled to account for both laminar and turbulent
flow.
(e) Define Prandtl’s Mixing Length Model by graph, words, and equations.
3.2 Exams-BLConcepts
State whether each of the following statements is True or False. If False, correct the statement.
(a) At low values of Reynolds number, the boundary layer becomes very thin.
(b) The existence of a pressure gradient along a surface has insignificant effect on the development
of the boundary layer.
(c) The pressure is constant across a boundary layer and equal to the value just outside the bound-
ary layer.
(d) Pressure gradients tending to accelerate the boundary layer flow are called adverse gradients,
while those tending to slow the flow are called favourable gradients.
(e) Separation is delayed in turbulent boundary layer compared to laminar one.
27
28 CHAPTER 3. FLUID MECHANICS
3.3 Exams-BLConcepts1
Answer ”True” or ”False” stating briefly why.
(a) In a fluid of very low viscosity, the force on a body may be found to a good approximation by
ideal fluid analysis.
(b) Flow separation at a solid surface is caused by adverse pressure.
(c) At separation, the pressure is minimum.
(d) Eddy viscosity is a fluid property.
(e) Prandtl number is a measure of inertia versus viscous effects.
(f) Heat transfer from the wall causes early transition.
(g) Reynolds analogy is a relation between the heat-transfer coefficient and the skin-friction coeffi-
cient.
3.4 Exams-BLConcepts2
Answer ”True” or ”False” stating briefly why.
(a) For a bluff body, frictional drag is the dominant source of air resistance whereas for a stream-
lined body, the dominant source of drag is pressure drag.
(b) Flow separation at a solid surface is caused by adverse pressure.
(c) At separation, ∂u/∂y is maximum.
(d) Eddy viscosity is a fluid property.
1.5
(e) For a flat plate laminar boundary layer approximated by u/U∞ = a + b (y/δ) + c (y/δ) , the values
of the constants a, b, and c are 0, 3, and − 1 respectively.
(f) Reynolds analogy is a relation between the heat-transfer coefficient and the skin-friction coeffi-
cient.
3.5 Exams-BLThermal
A plate 2 m long and 1 m wide is kept at a constant temperature of 100 o C. Air at a temperature of
10o C is flowing over the plate with a velocity of 0.5 m/s. Calculate:
(a) the hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness and the thermal boundary layer thickness at the
trailing edge of the plate
(b) the rate of heat transfer from both sides of the plate
Assume that the flow is laminar and that the Prandtl number of air is 0.72. Thermal conductivity
of the plate material is k = 0.03 KJ/sec.m.o C and the kinematic viscosity of air is 1.6*10−5
m2 /sec.
3.6 Exams-Dehumidifier
Moist air enters a dehumidifier at a rate of 3.2 m3 /sec. Liquid water drains out of the dehumidifier
chamber at a rate of 0.2 m3 /sec. The total length of the outlet duct is 5 cm and its friction coefficient
is 0.05. If the motor power is 5 KW and the transmission efficiency is 0.95,
(a) Calculate the mass flow rate of the dry air.
(b) Plot the relation between the fan power and the intake volume flow rate qv .
(c) Determine the fan duty according to test category D (test IV06), see the attached figure.
(d) Determine the fan efficiency ηF .
(e) Discuss how to control the fan duty.
(f) State the information needed for proper selection of fans.
3.7. EXAMS-DUCTHAGENPOISEUILLI 29
3.7 Exams-DuctHagenPoiseuilli
Consider the shown Newtonian fluid with constant properties in an infinitely long pipe of radius,
Ro . The fluid is dragged along by a cylinder of radius, Ri , with velocity, U . The flow caused by the
moving cylinder is steady and rotationally symmetric. The pipe is at a constant temperature, T0 ,
the cylinder is thermally isolated (~q = 0), therefore ∂T /∂z = ∂T /∂ϕ = 0. The heat capacity of the
incompressible fluid is, C. Find the following:
(a) The velocity field of the unidirectional laminar flow [uz ≡ uz (r) , uϕ = ur = 0].
(b) The dissipation function, Φ.
P Dρ
(c) The differential equation for T (r), using the energy equation, ρ De
Dt − ρ Dt = κ∇2 T + Φ.
(d) The solution for the homogeneous equation.

2
(e) The particular solution and then fit the solution to the boundary conditions [Hint: TP ∼ (ln r) ].
(f) The heat flux to the pipe wall.
(g) The cylinder temperature.
3.8 Exams-DuctHeat
Nitrogen [γ = 1.4, R = 296.8 J/ (kgK)] enters an un-insulated duct at Mach 2.0, with a stagnation
temperature of 1000 K and stagnation pressure of 1.4 MPa. Heat is lost from the nitrogen to the
outside ambient air at 293 K, with the mean overall heat transfer coefficient between fluid and air
h̄ = 60 W/ m2 K . The duct diameter is 5 cm and length is 2 m. Neglect friction and determine the;
(a) outlet stagnation temperature
(b) outlet Mach number
(c) percent of change of stagnation pressure
Note: A differential heat loss from the nitrogen can be expressed as dq̇ = h̄ (dA) (Tt − Ta ) with Ta the
ambient air temperature and dA a differential area normal to the direction of heat flow.
3.9 Exams-DuctsSeries
Air flows through a series of varying area ducts such that it obtains Mach number equal to one
at two locations along the flow. If the second location has an area which is 10 % larger than the
first location, what is the ratio of the stagnation pressure at the second location to that at the first
location?
3.10 Exams-DuctVarious
Air flows out a clean room test chamber (of pressure 2.5 mm above ambient) through a 150 mm
diameter duct of length L and of a square-edged entrance. Losses due to friction are negligible
compared with the entrance and exit losses.
(a) If the duct is replaced by another duct having a well-rounded entrance, estimate the increase in
volume flow rate that results from the change in entrance contour.
(b) Space has been found for a conical diffuser 0.45 m long in the above ventilation system and a
best diffuser of this length is to be used. Determine the appropriate diffuser angle and area ratio
for this installation and estimate the volume flow rate that will be delivered after it is installed.
3.11 Exams-EqBCAndBL
(a) (2 Marks) Write out the surface boundary condition (in terms of velocity components u,v) for
viscous flow.
(b) (2 Marks) Write out the exact solution (for boundary layer thickness and drag coefficient) of
Prandtl’s boundary layer equations applied to a flat plate. Is this solution valid for laminar or
turbulent flow?
(c) (2 Marks) What is the value of the critical Reynold’s number for a flat plate?
(d) (4 Marks) Calculate the local skin friction coefficient at a point 0.5 m from the leading edge of a
flat plate airfoil flying at 80 m/s at a height of 6 km. If the boundary layer were laminar, do you
expect the skin friction coefficient to increase or decrease?
3.12. EXAMS-EQBCANDBLPART 31
3.12 Exams-EqBCAndBLPart
(a) (2 Marks) Write out the surface boundary condition (in terms of velocity components u,v) for
viscous flow.
(b) (2 Marks) Write out the exact solution (for boundary layer thickness and drag coefficient) of
Prandtl’s boundary layer equations applied to a flat plate. Is this solution valid for laminar or
turbulent flow?
(c) (6 Marks) Calculate the local skin friction coefficient at a point 0.5 m from the leading edge of a
flat plate airfoil flying at 80 m/s at a height of 6 km. If the boundary layer were laminar, do you
expect the skin friction coefficient to increase or decrease?
3.13 Exams-EqManipulation
(a) Manipulate the general differential energy equation,
De
~ · ~v = κ∇2 T + Φ
ρ +P ∇
Dt
to show that the rate of change of entropy, s, in a Newtonian fluid with constant thermal con-
ductivity, κ, is given by,
ds
ρT = κ∇2 T + Φ
dt
(b) Consider the Unsteady One-Dimensional Euler System,
 
    P = ρRT
ρ ρu
 
~ ∂ F~inv ~
 
∂U e = ue + 21 u2
 
+ = 0, ~ =  ρu  , F~inv =  ρu2 + P 
U NB:
∂t ∂x h = ue + P/ρ
ρe (ρe + P ) u

 

ue = C v T
 
i. Obtain the Linearized One-Dimensional Euler System modelling aero-acoustics.

ii. Manipulate the resulting system to obtain a set of decoupled equations.
3.14 Exams-EqManipulationModified
(a) Manipulate the general differential energy equation,
De
~ · ~v = κ∇2 T + Φ
ρ +P ∇
Dt
to show that the rate of change of entropy, s, in a Newtonian fluid with constant thermal con-
ductivity, κ, is given by,
ds
ρT = κ∇2 T + Φ
dt
(b) Transform the Unsteady Inviscid One-Dimensional Euler System  in Conservative  Form,
      P = ρRT
ρ U1 ρu

 

1 2 
e = u + u

~ ~ ~ =  ρu  =  U2  , F~ =  ρu + P  NB: e
∂U
+ ∂F
= ~0, U 2 2
∂t ∂x h = ue + P/ρ 
ρe U3 (ρe + P ) u

 
ue = Cv T
 
to the Non-Conservative Form,
∂U~ ~
∂U
+A = ~0
∂t ∂x
where A is the Jacobian Matrix of the inviscid flux vector, F~ . Obtain A (U1 , U2 , U3 ) and A (u, e).
3.15 Exams-EqModified
I would like to program the modified equation procedure using an appropriate symbol manipulator.
Construct a detailed flowchart or algorithm that would help me achieve this task.
3.16 Exams-EqNSAndSimplification
Consider the following Navier-Stokes System in Flux Vector Conservative and Dimensional Form,
~
∂U T
~ ·E
~ = ~0, U
~ = ρ ~ = F~inv − F~vis î + G~ inv − G
~ vis ĵ + H~ inv − H
~ vis k̂

+∇ ρu ρv ρw ρet ,E
∂t
where
InviscidFlux Vectors: 
ρu ρv ρw
   
 ρu2 + P   ρvu   ρwu 
~inv = 
F  ρuv
 ~
, Ginv = 

ρv 2 + P
 ~
, Hinv = 

ρwv


 ρuw   ρvw   ρw2 + P 
(ρet + P ) u (ρet + P ) v (ρet + P ) w
Viscous Flux Vectors:
0 0 0
    
 τxx   τyx   τzx 
~vis = 
F

τxy
 ~
, Gvis = 

τyy
 ~
, Hvis = 

τzy


 τxz   τyz   τzz 
uτxx + vτxy + wτxz − qx uτyx + vτyy + wτyz − qy uτzx + vτzy + wτzz − qz
 
2
 
3
µ 2 ∂u
∂x
∂v
− ∂y − ∂w µ ∂u + ∂x ∂v
µ ∂w + ∂u
τxx τxy τxz  ∂z ∂y ∂x ∂z 
 τyx τyy τyz  =  µ ∂u ∂v
+ ∂x 2 ∂v
µ 2 ∂y − ∂u − ∂w µ ∂v + ∂w
 
∂y 3 ∂x ∂z ∂z ∂y 
τzx τzy τzz 
∂w ∂u

∂v ∂w 2 ∂w ∂u ∂v

µ ∂x + ∂z µ ∂z + ∂y 3
µ 2 ∂z
− ∂x
− ∂y
∂T ∂T ∂T
qx = −k , qy = −k , qz = −k
∂x ∂y ∂z
EOS and Specific Total Energy:

et = ue + 21 u2 + v 2 + w2

P = ρRT,
(a) State the assumptions which are built into the above system.
(b) Simplify and obtain the Unsteady 1-D Euler System. State your assumptions clearly, expand
the resulting system, and show that
∂ρ ∂ρ ∂u
∂t + u ∂x + ρ ∂x = 0
∂u ∂u 1 ∂P
∂t + u ∂x + ρ ∂x = 0
∂P ∂P ∂u
∂t + u ∂x + γP ∂x = 0
(c) For the Unsteady 1-D Euler system, find the Jacobian, Eigenvalues of the Jacobian, and the cor-
responding eigen-vectors. Classify this system based on its Eigenvalues then reduce to canonical
form.
3.17. EXAMS-EQNSANDSIMPLIFICATIONPART 33
(d) Modify the unsteady 1-D Euler system to encompass quasi 1-D flow and write out the resulting
governing equations. Apply the explicit Steger and Warming flux vector splitting formulation
to approximate the equations. Illustrate the discretization process and handling of boundary
conditions. Organize your answer in the form of steps.
3.17 Exams-EqNSAndSimplificationPart
Consider the following Navier-Stokes System in Flux Vector Conservative and Dimensional Form,
~
∂U T
~ ·E
~ = ~0, U
~ = ρ ~ = F~inv − F~vis î + G~ inv − G
~ vis ĵ + H~ inv − H
~ vis k̂

+∇ ρu ρv ρw ρet ,E
∂t
where
Inviscid Flux Vectors:     
ρu ρv ρw
 ρu2 + P   ρvu   ρwu 
F~inv =  ~ inv =  ~ inv = 
     
 ρuv , G
  ρv 2 + P , H
  ρwv 

 ρuw   ρvw   ρw2 + P 
(ρet + P ) u (ρet + P ) v (ρet + P ) w
Viscous  Flux Vectors:     
0 0 0
 τ xx
  τyx   τzx 
F~vis =  ~ vis =  ~ vis = 
     
τxy , G τyy , H τzy 
     
 τxz   τyz   τzz 
uτxx + vτxy + wτxz − qx uτyx + vτyy + wτyz − qy uτzx + vτzy + wτzz − qz
 
2
2 ∂u ∂v ∂w
µ ∂u ∂v ∂w ∂u

3µ ∂x − ∂y − ∂z + ∂x µ +
 
τxx τxy τxz  ∂y ∂x ∂z 
 τyx τyy τyz  =  µ ∂u ∂v
∂y + ∂x
2
µ 2 ∂v
− ∂u
− ∂w
µ ∂v + ∂w
 
3 ∂y ∂x ∂z ∂z ∂y 
τzx τzy τzz  
µ ∂w ∂u
µ ∂v ∂w 2 ∂w ∂u ∂v

∂x + ∂z ∂z + ∂y 3 µ 2 ∂z − ∂x − ∂y
∂T ∂T ∂T
qx = −k , qy = −k , qz = −k
∂x ∂y ∂z
EOS and Specific Total Energy:

et = ue + 12 u2 + v 2 + w2

P = ρRT,
(a) State the assumptions which are built into the above system.
(b) Simplify and obtain the Unsteady 1-D Euler System. State your assumptions clearly, expand
the resulting system, and show that
∂ρ ∂ρ ∂u
∂t + u ∂x + ρ ∂x = 0
∂u ∂u 1 ∂P
∂t + u ∂x + ρ ∂x = 0
∂P ∂P ∂u
∂t + u ∂x + γP ∂x = 0
3.18 Exams-EqNSConceptsAndIntegOfP
(a) Match the correct statement from column [B] to that of column [A]:
# [A] Simplified Fluid Flow Model [B] Assumptions

1 Inviscid Navier-Stokes (Euler) Neglect pressure gradient normal to the wall,
Neglect diffusion parallel to the body surface
2 Incompressible Navier-Stokes Neglect viscous terms
3 Full Potential Model Neglect viscosity, Neglect vorticity
4 Thin Layer Navier-Stokes Very low Mach number
5 Parabolized Navier-Stokes Neglect viscous derivatives in streamwise
and circumferential directions i.e. parallel
to the surface
6 Boundary Layer Steady, Neglect viscous derivatives in
streamwise direction, Approximate stream-
wise pressure-gradient
(b) Starting from the incompressible Navier-Stokes momentum equation without gravity,
D~v ~ + µ∇2~v
ρ = −∇P
Dt
Substitute appropriate non-dimensional variables and show that the above equation reduces to,
D~v∗ 1 ~∗ ∗ 1
[Sr] ∗
=− ∇ P + ∇∗2~v∗
Dt [Ru] [Re]
where [Sr] , [Ru] , and [Re] are Strouhal’s, Ruark’s, and Reynolds numbers respectively, and star
denotes non-dimensional quantities.
(c) Consider an airfoil with chord length c and the running distance x measured along the chord.
The leading edge is located at x/c = 0 and the trailing edge at x/c = 1. The pressure coefficient
variations over the upper and lower surfaces are given respectively, as
2
1 − 300 xc , 0 ≤ xc ≤ 0.1 x x
n o
Cp,u = , Cp,l = 1 − 0.95 , 0 ≤ ≤ 1
−2.2277 + 2.2777 xc , 0.1 ≤ xc ≤ 1 c c
Calculate the lift coefficient, cl , if the angle of attack α = 5 deg.
3.19 Exams-EqNSFlowModels
(a) Write out an expanded expression for the rate at which work is done against the viscous stresses
in two-dimensional cartesian coordinates.
(b) Match the correct statement from column [B] to that of column [A]:

1 Inviscid Navier-Stokes (Euler) Neglect pressure gradient normal to the wall,
Neglect diffusion parallel to the body surface
2 Incompressible Navier-Stokes Very low Mach number
3 Full Potential Model Steady, Neglect viscous derivatives in
streamwise direction, Approximate stream-
wise pressure-gradient
4 Thin Layer Navier-Stokes Neglect viscous terms
5 Parabolized Navier-Stokes Neglect viscous derivatives in streamwise
and circumferential directions i.e. parallel
to the surface
6 Boundary Layer Neglect viscosity, Neglect vorticity
3.20. EXAMS-EQPOTENTIALFUNCTION 35
3.20 Exams-EqPotentialFunction
(a) Write out a problem statement (governing equation and boundary conditions) for a sharp trailing
edged thin airfoil placed in steady-inviscid irrotational and incompressible flow. Formulate your
statement in terms of the small perturbation potential function, φ.
(b) Repeat (a) in terms of the full potential function, Φ.
(c) Repeat (a) in terms of the small perturbation stream function, ψ.
(d) Repeat (a) in terms of the full stream function, Ψ.
(e) Outline the steps you would take in order to obtain a numerical solution for your problem
statement in (a). Please organize your steps.
3.21 Exams-EqPotentialFunctionInvIrrotIncompBC
(a) (2 Marks) Write out the governing equation (in terms of the velocity potential function) for two-
dimensional steady, inviscid, irrotational, and incompressible flow.
(b) (2 Marks) Write out the surface boundary condition (in terms of the velocity potential function)
for potential flow.
(c) (2 Marks) Briefly explain the concept of superposition of flows. How is the flow about a cylinder
generated using this concept?
(d) (4 Marks) Consider the superposition of a uniform flow and a source of strength K. If the distance
from the source to the stagnation point is R, calculate the strength of the source in terms of U∞
and R.
3.22 Exams-EqPotentialFunctionInvIrrotIncompBCOvalRankine
(a) Write out the governing equation for steady two-dimensional invscid irrotational incompressible
flow in terms of the potential function ϕ. Also write out the freestream and surface boundary
conditions for an external flow problem governed by this flow model.
(b) A Rankine oval is formed by a line source-sink pair with m=6 m2 /s, a=2 m, and U∞ =6 m/s.
Find the length and width of the body and the velocity at the shoulder.
3.23 Exams-EqSteadyInvIrrot2D
Write out various forms of the equation governing steady inviscid irrotational flow in two dimensions
and briefly discuss each form.
3.24 Exams-EqTransformationGridBC
(a) Find the metrics and Jacobian of the two-dimensional transformation,
p y
ξ (x, y) = x2 + y 2 , η (x, y) = tan−1
x
(b) State advantages and disadvantages of O-Type and C-Type Meshes for two-dimensional and
axisymmetric flows.
(c) The velocity field for an irrotational flow of an incompressible inviscid fluid around a circular
cylinder with center at the origin and radius r is represented by the potential function,
cos (θ)
φ = U∞ x + U∞ p
x2 + y 2
~ = 0 where F (r, θ) = 0 is
Show that this function satisfies the surface boundary condition, ~v · ∇F
the equation of the surface of the cylinder.
3.25 Exams-EqTransformationManipulation
Consider the Unsteady Two-Dimensional Euler System in Rectangular Physical Coordinates,
~ ~ ~
∂U ∂F ∂G ~
∂t + ∂x + ∂y = 0 Vector Conservative Form
Show that the above system can be transformed using the generalized coordinate transformation,
τ = t, ξ = ξ (x, y) , η = η (x, y)
into the transformed system (in Generalized Computational Coordinates),
~1
∂U ∂ F~1 ∂G~1
+ + = ~0 Vector Conservative Form
∂τ ∂ξ ∂η
~ 1 , F~1 , G
Find U ~ 1 in terms of U
~ , F~ , G,
~ the metrics of the transformation, ξx , ξy , ηx , ηy , and the jaco-
bian determinant of the transformation, J = ξx ηy − ξy ηx .
Note: In CFD, the above transformed system is discretized then solved by a suitable scheme.
3.26 Exams-EqUnsteadyPotential
The unsteady full potential equation in two-dimensional cartesian co-ordinates and in conservative
form is,
∂ρ
+ (ρu)x + (ρv)y = 0
∂t
1
ρ = 1 − V 2 − 2Φt γ−1
where u = Φx , v = Φy , and V 2 = Φ2x + Φ2y . Expand the above equation and obtain an organized
non-conservative form.
3.27 Exams-EqVorticityTransport
The vorticity stream-function formulation of the flow governing equations is given by
∇2 ψ = −ζ
ζt + uζx + vζy = µ(ζxx + ζyy )/ρ
where the second equation is known as the vorticity transport equation. A one dimensional model
for the vorticity transport equation is,
ζt + uζx = αζxx
(a) Construct a suitable finite difference scheme to solve the one-dimensional voticity transport
model. Explain why you made your selection.
(b) What is the order of the truncation error in your scheme.
(c) Derive the stability condition and comment on the stability properties of your scheme.
3.28 Exams-EqWave
Consider the one-dimensional wave equation.
(a) Use Lax method to obtain a finite-difference approximation to this equation.
(b) What is the order of the truncation error for the resulting scheme?
(c) Use the Von Neuman method to analyze the stability of the scheme.
(d) Derive the modified equation for the Lax method. Retain terms up to and including uxxxx .
(e) Compute and tabulate the solution for four time steps using the initial condition,
(
1 x≤0
u(x, 0) =
0 x>0
∆x = 0.1, and your best guess of Courant number.

3.29. EXAMS-FILTER 37
(f) Plot the final solution (at the fourth time step) and compare to the exact solution.
(g) Discuss the properties of the method in light of the previous plot and the modified equation
derived in (d).
3.29 Exams-Filter
The pressure drop ∆p for airflow through a certain type of filters, depends upon the volume flow
rate Q, air density ρ, and filter thickness H. The following are pressure-drop data in airflow, at
sea-level conditions, through a filter 3 cm thick.
∆p (Pa) 76.8 307 691 1229 1920 2765

Q (lit./s) 100 200 300 400 500 600
Use the Π - theorem and the above data to determine the pressure drop ∆p of the same filter
material if the thickness is increased to 6 cm and the flow rate is 375 lit./sec.
3.30 Exams-Jet
The shown water jet exits from a nozzle directed vertically upwards and remains circular. The
diameter of the nozzle is 25 mm.
(a) Write out simplified equations for the conservation of mass and the conservation of momentum.
State clearly the assumptions made.
(b) What will be the diameter of the jet at a point 4.5 m above the nozzle if the velocity with which
the jet leaves the nozzle is 12 m/s?
(c) What will be the maximum height that the jet can reach above the nozzle?
3.31 Exams-NeedleElbow
(a) The shown hypodermic needle contains some sort of serum (SG=1.02). If the serum is to be
injected steadily at 6 cm3 /s, how fast, in cm/s, should the plunger be advanced? Neglect
leakage in the plunger clearance.
(b) Water at 20o C flows thru the shown elbow and exits to the atmosphere. The pipe diameter is
D1 =10 cm, while D2 =3 cm. At a weight flow rate of 150 N/s, the pressure p1 =2.3 atm (gage).
Neglecting the weight of the water and elbow, estimate the force on the flange bolts at section 1.
3.32 Exams-OrificeMeter
The figure shows a proposed arrangement for calibration of a thin-plate orifice meter. The calibra-
tion consists of determining the coefficient K by collecting the flowing water in a weigh tank for
some period of time. During the calibration period, the flow rate is held constant as possible, and
the pressure difference, ∆P = P1 − P2 , is recorded. The flow rate is the measured
weight divided by
the liquid density and the elapsed time i.e. Q = W / (ρt); the area, A2 is πD2 4 where D is the orifice
q
4W 1
diameter. The calibration constant is given by, K = πD 2t 2ρ∆P . By inserting the observed values of
W, t, and ∆P , along with a measured value of D and tabulated data for ρ, the experimental value of
K is obtained. The results are summarized in the following table.
VARIABLE BIAS STANDARD

UNCERTAINTY (%) DEVIATION (%)
Bx σx
x (95%) x
x
WEIGHT W 1 0.1
DIAMETER D 0.2 0
TIME t 0 1
DENSITY ρ 0.02 0.002
PRESSURE ∆P 0.1 1
Determine the bias and the precision uncertainties for K.
3.33 Exams-PipeBL
At one section in a 25 cm diameter pipe, turbulent airflow is at an absolute pressure of 102 KPa
and temperature of 25 o C. The velocity profile for the turbulent airflow is given by,
y 1/7 r 1/7
u (y) = U =U 1−
R R
3.34. EXAMS-PIPEFRICTION1 39
where U is the centreline velocity, Ris the pipe radius, y is the radial distance from the wall (y = R − r),
and ris the radial location from the centreline. If U = 30 m/s, calculate
(a) The average airflow velocity in the pipe.
(b) The mass flow rate of airflow in kg/s.
3.34 Exams-PipeFriction1
Air is flowing in a pipe of diameter 0.3 m. The conditions at the pipe entrance are M=3, P=0.7 atm,
and T=38 ◦ C. A normal shock wave is formed at a section where M=2.5. If M=0.8 at the pipe exit
and if the friction factor f=0.005, and γ =1.4, calculate the
(a) distance between the entrance and the section at which the shock stands
(b) total length of the pipe
(c) static and total pressures at the pipe exit
Consider the adiabatic flow of air through a pipe of 0.06 m diameter and 1 m length. The inlet flow
conditions areM1 = 2.5, P1 = 0.5 atm, and T1 = 288 K. Assuming the local friction coefficient equals a
constant of 0.005, calculate the exit flow conditionsM2 , P2 , and P02 .
(a) Starting from the momentum equation for steady one-dimensional flow with friction,
1 4f dx
dP + ρudu = − ρu2
2 D
derive in detail the equation,

dP γM 2 1 + (γ − 1) M 2 dx
=− 4f
P 2 (1 − M 2 ) D
(b) Air flows out of a pipe with a diameter of 0.3 m at a volume flow rate of 1000 m3 per minute at a
pressure and temperature of 150 kPa and 293 K respectively. If the pipe is 50 m long, find the
changes in pressure and temperature from inlet to outlet. Assume f = 0.005.
3.37 Exams-PipeFrictionAndIntegOfCp
(a) Air is flowing thru a pipe of 0.02 m inside diameter and 40 m length. The conditions at the pipe
exit are M2 = 0.5, P2 = 1 atm, and T2 = 270 K. Assuming an adiabatic one-dimensional flow with
local friction coefficient of 0.005, calculate M1 , P1 , and T1 at the pipe entrance.
(b) Consider an airfoil with chord length c and the running distance x measured along the chord.
The leading and trailing edge locations arex/c = 0and x/c = 1, respectively. The pressure coeffi-
cient variations over the upper and lower surfaces are,
2
1 − 300 xc , 0 ≤ xc ≤ 0.1 x x
n o
Cp,u = , Cp,l = 1 − 0.95 , 0 ≤ ≤ 1
−2.2277 + 2.2777 xc , 0.1 ≤ xc ≤ 1 c c

3.38 Exams-PipeInclinedPipe
(a) An oil with ρ = 900 kg/m3 , and kinematic viscosity ν = 0.0002 m2 /s, flows upward through
a 6-cm-diameter pipe inclined 40◦ to the horizontal plane. The pressure at section (1) is 350
kPa. The pressure at section (2), 10 m downstream of section (1), is 250 kPa. Assuming steady
laminar flow:
i. Verify that the flow is going upward from section (1) to section (2).
ii. Determine the head loss due to friction, hLf , between sections (1) and (2).
iii. Calculate: the discharge Q, average velocity V, and Reynolds number Re.
iv. Is the flow really laminar?
(b) Air at standard sea-level conditions ( ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 and µ = 1.789 x 10−5 kg/m.s ) flows
through a horizontal, galvanized iron pipe ( = 0.15 mm ) at a rate of 0.060 m3 /s. Determine
the minimum pipe diameter if the pressure drop is to be no more than 5700 N/m2 per 50
m of pipe. Hint: the friction factor f for Reynolds number between 4000 and 107 is given by
f = 0.0055[1 + (20, 000/D + 106 /Re)1/3 ], while that for laminar flow is given by f = 64/Re.
3.39 Exams-PipePipeJunction
(a) Calculate the pressure losses in the shown pipe-line, given: Q = 1.25*10−4 m3 /s L1 = L2 = 4 m
D1 = 13 mm D2 = 8 mm ρ = 850 kg/m3 ν = 1.95 * 10−5 m2 /s
(b) A horizontal pipe carries water of density 1000 kg/m3 at the rate of 25 kg/s, as shown. At a
junction in the pipe, the flow is divided into three other pipes running in parallel. Determine,
i. the head lost to friction
ii. the flow rate of water through each pipe in parallel, neglecting minor losses
3.40 Exams-PipeSuddenExpansion2Plates
(a) (5 Marks) When a pipe flow suddenly expands from A1 to A2 , as shown, low-speed friction eddies
appear in the corners and the flow gradually expands to A2 downstream. Using the suggested
control volume for incompressible steady flow and assuming that P ≈ P1 on the corner annular
ring as shown, show that the downstream pressure is given by,

A1 A1
P2 = P1 + ρv12 1−
A2 A2
Neglect wall friction.
(b) (5 Marks) The shown velocity profile for laminar flow between two plates is, u = 4umaxhy(h−y)
2 ,v =
w = 0. If the wall temperatures are the constants T0 , T1 for the lower and upper walls respectively,
use the incompressible flow energy equation, ρCv dT 2
dt = k∇ T + Φ, to solve for the temperature
distribution T (y) between the walls for steady flow.
3.41. EXAMS-PIPEVALVE 41
3.41 Exams-PipeValve
Air flows steadily in a pipe at a Mach number of 0.1. The end of the pipe is instantaneously closed by
a valve, and a compression wave therefore propagates back into the gas. Calculate the percentage
changes in pressure, temperature, and density produced by the wave.
Note: Treat the wave as a normal shock.
3.42 Exams-RadiatorHeat
The radiator systems of many of the early racing aircraft were flush mounted on the external surface
of the airplane. Assume that the local heat-transfer rate can be estimated using the flat-plate
relations. What is the local heating rate for x = 3 m when the airplane is flying at 468 km/hr at an
altitude of 3 km? The surface temperature is 330 K.
Note1:The thermal conductivity for air at an altitude of 3 km is: k = 0.02306 W/ (m.K).
Note2:Nusselt No.Nux = hx/k, Local Heat Transfer Coeff h = q̇/ (Te − Tw ), Prandtl No.Pr = µCp /k
3.43 Exams-TunnelCoutte1
Consider the shown 2-D viscous incompressible flow (Couette Flow) between parallel plates a dis-
tance h apart. The upper plate moves at velocity vu = const while the lower plate is fixed. There is no
pressure gradient in the x-direction.
(a) Apply the given assumptions to the governing mass and momentum conservation equations.
Write out the simplified forms of the equations.
(b) Solve the equations obtained in (a) above and find the velocity u (y) between the plates.
3.44 Exams-TunnelCoutte2
The velocity components of the shown Couette-Flow is given by,
U
u1 = x2 , u2 = u3 = 0
h
Obtain the following quantities.
1 Stress Tensor 6 Viscous Dissipation Function

2 Velocity Gradient Tensor 7 Stream Function
3 Rate of Strain Tensor 8 Rate of Strain of Material Line Elements d~x
and d~x0
4 Vorticity Tensor 9 Angular Velocities of the Material Line Ele-
ments d~x and d~x0
5 Angular Velocity Vector 10 Material Change of the Right Angle Between
d~x and d~x0
3.45 Exams-TunnelCouttePoiseuilli
Consider parallel flow between two flat walls a distance 2b apart (Coutte-Poiseuilli Flow). Sketch
the situation then derive the velocity distribution between the plates by the direct application of the
Navier-Stokes Equation. Also, find the volume flow rate and the average and maximum velocities.
Note: Start with the full equations and reduce with appropriate justifications. State all assumptions.
3.46 Exams-TunnelPoiseuilleFlowFirst
Incompressible Newtonian fluid with constant density ρ and viscosity µ flows between two parallel
plates with infinite width, as shown. The plate height is h, the components
h 2 of the pressure
i gradient
∂p K h 2
are, ∂xi = (−K, 0, 0), and the velocity field between the plates is ui = 2µ 4 − x2 , 0, 0 . Body forces
are neglected.
(a) Show that the given velocity-field satisfies the continuity and the Navier-Stokes equations.
(b) Determine the components of the stress tensor.
(c) Find the principal stresses and their direction.
3.47. EXAMS-TUNNELPOISEUILLEFLOWSECOND 43
3.47 Exams-TunnelPoiseuilleFlowSecond
Steady, Uni-Directional, Two-Dimensional, Incompressible, Newtonian fluid with constant prop-
erties (i.e. constant density ρ, constant viscosity µ, and constant thermal conductivity κ) flows
between two parallel plates with infinite width, as shown. Neglect body forces.
(a) Start from the governing equations of fluid mechanics (see the Appendix) and simplify for the
shown flow. Write clearly the simplified equations.
(b) Apply appropriate boundary conditions then solve the simplified set of equations. Obtain the
following quantities:
i. the velocity vector field, ~v (x1 , x2 , x3 )
ii. the stress tensor field,σ̃ (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = −P (x1 , x2 , x3 ) I˜ + τ̃ (x1 , x2 , x3 )
iii. the temperature scalar field, T (x1 , x2 , x3 ).
3.48 Exams-TunnelPoiseuilleFlowThird
Steady, Uni-Directional, Two-Dimensional, Incompressible, Newtonian fluid with constant prop-
erties (i.e. constant density ρ, constant viscosity µ, and constant thermal conductivity κ) flows
between two parallel plates with infinite width, as shown. Neglect body forces.
(a) Start from the governing equations of fluid mechanics in differential form and simplify for the
shown flow. Show that the governing equations reduce to,
2
d2 u1 d2 T

1 dP µ du1
= = const, =
dx22 µ dx1 dx22 κ dx2
(b) Apply appropriate boundary conditions to the simplified set of equations in (a) then solve. Find:
i. the velocity field, u1 (x2 ),
ii. the shear stress field, τx1 x2 (x2 ),
iii. the temperature field, T (x2 ).
3.49 Exams-TunnelWindClosed
Consider the shown closed-circuit wind tunnel. Air at standard conditions is to flow through the
test section with a velocity of 60 m/s. The flow is driven by a fan that essentially increases the
static pressure by the amount P1 − P9 , that is needed to overcome the head losses experienced by
the fluid as it flows around the circuit.
(a) Estimate the value of P1 − P9 .
(b) Estimate the horsepower supplied to the fluid by the fan.
STATION
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
AREA m2 2.04 2.60 3.25 3.25 0.37 0.37 0.93 1.67 2.04
3.50 Exams-TunnelWindManometer
An experiment was conducted to measure the boundary layer profile over a flat plate in a wind tun-
nel as shown in the following figure. The pitot-static probe was connected to the digital manometer
#1 to measure the free stream velocity. Digital manometer #2 was connected to a flattened-pitot
probe and and static pressure hole on the plate surface. The flattened-pitot probe was traversed
in the Y-direction starting from the plat surface. Five readings were taken at each Y location, in
addition to five other readings from the pitot-static probe. The X-location was fixed at 0.21 m. The
readings were as follows:
Manometer #1 Readings
Reading #1 Reading #2 Reading #3 Reading #4 Reading #5

[Pa] [Pa] [Pa] [Pa] [Pa]
50.1 49.2 48.9 49.5 48.7
Manometer #2 Readings
3.51. EXAMS-VISCOUSFLOW 45
y [mm] Reading #1 Reading #2 Reading #3 Reading #4 Reading #5
[Pa] [Pa] [Pa] [Pa] [Pa]
0.7 4.3 5.3 2.9 3.5 3.4
1 10 10.9 11.3 12 13.6
1.3 17.6 18.1 17.9 14 16.3
1.6 28.6 18.3 19.5 21.7 20.4
1.9 33.7 28.1 34.8 29.7 30.8
2.2 31.7 32.3 41 31.9 36.1
2.5 31.3 31.4 35.2 36.5 32.4
2.8 38.7 39.6 43.6 42.1 34.4
3.1 46 38.5 37.3 35 39.4
3.4 46 46.1 46.4 47 44.8
3.7 46.5 48.8 48.8 46.7 45
4 46.6 47.9 48 48 48.7
5 50.3 50.1 49.1 48 49.3
Answer the Following:

(a) Plot the non-dimensional velocity profile of the boundary layer.
(b) Is the velocity profile laminar or turbulent? Support your answer by comparing with the suitable
theoretical velocity profile on the same plot in a?
(c) Estimate the maximum error in the measurement of the velocity profile and support your esti-
mation with calculation.
(d) Estimate the bias error in the traverse direction if exist and explain why?
Boundary layer measurement over a flat plate in a wind tunnel
3.51 Exams-ViscousFlow
(a) (5 Marks) Mercury at 20o C flows through 4 m of 7-mm-diameter glass tubing at an average
velocity of 3 m/s. Estimate the head loss in m and the pressure drop in kPa.
(b) (5 Marks) A chimney at sea level is 2 m in diameter and 40 m high. When it is subjected to 50
mi/hr storm winds, what is the estimated wind-induced bending moment about the bottom of
the chimney?
Chapter 4
Hydraulics and Pneumatics
4.1 Exams-Hydraulic1
Consider the shown circuit.
(a) Mention the type and function of each of the control valves V1, V2, V3, V4, V5, and V6.
(b) Explain the operation of this circuit for each of the modes of operation of control valve V5.
(c) Give the sequence of operations of cylinders 1 and 2.
(d) Mention a typical application of this circuit.
4.2 Exams-Hydraulic2
Consider the shown circuit for a double-acting hydraulic cylinder where all components lie in the
same horizontal plane. The pressure at the pump outlet, the flow rate, kinematic viscosity of oil,
3
and weight density of oil are; Ppump = 3 MPa, Q = 2 L/s, νoil = 10−4 m2 /s, γoil = 8000 N/m respectively.
(a) Determine the extending speed of the cylinder.
(b) Determine the external load Fload that the cylinder can sustain moving in the extending direction.
Elbows And Valves Pipe Pipe Diameters Cylinder Diameters

Lengths
E : 90o Elbow (K=1.2) L1 = 10 m D = 3.8 cm Dpiston = 20 cm
CV: Check Valve (K=4) L2 = 3 m Drod = 10 cm
DCV: Directional Control L3 = 2 m
Valve (K=5) L4 = 2 m
L5 = 6 m
47
48 CHAPTER 4. HYDRAULICS AND PNEUMATICS
4.3 Exams-HydraulicValve1
Mention,
(a) two advantages of hydraulic power systems compared to mechanical and electrical systems
(b) six basic components of a hydraulic circuit
(c) two primary functions of a hydraulic fluid
(d) two undesirable results when using an oil with a viscosity that is too high
(e) two undesirable results when using an oil with a viscosity that is too low
(f) three basic types of control valves
(g) three ways in which directional control valves may be actuated
(h) the number of positions, ways, and ports for each of the shown control valves,
(i) the function of, three types of, and two applications of accumulators
(j) a direct electrical analog for each of the following components: lever / linear damper / tank /
valve
4.4 Exams-HydraulicValve2
(a) Mention two different types of fluid systems, three basic methods of transmitting power, and
four primary functions of a hydraulic fluid.
(b) Compare between electrical systems, mechanical systems, and fluid systems as regards (i) econ-
omy of power transmission, and (ii) versatility and manageability.
(c) Mention undesirable results when using an oil with a viscosity that is (i) too high, and (ii) too
low.
(d) Mention the Number of positions, Number of ways, Number of ports and Method of actuation for
the shown directional control valve.
4.5. EXAMS-HYDRAULICVALVEPIPE 49
4.5 Exams-HydraulicValvePipe
(a) Mention two different types of fluid systems, three basic methods of transmitting power, and
four primary functions of a hydraulic fluid.
(b) Compare between electrical systems, mechanical systems, and fluid systems as regards (i) econ-
omy of power transmission, and (ii) versatility and manageability.
(c) Mention undesirable results when using an oil with a viscosity that is (i) too high, and (ii) too
low.
(d) Mention the Number of positions, Number of ways, Number of ports and Method of actuation for
the directional control valve shown in Fig 1.
(e) Calculate the pressure losses in the pipe-line of Fig 2, given: Q = 1.25*10−4 m3 /s L1 = L2 = 4 m
D1 = 13 mm D2 = 8 mm ρ = 850 kg/m3 ν = 1.95 * 10−5 m2 /s
4.6 Exams-PumpAxial
An axial flow gasoline pump consists of a rotating row of blades (rotor) followed downstream by a
stationary row of blades (stator). The gasoline enters the rotor axially (without any angular momen-
tum) with an absolute velocity of 3 m/s. The rotor blade inlet and exit angles are 60◦ and 45◦ from
the axial direction. Considering the flow as being tangential to the blades:
• Draw to scale and label velocity triangles for flow just upstream and downstream of the rotor.
[Use V, W, and U, for absolute, relative, and blade velocity; respectively]
• Calculate the energy added to each kilogram of gasoline; which is the same as the work deliv-
ered by the shaft per unit mass.
4.7 Exams-PumpHydraulic
(a) List several factors to be considered when selecting a hydraulic pump. Which one is generally
considered most important?
(b) A pump has a displacement volume of 100 cm3 . It delivers 0.00152 m3 /s of oil at 1000 rpm and
80 bars. If the prime mover input torque is 150 J,
i. What is the overall efficiency of the pump?
ii. What is the theoretical torque required to operate the pump?
50 CHAPTER 4. HYDRAULICS AND PNEUMATICS
(c) List several factors to be considered when selecting / sizing a hydraulic cylinder.
(d) A pump supplies oil at 0.0016 m3 /s to a 40-mm-diameter double-acting hydraulic cylinder. If

the load is 5000 N (extending and retracting) and the rod diameter is 20 mm, find the
i. hydraulic pressure during the extending stroke
ii. piston velocity during the extending stroke
iii. cylinder kW power during the extending stroke
4.8 Exams-PumpHydraulicCylinder
(a) List several factors to be considered when selecting a hydraulic pump. Which one is generally
considered most important?
(b) A pump has a displacement volume of 100 cm3 . It delivers 0.00152 m3 /s of oil at 1000 rpm and
80 bars. If the prime mover input torque is 150 J,
i. What is the overall efficiency of the pump?
ii. What is the theoretical torque required to operate the pump?
(c) List several factors to be considered when selecting / sizing a hydraulic cylinder.
(d) A pump supplies oil at 0.0016 m3 /s to a 40-mm-diameter double-acting hydraulic cylinder. If
the load is 5000 N (extending and retracting) and the rod diameter is 20 mm, find the
i. hydraulic pressure during the extending stroke
ii. piston velocity during the extending stroke
iii. cylinder kW power during the extending stroke
Chapter 5
Gas Dynamics
5.1 Exams-AER201BVarious
Consider a perfect gas havingγ = 1.4. Determine the following quantities illustrating your answers
with neat sketches:
(a) The Mach number corresponding to (static / stagnation) pressure ratio of 0.361.
(b) The upstream Mach number of the normal shock wave, across which the stagnation pressure
drops by 9 % of its value.
(c) The upstream Mach number of the normal shock wave, across which the Mach number drops
to one third of its value.
(d) The static pressure-ratio across an oblique shock wave, that forms when a stream of Mach
number 1.6 is deflected by 12 deg in itself.
(e) The maximum deflection angle of a stream of Mach number 2.2, that keeps the shock wave
attached.
(f) The minimum Mach number that does not cause detachment of the shock wave, when the
compressive deflection is 20 deg.
(g) The static pressure-ratio across an expansion wave, that forms when a stream of Mach number
2.7 is deflected away from itself through an angle of 21.5 deg.
5.2 Exams-Backstep
(a) Air flows above a frictionless surface having a sharp corner. The flow angle and Mach number
downstream from the corner are −60◦ and 4, respectively. For a flow deflection angle of 20◦ c.w.,
i. sketch the flow situation

ii. find the upstream flow angle
iii. find the upstream Mach number
(b) Air flows over a back-step as shown.
i. Sketch the wave pattern, flow directions, and flow regimes.

ii. Label important points and states in the flowfield.
iii. Sketch the situation on the hodograph plane.
iv. Estimate the downstream pressure?
51
52 CHAPTER 5. GAS DYNAMICS
5.3 Exams-DiffuserBL
Consider a two dimensional diffuser that is 1.8 m long. The inlet section is rectangular, 0.3 m x
1.5 m, and at the exit section is 0.45 m x 1.5 m The inlet section velocity is 20 m/s. Using the
approximated integral method, determine,
(a) The distribution of the boundary layer thickness, δ.
(b) The distribution of shear stress, τw .
(c) The positions of separation.
(d) The total skin-friction drag on the diverging walls.
(e) What is the minimum suction velocity needed to maintain a non-separated laminar boundary
layer. Assume no transition occurs.
5.4 Exams-DiffuserIntake
(a) Find for a cone a relation between the surface pressure coefficient, and the drag coefficient based
on the base area of the cone.
(b) A supersonic axially symmetric inlet is shown in the sketch. The approach Mach number is 3.0
and the atmospheric pressure is 11727 N/m2 which corresponds to an altitude of 15.15 Km in
a standard atmosphere. The total cone angle is 80 degrees.
i. What is the pressure and Mach number on the surface of the cone?
ii. How will the pressure vary across the inlet area?
5.5 Exams-DiffuserIntakeComparison1
(a) The stagnation pressure indicated by a Pitot tube mounted on an airplane in flight is 44.8 kPa
(abs). If the aircraft is cruising in standard atmosphere at an altitude of 10 km, where P=26500
Pa, and T=−49.9 o C, determine the aircraft speed and Mach number.
5.6. EXAMS-DIFFUSERINTAKECOMPARISON1PART 53
(b) A supersonic two-dimensional inlet is to be designed to operate at Mach 3.0. Two possibilities
will be considered as shown below. In one, the compression and slowing down of the flow take
place through one normal shock; in the other, a wedge-shaped diffuser, the deceleration occurs
through two weak oblique shocks, followed by a normal shock. The wedge turning angles are
each 8 degrees. Compare the loss in stagnation pressure for these two cases.
5.6 Exams-DiffuserIntakeComparison1Part
A supersonic two-dimensional inlet is to be designed to operate at Mach 3.0. Two possibilities will
be considered as shown below. In one, the compression and slowing down of the flow take place
through one normal shock; in the other, a wedge-shaped diffuser, the deceleration occurs through
two weak oblique shocks, followed by a normal shock. The wedge turning angles are each 8 degrees.
Compare the loss in stagnation pressure for these two cases.
5.7 Exams-DiffuserIntakeComparison2
Calculate the loss in total pressure for the (shown two dimensional) one-shock spike diffuser and
for the two-shock diffuser operating at Mach 2. Repeat your calculations at Mach 4. Assume that
each oblique shock turns the flow thru an angle of 10◦ . Compare your results and mention some
applications of the shown spike diffusers.
5.8 Exams-DiffuserIntakeHalf
(a) What is the main problem statement of aircraft intake design?
(b) In the shown two-dimensional supersonic diffuser, air is decelerated by two weak oblique shocks
followed by a normal shock. The flow area at the inlet is 0.1 m2 and the area of the normal shock
is 0.12 m2 . The flight Mach number is 2.5, and the upstream pressure and temperature are 70
kPa and 200 K, respectively. If the oblique shocks turn the flow through 10 deg and 8 deg,
respectively, calculate:
i. The Mach number downstream of the normal shock.

ii. The total stagnation-pressure loss in the diffuser.
5.9 Exams-DiffuserIntakePart
A supersonic axially symmetric inlet is shown in the sketch. The approach Mach number is 3.0
and the atmospheric pressure is 11727 N/m2 which corresponds to an altitude of 15.15 Km in a
standard atmosphere. The total cone angle is 80 degrees.
(a) What is the pressure and Mach number on the surface of the cone?
(b) How will the pressure vary across the inlet area?
5.10 Exams-DiffuserRamjet
An idealized supersonic ramjet diffuser consists of an axisymmetric center body located in a cylin-
drical duct as shown. The flow at stations 1 and 2 may be assumed uniform at the values indicated,
and the stream tube that enters the inlet has a diameter D far upstream. Find an expression for
the drag on the center body and struts as a function of D, ρ1 , u1 , u2 , P1 , and P2 .
5.11. EXAMS-DIFFUSERSHOCK 55
5.11 Exams-DiffuserShock
The shown supersonic shock diffuser is based on a method of reducing the Mach number in a
channel. The diffuser is carefully designed such that the bend on the lower wall is oriented such
that the reflected wave is exactly cancelled by the return bend. For the shown wave pattern, sketch
the Hodograph plane showing various states and processes.
(a) For an inlet Mach number M1 = 4, find h, L, η for θ = 10 deg.
(b) For an inlet Mach number M1 = 3, design the diffuser for maximum recovery (minimum shock
losses) i.e. find η, θ , h, L.
(c) For an inlet Mach number M1 = 3, design the diffuser for an installation restriction on length
equal to L = 2 m i.e. find η, θ , h.
5.12 Exams-DiffuserStraight2
The shown oblique shock wave pattern was obtained from a shadowgraph (a special experimental
technique) for the steady adiabatic air-flow through a frictionless, two-dimensional flow passage.
(a) What is the flow direction? Give reasons.
(b) Determine the Mach numbers in regions 1, 2, and 3.
(c) Determine the percentage of the loss in stagnation pressure from inlet to outlet.
(d) Determine the overall static pressure-ratio between outlet and inlet.
5.13 Exams-DiffuserStraight2Part
The shown sketch was obtained from a shadowgraph taken of a steady two-dimensional adiabatic
airflow.
(a) Which way does the air flow?
(b) Estimate the Mach numbers in regions 1,2, and 3.
(c) Estimate the overall pressure ratio and area ratio across this flowfield from inlet to outlet.
5.14 Exams-DiffuserStraight3
Consider the shown inviscid two-dimensional air flow.
(a) Find the minimum Mach number, M1 , for this case to exist.
(b) Find M2 , M3 , M4 , and the ratios P2 /P1 , P3 /P1 , and P4 /P1 .
(c) Find the length L in terms of the height h corresponding to this M1 .

5.15. EXAMS-DUCTHEAT1 57
5.15 Exams-DuctHeat1
Answer the following:
(a) Air enters a constant area duct at P1 = 10 atm, T1 = 350 K, and M1 = 3. Calculate the rate of
heat exchange required to bring the Mach number to 1.0 and compute the corresponding state
variables.
(b) If the same amount of heat addition computed in part (a) is used with M1 = 0.3 and same
entrance conditions, what would be the Mach number and the corresponding state variables.
Comment on the results of the two cases.
(c) Air flows adiabatically with friction through a long, constant area pipe. At upstream section (1),
P1 = 60 kPa, T1 = 68.4 ◦ C, and v1 = 200 m/s. At downstream section (2), T2 = 30.2 ◦ C. Determine
P2 , v2 , and P02 /P01 .
(d) For the flow in part (c), determineT, P , and v at the section halfway between sections (1) and (2).
5.16 Exams-DuctHeat2
Nitrogen [γ = 1.4, R = 296.8 J/ (kgK)] enters an un-insulated duct at Mach 2.0, with a stagnation
temperature of 1000 K and stagnation pressure of 1.4 MPa. Heat is lost from the nitrogen to the
outside ambient air at 293 K, with the mean overall heat transfer coefficient between fluid and air
h̄ = 60 W/ m2 K . The duct diameter is 5 cm and length is 2 m. Neglect friction and determine the;
(a) outlet stagnation temperature,
(b) outlet Mach number, and
(c) percent of change of stagnation pressure
Note: A differential heat loss from the nitrogen can be expressed as dq̇ = h̄ (dA) (Tt − Ta ) with Ta the
ambient air temperature and dA a differential area normal to the direction of heat flow.
5.17 Exams-EqHeat1
For the heat equation ut = αuxx , consider the explicit scheme, with space centered differences
α∆t n
un+1 = uni + (u − 2uni + uni−1 )
i
(∆x)2 i+1
(a) Find the stability condition.
(b) For 0 ≤ x ≤ L, use ∆x = 0.1 and solve to n = 5. [Choose α∆t/(∆x)2 to satisfy the stability
condition]
(c) Calculate the amplitude and phase errors after 10 time steps.
(d) Obtain the modified equation up to uxxxx .

5.18 Exams-EqHeat2
Solve the one-dimensional heat equation,
∂T ∂T
= −a , a>0
∂t ∂x
∆t
using the Lax explicit scheme with a Courant number c = a (∆x) 2 = 0.5. Let the grid consist of
five points including three interior points and two boundary points. Assume a constant unity
wall temperature and a zero initial temperature on the interior. Display the calculations for 10
integration steps in the form of a Table.
5.19 Exams-NozzleConv1
(a) Show that the mass flow-rate through a Laval nozzle maybe expressed as,
r
γ P0 M
ṁ = √ A 1 γ+1
R T0
1 + γ−1 M 2 2 ( γ−1 )
2
(b) A converging nozzle with a throat area At = 0.0645 m2 is supplied with air at low velocity and at a
pressure and temperature of 8 atm and 470 K respectively. Plot the mass flow-rate, ṁ, through
the nozzle versus back pressure, Pb , assuming the flow to be isentropic.
5.20 Exams-NozzleConv1Part
A converging nozzle with an exit area of 0.064516 m2 is supplied with air at low velocity and at
pressure and temperature of 8 atm and 200◦ C respectively. Plot the mass flow rate thru the nozzle
versus back pressure assuming the flow to be isentropic.
Consider steady isentropic air flow thru the shown convergent nozzle. The inlet velocity, pressure,
temperature, and diameter are 150 m/s, 5 bar, 50 o C, and 30 cm, respectively. The exit temperature
and diameter are 40 o C and 10 cm. Calculate:
(a) The velocity of the airflow at exit
(b) The mass flow rate of air thru the nozzle
(c) The pressure of the airflow at exit
A converging frictionless nozzle of 0.025 m throat diameter is supplied with air at low velocity from
a pressurized gas tank of volume 3.7 m3 . Initial stagnation pressure and temperature of the air in
the tank are 7*105 N/m2 and 333◦ K respectively. Find the time required to blow-down the tank
to atmospheric pressure (of 105 N/m2 ) assuming that the flow in the system (tank and nozzle)
undergoes isentropic expansion.
5.23. EXAMS-NOZZLECONVDIVDIV 59
5.23 Exams-NozzleConvDivDiv
(a) Air flows through the shown duct where A1 = 24 cm2 , A2 = 18 cm2 , and A3 = 32 cm2 . A normal
shock stands at section 2. Compute: the mass flow, the Mach number at section 3, and the
stagnation pressure at section 3.
(b) Consider the following case of Generalized steady quasi-1-D flow. Write out a governing equation
for this situation and define all variables involved.
5.24 Exams-NozzleConvDivExpansion1
Air at a stagnation pressure of 7 bar and a stagnation temperature of 300 K expands through a
frictionless convergent-divergent nozzle to the exhaust pressure of 5 bar. The expanison ratio of the
nozzle is 2.0. Calculate: (a) the exit velocity, and (b) the exit Mach number.
5.25 Exams-NozzleConvDivExpansion2
A perfect gas [γ =1.4 and R=287 J/(kg◦ K)] is applied to a convergent divergent nozzle at low velocity
and at 8 atm and 250◦ C. The nozzle discharges into the atmosphere. Assuming frictionless adiabatic
flow and a mass flow rate of 0.45 kg/s, calculate the
(a) pressure in the exit plane
(b) velocity in the exit plane
(c) cross-sectional area of the exit plane

5.26 Exams-NozzleConvDivMOC
A converging-diverging nozzle for a wind tunnel (see sketch) is to be designed to deliver a supersonic
stream at a Mach number of 1.915. The nozzle will draw air from the atmosphere, where the
pressure and temperature are 101,325 N/m2 and 294◦ K, respectively. A flow rate of 0.45 kg/sec
is to be accomodated. The design is to be based on sharp corners at the throat section AA’, at
which section it may be assumed that the flow is uniform and parallel. The contours A’B’C’D’ are
to be designed so as to produce a uniform, parallel stream in region 4. In carrying out the design,
use the wave pattern suggested in the sketch, selecting the Mach lines between regions 1 and 2 to
correspond to equal deflection angles across each of the Mach lines. Assuming that the height of
the nozzle at the throat distance AA’) is 5 cms, present the following design data:
(a) A sketch to scale of the nozzle contours
(b) The height of the test section, DD’, and the width of the tunnel at the throat and at the test
section
(c) A plot of pressure versus distance along the axis of the tunnel, and along the wall contour
5.27 Exams-NozzleConvDivModes
A two-dimensional supersonic nozzle has been designed to produce a uniform air flow at exit with
a Mach number of 3 for propulsion purposes. It is realized that this nozzle may be operated ”off
design” when the pressure in the exit plane of the nozzle is not the same as the pressure in the
atmosphere into which it discharges. Plot θ versus P.R. and label the curve to emphasize regions or
points of importance.
Nomenclature: θ ≡ deflection angle of jet at exit and P.R.≡ pressure ratio Patm /Pexit .
5.28. EXAMS-NOZZLECONVDIVNS1 61
5.28 Exams-NozzleConvDivNS1
Air flows through the shown duct where A1 =24 cm2 , A2 =18 cm2 , A3 =32 cm2 . A normal shock stands
at section 2. Compute the:
(a) Mass flow
(b) Mach number at 3
(c) Stagnation pressure at 3
Air, at a stagnation temperature 100o C, expands thru a nozzle of 6 cm2 throat area and 18 cm2 exit
area. A normal shock stands at the position where area is 15 cm2 . Compute the resulting mass
flow, exit pressure, and exit Mach number.
Consider a convergent-divergent duct with exit and throat areas of 0.5 m2 and 0.25 m2 , respectively.
The inlet reservoir pressure is 1 atm and the exit static pressure is 0.6 atm. For this pressure ratio,
the flow will be supersonic in a portion of the nozzle, terminating with a normal shock inside the
nozzle. Calculate the local area ration (A/A*) at which the shock is located inside the nozzle.
Air flows thru a frictionless converging-diverging nozzle. The area of the exit section Ae is three
times the area of the throat section At , and the ratio of the stagnation pressure at the entrance to
the static pressure in the exit section P01 /P2 =2.5. Assume that air is a perfect gas with a constant
specific heat ratio γ =1.4, and that the only loss is that due to a normal shock wave formed in the
diverging portion of the nozzle. Calculate:
(a) the Mach number at the nozzle exit
(b) the entropy increase
5.32 Exams-NozzleConvDivNSTank
Standard sea-level air is being drawn into a vacuum tank through a convergent-divergent duct as
shown in the figure. The cross-sectional areas at the mouth, at the throat, and at the entrance
to the tank are 2 m2 , 1 m2 , and 4 m2 , respectively. By Schliern photography, a normal shock is
detected at a position in the duct where the cross-sectional area is 3 m2 . Assuming isentropic flow,
except across the normal shock wave, calculate the static pressure and the Mach number at the
entrance to the vacuum tank.
5.33 Exams-NozzleConvDivNSTankAnalytical
(a) Show that for a standing normal shock wave in the divergent part of a Laval air nozzle,
" 
2 #1/2
 P 0 A e

Me2 = 2.5 1 + 0.2679 / −1
 P e At 
(b) Standard sea-level air is being drawn into a vacuum tank through a convergent-divergent duct
as shown below. The cross-sectional areas of the mouth, of the throat, and of the entrance to
the tank are 2 m2 , 1 m2 , and 4 m2 , respectively. By Schlieren photography, a normal shock is
detected at a position in the duct where the cross-sectional area is 3 m2 . Assuming isentropic
flow, except across the normal shock wave, calculate the static pressure and the Mach number
at the entrance to the vacuum tank.
5.34 Exams-NozzleConvDivNSTankExtra
(a) A pitot static tube is mounted on a nose of an airplane. The stagnation and static pressure
readings, for two different flight conditions are as follows.

FLIGHT P0 N m 2 P N m2
1 122000 101000
2 346000 101000
Calculate the free-stream Mach number at which the airplane is flying for each case.
(b) Standard sea-level air is being drawn into a vacuum tank through a convergent-divergent duct
as shown below. The cross-sectional area of the mouth, at the throat, and at the entrance to
the tank are 2 m2 , 1 m2 , and 4 m2 , respectively. By Schlieren photography, a normal shock is
detected at a position in the duct where the cross-sectional area is 3 m2 . Assuming isentropic
flow, except across the normal shock wave, calculate the static pressure and the Mach number
at the entrance to the vacuum tank.
5.35. EXAMS-NOZZLECONVDIVOTHER 63
5.35 Exams-NozzleConvDivOther
(5/6)3 3
Write a program for the Area – Mach number relation for air, AA∗ = M 1 + 51 M 2 . Your code
should use Maple commands and handle the two possible situations,
# CASE INPUT (GIVEN) OUTPUT (REQUIRED)

1 First Mach number, M One value for A/A∗
2 Second Area-Ratio, A/A∗ Two values for M
Test your Maple procedure by simulating the calculations on your personal calculator. For the first
case, use M = 2.5 and obtain A/A∗ . For the second case, use A/A∗ = 6 and calculate two values for
M. Check your results with those obtained from the shown graph.
5.36 Exams-NozzleConvDivWaterTable
If the flow thru a converging diverging Mach 3.0 nozzle is to be simulated on a water table, and the
throat width is to be 5 cms:
(a) Calculate the nozzle exit width
(b) Outline the method by which you would design the shape of the nozzle walls
(c) If the water height at exit is 0.63 cms, what is h∗ and h0 ?
(d) Repeat parts (a), (b), and (c) for M=5.0
5.37 Exams-NozzleConvInvNSatExit
Air enters a converging-diverging nozzle of a supersonic wind tunnel at 1 MPa and 300 K with a
low velocity. If a normal shock wave occurs at the exit plane of the nozzle at M=2, determine the
pressure, temperature, Mach number, velocity, and stagnation pressure after the shock wave.
5.38 Exams-NozzleDiffuserConcepts
Read carefully, then state whether each of the following is True or False:
(a) The majority of industrial flows take place at Mach numbers of less than 0.2.
(b) Fluids in many industrial processes flow at temperatures and pressures such that the fluid is
classed as a vapour or as a dense gas.
(c) Turbulent flow is the normal state for fluids in motion except for the following situations; bio-
logical flows, flow of viscous liquids, and flow in porous medium and fine clearances.
(d) The mass flow through a nozzle depends only on the upstream pressure and temperature of the
gas once chocking is established.
(e) Subsonic flow accelerates in a nozzle and the boundary layer tends to thicken, hence there is
tendency towards flow separation.
(f) The cross-sectional shape of a subsonic flow diffuser has no dominant influence on diffuser per-
formance provided that the flow does not turn significantly while following the passage bound-
aries.
(g) Significant flow separation in a subsonic flow diffuser will occur when the effective diffusion
angle exceeds about 6 deg, or when the flow has to turn by more than about 15 deg to remain
attached to any of the diffuser boundaries.
(h) The optimum design line showing up on performance charts for ”standard” diffuser geometries
indicates those geometries that give the minimum loss coefficient for a given non-dimensional
length when the diffuser has no outlet pipe or passage.
(i) Inlet flow conditions have no effect on subsonic flow diffuser performance.
(j) Loss coefficients for subsonic diffusers with an outlet pipe are larger than those for the same
diffuser with a free discharge.
(k) In the design of a subsonic diffuser with limitation on diffuser length, a flat walled design gives
a better performance compared to a conical walled design.
(l) For compressible subsonic flow, the flow quantity through an empty duct is determined primarily
by the inlet area.
(m) Intakes on subsonic aircraft divide broadly into two categories, those for ”podded” installations
and those for ”integrated” installations.
(n) Three categories of intake are: (a) direct or fully ducted intakes, (b) intakes for plenum- chamber
installations, and (c) intakes for propeller-turbine engines.
5.39 Exams-NozzleDivMOC1
It is desired to design the contour of the two dimensional nozzle shown below. The nozzle throat
height is 0.5 m and the flow is sonic at the throat. the flow exit Mach number MF = 1.8.
(a) Sketch the different regions on the hodograph plane.
(b) Find the Mach number and the flow angle, θ distribution in domains B,C,D,E,F shown using the
method of characteristics. Fill the table!
(c) Draw the nozzle to scale.
Note: Useful Data

2M ∗2 2.4M 2 1
M2 = , M ∗2 = , q∞ = 2
γP∞ M∞
2.4 − 0.4M ∗2 2 + 0.4M 2 2
5.40. EXAMS-NOZZLEDIVMOC2 65
5.40 Exams-NozzleDivMOC2
It is required to design the contour of the diverging portion of a minimum-length nozzle which ac-
celerates the flow from sonic speed at the throat to an exit Mach number of M = 2. Determine the
flow pattern using the Lattice-Point method. Show your computations in the form of a table
POINT CI CII θ ν M µ θ+µ θ−µ

1 0.50 0.50
2 0.00 4.40
3 0.00 8.80
4 0.00 13.19
5 8.80
6 17.60 8.80
7 26.38 8.80
8 17.60 0.00
9 26.38 4.40
10 26.38 0.00
5.41 Exams-NozzleExit
Air-flow at the shown exit of a Mach 1.5 supersonic nozzle is expanded from an exit-plane pressure
of 200 kPa to a back-pressure of 100 kPa. Determine the flow just downstream of the nozzle exit
using the Region-to-Region method. Show your computations in the form of a table
REGION θ ν M µ θ+µ θ−µ
1 0 1.500
2
3
4
5 0
6
7
8 0
9
10 0
5.42 Exams-NozzleExitWake
An airjet flows at the exit of an underexpanded nozzle with a Mach number of 1.8 as shown. The
ratio of the back pressure to the exit pressure is 0.5. Determine the flow field downstream from the
nozzle exit and plot the pressure on the jet centerline.
5.43 Exams-NozzlePM
A nozzle is to be designed to deliver a parallel uniform stream of air at M3 = 2.06. The general
arrangement of the nozzle is as shown below.
REGION FLOW
AFDB Expansive corner flow around corner C
FED Uniform and parallel
FHIE Expansive corner flow around corner G
J Uniform, parallel, and has the same direction as that of the flow in the
throat AB
(a) Find the lengths and inclinations to the horizontal of the following lines: FD, FE, DE, and HI.
5.44. EXAMS-NOZZLEQUASI1DANALYTICAL 67
(b) Using these principle dimensions and directions, make a sketch to scale of the nozzle.
5.44 Exams-NozzleQuasi1DAnalytical
Knowing that the stagnation properties of a perfect gas are related to the static properties at a local
Mach number M by the relations,
γ
γ−1
T0 γ−1 2 P0 γ−1 2
=1+ M , = 1+ M
T 2 P 2
derive the following relations for the quasi-one-dimensional flow through a variable-area duct:
(a) the maximum mass flow rate through a nozzle having a throat area At ,
γ+1
12 ( γ−1
r
γ

2 ) P0 A t
ṁmax = √
R γ+1 T0
(b) the ratio of the nozzle area A, where the local Mach number is M, to the critical area A∗ ,
γ+1
12 ( γ−1
A 1

2

γ−1 2 )
∗
= 1+ M
A M γ+1 2
5.45 Exams-NozzleSupersonic
(a) Consider the nozzle with efficiency ηn between the inlet and any station downstream.
γ
γ−1
ηn (1+ γ−1 M 2 )
i. Derive the expression, PP0 = η +(η −1)2 γ−1 M 2 .
n n 2
√
ṁ T0
ii. Derive the expression for, A P0 .
iii. Show that M = 1 does not occur at the nozzle minimum area, and find M at the throat.
(b) Consider a supersonic nozzle constructed with ratio of exit to throat area of 2. The nozzle is
supplied with air at low speed at 7 atm and at 60o C. The overall nozzle efficiency from inlet to
exit is 90%, but the flow is isentropic to the throat. Calculate the pressure, velocity and Mach
number at the exit and compare with the corresponding values for isentropic flow.
5.46 Exams-PlateTE
Two-dimensional steady flow conditions are established in air as shown in the sketch of the physical
plane. (Neglect the thickness of the plate that separates the two flows and neglect the presence of
boundary layers which would form on the plate.)
(a) Sketch the hodograph and the physical flowfield for the flow to the right of the end of the dividing
plate.
(b) For each gas dynamic state to the right, determine the Mach number, stagnation pressure, and
flow direction.
5.47 Exams-ProbePitotStaticDuctVariableArea
(a) Show that for isentropic flow of a perfect gas if a pitot-static probe measures po , p, and To , the
gas velocity can be calculated from
v2 = 2 Cp To [ 1 – (p/po )(k−1)/k ]
(b) Air, with stagnation conditions of 800 kPa and 100o C, expands isentropically to a section of a
•
duct where A1 =20 cm2 and p1 =47 kPa. Compute (a) M1 , (b) the throat area, and (c) m. At section
2
2 between the throat and section 1, the area is 9 cm . (d) Estimate the Mach number at section
2.
5.48 Exams-TankNozzleConvBlowdown
A converging frictionless nozzle of 0.025 m throat diameter is supplied with air at low velocity from
a pressurized gas tank of volume 3.7 m3 . Initial stagnation pressure and temperature of the gas
in the tank are 7*105 N/m2 and 333◦ K respectively. Find the time required to blow-down the tank
to atmospheric pressure (of 105 N/m2 ) assuming that the flow in the system (tank and nozzle)
undergoes isentropic expansion.
5.49 Exams-TunnelWedge
A single wedge airfoil is located on the centreline of the test section of a Mach 2.0 wind tunnel, as
shown. The airfoil, which has a half-angle θ of 5◦ , is at zero angle of attack. When the weak, oblique
shock wave generated at the leading edge of the airfoil encounters the wall, it is reflected so that
the flow in region (3) is parallel to the tunnel wall.
(a) What is the maximum chord length, c, of the airfoil so that it is struck by the reflected oblique
shock wave just at the trailing edge?
(b) Find M2 , M3 and P2 /P1 , P3 /P1 , then calculate the drag coefficient, Cd for this airfoil.
(c) Repeat parts (a) and (b) using linearized supersonic flow theory i.e. assume that the waves
generated on the airfoil surface are Mach waves. Compare the results and discuss.
5.50 Exams-TunnelWedgeModified
The shown single wedge airfoil, of half angle θ = 5◦ , is located on the centreline of the test section of
a Mach 2.0 wind tunnel at zero angle of attack.
5.51. EXAMS-TUNNELWINDSUPERSONIC 69

4 c P2 PB
(a) For this airfoil, derive the expression for the drag coefficient, Cd = γM12 SRef
tan θ P1 − P1 where
c ≡ Airfoil Chord, SRef ≡ Ref Area, PB ≡ Base Pressure (From Expt)
(b) Use Shock Theory (consider weak shock waves) to calculate c, and Cd (based on planform area).
(c) Use Linearized Theory (consider Mach waves) to calculate c, and Cd (based on planform area).
(d) Compare the results of (b) and (c) and discuss.
5.51 Exams-TunnelWindSupersonic
A supersonic wind tunnel has a 200 mm ∗ 500 mm rectangular test-section. The steady flow
conditions through the test-section are: T=240 K, P=0.1 bar and M=3.9.
(a) Calculate the storage-tank (stagnation) conditions P0 , T0 , and ρ0 which are necessary to produce
the required flow, and the corresponding mass flow rate.
(b) In a first draft of the project, it was desired to get the following conditions in the test section:
T=288 K, P=1 bar, and M=3.9. Calculate P0 , T0 , and ρ0 that were required in this case and the
corresponding mass flow rate.
(c) Comment on the results of (b) expressing the reasons for abondoning (rejecting) the first draft of
the project described in (b).
5.52 Exams-WallInclined
Consider the unsteady flow problem of a shock moving normal to a wedge. If the half angle of
the wedge is 60 degrees, the Mach number of the approaching shock is 2.5, and the stagnant air
is at standard atmospheric pressure, sketch to scale the shock pattern as the shock wave strikes
the wedge. Indicate on the sketch the angle between the reflected shock and the wedge, the Mach
numbers, and the directions of the velocity vectors in various regions.
5.53 Exams-WaveInteractions
Two-dimensional steady supersonic flow occurs in state 6 where M6 =2.14. For the shown four
cases, indicate the states on the hodograph and complete the physical plane sketch. The Mach
numbers at states 5 and 7 are: M5 =2.06 and M7 =2.21.
5.54 Exams-WaveIntersection
Calculate the flowfield around the intersections of shocks generated by 5 degrees and 20 degrees
wall angles with an approach Mach number of 3.5 in air.
5.55 Exams-WaveMotionWall
A one dimensional shock travels in a tube thru a stagnant atmosphere of air at a pressure of 101.3
KPa and a temperature of 15◦ C. The Mach number of the shock is 1.9. It hits and reflects off a solid
end wall.
(a) Sketch the physical situation.
(b) Calculate the temperature of the air that is behind the shock as it approaches the wall.
(c) Calculate the temperature of the air at the end wall after the shock has reflected from the wall.
5.56 Exams-WaveReflectionHorizontalWall
Find the Mach number, flow direction, and pressure in region 3 of the figure shown.
5.57. EXAMS-WAVEREFLECTIONSHOCK 71
5.57 Exams-WaveReflectionShock
Consider the shown limiting cases. If the upstream Mach number M1 =3, find:
(a) the limiting deflection angle θM AX for oblique shock wave detachment
(b) the limiting deflection angle θREG.REF. for oblique shock wave Mach reflection
5.58 Exams-WaveReflectionVerticalWall
Consider a 1-D shock which impacts on a solid wall as shown. The Mach number of the shock is
1.5 and standard atmospheric condition exists between the shock and the wall. Calculate:
(a) The velocity of the air behind the shock as it approaches the wall.
(b) The pressure and temp of the air behind the shock as it approaches the wall.
(c) The velocity of the shock wave that is reflected from the wall.
(d) The pressure and temp of the air behind the reflected shock as it moves away from the wall.
Note: The Mach number of a moving Normal Shock is defined as,
Speed of NS in Stationary Frame Behind Stationary NS

Speed of Sound in Stationary Frame Behind Stationary NS
Ms , vs Ms0 , vs0 Ms , vs Ms0 , vs0
5.59 Exams-Wedge1
(a) (4 Marks) Consider the shown potential flow past a wedge of half-angle θ. Let x denote the
distance along the wedge wall and let θ = 10◦ . Use the relations, φ = Arn cos (nθ), ψ = Arn sin (nθ)
to find the variation of surface velocity U (x) along the wall. Is the pressure gradient adverse or
favorable?
(b) (6 Marks) The Boeing 727 airplane has a gross weight of 556025 N and a wing area of 112 m2 ,
and an aspect ratio of 6. It is fitted with two turbofan engines and cruises at 532 mi/hr at 9000
m standard altitude. Assume that the wing section is a NACA 2412 airfoil for which,
CL ≈ 0.178 + 0.109α − 0.00109α2
CD ≈ 0.0089 + 1.97 ∗ 10−4 α + 8.45 ∗ 10−5 α2 − 1.35 ∗ 10−5 α3 + 9.92 ∗ 10−7 α4
with α in degrees in the range −4◦ < α < +10◦ . If we neglect all drag except the wing, what thrust
is required from each engine for these conditions?
5.60 Exams-Wedge2
Air flows at M∞ = 3 and P∞ = 7 kPa absolute toward a wedge of 16◦ angle at zero incidence as
shown. If the pointed edge is forward, what will be the pressure at point A? If the blunt edge is
forward, what will be the pressure at point B?
5.61 Exams-WedgeAtAlpha
A symmetrical wedge with a 12◦ included angle is placed in an air flow in which the Mach number
is 2.3, the static pressure is 60 kPa, and the static temperature is –10 ◦ C. The centerline of the
5.62. EXAMS-WEDGEBL 73
wedge is at an angle of 4◦ to the flow direction.
(a) Draw a neat sketch for the shock-wave pattern formed on the wedge, indicating the deflection
and wave angles involved.
(b) Calculate the static pressure, static temperature, stagnation pressure, and stagnation tempera-
ture for the flow on the two surfaces of the wedge.
5.62 Exams-WedgeBL
Consider the laminar flow along a wedge governed by the Falkner-Skan Equation,
f = f 0 = 0,

0 02
@η = 0
f” + ff” + β 1 − f = 0,
f 0 = 1, @η = ∞
For this flow, boundary layer characteristics are given by,
cx c1 x c2 x c3 c4
δ=√ , δ1 = √ , δ2 = √ , Cf x = √ , CF = √
Rex Rex Rex Rex ReL
1
Using the shown numerical solution of the Falkner-Skan equation for β = 35 , obtain the constants,
c, c1 , c2 , c3 , and c4 . Comment on your results.
η f f0 f”
0 0 0 0.5055
0.0001 0.0000 0.0001 0.5055
0.0002 0.0000 0.0001 0.5055
0.0003 0.0000 0.0002 0.5055
0.0004 0.0000 0.0002 0.5055
0.2484 0.0155 0.1246 0.4978
0.3105 0.0242 0.1555 0.4955
0.4409 0.0487 0.2197 0.4896
0.5714 0.0815 0.2831 0.4820
3.1359 1.9712 0.9804 0.0462
3.2364 2.0699 0.9846 0.0376
3.3369 2.1691 0.9880 0.0303
3.4374 2.2685 0.9908 0.0242
3.5380 2.3682 0.9929 0.0191
3.9936 2.8221 0.9981 0.0058
4.0785 2.9068 0.9986 0.0046
7.5432 6.3710 1.0000 0.0000
7.6955 6.5233 1.0000 0.0000
7.8477 6.6755 1.0000 0.0000
8.0000 6.8278 1.0000 0.0000
5.63 Exams-WedgeRect
Consider the shown two-dimensional body in supersonic flow.
(a) Draw a neat sketch for the wave pattern formed on the body, indicating the type and deflection
angle of each wave.
(b) Find the pressure on each of the surfaces W (Wedge) and R (Rectangle) in terms of the free-
stream pressure P1 .
(c) Calculate the drag coefficient Cd (including base pressure PB effect) for each of the following
cases,
i. PB is equal to the atmospheric pressure P1

ii. PB is equal to a typical measured value (see figure in the Appendix)
iii. PB is equal to the value obtained if the flow fully expands about the base i.e. makes a 90◦
turn
5.64 Exams-WedgeRectConeCylProbe
Two probes (see sketch) are used for estimating the Mach numbers of a supersonic air wind tunnel.
(a) A Schlieren photograph for the wedge-shaped probe shows a shock-front semi-angle θw =45◦ .
Estimate the Mach number of the tunnel.
(b) What is the shock-front semi-angle θc seen on a Schlieren photograph of the cone-shaped probe
in a flow with a Mach number equal to that in (a)?
(c) Show that the maximum deflection angle δm above which an oblique shock wave detaches in air
is given by,
s √
−1 25 9M18 − 30M16 − 152M14 + [ 3(3M14 + 4M12 + 20)3/2 − 20]M12 − 50
tan
2 (M12 + 5)(6M12 + 5)3
(d) Find the minimum Mach numbers (below which shock waves will be detached) for which each
probe can be used in this way as a Mach number indicator.
(e) Another Schlieren photograph for the wedge-shaped probe shows a detached shock wave stand-
ing at a distance of 3.934d (measured from the nose of the probe). Sketch the situation, then
estimate the Mach number of the tunnel and calculate the stagnation pressure coefficient on
the nose of the probe.
(f) What is the shock detachment distance of a cone-shaped probe in a flow with a Mach number
equal to that found in (e)? What is the stagnation pressure coefficient on the nose of the probe
in this case?
Note: The curves for the flat-nosed plate and for the flat-nosed body of revolution also define the
limiting positions for detached shock waves on wedges and cones, respectively.
Chapter 6
Aerodynamics
6.1 Exams-AdvancedAeroVarious
Choose one of the choices following each part.
(a) The integral form of the fluid dynamic equations can be obtained
i. by applying conservation laws to a finite control volume

ii. from the differential form of the fluid dynamic equations
iii. either [i] or [ii]
iv. none of the above
(b) The continuity equation for an incompressible fluid
i. has time derivatives

ii. does not have time derivatives
iii. is non-linear in the velocity components
iv. both [i] and [iii]
(c) For an incompressible fluid
i. ρ = const everywhere
ii. Dρ/Dt = 0
iv. both [i] and [ii]
(d) For an incompressible flow
i. ρ = const along a streamline

ii. Dρ/Dt = 0
iv. both [i] and [ii]
∂(ρ~
v) ~ · (ρ~v~v) − ∇
~ · σ̃ = ρ~g , represent,
(e) The terms from left to right in the momentum equation, ∂t +∇
i. divergence of convective / non-convective momentum fluxes, storage, gravity body force

source
ii. storage, divergence of convective / non-convective momentum fluxes, gravity body force
source
iii. storage, gravity body force source, divergence of convective / non-convective momentum
fluxes
iv. divergence of convective / non-convective momentum fluxes, gravity body force source, stor-
age
(f) The non-dimensional form of the conservation of mass equation, −ρ2 D(1/ρ)
Dt
~ · ~v = 0, is
+ ρ∇
75
76 CHAPTER 6. AERODYNAMICS
∗
i. − [M] ρ∗2 D(1/ρ
Dt∗
) ~ ∗ · ~v∗ = 0 where [M] ≡Mach Number
+ ρ∗ ∇
∗
ii. − [Sr] ρ∗2 D(1/ρ
Dt∗
) ~ ∗ · ~v∗ = 0 where [Sr] ≡Strouhal Number
+ ρ∗ ∇
∗
iii. − [Re] ρ∗2 D(1/ρ
Dt∗
) ~ ∗ · ~v∗ = 0 where [Re] ≡Reynolds Number
+ ρ∗ ∇
∗
iv. − [Fr] ρ∗2 D(1/ρ
Dt∗
) ~ ∗ · ~v∗ = 0 where [Fr] ≡Froudes Number
+ ρ∗ ∇
(g) The average value of the velocity profile, u (y) = y 2 on the interval y = [−4, +4] is,
(i) 22 / 3 (ii) 19 / 3 (iii) 16 / 3 (iv) 11 / 3
(h) Isentropic, homo-entropic flows exhibit,
i. constant entropy on streamlines, constant entropy everywhere, respectively

ii. no heat transfer in addition to being reversible
iii. either (i) or (ii)
iv. both (i) and (ii)
(i) A uniform flow is one for which,
i. ∂/∂t = 0, t ≡ time
ii. ∂/∂s = 0, s ≡ distance
iii. the velocity vector or any other variable is identically the same from point to point in the flow
iv. both [ii] and [iii]
(j) A uni-directional flow in the x-direction is one for which,
i. w 6= 0, u = v = 0
ii. v 6= 0, u = w = 0
iii. u = 0, v 6= 0, w 6= 0
iv. u 6= 0, v = w = 0
(k) Two-dimensional flow in the x-y plane is one for which,

(i) ∂/∂x = 0, (ii) ∂/∂y = 0, (iii) ∂/∂z = 0, (iv) both (i) and (ii)
(l) A homogeneous and isotropic (at a point) fluid has properties that are
i. independent of position, independent of direction, respectively

ii. independent of direction, independent of position, respectively
iii. the same throughout, have no locally preferred directions, respectively
iv. both (i) and (iii)
(m) A Newtonian fluid exhibits,
i. a linear relation between the stress tensor and the rate of deformation tensor, history inde-
pendent
ii. a linear relation between the stress tensor and the strain tensor, history dependent
iv. both (i) and (ii)
6.2 Exams-AER401AConcepts
Briefly explain the following:
(a) Divergence form of the governing equations
(b) Conservation form of the governing equations
(c) Non-conservation form of the governing equations
(d) Substantial derivative

6.3. EXAMS-AER401AINTRODUCTION 77
6.3 Exams-AER401AIntroduction
Multiple choice type question.
(a) AERO 401A is a class about flow.
i. inviscid
ii. incompressible
iii. viscous
iv. rotational
(b) The inviscid boundary condition used in AERO 401A is the condition.
i. no-slip
ii. normal
iii. slip
iv. Kutta
(c) Small perturbation incompressible, subsonic, and supersonic flows are modelled by equa-
tions.
i. hyperbolic
ii. nonlinear
iii. parabolic
iv. linear
(d) Small perturbation transonic flow is modelled by a equation.
i. hyperbolic
ii. nonlinear
iii. parabolic
iv. linear
6.4 Exams-AER401Introduction
(a) What is the main assumption made in this course?
(b) What is the name of the governing differential equations in this course?
(c) What assumptions were carried out to simplify the above differential equations?
(d) What are the names of the resulting simplified equations?
(e) Discuss briefly in your own words ”Shock wave – boundary layer interaction in supersonic flow”.
6.5 Exams-AER441Introduction
(a) What is the condition necessary to have a unique solution when studying the airfoil problem?
(b) If the surface of a body is described by f(x1,x2,x3) = 0 and the velocity on the surface is repre-
sented by V, derive the boundary condition
where u,v are perturbation velocities and U is the freestream velocity in the x1- direction.
(c) What are some valuable applications of panel methods?
(d) What is potential lift?
(e) What is vortex lift?

6.6 Exams-AERUnsteadyConcepts
(a) Unsteady external flow applications include; helicopter rotor blades, combat aircrafts executing
maneuvers, missiles, wings, transport aircrafts, parachutes, parafoils, transonic flows (aileron
buzz, shock motions), insects, birds, and microvehicles. Which unsteady aerodynamic flow
application would you consider most significant? Why?
(b) In our study of unsteady potential flow models, vortices were used together with circulation.
However, potential flow is known to be irrotational flow. Is there a contradiction? Explain.
(c) State the physical significance of each of the following mathematical functions showing up in the
study of unsteady aerodynamics; (i) Theodorson’s Function, (ii) Wagner’s Function, (iii) Kussner’s
Function, and (iv) Sears Function.
(d) What is the unsteady Kutta condition? What are some guidelines for the boundaries of its
validity?
(e) It is common practice in two-dimensional aerodynamics to simply superimpose the effects of

camber and constant initial angle of attack, as calculated by steady flow theory, onto the un-
steady flat plate results. Explain why this would work for our theory! What limitations would
you expect?
6.7 Exams-AirfoilAerodynamics
A NACA 2412 airfoil h section (2 m chord, smooth surface) operates i in a wind tunnel at standard
3 −5
sea-level conditions ρ∞ = 1.225 kg/m , µ∞ = 1.789 ∗ 10 kg/ (ms) . The tunnel velocity is 42 m/s and
the angle of attack is 8 deg. For this airfoil, find the following:
(a) Maximum Thickness, T
(b) Maximum Camber, C
(c) Location of Maximum Camber, L
(d) Zero-Lift Angle of Attack, α0l
(e) Lift-Curve Slope, a0 ≡ Clα
(f) Reynolds Number of the Flow, Re
(g) Stalling Angle of Attack, αstall
(h) Maximum Lift Coefficient, Cl max
(i) Lift, l
(j) Drag, d
6.8 Exams-AirfoilAndWing
(a) A NACA 2412 airfoil section (2 mh chord and non-standard roughness) operates i in a wind tunnel
3 −5
at standard sea-level conditions ρ∞ = 1.225 kg/m , µ∞ = 1.789 ∗ 10 kg/ (ms) . The tunnel veloc-
ity is 42 m/s and the angle of attack is 8 deg. For this airfoil, find the following:
[1] Maximum Thickness, T [6] Reynolds Number of the Flow, Re

[2] Maximum Camber, C [7] Stalling Angle of Attack, αstall
[3] Location of Maximum Camber, L [8] Maximum Lift Coefficient, Cl max
[4] Zero-Lift Angle of Attack, α0l [9] Lift, l
[5] Lift-Curve Slope, a0 ≡ Clα [10] Drag, d
6.9. EXAMS-AIRFOILATALPHA 79
(b) A wing with a rectangular plan-form (5 m span), a span efficiency factor of 0.9, and NACA 2412
sections, is made to operate in free atmosphere at the same conditions given in part (a). Find
the lift L, and drag D generated in this case.
(c) Compare the results obtained in parts (a) and (b) and comment.
NB: Lift-Curve Slope for an Un-swept Finite Wing in Subsonic Flow,
 a0

 √1−M∞
 2 + a0
πe1 AR
, AR ≥ 4 
a ≡ CLα = r
a0
2 , AR < 4 , e1 ≡ span efficiency factor

 1−M∞ 2 + a0 a0 
πe1 AR +πe1 AR

6.9 Exams-AirfoilAtAlpha
Air flows over the shown airfoil at sea level. The speed of air is 80 m/s and the angle of attack is 8o .
The velocity of air at point (A) is 100 m/s and at point (B) is 50 m/s. Calculate:
(a) The pressure at points (A) and (B)
(b) If the pressures in part (a) are the average pressures on the upper and lower surfaces of the
airfoil, what are the lift and drag per square meter?
6.10 Exams-AirfoilBiconvex
(a) Show that the inviscid-irrotational-incompressible flow past a wall whose equation is y = f (x) is
given by Z ∞
ϕ(x, y) = [A(k) cos(kx) + B(k) sin(kx)] exp(−ky)dk
0
where
1 ∞ 0
Z
A(k) = − f (x) cos(kx)dx
π −∞
1 ∞ 0
Z
B(k) = − f (x) sin(kx)dx
π −∞
and c is an arbitrary constant.
Hint: Apply superposition of solutions (k ranging from 0 to ∞) and use the boundary condition,
Z ∞
0
v(x, 0) = f (x) = [A(k) cos(kx) + B(k) sin(kx)]dk
0
(b) Consider the shown symmetric parabolic-arc airfoil for which the upper surface coordinate is
given by,
1
y = f (x) = T − 2x2 Π(x)
2
where
1, |x| ≤ 1/2
Π(x) ≡ Rectangle Function =
0, |x| > 1/2
Obtain the following closed form result,
y 2 + (x + 1/2)2

T x − 1/2 x + 1/2 1
φ(x, y) = 2x + 4xy[arctan( ) − arctan( )] + (y 2 − x2 + ) ln 2
π y y 4 y + (x − 1/2)2
Hint: Substitute by f (x) in the expression of φ(x, y) in part (a) and carry out the integrations.
6.11 Exams-AirfoilCamberLineSteadyState1
Consider an airfoil of 3.3 m chord with a camber line given by,
a 2
zc = − x , −b ≤ x ≤ +b
b2
where a and b are such that the maximum camber is 4% of the chord. Free-stream U∞ = 45.5 m/s.
Find Clss and Cm( c )ss for an angle of attack α = 1◦ .
2
6.12 Exams-AirfoilCamberLineSteadyState2
Consider an airfoil of 1.0 m chord with a camber line given by,
x 2
zc = −a , −b ≤ x ≤ +b
b
where a is such that the maximum camber is 4% of the chord. Free-stream U∞ = 15.0 m/s. Find the
steady state lift and moment coefficients, Clss and Cm( c )ss , for an angle of attack α = 1◦ .
2
6.13 Exams-AirfoilCamberLineThinAirfoilTheory
The slope of the mean camber line of an airfoil is given by,

dz 1
= 0.1 + cos (θ) + cos (2θ)
dx 3
(a) Find then plot the mean camber as a function of x.
(b) Find expressions for Cl and xCP when the airfoil flies at an angle of attack α.
(c) Compute Cl and xCP at α = 3◦ . Also compute α0l for this airfoil.
6.14 Exams-AirfoilCamberLineThinAirfoilTheoryDetail
A camber-line airfoil, subjected to a low-speed free-stream has a slope given by

dz 1
= 0.1 + cos (θ) + cos (2θ)
dx 3
(a) Find then plot the mean camber line as a function of x.
(b) Find Cl , Cmc/4 , and xCP when the airfoil flies at an angle of attack α = 3◦ .
(c) Find α0l for this airfoil.
6.15 Exams-AirfoilCamberTwoLines1
Consider the shown airfoil composed of two straight lines. Using thin airfoil theory, calculate
(a) Cl
(b) CmLE
(c) xCP
(d) α0l
6.16. EXAMS-AIRFOILCAMBERTWOLINES2 81
6.16 Exams-AirfoilCamberTwoLines2
A thin airfoil has a chord of 1 m and a mean camber line of maximum camber C = 0.01 m composed
of two straight lines joined at a distance L = 0.4 m from the leading edge.
(a) Find then plot the mean camber as a function of x, i.e. z (x).
(b) Find expressions for Cl and Cmc/4 when the airfoil flies at an angle of attack α.
(c) Compute Cl and Cmc/4 at α = 2◦ . Also compute α0l for this airfoil.
6.17 Exams-AirfoilCamberTwoLinesSubSup
A thin airfoil has a chord of 1 m and a mean camber line of maximum camber C = 0.01 m composed
of two straight lines joined at L = 0.4 m from the leading edge. The airfoil is travelling at M∞ = 0.5 .
(a) Find then plot the mean camber as a function of x, i.e. z (x).
(b) Find expressions for Cl , Cd , and CmAC when the airfoil flies at an angle of attack α.
(c) Compute Cl , Cd , and CmAC at α = 2◦ .
(d) Repeat parts (b) and (c) if the airfoil is travelling at M∞ = 2.
6.18 Exams-AirfoilCircularArc
(a) Derive a formula for the lift and drag coefficients of a circular arc airfoil with flat bottom set at a
small angle of attack in supersonic flow according to the linear theory.
(b) A circular arc airfoil with flat bottom whose maximum thickness to chord ratio is 12 % is set in a
supersonic flow of Mach number 1.45 at an angle of attack 4o . Find the lift and drag coefficients
according to the linear approximation theory.
6.19 Exams-AirfoilCompressibility
A two-dimensional airfoil is so oriented that its point of minimum pressure occurs on the lower
surface. At a free-stream Mach number of 0.3, the pressure coefficient at this point is -0.782.
(a) Determine the critical Mach number,Mcr , of the airfoil using Prandtl-Glauert Rule.
(b) Calculate the value of CP at the same point for M∞ = 0.7 using Prandtl-Glauert Rule
(c) Calculate the value of CP at the same point for M∞ = 0.7 using Karmen-Tsien Rule
(d) Calculate the value of CP at the same point for M∞ = 0.7 using Laitone’s Rule
6.20 Exams-AirfoilCp
(a) Sketch the drag coefficient as a function of the Mach number and mark the drag divergence
Mach number.
(b) What is the area rule.
(c) The following figure represents the ideal pressure coefficient for a NACA2412 airfoil.
i. Is the angle of attack positive or negative and why?

ii. Determine the minimum value for the pressure coefficient.
iii. Sketch the compressible pressure coefficient at the point of minimum pressure versus Mach
number. Tou must compute at least 4 points!
iv. Find the critical Mach number for this airfoil.
6.21 Exams-AirfoilCpIntegration
A large aspect-ratio wing of rectangular planform has a constant thin-airfoil section from tip to tip.
Pressure measurements were taken on several chordwise locations on the upper and lower surfaces
of the centerplane at an angle-of-attack of 16◦ . Use information presented in the table to answer the
following questions:
(a) Plot the CP distributions on the upper and lower surfaces on the same graph.
(b) Determine the position and value of the maximum velocity on the section.
(c) Integrate numerically the pressure distributions to obtain the lift coefficient of the airfoil section;
R1
based on the relation, cn = 0 (CP −lower − CP −upper ) d (x/c).
Point Upper Surface Lower Surface

x/c CP −upper x/c CP −lower
1 0.00 -3.65 0.00 -3.65
2 0.01 -5.21 0.01 0.26
3 0.05 -3.19 0.03 0.99
4 0.10 -2.44 0.10 0.82
5 0.30 -1.44 0.30 0.55
6 0.50 -0.79 0.50 0.43
7 0.70 -0.32 0.75 0.32
8 0.85 -0.08 0.95 0.18
9 1.00 0.01 1.00 0.01
6.22 Exams-AirfoilCpPart
The following figure represents the ideal pressure coefficient for a NACA-2412 airfoil.
(a) Is the angle of attack positive or negative and why?
(b) Determine the minimum value for the pressure coefficient.
(c) Sketch the compressible pressure coefficient at the point of minimum pressure versus Mach
number. You must compute at least 4 points.
(d) Find the critical Mach number for this airfoil.

6.23. EXAMS-AIRFOILCPTRANSONIC 83
6.23 Exams-AirfoilCpTransonic
The following T.S.P. test cases, C1-C6 were conducted for the range of freestream Mach numbers
M∞ = 0.01, 0.70, 0.88, 0.92, 1.01, and 1.20 respectively. The lift coefficients were found to be CL
= 0.11, 0.15, 0.25, 0.29, 0.10, and 0.08 for C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, and C6 respectively.
(a) Classify each test case using any combination of the key words: [ subsonic, transonic, super-
sonic, subcritical, supercritical ].
(b) For each test case, sketch the airfoil and the freestream showing important flowfield details.
(c) For each of the test cases C3 and C4, indicate the length and location of the extension of the
supersonic regime on the upper surface of the airfoil.
(d) For the NACA-0006 at alpha = 1◦ , plot CL versus M∞ . Discuss the trend in this plot.
(e) Discuss the validity of the above results in light of the following facts;
i. T.S.P. theory is derived from Full Potential theory

ii. The NACA-0006 is a blunt nosed airfoil
6.24 Exams-AirfoilDiamond
The shown two-dimensional airfoil is travelling in air at a Mach number of 2.5 and at an angle of
attack of 2◦ . The thickness to chord ratio is 0.1, and the maximum thickness occurs 35% of the
chord downstream of the leading edge. Using linearized theory, calculate:
(a) The lift coefficient
(b) The drag coefficient
(c) The moment coefficient about the leading edge
(d) The position of the center of pressure and the zero lift angle of attack
6.25 Exams-AirfoilDiamondSym1
A symmetrical double-wedge shaped airfoil with an included angle of 20 deg and a chord of 1 m,
is inclined at an angle of attack of 5 deg to an air stream having a Mach number of 3 and a static
pressure of 1.0133 bar.
(a) Draw a neat sketch for the wave pattern formed on the airfoil, indicating the type and deflection
angle of each wave.
(b) Knowing that the application of the shock-expansion technique gives the following values for
the static pressure on the four surfaces of the airfoil (in ascending order): 0.273 bar, 0.693 bar,
1.475 bar, and 2.858 bar, estimate which one of these pressures corresponds to which one of the
four surfaces. Give reasons for your answer. Note: You are not required to do the calculations.
(c) Use the correct pressure distribution on the airfoil surface to calculate the lift and drag forces
per meter span.
Use shock expansion theory to calculate the lift and drag coefficients of the shown symmetrical
diamond airfoil (semi-vertex angle of 5◦ ) when the upstream Mach number is 3, angle of attack
α =5◦ , and γ =1.4.
Consider a diamond-wedge airfoil with a half-angle =10◦ . The airfoil is set at an angle of attack
α =7◦ in a freestream (γ =1.4) with M=2. Using shock expansion theory, calculate the lift and drag
coefficients. Compare these exact results with those obtained from linearized thoery.
Consider a diamond-wedge airfoil with a half-angle =10◦ . The airfoil is set at an angle of attack
α =5◦ in a freestream with M=2. Using shock expansion theory, calculate the lift coefficient, wave
drag coefficient, and the moment coefficient about the leading edge. Compare these exact results
with those obtained from linearized thoery. What can you conclude about the accuracy of linearized
theory?
6.29. EXAMS-AIRFOILDRAGSTRAIGHTCOS 85
6.29 Exams-AirfoilDragStraightCos
A thin symmetric airfoil section is mounted at zero angle of attack in a low-speed wind tunnel. A
pitot probe is used to determine the velocity profile in the viscous region downstream
of the airfoil, as
y
shown. The resultant velocity distribution in the region −H ≤ y ≤ +H is u (y) = U∞ 1 − 0.5 cos π2 H

.
Apply the integral mass and momentum equations to the flow in the shown region. Find:
(a) the total volumetric flow rate per unit width, Q, across the horizontal surfaces 3 and 4.
(b) the section drag coefficient, Cd , if H = 0.009 c
6.30 Exams-AirfoilDragStreamVelCos
Velocity profiles are measured at the upstream end (surface 1) and at the downstream end (surface
2) of the shown rectangular control volume. Surfaces 3 and 4 are streamlines. If the flow is
incompressible, two-dimensional, and steady,
(a) What is the vertical dimension of the upstream station, Hu ?
(b) What is the drag coefficient for the airfoil?
NB: The pressure, P∞ , is constant over the entire surface of the control volume, and HD = 0.025 c
6.31 Exams-AirfoilDragStreamVelLinear1
The flow over the shown airfoil is steady, two-dimensional, and incompressible. The pressure over
the entire surface of the control volume is constant and equal to P∞ .
(a) Apply the given assumptions to the governing mass and momentum conservation equations.
Write out the simplified forms of the equations.
(b) Solve the equations obtained in (a) above and estimate the drag coefficient for this airfoil.
6.32 Exams-AirfoilDragStreamVelLinear2
Velocity profiles are measured at the upstream end (surface 1) and at the downstream end (surface
2) of the shown rectangular control volume. Surfaces 3 and 4 are streamlines. If the flow is
incompressible, two-dimensional, and steady,
(a) What is the vertical dimension of the upstream station, Hu ?
(b) What is the drag coefficient for the airfoil?
NB: The pressure, P∞ , is constant over the entire surface of the control volume, and HD = 0.025 c
6.33 Exams-AirfoilDragStreamVelSin
For the shown flat plate boundary layer water flow, assume that the exit velocity profile is given by,
U∞ sin πy

2δ , y≤δ
u (y) ' , U∞ = 3 m/s
U∞ , y>δ
(a) State suitable assumptions regarding this flow. Apply these assumptions to the governing mass
and momentum conservation equations. Write out the simplified forms of the equations.
(b) For x = L = 45 cm, and δ = 2 mm , estimate the total drag force on the plate, in N, per unit depth.
√
(c) Find an expression for v (x, y) if δ (x) ' c x, c = const.
6.34 Exams-AirfoilDragStreamVelSinImproved
For the shown flat plate boundary layer water flow, assume that the exit velocity profile is given by,
U∞ sin πx

2δ ,
2
x2 ≤ δ
v1 (x2 ) ' , U∞ = 3 m/s
U∞ , x2 > δ
6.35. EXAMS-AIRFOILINTEGOFCPTESTINGDATCOM 87
(a) For this flow, write out the relevant governing equations in index notation. State suitable as-
sumptions regarding this flow then apply these assumptions to the governing equations and
simplify.
(b) For L = 45 cm, and δ = 2 mm, estimate the drag force on the plate, in [N] per unit width.
√
(c) Find the velocity field vi (x1 , x2 ) if δ (x1 ) ' c x1 , c = const.
6.35 Exams-AirfoilIntegOfCpTestingDatcom
(a) Consider an airfoil with chord length c and the running distance x measured along the chord.
The leading and trailing edge locations arex/c = 0and x/c = 1, respectively. The pressure coeffi-
cient variations over the upper and lower surfaces are,
2
1 − 300 xc , 0 ≤ xc ≤ 0.1 x x
n o
Cp,u = , Cp,l = 1 − 0.95 , 0 ≤ ≤ 1
−2.2277 + 2.2777 xc , 0.1 ≤ xc ≤ 1 c c

R1
NB: Cn = 0 (CP,l − CP,u ) d xc ,

Cl = Cn cos α
(b) A wind tunnel test is designed to accurately measure the lift and drag coefficients of the Boeing
777 in actual flight at Mach 0.84 at an altitude of 35000 ft. The wing span of the Boeing 777
is 199.9 ft. However, to fit in the wind tunnel test section, the span of the model is 6 ft. The
wind tunnel is not pressurized, so the pressure of the air stream in the test section is 1 atm.
Assuming that the viscosity coefficient varies as the square root of the temperature:
i. Calculate the necessary values of the air stream velocity, temperature, &density in the test
section.
ii. Comment on the results in view of the real world tunnel testing.
(c) The inputs in DATCOM are categorized by namelists to facilitate reading the file in FORTRAN.
State the function of the following namelists: FLTCON, SYNTHS, BODY, and WGPLNT.
6.36 Exams-AirfoilIrregular1
Consider the irregular airfoil shown in the figure.
(a) Find the pressure coefficient on each surface (for general α).
(b) Find expressions for cn and ca .
(c) Find expressions for cl and cd in terms of t/c.
(d) Find (cl /cd )max .
6.37 Exams-AirfoilIrregular2
Consider the irregular airfoil shown in the figure (same as previous problem)
√
(a) Find the pressure, mach number, and flow in each domain for α = 0◦ , M = 3, t/c = 0.05 using
the method of characteristics.
(b) Compare the values of the pressure coefficient calculated using the method of characteristics to
those from the linear theory.
(c) Which method is more accurate? Can you comment.
6.38 Exams-AirfoilNACA1406AtAlphaInv
Consider the inviscid irrotational incompressible linearized flow over a NACA-1406 airfoil at an
angle of attack of 1◦ . Find the,
(a) lift coefficient
(b) drag coefficient
(c) moment coefficient about the aerodynamic center
(d) center of pressure
(e) aerodynamic center
(f) zero-lift angle
6.39 Exams-AirfoilNACA1406AtAlphaSubSup
A NACA1406 airfoil is travelling at a Mach number of 0.5 and at an angle of attack of 1◦ .
(a) Calculate the lift, drag, and moment (about the aerodynamic center) coefficients
(b) Find the center of pressure, the aerodynamic center, and the zero lift angle
(c) Repeat parts (a) and (b) if the Mach number is 3 instead of 0.5
Note: Use subsonic/supersonic linearized theory.
6.40. EXAMS-AIRFOILNACASYMBL 89
6.40 Exams-AirfoilNACASymBL
Air (at standard sea-level condition and at zero angle of attack) flows over a symmetrical NACA-0012
airfoil section. The Reynolds number based on a chord of L = c = 1 m is ReL = 3 ∗ 106 . The shown
external velocity distribution over the upper (or lower) surface of this airfoil was obtained using the
vortex panel method (with 101 panels), and the resulting velocity distribution was uniformly sam-
pled (∆x̄ = 0.05) over the body surface coordinate x̄. Ū 0 and Ū ” (0) = −425 were obtained numerically
using finite differences.
i x̄ Ū U¯0 Rex = ReL Ū x̄ Z̄ K Λ f1 f2 δ̄ δ̄1 δ̄2 H H1 Cf x
0 0.00 0.0000 22.201
1 0.05 1.1356 11.553
2 0.10 1.1808 0.493
3 0.15 1.1848 -0.014
4 0.20 1.1794 -0.147
5 0.25 1.1701 -0.204
6 0.30 1.1590 -0.232
7 0.35 1.1469 -0.246
8 0.40 1.1344 -0.253
9 0.45 1.1217 -0.254
10 0.50 1.1090 -0.254
11 0.55 1.0963 -0.253
12 0.60 1.0836 -0.254
13 0.65 1.0709 -0.257
14 0.70 1.0579 -0.266
15 0.75 1.0443 -0.283
16 0.80 1.0296 -0.314
17 0.85 1.0129 -0.370
18 0.90 0.9926 -0.480
19 0.95 0.9649 -0.732
20 1.00 0.9194 -0.910
(a) Compute the laminar boundary-layer development on the given airfoil up to the transition point.
Calculate the quantities shown in the above table.
(b) Determine approximately the location of the transition point, x̄tr , using transition model 1
(Smith).
(c) Continue your calculations for the turbulent part of the boundary-layer up to the separation
point, x̄sep .
Calculate the relevant quantities in the above table.
(d) Plot the skin friction coefficient distribution, Cf x , versus x̄, and discuss.
(e) What is the effect of increasing the Reynolds number, ReL , on the location of the transition point,
x̄tr ?
6.41 Exams-AirfoilNozzleDiffuser
(a) It is often assumed that ”sharp objects can cut through the air better than blunt ones”. Based
on this assumption, the drag on the shown object should be less when the wind blows from right
to left than when it blows from left to right. Experiments show that the opposite is true. Explain.
(b) It is relatively easy to design an efficient nozzle to accelerate a fluid. Conversely, it is very
difficult to build an efficient diffuser to decelerate a fluid without boundary layer separation and
its subsequent inefficient flow behavior. Use ideas of favorable & adverse pressure gradients to
explain these facts.
(c) What is turbulence? Briefly mention the characteristics of turbulent flows and explain why there
is a need for turbulence modelling.
(d) One form of the Navier-Stokes Equation (NSE) is given by,

" #
2
∂(u0 ) ∂(u0 v 0 ) ∂(u0 w0 )

∂ ū ∂ ū ∂ ū ∂ P̄ 2
x − component : ρ ū + v̄ + w̄ =− + µ∇ ū − ρ + +
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z
i. Briefly explain the steps involved in developing this equation from the laminar flow NSE.
Also state the assumptions involved.
ii. Identify the ”Reynolds Stress” term(s) in the equation above.
iii. What is ”eddy viscosity”? Is it a fluid property? Briefly discuss the differences between
virtual viscosity and kinematic viscosity.
6.42 Exams-AirfoilParabolic
The shown two-dimensional Parabolic-Arc airfoil is traveling at a Mach number of 0.5 at an angle of
attack of 2◦ . The maximum thickness T=0.06 and the maximum camber C=0.01 occurs at L=0.4.
Using linearized theory, find:
(c) The moment coefficient about the aerodynamic center
(d) The position of the center of pressure
(e) The position of the aerodynamic center
(f) Repeat parts (a), (b), (c), (d), and (e) if the Mach number is 2.5 instead of 0.5
Note: For the Parabolic-Arc airfoil, the upper and lower surfaces which are continuous parabolas
are superimposed on a camber line that consists of two parabolas joined at L. Also note that all
dimensions are given as fractions of the chord length.
6.43 Exams-AirfoilParabolicArc
Consider a parabolic-arc airfoil having a camber line consisting of two parabolas joined at L=40%
chord with a maximum camber of C=1% chord. The parabolic-arc airfoil has a maximum thickness
of T=6% chord and is subjected to a freestream at an angle of attack α = 1◦ . The upper and lower
surfaces of this airfoil are given by,
z u,l (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2
where
2 1
x≤L ±2T + x≤L ∓2T − x≤L

0, L C, L2 C,
a0 = 1−2L , a1 = ±2T + 2L , a2 = ∓2T − 1
C, x>L
2 C, x>L C, x>L
(1−L) (1−L)2 (1−L)2
and x, T, C, and L each is normalized by the chord. Using thin airfoil theory, calculate
(a) Cl , Cd , and CmLE when M∞ = 0.5
(b) Cl , Cd , and CmLE when M∞ = 2.0

6.44. EXAMS-AIRFOILPARABOLICARCSUB 91
6.44 Exams-AirfoilParabolicArcSub
Consider a parabolic-arc airfoil having a camber line consisting of two parabolas joined at L=40%
chord with a maximum camber of C=1% chord. The parabolic-arc airfoil has a maximum thickness
of T=6% chord and is subjected to a freestream at an angle of attack α = 1◦ . The upper and lower
surfaces of this airfoil are given by,
z u,l (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2
where
2 1
x≤L ±2T + x≤L ∓2T − x≤L

0, L C, L2 C,
a0 = 1−2L , a1 = ±2T 2L , a2 = ∓2T − 1
C, x>L
2 C, x > L + C, x>L
(1−L) (1−L)2 (1−L)2
and x, T, C, and L each is normalized by the chord. Using thin airfoil theory, calculate Cl , Cd , and CmLE
when M∞ = 0.5.
6.45 Exams-AirfoilPitching
Consider a flat plate airfoil with b = 0.2 m experiencing the shown pitching motion in a free-stream
of U∞ = 100 m/s.
(a) Find Cl (t) and plot.
(b) Find Cl max and the time tm at which it occurs.
Note 1: For an airfoil in arbitrary pitch and plunge,

Z σ=t
πb h i 2π b dφ (t) b
Cl (t) = 2 ḧ (t) + U∞ α̇ (t) − φ (0) w ,t + (t − σ) w , σ dσ
U∞ U∞ 2 σ=0 dt 2
Rt Rt
Note 2: σ=0 H (σ − a) f (σ) dσ = H (t − a) σ=a f (σ) dσ, a > 0, H (σ) ≡ Heaviside Unit Step Function
R dσ 1
R σdσ b
Note 3: (aσ+b) 2 = − a(aσ+b) ,
(aσ+b)2
= a2 (aσ+b) + a12 ln (aσ + b)
6.46 Exams-AirfoilPlungingPitching2
In the previous problem, assume that this airfoil experiences a simple harmonic pitch plunging of
1.90985 cycles/s given as shown.
(a) Find the lift coefficient Cl versus time t.
(b) Find the maximum lift coefficient and when it occurs.
(c) Find the corresponding quasi-steady results and compare. If there is any controversy about the
form of the quasi-steady solutions you are using, make sure and point out which you are using
etc.
(d) Comment on your results.

6.47 Exams-AirfoilPlungingPitchingCamber
Assume that the camber-line airfoil in the previous problem undergoes a simple harmonic pitch
(about the mid-chord) and plunging of 1.91 Hz as shown.
(a) Find an expression for the displacement za (x, t) of a point on the airfoil surface.
(b) Find an expression for the lift-coefficient Cl (t).
(c) Find the value of the maximum lift coefficient Cl max and the time tm at which it occurs.
(d) Find the corresponding quasi-steady results ClQS (t) , ClQS QS

max , and tm .
(e) Plot za (x, t) , Cl (t) , ClQS (t) versus ωton the same graph, then compare and comment.
6.48 Exams-AirfoilPlungingPitchingPlateFlat
Assume that the flat-plate airfoil in the previous problem undergoes a simple harmonic pitch (about
the mid-chord) and plunging of 1.91 Hz as shown.
(a) Find an expression for the lift-coefficient Cl (t).
(b) Find the value of the maximum lift coefficient Cl max and the time tm at which it occurs.
(c) Plot za (x, t) , Cl (t) versus ωton the same graph, then compare and comment.
6.49 Exams-AirfoilPlungingPitchingPlateFlatOther
A flat-plate airfoil of 1.0 m chord in a free-stream U∞ = 15.0 m/s undergoes a simple harmonic pitch
(about the mid-chord) and plunging of 1.91 Hz as shown.
(a) Find an expression for the lift-coefficient Cl (t).
(b) Find the value of the maximum lift coefficient Cl max and the time tm at which it occurs.
(c) Plot za (x, t) , Cl (t) versus ωton the same graph, then compare and comment.
6.50. EXAMS-AIRFOILSIN 93
6.50 Exams-AirfoilSin
Air at a Mach number of 2.5 is flowing along the shown symmetric supersonic airfoil. The thickness
to chord ratio of the airfoil is 0.1. Ignoring wave interactions,
(a) sketch the wave pattern
(b) calculate then plot the pressure coefficient versus chord length along the upper surface using
each of the following methods,
i. linearized theory
ii. shock expansion theory
Note: Use chord divisions of 0.1 c when carrying out your calculations.
6.51 Exams-AirfoilSuddenAlpha
Consider a two-dimensional airfoil of chord 1.67 m and with a free-stream Mach number of 0.15 at
sea level, free-stream pressure of 1 atm, and T = 293 K. Assume incompressible flow. At t = 0, the
airfoil is given an instantaneous 1.76◦ positive angle of attack.
(a) What is Cl at t = 0+ ?
(b) At what time does Cl reach 90% of its final value?
(c) How far has the airfoil travelled in this time?
6.52 Exams-AirfoilSuddenAlphaGust
(a) Consider a two-dimensional airfoil of chord 1.0 m and with a free-stream Mach number of 0.2 at
sea level, free-stream pressure of 1 atm, and T = 293 K. Assume incompressible flow. At t = 0,
the airfoil is given an instantaneous 1.0◦ positive angle of attack.
i. What is Cl at t = 0+ ?
ii. At what time does Cl reach 90% of its final value?
iii. How far has the airfoil travelled in this time?
(b) Consider a 2-D symmetrical ”flat plate” airfoil. Show that for a sharp edged gust, the general lift-
coefficient formula reduces to the Kussner result. Note that wg is the gust velocity encountered
by the airfoil leading edge at the instant t = bs/U∞ . If the chord is 2 m, M∞ = 0.13, P∞ =
0.9 atm,T∞ = 288 K, and the airfoil encounters a 3 m/s sharp edged gust,
i. Find Cl values at t = 0+ , 0.1, and 0.2 seconds.
ii. What is the moment about the quarter-chord point?
6.53 Exams-AirfoilSymmetric
The inviscid-irrotational-incompressible small perturbation flow past a wall whose equation is y =
f (x) can be obtained by solving Laplace’s equation using the technique of separation of variables
and the superposition principle. The solution takes any one of the forms
Z ∞
ϕ(x, y) = [A(k) cos(kx) + B(k) sin(kx)] exp(−ky)dk
0
where
Z ∞
1
A(k) = − f 0 (x) cos(kx)dx
πk −∞
Z ∞
1
B(k) = − f 0 (x) sin(kx)dx
πk −∞
or
Z ∞ Z ∞
1 dk
ϕ(x, y) = − exp (−ky) f 0 (ξ) cos [k(ξ − x)]dξ
π 0 k −∞
or
Z ∞ Z x+ 12
1 dk
ϕ(x, y) = − exp (−ky) f 0 (x − ξ) cos [kξ]dξ
π 0 k x− 21
or
Z ∞
1
ϕ(x, y) = + f 0 (ξ) log [(x − ξ)2 + y 2 ]dξ
2π −∞
Note that the first three expressions are in Fourier Integral Form, whereas the last expression is in
the Method of Residues Form. Note also that using the Method of Images, the above formulation
for a wall (typically extending from −∞ to +∞) can be used to obtain the flowfield over a symmetric
airfoil section at zero angle of attack.
(a) Use any of the previous forms to derive the linearized pressure coefficient
∞
f 0 (ξ)
Z
2
Cp (x) = dξ
π −∞ (ξ − x)
6.54. EXAMS-AIRFOILTRIANGULAR1 95
(b) Consider the shown symmetric NACA 4-Digit airfoil for which the (upper) surface coordinate is
given by
r
1
y = T 1.4845 x + − 0.6085 − 1.5756x − 0.387x2 + 0.4065x3 − 0.5075x4 Π(x)
2
where

1, |x| ≤ 1/2
Π(x) ≡ Rectangle Function =
0, |x| > 1/2
Obtain the following closed form result

 

 (0.9432 − 1.2195x + 2.03x2 ) 

 
 x− 21 
2T  +(1.5756 + 0.744x − 1.2195x2 + 2.03x3 ) log x+ 12

Cp(x) = −
π  √ 1 1

√ 1 log 1+ x+ 2 +(x+ 2)
 
+ 0.74225

 

x− 1
 
x+ 2 2
Hint: Substitute by y = f (x) in the expression of Cp(x) in part (a) and carry out the integrations.
(Use the Table of Integrals given on the following page as an aid.)
(c) Plot the result in (b) for a symmetric NACA 4-Digit airfoil of thickness 6 %.
(d) What are two aerodynamic applications of symmetric airfoil sections?
Table of Integrals
q
1
Z + 21
dξ 1 1+2 x+ 2 + (x + 12 )
I0 = q = −q log 1
− 21 (ξ − x) ξ + 1
x+ 1 x− 2
2 2
+ 21 1
x−
Z
1 2
I= dξ = log 1
− 12 ξ−x x+ 2
Z + 12
ξ
I1 = dξ = 1 + xI
− 21 ξ−x
+ 12
ξ2
Z
I2 = dξ = x + x2 I
− 21 ξ−x
+ 21
ξ3
Z
1
I3 = dξ = + x2 + x3 I
− 12 ξ−x 12
6.54 Exams-AirfoilTriangular1
The shown two-dimensional airfoil is travelling in air at a Mach number of 3 and angle of attack of
5o .
(a) Using shock-expansion theory, calculate Cl and Cd .

(b) Using linearized supersonic-flow theory, calculate Cl and Cd .
(c) Determine the accuracy of the results in (b) by comparing to those obtained in (a) and comment.
The shown two-dimensional airfoil is traveling at a Mach number of 0.5 at an angle of attack of
2◦ . The thickness to chord ratio is 0.1, and the maximum thickness occurs 35% of the chord
downstream of the leading edge. Using linearized theory, find:
(c) The moment coefficient about the leading edge
(d) The moment coefficient about the aerodynamic center
(e) The position of the center of pressure
(f) The position of the aerodynamic center
(g) Repeat parts (a), (b), (c), (d), (e), and (f) if the Mach number is 2.5 instead of 0.5
The shown two-dimensional airfoil is travelling at a Mach number of 3 and at an angle of attack of
2◦ . The thickness to chord ratio is 0.1, and the maximum thickness occurs 30 percent of the chord
downstream of the leading edge. Using linearized theory, compute
(a) The lift coefficient, Cl .
(b) The drag coefficient, Cd .
(c) The position of the center of pressure, xCP .
(d) The moment coefficient about the aerodynamic center, CmAC .
It has been suggested that a supersonic airfoil be designed as an isosceles triangle with 10◦ equal
angles. The airfoil is set at an angle of attack α =5◦ in a freeatream with M=1.5 and pressure of
55180 N/m2 . Sketch the wave pattern and find:
(a) the pressures P2 , P3 , and P4
(b) the Mach numbers M2 , M3 , and M4

6.58. EXAMS-AIRFOILTRIANGULARTRUNCATED 97
6.58 Exams-AirfoilTriangularTruncated
Determine the pressures on the different faces of the shown airfoil, and hence calculate the lift and
drag coefficients.
6.59 Exams-AirfoilVel
For an incompressible air flow past the shown airfoil, the velocity is as indicated.
(a) Complete the table below then estimate the lift coefficient, Cl .
(b) What is the value of Cl for a freestream Mach number of 0.5.
(c) Estimate the critical Mach number for this airfoil.
h i
x u 2 u 2 u 2 u 2

i c U u U l f= U u − U l (Cl )i
1 0.00
2 0.05
3 0.10
.. .. .. .. .. ..
. . . . . .
.. .. .. .. .. ..
. . . . . .
Const
Step of
0.05
19 0.90
20 0.95
21 1.00
Note: R1h i
u 2 u 2
R1 x
x

Analytically : Cl = 0 [CP l − CP u ] d c = 0 U u − U l d c
¯ x
(
R xi+1 x
fh∆ c i and Cl = imax−1 (Cl )
P
Numerically : (Cl )i = fd =

fi +fi+1 x x i=1 i
xi c
2 c i+1 − c i
6.60 Exams-AirplaneAeroConcepts
Answer True / False. If False, Correct the Statement.
Fluid Flow Models
(1) The inviscid Euler solution is generally quite adequate to give an acceptable accuracy for pres-
sure distribution and associated quantities (normal force, pitching moment, side force, side
moment, and rolling moments) in addition to wave drag. However, if one is interested in accu-
rate axial force information, viscous effects (skin friction drag and base drag) must be estimated
via the boundary layer equations or by an empirical method.
(2) The Full Potential Model assumes negligible viscosity and negligible vorticity.
(3) The Boundary Layer Model assumes negligible viscosity, negligible vorticity, and small pertur-
bations.
(4) The Linearized Potential Model neglects both pressure gradient normal to the wall and diffusion
parallel to the body surface.
Assumptions
(5) For an incompressible flow, ρ = constant.
(6) Two-dimensional flow in the x-y plane is one for which ∂/∂z = 0.
(7) A uni-directional flow in the x-direction is one for which u = 0, v 6= 0, w 6= 0.
(8) A fully developed flow in the x-direction is one for which u = 0.
Definitions
(9) The mean aerodynamic chord (mac) represents an average chord (thru the centroid of area)
which, when multiplied by the product of the average section moment coefficient, the dynamic
pressure, and the wing area, gives the moment for the entire wing. It is important in stability
calculations.
(10) The center of pressure is the point about which the moment coefficient remains constant for any
angle of attack.
(11) The aerodynamic center is the point about which the resultant force acts and about which the
moment vanishes.
(12) An aircraft with a dihedral of 5 degrees has its wing tips lower than its wing root.
Airfoils and Wings
(13) The NACA-2412 is a cambered airfoil section having a thickness to chord ratio of 24 %.
(14) An airfoil in two-dimensional flow does not experience any drag due to the creation of lift.
(15) In two-dimensional flow, boundary layer separation is governed by (a) the severity and quality
of the adverse pressure gradient, and (b) the kinetic energy defect in the boundary layer at the
start of the adverse pressure gradient.
(16) ”Fat” airfoils stall from the leading edge whereas ”thin” airfoils stall from the trailing edge.
(17) The aspect ratio, taper ratio, and sweepback of a planform are the principal factors which
determine the aerodynamic characteristics of a wing.
(18) A wing can only continue to generate lift successfully if boundary layer separation is either
avoided or closely controlled.
(19) The induced drag of a swept wing is larger than that of a rectangular wing with the same area.
(20) The desirable stall pattern of any wing is a stall which begins on the tip section first.
Boundary Layer and Drag
6.61. EXAMS-AIRPLANECOMPARISON 99
(21) If there is substantial skin roughness, airflow along a smooth plate can become turbulent when
the local Reynolds number is less than 500000.
(22) Full scale Reynolds numbers for an aircraft in flight ranges from 3 to 500 million (typical about
10 million) where the boundary layer is predominantly turbulent. Scale model tests may involve
Reynolds numbers of 0.1 to 5 million where the boundary layer is predominantly laminar. Hence,
”scale” corrections are crucial to correlate the principal aerodynamic characteristics.
(23) Curvature of the surface can either prevent or encourage transition from laminar to turbulent
flow.
(24) Drag forces strongly related to lift are usually known as parasite drag. In subsonic cruising
flight of a well-designed aircraft, the parasite drag consists mostly of skin friction drag which
depends mostly upon the wetted area.
(25) Scrubbing drag is the increase in skin friction drag due to the prop wash or jet exhaust impinging
upon the aircraft skin.
(26) Interference drag is the induced drag of the tail and includes the additional lift required of the
wing to counter any download produced by the tail.
(27) Trim drag is the increase in the drag of the various aircraft components due to the change in
the airflow caused by other components.
(28) Induced drag is the drag caused by the formation of shocks at supersonic and high subsonic
speeds.
6.61 Exams-AirplaneComparison
Consider carefully the layouts of the 12 shown aircrafts. The aircrafts are from three different
categories. For each aircraft, identify the most important features of the aircraft configuration
in about 3 lines i.e. state the features of each aircraft configuration that indicate the impact of
aerodynamic considerations.
6.62 Exams-AirplaneDragDC9
The given airplane is cruising at a geometric altitude of hG = 33000 ft. The freestream Mach number
is, M∞ = 0.78. The increment in drag coefficient due to compressibility is, ∆CDc = 0.001. Use the
Component Buildup Method (see the appendix) to estimate the following quantities:
(a) the parasite drag coefficient, CDp
(b) the induced drag coefficient, CDi
(c) the total drag coefficient, CD , and the total drag, D in pounds
(d) the lift to drag ratio, CL /CD
6.63 Exams-AirplaneDragTransport1
A large transport aircraft has a wing platform area of 343.648 m2 , a root chord at the airplane
centerline of 10.4 m, a root chord at the side of the fuselage of 9.5 m, an overall (centerline to wing
tip) taper ratio of 0.275, and a span of 51.8 m. The average weighted exposed airfoil thickness ratio
is 10.2% and the wing has 36o of sweepback at the 25% chord line. Eighty-two percent of the wing
platform area is exposed. The fuselage is 53.3 m long and has a diameter of 6.1 m and a wetted area
of 910.45 m2 . The wing and body produce 72% of the total parasite drag. The airplane is cruising
at a pressure altitude of 11277.6 m on a standard day (T = 216.66 K, P = 2.1317 X 104 N/m2 , r =
3.3743 X 10−1 kg/m3 , n = 0.000040686 m2 /s, speed of sound = 295 m/s) with a wing loading of
512.7 kg/m2 . The cruise Mach number is 0.83. Determine the following,
(a) Parasite drag coefficient.
(b) Induced drag coefficient.
(c) Total incompressible drag coefficient.
(d) What is the lift/drag ratio, still neglecting any additional drag due to compressibility?
Hints:
Do = CDo q8 Sref
CDo = ? [ Ki Cf i Sweti / Sref ]
Do = Parasite Drag at Zero-Lift
CDo = Zero-Lift Drag Coefficient
(.)i = Signifies the ith Component (i.e. wing, nacelle, horizontal tail, etc. )
Cf = Skin-Friction Coefficient, and can be obtained from the shown figure.
Swet = wetted area, the actual area in contact with the air; for surfaces, the wetted area is twice the
exposed planform area plus a small correction ( about 2% ) for airfoil curvature ; then
Swet = Sexposed x 2 x 1.02

2 σ
Exposed m.a.c = CR 1 + σ −
3 1+σ
CR = Exposed root chord at centerline of the wing or the side of the fuselage as appropriate
CT = Tip Chord
s = Taper Ratio = CT /CR
6.64. EXAMS-AIRPLANEDRAGTRANSPORT2 101
6.64 Exams-AirplaneDragTransport2
A transport airplane of efficiency e0 = 0.816 is cruising at a geometric altitude of hG = 33000 ft where
3
ρ∞ = 7.9656 ∗ 10−4 slugs/ft , a∞ = 981.88 ft/s, ν∞ = 3.8167 ∗ 10−4 ft2 /s. The freestream Mach number
is, M∞ = 0.78. The increment in drag coefficient due to compressibility is, ∆CDc = 0.001. Using
the attached data, estimate the drag-polar of this airplane, CD = CDp + CDi = CDp + K CL2 , K =
1/ (πe0 AR), i.e. find the parasite drag coefficient, CDp , and the induced drag factor, K.
Airplane Components Data
# Component Quantity Symbol Value

1 Fuselage Length L 107 ft
Diameter D 11.5 ft
Wetted Area SW et 3280 ft2
2 Nacelles Length L 16.8 ft
Effective Fineness Ratio L/D 5
Total Wetted Area SW et 455 ft2
3 Wing Span b 93.2 ft
Planform Area SRef 1000 ft2
Average (t/c) t/c 0.106
Sweepback Angle Λc/4 24.5 deg
Taper Ratio λ 0.2
Root Chord C0 17.8 ft
Wing Area Covered by Fuselage SW AF 17% SRef
4 Horizontal t/c t/c 0.09
Tail
Taper Ratio λ 0.35
Exposed Planform Area SExp 261 ft2
5 Vertical t/c t/c 0.09
Tail
Taper Ratio λ 0.8
Exposed Planform Area SExp 161 ft2
6 Pylons t/c t/c 0.06
Sweepback Angle Λc/4 0 deg
Taper Ratio λ 1.0
Chord C 16.2 ft
Total Wetted Area SW et 117 ft2
7 Flap Hinge Fairings NB:f = CDp SRef ft2 ∆f 0.15 ft2
NB: The contribution of additional drag items (minor components, interference,. . . etc.) is 10% of
the total parasite drag coefficient.
6.65 Exams-AirplaneEllipticalLoading
Consider an airplane that weighs 14700 N and cruises in level flight at 300 km/h at an altitude of
3000 m where ρ∞ ' 0.91 kg/m3 . The wing has a surface area of 17 m2 and an aspect ratio of 6.2.
Assume that the lift coefficient is a linear function of the angle of attack and that α0l = −1.2◦ . If the
load distribution is elliptic, calculate:
(a) the value of the circulation in the plane of symmetry, Γ0
(b) the downwash velocity, wy1
(c) the induced drag coefficient, CDi
(d) the geometric angle of attack, αg

6.66 Exams-AirplaneF16Drag
An F-16 (W = 23750 lbf, AR = 3, e0 = 0.9084) is flying in a horizontal plane at a Mach number of
3
0.4 and at an altitude of 30000 ft where ρ∞ = 0.000891 slug/ft , T∞ = 411.84 o R, a∞ = 994.8 ft/s, and
µ∞ = 3.107 ∗ 10−7 slug/(ft s). The theoretical wing area of the F-16 is, Sref = 300 ft2 . Approximate the
aircraft with a series of wing-like and fuselage-like shapes as shown (all lengths are in feet), then
find
(a) the lift coefficient, CL
(b) the parasite-drag coefficient, CD0
(c) the induced-drag coefficient, CDi
(d) the total drag coefficient, CD
Wing-Like Surfaces (*not shown in Fig) Fuselage-Like Surfaces

Surface Span cr ct t/c Surface Length Height Width
Wing (1 and 2) 12 14 3.5 0.04 Fuselage (Cylinder 1) 39 2.5 5
Horizontal Tail (3 and 4) 6 7.8 2 0.04 Nose (Cone 1) 6 2.5 5
Strake (5 and 6) 2 9.6 0 0.06 Boat-Tail (Cylinder 2) 4 6 6
Inboard Vertical Tail (7) 1.4 12.5 6 0.10 Side (Half Cylinder 1 and 2) 24 0.8 1
Outboard Vertical Tail (8) 7 8 3 0.06 Canopy (Half Cylinder 3) 5 2 2
Dorsal Fins (9 and 10)* 1.5 5 3 0.03 Engine (Half Cylinder 4) 30 2.5 5
Canopy Front (Half Cone 1) 2 2 2
Canopy Rear (Half Cone 2) 4 2 2
6.67 Exams-AirplaneF16Hydraulic
Consider the shown fighter hydraulic system.
(a) Classify the shown actuators under one of the following categories,
(1) Primary Flight Controls (2) Secondary Flight Controls (3) Utility Systems
(b) Which of the shown actuators are two state? Which are continuously variable?
(c) At what location in the fighter would the pump normally be mounted?
(d) If an average total power required by all actuators is 100 kW and pump overall efficiency is 80
%, estimate the input power that would be required to drive the pump.
6.68. EXAMS-AIRPLANEJETPERFORMANCEATALTITUDE 103
6.68 Exams-AirplaneJetPerformanceAtAltitude
Consider a jet-powered airplane cruising at 9 km altitude, where the air density is 0.467 kg/m3 ,
having the following characteristics:
Gross Weight 18000 kg

Wing Area 60 m2
Power Plant Three Turbojet Engines, 16 KN Thrust Each at Sea-Level
Drag Polar CD = 0.03 + 0.07 C2L
Maximum Lift Coefficient 1.5
3
At sea-level, ρ = 1.225 kg m . Calculate:
(a) The minimum-drag speed and the corresponding CL and CD .
(b) The minimum and maximum speeds for straight and level flight.
(c) The angle of climb at a speed of 300 km/hr.
(d) The maximum angle of climb.
6.69 Exams-AirplaneJetPerformanceAtSeaLevel
A jet-powered airplane has the following characteristics:
Gross Weight 18000 kg

Wing Area 60 m2
Power Plant Three Turbojet Engines, 16 KN Thrust Each at Sea-Level
Maximum Lift Coefficient 1.5
3
At sea-level, ρ = 1.225 kg m . Calculate:
(a) The minimum-drag speed and the corresponding CL and CD .
(b) The minimum and maximum speeds for straight and level flight.
(c) The angle of climb at a speed of 500 km/hr.
(d) The maximum angle of climb.
6.70 Exams-AirplaneNozzleDiffuser
(a) The wings of old airplanes were often strengthened by the use of wires that provided cross-
bracing as shown. If the drag coefficient for the wings was 0.02 (based on the planform area),
determine the ratio of the drag from the wire bracing to that from the wings.
(b) It is relatively easy to design an efficient nozzle to accelerate a fluid. Conversely, it is very
difficult to build an efficient diffuser to decelerate a fluid without boundary layer separation
and its subsequent inefficient flow behavior. Use the ideas of favorable and adverse pressure
gradients to explain these facts.
6.71 Exams-AirplaneParachute
(a) Experimental values for the drag coefficient listed in various references are defined using a
characteristic area which may differ depending on the body shape. Mention three types of these
characteristic areas briefly defining each area together with its common applications.
(b) The shown military aircraft has a mass of 8000 kg and lands with a velocity of 350 km/hr. The
pilot deploys a braking parachute with 10 m2 area. Neglecting the drag of the aircraft, estimate:
i. the time needed to slow down the plane from landing speed to 200 km/hr
ii. the distance traveled during the above time
iii. the maximum deceleration rate
Note: For a braking parachute, use CD = 1.42 (based on frontal area)
6.72 Exams-AirplanePitotTube
A pitot static tube is mounted on a nose of an airplane. The stagnation and the static pressure
readings, for three different flight conditions are:
P0 [N/m2 ] P[N/m2 ]
1 1.22*105 1.01*105
2 3.46*105 1.01*105
3 6.26*105 0.49*105
Calculate the freestream Mach number at which the airplane is flying for each case.
6.73 Exams-AirplaneSupersonic
A supersonic aircraft flies horizontally at 1500 m altitude with a constant velocity of 750 m/s. The
aircraft passes directly over a stationary ground observer. How much time elapses after it has
passed over the observer before the latter hears the aircraft? Assume that the average speed of
sound is 335 m/s and that the airplane creates a small disturbance that may be treated as a sound
wave.
6.74. EXAMS-AIRPLANESUPERSONICTRANSPORT 105
6.74 Exams-AirplaneSupersonicTransport
A supersonic transport utilizes a Prandtl-Meyer nozzle to turn the exit flow by 20◦ as shown in the
sketch. Assume γ = 1.4 in the uniform flow at state 1 where M1 = 2. At the start of take-off, the
velocity of the atmosphere v3 is zero and the pressure P3 is atmospheric. Find:
(a) the pressure P1
(b) the length e
6.75 Exams-AirplaneTwinTurbojet
Consider a twin-turbojet airplane cruising at 9 km altitude, where the air density is 0.467 kg/m3 ,
having the following characteristics:
Total Mass 33000 kg

Wing Area 88.3 m2
Power Plant Two Turbojet Engines, 34.2 KN Full Throttle Thrust Each
Calculate (at the cruising altitude):
(a) The maximum speed of straight and level flight.
(b) The maximum angle of steady climbing and the corresponding rate of climb and flight speed.
(c) The maximum rate of steady climbing and the corresponding angle of climb and flight speed.
6.76 Exams-AirplaneWingGeneralLoading
An airplane weighs 10000
N and cruises with U∞ = 51.39 m/s in level flight at an altitude of 3 km
where ρ∞ = 0.90926 kg m3 . Wing and airfoil data are as follows,
Wing Data Airfoil Data

Unswept Wing, Λc/4 = 0◦ No Aerodynamic Twist with a
Surface Area, A = 16.3 m2 NACA-2412 airfoil section
Aspect Ratio, AR = 7.52 For the NACA-2412 section,
Taper Ratio, λ = 0.69 α0L = −2◦ and a∞ ≡ Cl,α = 6
Linear Geometric Twist,
y c1 ≡ const1
αincidence (y) = c1 + c2 b/2 ,
c2 ≡ const2
with a Root Section Incidence of 1.5◦ ,
and a Tip Section Incidence of −1.5◦ .
(a) Determine the main dimensions and angles of the wing plan-form including: b, cr , ct , ΛLE , Λc/4 , and ΛTE .
(b) Draw a neat sketch of the wing plan-form indicating its dimensions and angles.
(c) Use a 4-term series to represent the load distribution then calculate the induced drag coefficient,
CDi , and the geometric angle of attack, αg (y).
Note: αg (y) = α (y) − α0L , α (y) = αA/C−axis + αincidence (y)
6.77 Exams-AirplaneWingGeometryGeneralLoading
An airplane cruises in level flight with a speed of 50 m/s. The wing which is unswept has a surface
area of 16.3 m2 , an aspect ratio of 7.52, and a taper ratio of 0.69. The airfoil section is a NACA-2412
(α0l = −2◦ , a∞ = 6). The wing is geometrically twisted such that the incidence of the root section is
+1.5◦ and the incidence at the tip section is −1.5◦ .
(a) Determine the main dimensions and angles of the wing planform i.e. b, cr , ct , ΛLE , and ΛTE .
(b) Draw a neat sketch of the wing planform indicating its dimensions and angles.
(c) Determine the chord of the wing as a function of the spanwise coordinate y, i.e. find c (y).
(d) Determine the angle of attack as a function of the spanwise coordinate y, i.e. find α (y).
Note: Take α (y) = αincid (y).
(e) Find the lift coefficient and induced drag coefficient.

Note: Use a 4-term Glauert series i.e. retain only two coefficients and apply the equation at
stations θ = π/4, π/2.
6.78 Exams-Altitude1
On a certain day the pressure at sea level is 101500 N/m2 and the temperature is 25 o C. The
temperature is found to fall linearly with height within the troposphere to -55 o C at 11.3 km.
(a) Prove that

4.823
P T
=
P0 T0
where P and T are the pressure and temperature at an altitude h inside the troposphere, and
placePo and To are the values at sea level on that day.
(b) Calculate P, T, and ρ at an altitude of 8 km.
6.79 Exams-Altitude2
On a certain day the pressure at sea-level is 101450 N/m2 and the temperature is 30 o C. The
temperature is found to fall linearly with height within the troposphere to -50 o C at 11.8 km.
(a) Starting from the hydrostatic equation and the perfect gas equation of state and taking g0 =
2
9.807 m/s and Rair = 287.04 J/(kg K), prove that the pressure P on that day varies within the
troposphere with the geo-potential altitude h according to the equation,
5.0395
P = 101450 1 − 2.2375 ∗ 10−5 h [Pa]
(b) Calculate the air pressure, temperature, and density at an altitude of 8 km.
6.80. EXAMS-ALTITUDEANDAEROCONCEPTS 107
6.80 Exams-AltitudeAndAeroConcepts
(a) (2 Marks) Choose One: The following variation based on experimental evidence is used to define
the standard atmosphere, (i)P with h (ii)ρ with h (iii)T with h
(b) (3 Marks) Briefly compare between (i) geometric altitude, (ii) density altitude, (iii) pressure alti-
tude, and (iv) absolute altitude.
(c) (3 Marks) Write out the governing equation (in terms of the velocity potential function) for two-
dimensional steady, inviscid, irrotational, and incompressible flow. What is the surface bound-
ary condition (in terms of the velocity potential function) for potential flow?
(d) (2 Marks) Briefly explain the concept of superposition of flows. How is the flow about a cylinder
generated using this concept?
6.81 Exams-Automobile
(a) Briefly discuss the following:
i. Strategies for aerodynamic development of passenger cars

ii. Drag minimization of trucks
iii. Effect of windshield angle on drag
iv. Effect of vehicle rear end on drag
(b) List an approximate contribution to total drag (in percent) of a typical saloon car (Cd = 0.45) for
each of the following:
i. Basic streamlined body

ii. Ground effect on above
iii. Adaptation of body to conventional styling
iv. Wheel and wheel arches
v. Underbody details
vi. Headlamps, bumpers, etc
vii. Engine cooling system
(c) For the saloon car in part (b),
i. Sketch a typical pressure coefficient distribution about this car

ii. Sketch the flowfield at the rear of this car and mention two important factors which deter-
mine the magnitude of the pressure drag of this car
iii. What is an approximate estimate of the fuel consumption [in (litres/100 km)] of this car if it
is travelling at 100 km/hr?
(d) The four designs shown for the cross-section of an emergency flasher lighting system for police
vehicles are being evaluated. Each has a length of 150 cm and a width of 22 cm. Compare the
drag force exerted on each proposed design when the vehicle moves at 160 km/hr through still
air at −30◦ C
6.82 Exams-Bee
The shown bumblebee has a mass of 1 gm and can hover at zero speed by flapping its wings. Use
a simple harmonic function to model this motion, then determine the number of flaps per second
that are needed to support the bee’s weight.
Note: Actual measurements of bees show a flapping rate of about 200 Hz.
6.83 Exams-Buildings
The following table contains a randomly generated set of meteorological data supposedly measured
in a site over one day (24 hrs). Use the data to:
(a) Plot the corresponding wind rose and determine prevailing wind directions, if any.
(b) Plot the time history of the wind speed and compute the minimum, maximum, average and RMS
values over the one day period.
(c) Use the time history plot to tabulate the frequencies of wind speed. Plot the result and see if
they fit a probability density function you know about.
(d) Comment on the set of data as related to the local climate.

6.84. EXAMS-BUMP2EDGES 109
Time Velocity Direction Time Velocity Direction
m/scc m/sec
12.00 3.5 35 12.00 6.32 3
12.30 3.0 10 12.30 5.23 21
01.00 3.5 210 01.00 4.01 57
01.30 9.75 250 01.30 5.07 36
02.00 5.7 30 02.00 8.77 15
02.30 11.2 25 02.30 9.88 29
03.00 4.8 15 03.00 5.61 39
03.30 6.9 35 03.30 7.11 48
04.00 5.8 45 04.00 10.01 152
04.30 9.1 51 04.30 2.07 149
05.00 10.8 36 05.00 3.5 169
05.30 11.85 47 05.30 3.0 203
06.00 8.7 127 06.00 3.5 207
06.30 7.95 150 06.30 9.75 215
07.00 6.32 163 07.00 5.7 229
07.30 5.23 205 07.30 11.2 132
08.00 4.01 301 08.00 4.8 137
0830 5.07 321 08.30 6.9 313
09.00 8.77 175 09.00 5.8 223
09.30 9.88 213 09.30 9.1 77
10.00 5.61 245 10.00 10.8 67
10.30 7.11 310 10.30 11.85 56
11.00 10.01 102 11.00 2.7 45
11.30 2.07 199 11.30 3.2 33
The following figure describes schematics of two buildings.
(e) Sketch neatly the flow pattern over each building for the minimum and the most prevailing
velocities as determined in (b) above.
(f) Check the wind loading as determined by the Egyptian Civil Design Code and comment on the
result.
(g) Determine and comment on the type of flow over each building.
(h) If the two buildings are not to interfere aerodynamically with each other, determine the distance
between the two buildings.
6.84 Exams-Bump2Edges
For flow at Mach 2.5 and γ =1.4 over the symmetrical protrusion shown, find M2 , M3 , M4 , T2 , T3 ,
and T4 .
6.85 Exams-Cone
Consider the shown truncated cone in a freestream at standard sea-level conditions. Find:
(a) The shock wave angle.
(b) P and M immediately behind the shock wave.
(c) P and M on the cone surface.
(d) The drag coefficient CD (including base pressure effect PB ).
6.86 Exams-ConeAirfoilParabolic
(a) The drag coefficient for a cone can be defined as
D
CD = 1 2
2 ρ∞ v∞ SB
whereSB is the area of the base of the cone.
i. Derive a formula for CD in terms of the surface pressure coefficient, CP C , and the base
pressure coefficient, CP B , i.e. include the base pressure contribution to the drag coefficient.
ii. For a 15o half-angle cone, obtain the variation of CD with M∞ over the range 1.5 ≤M∞ ≤ 5.0
using the formula derived in (i). Use M∞ increments of 0.5 and present your results in a
table.
(b) The shown parabolic-arc airfoil given by, z u,l = ±2T x (1 − x) is subjected to supersonic flow at an
angle of attack. ForM∞ = 1.5, α = 10 deg, and T = 10%, find
i. the pressure coefficient, CP , and plot

ii. the lift coefficient, Cl
iii. the drag coefficient, Cd
iv. the moment coefficient, CmLE
6.87. EXAMS-CONECYLINDER 111
6.87 Exams-ConeCylinder
A conical shaped probe is used for estimating the Mach number of a supersonic air wind tunnel.
Consider the shown Schlieren photograph for an attached shock wave.
Find the following:
(a) the Mach number M1 of the tunnel
(b) Ps and Ms on the cone surface of the probe
(c) the minimum Mach number M1 min (below which the shock wave will be detached)
6.88 Exams-ConeCylinderAirfoilSin
(a) The shown three-dimensional body is composed of a conical nose and a cylinder.
i. Sketch the flow phenomena (compression waves, expansion waves, shear layers, wake, etc)
on the shown body if the free-stream is transonic, and, for a supersonic free-stream.
ii. Show typical pressure coefficient distributions (trends only) for each of the above two cases.
(b) Air at a Mach number of 2.5 is flowing along the shown symmetric supersonic airfoil. The
thickness to chord ratio of the airfoil is 0.1. Ignoring wave interactions, sketch the wave pattern,
and calculate then plot the pressure coefficient versus chord length along the upper surface
using each of the following methods,
i. Linearized Theory [or Ackeret Theory]

ii. Shock Expansion Theory [or Tangent Wedge Theory (TWT)]
Note: Use chord divisions of 0.1 and show details of your calculations.
6.89 Exams-ConeCylinderConeCylinder
A conical shaped probe is used for estimating the Mach number of a supersonic air wind tunnel.
Consider the Schlieren photographs shown for an attached shock wave (Photograph I) and that for
a detached shock wave (Photograph II).
Find the following:
(a) the Mach number M1 of the tunnel in photograph I
(b) Ps and Ms on the cone surface of the probe in photograph I
(c) the minimum Mach number M1 min (below which the shock wave will be detached)
(d) the Mach number M1 of the tunnel in photograph II
(e) the stagnation pressure coefficient on the nose of the probe in photograph II
6.90 Exams-ConeCylinderDiffuser
(a) For the shown three-dimensional body (composed of a conical nose and a cylinder), sketch
i. the flow phenomena (compression waves, expansion waves, shear layers, wake, etc) on the
shown body for a transonic free-stream, and, for a supersonic free-stream.
ii. a typical pressure coefficient distribution for the supersonic case.
iii. a typical drag coefficient variation with Mach number from M = 0.5 to M = 3.
(b) Consider the inviscid air flow in the shown two-dimensional diffuser.
i. Find the minimum Mach number, M1 , for this case to exist.

ii. Find M2 , M3 , M4 , and the ratios P2 /P1 , P3 /P1 , and P4 /P1 .
iii. Find the length L in terms of the height H corresponding to this M1 .
6.91. EXAMS-CONEDRAG 113
6.91 Exams-ConeDrag
Consider the shown truncated cone in a free-stream at standard sea-level conditions. Find:
(b) P and M immediately behind the shock wave.
(c) P and M on the cone surface.
(d) The drag coefficient CD (including base pressure effect, PB ).
6.92 Exams-ConeDragAnalytical1
The drag coefficient for a cone can be defined as CD =D/(q∞ Ab ), where Ab is the area of the base of
the cone. For a 15◦ half-angle cone, plot the variation of CD with M∞ over the range 1.5 ≤ ∞ ≤ 7.0
for the case of zero angle of attack. Assume the base pressure pb is equal to freestream pressure.
(Note: You will not find CD in the tables. Instead, derive a formula for CD in terms of the surface
pressure pc , and use the tables to find pc .)
6.93 Exams-ConeDragAnalytical2
The drag coefficient for a cone can be defined as,
D
CD = 1 2
, Ab ≡ Base Area of the Cone
2 ρ ∞ U ∞ Ab
For a 20o half-angle cone in air, plot the variation of CD with M∞ over the range 1.2 ≤ M∞ ≤ 4 for
the case of zero angle of attack. [Assume the base pressure Pb = P∞ . Note: You will not find CD in
the charts. Instead, derive a formula for CD in terms of the surface pressure Ps , and use the charts
to find Ps .]
6.94 Exams-ConeDragLinear
A cone of revolution of semi-vertex angle 13.5o is set in supersonic flow of Mach number 1.68 at
zero angle of attack. Find the drag coefficient according to the linear theory. Compare the results
obtained with the exact value of the drag coefficient.
6.95 Exams-ConeHemiSphere
(a) The shown cone has a semi-apex angle of θc = 15 degand is set in a free-stream of M∞ = 5 at an
angle of attack of α = 10 deg. Use the Tangent Cone Theory Method (TCT) to calculate then plot
P/P∞ versus the meridian angle ϕ from ϕ = 0 to 180 deg. Use increments of ∆ϕ = 30 deg.
(b) A missile has the shown hemi-spherical nose. The free-stream Mach number is, M1 = 5, and the
angle of attack is, α = 0 deg.
i. Use the Modified Newtonian Theory (MNT) to calculate then plot P/P∞ versus δ on the missile
nose for δ = 0 deg to δ = 90 deg. Use increments of ∆δ = 10 deg.
ii. Obtain the wave drag coefficient for the given hemi-spherical nose.
iii. Which type of missiles has a hemi-spherical nose?
6.96 Exams-ConePart
Consider the shown truncated cone in a freestream at standard sea-level conditions. Find:
(b) p,T,ρ, and M immediately behind the shock wave
(c) p,T,ρ, and M on the cone surface
6.97 Exams-ConePartDifferentGiven
Consider a 15◦ half-angle cone at 0◦ angle of attack in a freestream at standard level conditions
with M∞ =2.0. Obtain:
(a) The shock wave angle
(b) p,T,ρ, and M immediately behind the shock wave
(c) p,T,ρ, and M on the cone surface
6.98 Exams-Cylinder
The shown two-dimensional inviscid flow about a circular cylinder is represented by the velocity
potential function ϕ as,
R2

Γ
ϕ (r, θ) = V∞ r cos (θ) + − θ
r 2π
(a) Check that the flow field is irrotational.
(b) Determine the value of Γ such that point S is a stagnation point.
(c) Calculate the velocity components up and vp at point p.
6.99 Exams-CylinderCircularBL
A circular cylinder of radius 50 mm is set in a uniform air stream of velocity 20 m/s. Using
approximate integral method and assuming mixed laminar-turbulent boundary layer (the transition
occurs at Rec = 5 ∗ 104 ) calculate and plot:
6.100. EXAMS-CYLINDERCIRCULARBLBETTER 115
(a) The distribution of the boundary layer thickness δ.
(b) The distribution of the boundary layer displacement thickness δ ∗ .
(c) The distribution of the boundary layer momentum thickness θ.
(d) The distribution of shear stress coefficient τ .
(e) The position of separation.
(f) The total skin friction drag.
6.100 Exams-CylinderCircularBLBetter
A circular cylinder of radius, R = 0.05 m, is set in a uniform air stream of velocity, U∞ = 20 m/s,
at S.L condition. Using the approximate integral method and assuming a mixed laminar-turbulent
boundary layer (transition at Retr = 5 ∗ 104 ), calculate and plot
(a) The distribution of the non-dimensional boundary layer, displacement, and momentum thick-
nesses, i.e. δ̄, δ̄1 , and δ̄2 respectively
(b) The distribution of shear stress coefficient, Cf x
(c) The position of the separation point, xsep = Rφsep
Note: For the circular cylinder flow; Ū = 2 sin (φ) = 2 sin (πx̄). Also, take L = πR and ∆x̄ = 0.05.
6.101 Exams-CylinderShaftBearing
A journal bearing supports a circular shaft of diameter D = 10 cm turning at 3600 revolutions per
minute. The bearing length L = 10 cm. the gap between the shaft and the bearing, h = 0.1 mm, is
filled with a lubricant whose viscosity is µ = 6.7 ∗ 10−5 Pa s. Calculate:
(a) The torque T applied to the shaft to overcome the friction in the bearing.
(b) The power P consumed in the bearing by friction.

If the shaft of the journal bearing is impulsively started from rest to the speed Ω,
√
(c) Derive an expression for the torque T=T(t) when the time, t, is small enough that νt << h
√ 3
(d) Calculate the numerical value of t that would make νt = h if ρ = 800 kg/m
6.102 Exams-CylSemiAirfoilCamber2Lines
(a) (4 Marks) You are to design a quonset hut to serve as temporary housing near the seashore.
The quonset hut may be considered to be a closed (no leaks) semi-cylinder, whose radius is 5 m,
mounted on the tie-blocks, as shown. The air under the hut is at rest and the pressure is equal
to the stagnation pressure, P0 = P∞ + 12 ρ∞ U∞
2
. What is the net lift force acting on the quonset
hut? The wind speed is 60 m/s and the static free-stream properties are those for standard
sea-level conditions.
(b) (6 Marks) Consider the shown airfoil composed of two straight lines. Using thin airfoil theory,
calculate
(a) Cl (b) CmLE (c) α0L
6.103 Exams-Missile
Consider the shown two-dimensional body in supersonic flow. Find the length l3 (in terms of h) and
the drag coefficient Cd (including base pressure PB effect) for each of the following cases,
(a) PB is equal to the atmospheric pressure P1
(b) PB is equal to a typical measured value (see Figure on following page)
(c) PB is equal to the value obtained if the flow fully expands about the base i.e. makes a 90◦ turn
Discuss the effect of the base pressure on the drag. Nomenclature : OSW ≡ Oblique Shock Wave,
PMF ≡ Prandtl-Meyer Expansion Fan, S ≡ Separation Point, R ≡ Reattachment Point, B ≡ Base, RR

≡ Recirculation Region, SL ≡ Shear Layer (Slip Line), ROS ≡ Recompression Oblique Shock, and W
≡ Wake.
6.104. EXAMS-MISSILECOMPARISON 117
6.104 Exams-MissileComparison
(a) Match the correct statement from column [B] to that of column [A].

1 Inviscid Navier-Stokes (Euler) Neglect pressure gradient normal to the wall, Ne-
glect diffusion parallel to the body surface
3 Full Potential Model Steady, Neglect viscous derivatives in streamwise di-
rection, Approximate streamwise pressure-gradient
5 Parabolized Navier-Stokes Neglect viscous derivatives in streamwise and cir-
cumferential directions i.e. parallel to the surface
(b) Show that for 3-D axi-symmetric flows over slender bodies, the appropriate form to use for the
pressure coefficient is,
CP = −2ϕx − ϕ2r , ϕ ≡small perturbation potential (normalized by v∞ l)
(c) Briefly define each of the following (use sketches if possible),
i. Slender body
ii. Bluff body
iii. Fineness ratio
iv. Bluffness ratio
v. Caliber
vi. Drag counts
(d) Mention advantages and disadvantages of each of the shown missile types.
6.105 Exams-MissileConcepts
Answer True / False. If False, correct the statement.
Perturbation Methods
1. The pressure rise on a cone is much less than on the wedge because the lower pressure rise is
due to the three-dimensional effect, which gives ”more room for adjustment” of the flow over the
cone.
2. Subsonic body drag is driven by nose fineness while supersonic drag is driven by wetted area.
3. In slender body theory, the source strength is proportional only to the local rate of change of
area of the body. Hence, those portions of the body that are ”far away” do not influence the local
conditions.
4. For a very slender body, the strength of the cross flow doublet solution is not proportional to the
local section area.
5. In slender body theory, the cross flow solution on a body of a revolution with angle of attack, or
yaw, may be obtained from the basic axially symmetric solution.
6. In the slender body theory approximation and for a closed body, the cross force is finite.
7. According to slender body theory, the lift coefficient for a given body depends only on the cross
flow and hence is independent of Mach number.
8. The accuracy of slender body theory for practical applications is excellent. Its usefulness lies in
its generality, and for complicated configurations, it may provide the only means for obtaining
an estimate of the lift coefficient. The simple cross flow theory gives the correct thickness drag,
since this has terms that depend on interaction between different sections of the body.
9. The inviscid Euler solution is generally quite adequate to give an acceptable accuracy for pressure
distribution and associated quantities (normal force, pitching moment, side force, side moment,
and rolling moments) in addition to wave drag. However, if one is interested in accurate axial
force information, viscous effects (skin friction drag and base drag) must be estimated via the
boundary layer equations or by an empirical method.
10. Linear theory and slender body theory are useful for rough estimates of axial force because both
theories assume inviscid flow and two of the drag components, skin friction and base drag, are
viscous components.
Local Slope Methods
11. For the Tangent Wedge Method (TWM) to be valid, Mach numbers high enough to allow the shock
to be attached to the wedge tip are required.
12. In the Tangent Cone Method (TCM), the local angle between the velocity vector and the tangent
to a point on the surface is more simple than for the wedge.
13. For bodies that are blunt, or have truncated leading edges or tips, Modified Newtonian Theory
(MNT) is used to compute pressure coefficients in the nose region.
14. Newtonian Impact Theory assumes that, in the limit of high Mach number, the shock lies on the
body, meaning that the disturbed flow-field lies in an infinitely thin layer between the shock and
the body. Hence, density behind the shock approaches infinite values and the ratio of specific
heats approaches unity.
15. Most tactical weapons have a majority of the flow consisting of about 80 to 90% laminar flow
followed by 10 to 20% of the configuration under turbulent conditions. However, as altitude at
which the weapon flies increases, the amount of turbulent flow increases due to the lower flight
Reynolds number.
16. Wings, tails, and canards usually have greater skin friction drag than shock wave drag.
Empirical Methods
17. Base pressure drag on both two-dimensional and axi-symmetric surfaces is determined by the
mechanics of the wake, for which there is as yet no complete theory. Hence, values for the base
pressure drag must be obtained experimentally.
Interference Effects
18. Two main types of interference effects that occur in aerodynamics are: (a) the additional pressure
load on one component of the body as a result of the presence of the second component and vice
versa, and (b) component shed vortices as they affect downstream components.
19. Fin-to-fin interference effects are generally large unless the number of fins present is small.
Missile Design
6.106. EXAMS-MISSILEDRAG 119
20. Approximate aero-prediction codes relying on theoretical methods are defined as semi-empirical
because analytical methods are not applicable (or not worth the effort because of the difficulty
in applying them) for many applications (such as transonic aerodynamics, body alone subsonic
aerodynamics, and base drag of the body and lifting surfaces) and hence empirical methods are
generally used.
21. A high fineness nose has higher supersonic drag.
22. Moderate nose tip bluntness causes a strong change in supersonic drag.
23. Most guided projectiles and guided missiles have two sets of lifting surfaces. The forward set is
used for control and the rear set is used for stability.
24. Canard control missiles are wingless and most are supersonic.
25. Small diameter missiles have large drag.
26. Typical range in body fineness ratio is 5 < l/d < 25.
27. A boat-tail or flare angle should be larger than 10 degrees in order to avoid flow separation.
28. Boat tail increases base pressure drag area.
29. Boat-tailing reduces drag for subsonic missiles.
30. Flare increases static stability.
31. Wing control requires less body rotation but has high hinge moment, induced roll and stall.
32. Most supersonic missiles are wingless.
33. Wing control missiles are susceptible to high vortex shedding.
34. Wing control missiles are old technology.
35. Tail control is not efficient at high angle of attack.
36. About 70% of tail control missiles also have wings.
6.106 Exams-MissileDrag
The shown missile is in powered flight at M∞ = 4 and α = 0 deg.
(a) Estimate the skin friction drag coefficient for the missile (include nose, body, and fins).
(b) Estimate the base drag coefficient.
Note: To simplify your calculations, treat the ogive nose as conical and the fins as flat trapezoidal
wings.
6.107 Exams-NoseCylPowerLaw
The shown nose of a cylindrical power-law body has a length of L = 1 m, a base diameter of D, and
a profile given by, R = 12 D xa , 0 ≤ x ≤ 1. The nose is subjected to a free-stream Mach number, M∞ ,
at an angle of attack, α = 0 deg.
(a) For an ogive nose (with a = 0.5), use Slender Body Theory to show that
D2
Cp = −
16x
πD4

4 p
2 −1
CD = ln ,λ = M∞
32 λD
where the drag coefficient is based on the base area of the ogive, and does not include base nor
skin friction contributions.
(b) For a base diameter, D = 0.2 m, and M∞ = 2, estimate the drag coefficient using the expression
in part (a) and compare to the result obtained from the more accurate relation of Miles,
" L 2
#
98 − 8/ D

0.096 σ0 1.69 −1 1
CD = 0.083 + 2
1− , σ0 in deg, and σ0 = 2 tan
M∞ 7 (M∞ + 18) 10 2L/D
(c) Is the drag coefficient obtained from Slender Body Theory accurate? Explain.
6.108 Exams-NoseVarious
(a) Match the correct statement from column [B] to that of column [A].

(b) The small perturbation equation takes two forms depending on the range of Mach numbers in
which they are to be used. These forms are,
2
2
1 − M∞ ϕxx + ϕyy + ϕzz = M∞ (γ + 1) ϕx ϕxx (i)
2

1 − M∞ ϕxx + ϕyy + ϕzz = 0 (ii)
Discuss the conditions that make each of the two forms applicable, and show how to deduce
form (ii) from form (i) when the necessary conditions are fulfilled.
(c) The nose of a cylindrical power-law body has a length of L = 1 m, a base diameter of D, and a
profile given by, R = 12 D xa , 0 ≤ x ≤ 1.
6.109. EXAMS-PLATECURVED 121
i. For the power-law nose, use Slender Body Theory to find closed form expressions for the
pressure coefficient distribution, CP ≡ CP (M∞ , D, a; x), and the wave drag coefficient, CD ≡
CD (M∞ , D, a).
ii. Use the expression for CD obtained in (i) to estimate the wave drag coefficient for each of the
shown bodies (length L = 1 m, base diameter D = 0.2 m, for each body). The Mach number
is M∞ = 2 and the angle of attack is α = 0 deg.
iii. Estimate the base drag coefficient for the cylindrical power-law body at M∞ = 2.
6.109 Exams-PlateCurved
Air flows around the shown curved wall. The freestream Mach number is, M∞ = 1.93, and the wall
inclination is −10 deg. Here, the Mach angle ≡ α, and the inclinations of the physical characteristics
are θ + α, θ − α for the upper and lower surfaces, respectively.
Determine the flow pattern by completing the following table.
Point θ ν M CI CII α θ+α

a 0 24.432 1.93 24.432 24.432 31.207 31.207
b -2 24.432
c -4 24.432
d -6 24.432
e -8 24.432
f -10 24.432
Point θ ν M CI CII α θ−α
a0 0 24.432 1.93 24.432 24.432 31.207 -31.207
b0 -2 24.432
c0 -4 24.432
d0 -6 24.432
e0 -8 24.432
f0 -10 24.432
6.110 Exams-PlateFlat
The shown flat plate of length L = 1 m is located at sea-level and subjected to an air stream of
velocity U∞ = 15 m/s, with no pressure gradient. Assuming that the momentum thickness, θ, does
not change at the transition point and that the turbulent part of the boundary layer develops from
an imaginary origin located at a distance x0 from the leading edge of the plate, find
(a) the location of the transition point, xt
(b) the boundary layer thickness at transition, δxt
(c) the boundary layer thickness at the trailing edge, δxTE
(d) the drag coefficient, Cd
6.111 Exams-PlateFlatAtAlpha
Read carefully the attached notes on vortex lattice modeling (VLM) then develop the aerodynamic
model for the shown flat plate airfoil using a 2 – panel method.
(a) Show panels and pertinent dimensions on sketch (use 0.5 c panels).
(b) Write the approximate equations and develop the aerodynamic matrix [A] for this problem.
(c) Solve the problem and derive the result Cl = f (α) for the case given. Compare to the exact
theoretical result for a flat plate.
6.112 Exams-PlateFlatBL
Consider the airflow over a small flat plate which is 5 cm long in the flow direction and 1 m wide.
3
The freestream conditions correspond to standard sea-level [ρ = 1.225 kg/m , µ = 1.79 ∗ 10−5 kg/(ms)],
and the flow velocity is 120 m/s.
(a) Make a neat sketch of this situation.
(b) Assuming laminar flow, calculate the boundary layer thickness at the trailing edge of the flat
plate. Also calculate the drag force on the plate.
(c) Assuming turbulent flow, calculate the boundary layer thickness at the trailing edge of the flat
plate. Also calculate the drag force on the plate.
(d) Compare the results obtained from part (b) with those obtained from part (c).
Note: Boundary Layer (BL) Results for a Flat Plate:
Parameter Symbol Laminar BL Turbulent BL

5.2x 0.37x
BL Thickness δ √
Rex Re0.2
x
Skin Friction Coefficient Cf x = qτ∞ 0.664
√
Rex
0.0592
Re0.2
x
Df 1.328 0.074
Total Skin Friction Coefficient Cf = q∞ A
√
ReL Re0.2
L
6.113. EXAMS-PLATEFLATBLSIXTH 123
6.113 Exams-PlateFlatBLSixth
The velocity profile over a flat plate in a turbulent boundary-layer flow with zero pressure gradient is
1 14
approximated by a ” 16 -power” profile, Uu∞ = yδ 6 . For this profile, assume τw = 0.0225ρ∞ U∞
2 ν∞
U∞ δ .
(a) Use the Momentum Integral Equation with this profile to obtain expressions for δ/x and Cf x .
(b) Compare your results with those obtained for the ” 17 -power” profile.
6.114 Exams-PlateFlatBLSixthPlus
(a) Answer ”True” or ”False”. If ”False”, Correct the Statement and Briefly Explain.
i. In a fluid of very low viscosity, the force on a body may be found to a good approximation by
ideal fluid analysis.
ii. For a bluff body, frictional drag is the dominant source of air resistance whereas for a
streamlined body, the dominant source of drag is pressure drag.
iii. Flow separation at a solid surface is caused by adverse pressure.
iv. At separation, the pressure is minimum.
v. Prandtl number is a measure of inertia versus viscous effects.
(b) The velocity profile over a flat plate in a turbulent boundary-layer flow with zero pressure gra-
1
dient is approximated by a ” 16 -power” profile expression, u/U∞ = (y/δ) 6 . Use the Momentum
Integral Equation (page 2) with this profile to obtain expressions for δ/x and Cf x . Compare your
results with those obtained for the ” 17 -power” profile (page 6).
1/
Note: For a ” 16 -power” profile, assume τw = 0.0225ρ∞ U∞ 2
[ν∞ / (U∞ δ)] 4
R1 R1
Also, recall the definitions; δ ∗ = δ 0 (1 − u/U ) d (y/δ) , θ = δ 0 (u/U ) (1 − u/U ) d (y/δ)
6.115 Exams-PlateFlatFlap
Air flows over the shown 2-D flat plate which has a moving part that acts as a flap. The fraction of
the flap length to the total length of the flat plate is f = 0.25, and flap deflection angle is δ = 12 deg.
(a) GivenM∞ = 0.5 and ᾱ = 2 deg, use subsonic thin airfoil theory to calculate Cl and CmLE .
(b) GivenM∞ = 2.0 and ᾱ = 2 deg, use supersonic thin airfoil theory to calculate Cl , Cd , and CmLE .
(c) Plot xCP versus α for M∞ = 0.5 and δ = 12 deg. Is the movement of the center of pressure with
angle of attack obtained from thin airfoil theory consistent with wind tunnel measurements?
(d) Briefly mention the effect of flap deflection in subsonic flow on each of the following quantities.
i. Cl
ii. Cl max
iii. α0l
iv. αstall
v. Cd
vi. CmAC
6.116 Exams-PlateFlatHypersonic
(a) Derive from first principles the Newtonian flow equations for a flat plate making an angle of
attack, α, with a free-stream of velocity, v∞ i.e. derive the following expressions
CP = 2 sin2 α
Cl = 2 sin2 α cos α
Cd = 2 sin3 α
(b) What are the basic assumptions of Newtonian flow theory?
(c) State the Mach number independence principle. Under what conditions is the Mach number
independence principle valid?
(d) What are the hypersonic similarity parameters? State the hypersonic similarity law.
(e) Consider a flat plate airfoil at an angle of attack in hypersonic flow. Start from the concave
corner OSW relations and the convex corner PMF relations (relations involving P/P∞ in terms of
K ≡ M∞ θ, Ks ≡ M∞ β, Kµ ≡ M∞ µ), and derive the following
expressions

 K =M∞ α
q 2γ
γ+1 4 γ+1 2 2 γ−1
γ−1 2
Cl = 2 + K2 + 2 + γK 2 1 − s 1 − 2 K α γ−1

where 1, 2 K < 1
 s= γ−1
Cd = Cl α 0, 2 K>1
6.117 Exams-PlateFlatIntegOfPAndTau
(a) Explain briefly the source of the aerodynamic force exerted by the airflow on the surface of an
airplane.
2
(b) The average gauge pressure and shear stress acting on the surfaces of a 2 m flat plate at 8 deg
3
angle of attack to an airflow at standard sea-level ρ = 1.225 kg/m are:
2 2
On the upper surface: Pav = −1.5 kN/m and τav = 6 ∗ 10−2 kN/m
2 2
On the lower surface: Pav = 2.5 kN/m and τav = 7 ∗ 10−2 kN/m
Determine the lift and drag generated. If the airflow velocity is 10 m/s, what are the lift and
drag coefficients?
6.118 Exams-PlateFlatIntegOfPTank
(a) A rectangular flat plate, 15 cm by 105 cm, is placed in an air-stream and is inclined at an angle
of 6 degrees to the airflow. The atmospheric pressure is 101325 Pa. The effect of the airflow is to
reduce the pressure on the upper surface of the plate by 1000 Pa and to increase the pressure
on the lower surface by 400 placeStatePa. What is the lift and drag of the flat plate?
(b) A rigid tank initially contains air at 2.2 bar and 22 ◦ C. An air compressor adds 4 kg of air to the
tank. The final conditions in the tank are 4.8 bar and 25 ◦ C. Calculate the volume of the tank.
6.119 Exams-PlateFlatMoving
Plastic foils are extruded thru slot nozzles and pulled thru quiescent air with constant velocity, UF .
Because of the no-slip condition, air is set in motion by the foil and a boundary layer develops
which has a negative displacement thickness. The pressure gradient dP/dx in the quiescent fluid
and therefore in the boundary layer is zero. We wish to find the friction coefficient of the foil using
the integral method. The shown boundary layer flow is steady and laminar.
(a) State the boundary condition for the velocity component, u.

6.120. EXAMS-PLATEFLATSHOCKEXPANSION1 125
y 2
(b) For the velocity distribution in the boundary layer, UuF = a + b yδ + c δ , find the constants,

a, b, and c, from boundary conditions and from the assumption that the shear stress vanishes at
the edge of the boundary layer.
(c) Show that the momentum equation can be brought to the form,
dδ2 τw 1
Rδ
dx = ρU 2 where the momentum thickness is, δ2 = U 2 0 (U − u) udy
F F
(d) For the given velocity distribution, find the ratio δ2 /δ.
(e) Give the relationship between wall shear stress, τw , and the momentum thickness, δ2 .
(f) Find the ordinary differential equation for δ22 from the equation given in (c). Solve the equation
subject to δ2 (x = 0) = 0.
p
(g) Determine the coefficient of friction, cf UF x/ν, cf = τw / 21 ρUf2 and compare with the exact
p
result, cf UF x/ν = 0.8875.
6.120 Exams-PlateFlatShockExpansion1
Consider a flat plate with a chord length of 1 m. The freestream air flow properties are: M=3,
p=1 bar, and T=270◦ K. Using shock expansion theory, calculate, tabulate, and plot the following
properties as functions of the angle of attack from 0 to 30◦ (Use increments of 10◦ ),
(a) Static pressure and temperature on the top surface
(b) Static pressure and temperature on the bottom surface
(c) Lift coefficient
(d) Drag coefficient
(e) Lift to drag ratios
6.121 Exams-PlateFlatShockExpansion2
A flat plate is inclined at an angle of attack α in a free stream (γ =5/3) of Mach number M∞ > 1.
Using shock expansion theory, develop the following relation for the lift and drag coefficients,
CD * * cos(α) *
CL * *
) = ) ) = )
2
) f (M∞ , α)
tan(α) M∞
where the function f (M∞ , α) is given by

[put eq]
and
s = M∞ sin(α), c = M∞ cos(α)
6.122 Exams-PlateFlatSteadyState
Consider a flat plate airfoil of 1.0 m chord in a free-stream U∞ = 15.0 m/s. Find the steady state lift
and moment coefficients, Clss and Cm( c )ss , for an angle of attack α = 1◦ using
2
(a) Steady thin airfoil theory
(b) Unsteady thin airfoil theory (by reducing the results of this theory to steady state)
6.123 Exams-PlateInclinedLiquid
For the shown inclined plate with liquid flow of constant depth, derive the velocity distribution by
the direct application of the Navier-Stokes Equation. Also, find the volume flow rate and the wall
shear stress. Note: Start with the full equations and reduce with appropriate justifications. State
all assumptions.
6.124 Exams-PlateOscillating
Consider the stationary flow near an oscillating flat plate, where the plate is oscillating parallel to
itself.
(a) Write down the appropriate equations of motion.
(b) Simplify the equations in (a) justifying all steps.
(c) Solve the resulting equations and show that p the fluid velocity above the plate can be expressed
as, u (y, t) = U0 e−ky cos (ωt − ky) where k = ω/ (2ν)
xyu (0, t) = U0 cos (ωt) xyu (0, t) = U0 cos (ωt)
6.125 Exams-PlatePlunging
Consider simple harmonic plunging motion of a flat plate airfoil, i.e. z0 = z̄0 exp (iωt). Let z̄0 = 0.1
and consider k = 0.1.
(a) Compute and tabulate the exact Cl and z/b versus T =U t/ (2b).
(b) Compute and tabulate on the same table the same quantities using the quasi-steady approxi-
mation.
(c) Comment on your results.

6.126. EXAMS-PROBLEMSUNSTEADYAERO 127
6.126 Exams-ProblemsUnsteadyAero
Briefly discuss the classification of unsteady two-dimensional aerodynamic problems.
6.127 Exams-RankineHalf
A Rankine half-body is formed by superimposing a uniform flow on a two-dimensional source. For
the shown stream velocity and body dimensions,
(a) Show that the source strength K is given by, K = 2πaU∞ .

r π−θ
(b) Show that the equation of the dividing streamline is, a = sin(θ) .
(c) Compute the source strength K, the distances a, h, and the total velocity at point A.
6.128 Exams-RankineHalfShield
Suppose we wish to design an aircraft windshield (two-dimensional) and are willing to accept the
shape of a line source in a uniform stream. The general shape must be as shown in the figure. The
free stream velocity will be 91 m/s. To be able to assess the forces and stresses we will need to
know;
(a) The equation of the windshield
(b) The point of maximum velocity (minimum pressure)
(c) The value of maximum velocity and minimum pressure
6.129 Exams-Room
(a) Write the stream function equation for a two-dimensional compressible flow in conservative
form.
(b) Discretise the incompressible form of the equation. State the order of the truncation error and
the stability condition of your scheme.
(c) Use a point relaxation method to solve for the flow pattern in the sketched unit length square
room. A uniform air stream enters the room from a window on the left wall with side 0.25. the
air exits the room from a door on the lower side with openning 0.25. use a 5 by 5 grid. State the
boundary conditions clearly and perform only 4 iterations.Use zero vorticity everywhere.
(d) Sketch the resulting streamlines and the convergence history.

6.130 Exams-Singularity1
Use a single-element lumped-vortex model to represent each of the shown plates.
(a) Calculate the lift and moment coefficient (about the origin, x=0) of the two flat plates.
(b) Repeat your calculation with gap values of c and 2c. Investigate the effect of the distance between
the two-plates on their lift.
6.131 Exams-Singularity2
σ
A three-dimensional point source, ψ = − 4π cos θ, and a constant strength sink distribution are
1 2
located in a free-stream, ψ = − 2 U∞ R , as shown. For this axi-symmetric problem,
(a) Write out an expression for the flow-field stream function, ψ (x, R)
(b) Find the stagnation points (x-location)
(c) Find the value of ψ representing the surface and derive an equation for the surface
∂ψ
Note: The x-component of velocity is given by, Vx = − R1 ∂R Also: U∞ = 30m/s, σ = 6m3 /s, a = 0.3m
6.132. EXAMS-SINGULARITYCONCEPTS 129
6.132 Exams-SingularityConcepts
(a) The use of a body-fixed frame of reference will result in a steady flow if the body’s
i. acceleration is constant and the body has a fixed geometry (with time)
ii. velocity is constant and the body has a fixed geometry (with time)
iii. velocity is constant and the body has a variable geometry (with time)
iv. pressure is constant and the body has a fixed geometry (with time)
(b) The integral form of the fluid dynamic equations can be obtained
i. by applying conservation laws to a finite control volume
ii. from the differential form of the fluid dynamic equations
(c) The continuity equation for an incompressible fluid
i. has time derivatives
ii. does not have time derivatives
iii. is non-linear in the velocity components
iv. both (i) and (iii)
(d) For an incompressible flow
i. ρ = const
ii. ρ = ρ (x, y, z)
iii. ρ = ρ (t)
iv. ρ = ρ (x, y, z, t)
(e) For an incompressible fluid
i. ρ = const
ii. ρ = ρ (x, y, z)
iii. ρ = ρ (t)
iv. ρ = ρ (x, y, z, t)
(f) For an irrotational vortex
i. the radial velocity approaches zero at the center
ii. the tangential velocity approaches zero at the center
iii. the radial velocity approaches infinity at the center
iv. the tangential velocity approaches infinity at the center
(g) For a rotational vortex
i. the radial velocity approaches zero at the center
ii. the tangential velocity approaches zero at the center
iii. the radial velocity approaches infinity at the center
iv. the tangential velocity approaches infinity at the center
(h) When a source of strength m is brought onto a sink of the same strength
i. a doublet is obtained
ii. a vortex is obtained
iii. they absorb each other
(i) Laplace equation governs
i. unsteady, inviscid, irrotational, and incompressible flow
ii. steady, inviscid, irrotational, and incompressible flow
iii. both (i) and (ii)
(j) For a two-dimensional distribution of sources along the x-axis and in the x-y plane
i. the x-component of velocity is discontinuous across the x-axis
ii. the y-component of velocity is continuous at y=0
iii. both (i) and (ii)
(k) A constant doublet distribution is equivalent to
i. two point vortices with opposite sign at the panel edges such that Γ = −µ
ii. two point vortices with the same sign at the panel edges such that Γ = −µ
iii. two point sources at the panel edges
(l) A constant strength 3-D doublet panel is equivalent to
i. a constant strength vortex ring placed at the panel edges
ii. a constant strength doublet ring placed at the panel edges
iii. a constant strength source ring placed at the panel edges
(m) The potential of a quadratic doublet distribution is equivalent to
i. the potential of a linearly varying strength vortex distribution plus two concentrated vortices
at the panel edges
ii. the potential of a linearly varying strength doublet distribution plus two concentrated vor-
tices at the panel edges
(n) The potential of the horse-shoe vortex may be obtained by
i. reducing the results of a constant strength doublet panel
ii. integrating the potential of a point doublet element
(o) Superposition of a three-dimensional doublet and a free-stream yields
i. flow about a circle
ii. flow about a Rankine body
iii. flow about an ellipse
iv. flow about a sphere
6.133 Exams-Sphere
The shown expanding sphere, whose surface is described by F (r, t) = r − R (t) = 0 is placed in an
incompressible fluid of pressure p∞ and density ρ∞ .
(a) Write out the governing equation and all boundary conditions for this flow.
(b) Solve the problem and find the velocity potential function φ (r, t).
(c) Find the pressure distribution p (r, t).
6.134. EXAMS-SPHEREANDBL 131
6.134 Exams-SphereAndBL
(a) Define using both words and mathematical expressions the following terms, (i) boundary layer
thickness δ, (ii) displacement thickness δ*, and (iii) momentum thickness θ.
(b) A water tower is approximated by a 15 m diameter sphere mounted on a 1 m diameter rod 20

m long. Estimate the bending moment at the root of the rod due to aerodynamic forces during
hurricane winds of 40 m/s.
6.135 Exams-SphereSolid
Consider the shown pressurized hollow sphere with no body forces and uniform temperature. The
inner surface r = a is subjected to a pressure Pa whereas the outer surface r = b is subjected to a
pressure Pb .
(a) Write out (either lookup or derive) the governing equations of linear elasticity (Strain-Displacement
Relations, Stress-Strain Relations, Equilibrium Equations, and Boundary Equations) for this
problem.
(b) Simplify the equations in spherical coordinates obtained in (a) utilizing spherical symmetry.
(c) Solve the equations obtained in (b) for the displacement, strain, and stress fields in the sphere.
Hint: Directly substitute the Strain-Displacement Relations into the Stress-Strain Relations, then,
substitute the resulting expressions for the stress into the Equilibrium Equations, and solve.
6.136 Exams-TankAndPanel
(a) If 3 kg of CO2 is confined in a rigid tank at 160o C and 135 kPa, estimate how much heat must
be removed to lower the gas pressure to 85 kPa. Assume a perfect gas.
(b) Calculate the force and center of pressure on one side of the shown vertical triangular panel
ABC. Neglect patm .
6.137 Exams-TankStreamAndVelPotentialFunction
(a) A tank volume V contains gas at conditions (ρo , po , To ). At time t=0 it is punctured by a small
hole of area A. The mass flow out of this hole is approximately proportional to A and to the tank
pressure. If the tank temperature is assumed constant and the gas is ideal, find an expression
for the variation of density within the tank.
(b) Under what conditions do both the stream function ψand the velocity potential ϕ exist for a flow
field? When does one exist but not the other?
6.138 Exams-TheoryThinAirfoil
Outline the steps in developing thin airfoil theory. State the boundary conditions and assumptions.
Why is it possible to superimpose the various solutions? How is it that the pressure coefficients
were simply added together for the final solution? ( I am referring to the notes handed out by
Karamcheti )
6.139 Exams-TheoryThinAirfoilUnsteady
It is common practice in two-dimensional aerodynamics to simply superimpose the effects of camber
and constant initial angle of attack, as calculated by steady flow theory, onto the unsteady flat plate
results. Explain why this would work for our theory! What limitations would you expect?
6.140 Exams-WallVertical
Consider a 1-D shock which impacts on a solid wall as shown. The Mach number of the shock is
1.5 and standard atmospheric condition exists between the shock and the wall. Calculate:
(a) The velocity of the air behind the shock as it approaches the wall.
(b) The pressure and temperature of the air behind the shock as it approaches the wall.
(c) The velocity of the shock wave that is reflected from the wall.
(d) The pressure and temperature in the region between the reflected shock and the wall.
Note: The Mach number of a moving Normal Shock is defined as,
Speed of NS in Stationary Frame Behind Stationary NS

Speed of Sound in Stationary Frame Behind Stationary NS
6.141. EXAMS-WINDENERGY 133
6.141 Exams-WindEnergy
(a) Consider a certain site for which the annual average wind speed (v̄) at the standard height of
10 m is 8 m/s and the wind speed frequency distribution (WSFD) is described by the Rayleigh
distribution.
i. What is the most-frequent wind speed at this site?
ii. What is the maximum-energy wind speed at this site?
iii. What is the significance of the maximum-energy wind speed?
iv. What is the available wind power density (WPD) of the site in W/m2 ?
(b) If the NEWECS-45 wind machine is to be erected on the site of part (a) above,
i. Estimate the yearly energy production (in MWhr/yr) of the system based on the power curve
supplied by the manufacturer as well as the technical specifications of the unit.
ii. Verify your estimation of the energy production using information claimed by the manufac-
turer.
iii. What will be the load factor of the unit?
(c) If it is planned to utilize the wind energy available at the site of part (a) above to obtain 100,000
MWhr/yr. Based on information supplied by the manufacturer of the NEWECS-25 (22 m tower
option) and the NEWECS-45 wind machines,
i. Determine the number of units needed in each case.
ii. Determine the one you suggest, giving reasons, for the erection at the site, taking into
consideration the following trends:
• the capital cost of the system is proportional to its allup weight.
• the land area of the wind farm is proportional to both the number of units and the area
swept by the rotor.
6.142 Exams-WingAerodynamics
A model of a subsonic wing is tested in a laboratory wind-tunnel and the following data are taken:
Angle of Attack, α (◦ ) 0 5 10 15 20
Lift Force, L (N) 10 45 80 105 80
The total area of the model wing is 900 cm2 and is tested with standard air at a speed of 35 m/s.
(a) Plot the lift coefficient, CL , versus the angle of attack, α.
(b) What information can you tell about the aerodynamic characteristics of this wing?
(c) For a prototype wing of area 9 m2 , what would be the lift force for an air-speed of 200 km/hr
and an angle of attack of 5o ?
6.143 Exams-WingAeroCoefficients
(a) A model wing of constant chord length of 60 cm is placed in a low-speed wind-tunnel, spanning
the test section. The wing has a NACA 2415 airfoil section. The flow in the test section is at a
velocity of 73 m/s at standard S.L. conditions [µair = 1.789 ∗ 10−5 kg/ (ms)]. If the wing is at 12
deg angle of attack, use the airfoil aerodynamic characteristics provided in the attached sheet to
determine:
i. The coefficientsCl , Cd , and Cm(c/4) .
ii. The lift, drag, and pitching moment about the c/4 point per unit span.
(b) The same wing in the same air flow as in part (a), is pitched to an angle of attack such that the
lift per unit span is 1270 N/m.
i. What is the angle of attack?
ii. To what angle of attack must the wing be pitched to obtain maximum lift?
6.144 Exams-WingAirplaneVarious
(a) Consider a Rectangular Wing (W1), a Swept Back Wing (W2), and a Delta Wing (W3), all with the
same area. Which wing has the highest / lowest:
i. Maximum lift coefficient, CL max ?
ii. Stall angle of attack, αstall ?
iii. Lift curve slope, a?
iv. Induced drag, Di ?
v. Skin friction drag, Df ?
vi. Lift-to-drag ratio at low speeds, (L/D)LowSpeed ?
vii. Lift-to-drag ratio at high speeds, (L/D)HighSpeed ?
(b) Consider a delta wing with an aspect ratio of 1.46 at an angle of attack of 20o . Calculate the
low-speed lift coefficient.
(c) An airplane weighs 180 kN and has a wing area of 160 m2 and a mean chord of 4 m. The airfoil
properties are as shown and the airplane cruises at 250 mi/h at 3000 m standard altitude.
i. What propulsive power is required to overcome wing drag?
ii. If the airplane is designed to land at v0 = 1.2 vstall using a split flap set at 60◦ , what is the
proper landing speed? What power is required for takeoff at the same speed?
iii. If the airplane takes off at sea level without benefits of flaps, with CL constant so that the
takeoff speed is 100 mi/h, estimate the takeoff distance if the thrust is 10 kN. How much
thrust is needed to make the takeoff distance 1250 m?
6.145 Exams-WingDelta
Consider the shown delta wing.
(a) The wing has a symmetric single-wedge airfoil section with thickness ratio of 6%. Using infor-
mation provided in the attached graphs, determine the pressure coefficient at point P (5 m, 1.52
m) for two cases of the free-stream Mach number M∞ = 2.0 and M∞ = 4.5, both at zero angle of
attack.
(b) The airfoil section (of the same) wing, is changed to a symmetric-double-wedge shape with the
maximum thickness ratio of 6% at 30% of the chord from the leading edge. Using the infor-
mation provided in the attached graphs, determine the wave drag coefficient of the wing due to
thickness, for the same two cases M∞ = 2.0 and M∞ = 4.5.
6.146. EXAMS-WINGDELTAMODIFIED 135
6.146 Exams-WingDeltaModified
(a) Calculate the low-speed lift coefficient for a delta wing with an aspect ratio of 1.46 at an angle of
attack of 20 deg.
(b) The shown delta wing has a symmetric single-wedge airfoil section with thickness ratio of 6%.
Using information provided in the charts, determine the pressure coefficient at point P (5 m,
1.52 m) for two cases of the free-stream Mach number, M∞ = 2.0 and M∞ = 4.5, both at α = 0◦ .
(c) The airfoil section (of the same delta wing) is changed to a symmetric-double-wedge shape with
the maximum thickness ratio of 6% at 30% of the chord from the leading edge. Using the
information provided in the attached graphs, determine the wave drag coefficient of the wing
due to thickness, for the same two cases M∞ = 2.0 and M∞ = 4.5.
6.147 Exams-WingDeltaModifiedAnalytical
Consider the shown symmetric single-wedge section delta wing with a maximum thickness ratio
of T . The contribution to the potential at any point P (x, y, z) due to an infinitesimal supersonic
source located at point P 0 (x1 , y1 , 0) in the plane is,
U∞ T dx1 dy1
dφ (x, y, z) = − r
2π 2
h
2
i
(x − x1 ) − λ2 (y − y1 ) + z 2
(a) Starting from the above equation, illustrate how the pressure coefficient on the surface of the
delta wing with a subsonic leading edge is obtained. The result is the pressure coefficient
expression,
 " r # 
λy 2 y
( )
1−
 
√2T −1  s = x tan ΛLE 
 x

cosh n , Sub LE (s < n)

 

2 1−s 2
πλ n −1 1
CP = h q i , where n=p λ tan ΛLE
λ = M∞ 2 −1 
Re π − sin−1 n −s2 ,
2 2
  
√2T Sup LE (s > n) 

 
πλ 1−n2 2 1−s
(b) Consider a symmetric single wedge section delta wing with a span of 6 m and a root chord of
7.9 m. The thickness ratio is T = 0.06 in the plane of symmetry. Use the expression above to
determine the pressure coefficient at point P (5 m, 1.52 m) on the wing surface for two cases of
the free-stream Mach number, M∞ = 2 and M∞ = 4.5, both at zero angle of attack.
(c) The airfoil section of the same wing in (b), is changed to a symmetric-double-wedge shape with
the maximum thickness T = 0.06 at 30% of the chord from the leading edge. Use the information
provided in the graphs to determine the wave drag coefficient of the wing due to thickness, for
the same two cases, M∞ = 2.0 and M∞ = 4.5.
(d) Consider a swept wing with an aspect ratio of 3, a taper ratio, λ, of 0.5, and a leading edge
sweep-back angle, ΛLE , of 45o . Calculate the lift coefficient at Mach 2 at an angle of attack of
2o .
6.148 Exams-WingDeltaReverse
(a) Air flows past the shown triangular flat plate oriented parallel to the free-stream. Integrate the
wall shear stress over the plate to determine the friction drag on one side of the plate. Assume
laminar flow.
(b) Air at standard sea-level conditions flows at 20 m/s past a thin flat plate. Estimate the distance
x from the leading edge at which the boundary layer thickness δ will be (i) 1 mm, and (ii) 10 cm.
6.149 Exams-WingElliptical
A wing with an elliptical planform is flying through sea level at a speed of 45 m/s. The wing loading
W/S = 1000 N/m2 . The wing is untwisted and has the same section from root to tip. The lift curve
slope of the section is 5.7. The span of the wing is 10 m, and the aspect ratio is 5. Find:
(a) The sectional lift coefficient.

6.150. EXAMS-WINGELLIPTICALGENERALLOADING 137
(b) The induced drag coefficient.
(c) The effective angle of attack.
(d) The induced angle of attack.
(e) The geometric angle of attack.
6.150 Exams-WingEllipticalGeneralLoading
(a) A monoplane weighing 73600 N has elliptic wings 15.23 m in span. For a speed of 90 m/s in
straight and level flight at low altitude, find
i. the vortex induced drag, Di

ii. the circulation round sections halfway along the wings, Γb/4
(b) The span-wise circulation distribution on an untwisted rectangular wing of aspect ratio 5 can
be written in the form,
Γ (θ) = 2bU∞ α [0.234 sin (θ) + 0.0268 sin (3θ) + 0.0072 sin (5θ) + 0.001 sin (7θ)]
Calculate the lift and induced drag coefficients when the incidence αg measured to no lift is 10◦ .
6.151 Exams-WingEllipticalLoading
Consider an airplane that weighs 14700 N and cruises in level flight at 300 Km/hr at an altitude
of 3000 m. The wing has a surface area of 17 m2 and an aspect ratio of 6.2. Assume that the lift
coefficient is a linear function of the angle of attack and that α0L = −1.2◦ . If the load distribution is
elliptic, calculate the value of the circulation in the plane of symmetry (Γ0 ), the downwash velocity
(wy1 ), the induced drag coefficient (CDv ), the geometric angle of attack (α), and the effective angle of
attack (αe ).
6.152 Exams-WingEllipticalOther
It is required to design an untwisted elliptical wing to fly at 200 km/hr in sea-level air with the
following specifications:
Lift = 45000 N Wing Span ≤ 12 m

Planform Area = 30 m2 The absolute angle of attack cannot exceed 12◦ to avoid stall
(a) For the wing of minimum induced drag, specify its aspect ratio, wing span, maximum chord, the
design αg , and the power required to compensate induced drag.
(b) If the wing span is limited to within 10 m, can a wing be designed to meet all other specifications?
Explain.
6.153 Exams-WingGeneralLoading1
P∞
(a) (2 Marks) If the distribution of circulation across the span of a wing is given by, Γ = 2bU∞ n=1 Bn sin (nθ).
State without proof the equation satisfied by the coefficients Bn .
(b) (8 Marks) If the wing is rectangular of aspect ratio 5, is untwisted, and the lift curve slope of the
airfoil section in two-dimensional flow is 6, determine approximately the circulation distribution
by retaining only two coefficients and satisfying the equation at stations θ = π4 , π2 .
(a) Show that for a symmetrically loaded wing, Bn in the general circulation distribution vanishes
for even values of n.
(b) An untwisted rectangular wing of aspect ratio 6 is flying at an angle of attack α. Assume that
the airfoil is uncambered so that the geometric angle of attack αg is equal to α everywhere along
the span. For symmetric loading, determine:
i. The circulation distribution by retaining eight coefficients (B1 , B2 , . . . , B8 ) of the general cir-
π
culation distribution at the stations θn = n m+1 , n = 1 → m, m = 8.
ii. The lift coefficient of the wing.
iii. The induced drag coefficient of the wing.
6.155 Exams-WingGeneralLoading2Part
An untwisted rectangular wing of aspect ratio 6 is flying at an angle of attack, α. Assume that the
airfoil is uncambered so that the geometric angle of attack αg is equal to α everywhere along the
span. For symmetric loading (Bn = 0, n even), determine:
(a) The circulation distribution by retaining eight coefficients (B1 , B2 , . . . , B8 ) of the general circula-
π
tion distribution at the stations: θn = n m+1 , n = 1 → m, m = 8.
(b) The lift coefficient of the wing.
(c) The induced drag coefficient of the wing.
An untwisted rectangular wing of aspect ratio 5 and at an angle of attack α is flying at low speed.
Assume that the airfoil is uncambered so that the geometric angle of attack αg is equal to α every-
where along the span. The lift curve-slope of the airfoil section in two-dimensional flow is 6. For
symmetric loading, determine:
(a) The circulation distribution by retaining two coefficients (B1 , B3 ) of the general circulation dis-
tribution at the stations θ = π4 , π2 .
(b) The lift coefficient of the wing.
(c) The induced drag coefficient of the wing.
(a) An untwisted rectangular wing of aspect ratio 6 is flying at an angle of attack, α. Assume that
the airfoil is uncambered so that the geometric angle of attack αg is equal to α everywhere along
the span. For symmetric loading (Bn = 0, n even), determine:
i. The circulation distribution by retaining eight coefficients (B1 , B2 , . . . , B8 ) of the general cir-
π
culation distribution at the stations: θn = n m+1 , n = 1 → m, m = 8.
ii. The lift coefficient of the wing.
iii. The induced drag coefficient of the wing.
(b) A wing having a NACA 0006 airfoil section at all spanwise stations, is flying at M∞ = 0.75. The
wing has the following characteristics:
• Aspect ratio : AR = 4
• Taper ratio : λ = 0.4
• Quarter-chord swept-back angle : Λc/4 = 30◦
• Span : b = 10 m
What are the relations concerning the geometric and aerodynamic characteristics of the wing
and the equivalent incompressible-flow wing?
6.158. EXAMS-WINGGENERALLOADINGOTHER 139
6.158 Exams-WingGeneralLoadingOther
A light general aviation airplane has a rectangular planar wing having an area of 32 m2 and an
aspect ratio of 8. The maximum gross weight of the airplane is 25000 N. The wing uses an airfoil,
which has a lift-slope of 5.92 and α0l = −3◦ . If the airplane is cruising at 350 km/hr at standard
sea-level at its maximum gross weight and is in straight and level flight, calculate
(b) the induced drag coefficient, CDi
(c) the geometric angle of attack of the wing, αg
Hint: Solve for the two coefficients B1 and B3 of the loading distribution
6.159 Exams-WingGeometry
An airplane wing, of 10 m span, has the following geometric characteristics:
• Aspect ratio AR = 6
• Taper ratio λ = 0.55
• Trailing-edge swept-back angle ΛTE = 0◦
(a) Determine the main dimensions and angles of the wing planform including: cr , ct , ΛLE , and Λc/4 .
(b) Draw a neat sketch of the wing planform indicating its dimensions and angles.
(c) Determine the length and spanwise position of the average chord.
6.160 Exams-WingGeometryCompressible
A wing having a NACA 0006 airfoil section at all spanwise stations, is flying at M∞ = 0.75. The wing
has the following characteristics:
• Aspect ratio : AR = 4
• Taper ratio : λ = 0.4
• Quarter-chord swept-back angle : Λc/4 = 30◦
• Span : b = 10 m
(a) Draw a neat sketch of the wing planform and sections, indicating the main dimensions and
angles.
(b) What are the relations concerning the geometric and aerodynamic characteristics of the wing
and the equivalent incompressible-flow wing?
(c) Repeat part (a) for the equivalent incompressible-flow wing.
6.161 Exams-WingParabolicLoading
Consider the case where the spanwise circulation distribution for a wing is parabolic,
y2
Γ(y) = Γ0 (1 − )
s2
If the total lift generated by the wing with the parabolic circulation distribution is to be equal to the
total lift generated by a wing with an elliptic circulation distribution, what is the relation between the
Γ0 values for the two distributions? What is the relation between the induced downwash velocities
at the plane of symmetry for the two configurations?
6.162 Exams-WingRect
Consider a flat plate rectangular wing of span 20 and chord 2 at an angle of attack of 5.73 degrees
(0.1 radian). If this wing is modeled by a single vortex lattice as shown below and the free stream
velocity is 30 m/s, what is the strength of the vortex fliament? What is the wing lift coefficient
predicted by this very simple panel method for this case?
6.163 Exams-WingRectAnalytical
Bonney has shown that the lift inside the Mach cone at the tip of a rectangular wing is equal to
one-half the lift of a 2-D flow region of equal area. Using this fact, derive the lift coefficient, CL ,
expression for a flat plate rectangular wing. Assume that λAR > 2 so that the Mach cones emanating
from the tip do not overlap. If AR = 4, M∞ = 2, and α = 10◦ , evaluate CL and CD for this wing.
6.164 Exams-WingRectBL
The wing span of the Wright Flyer I biplane is 12 m, and the plan-form area of the wing is 23 m2 .
Assume the wing shape
h is rectangular. If the Flyer is flying with aivelocity of 48 km/hr at standard
3
sea-level conditions ρ∞ = 1.225 kg/m , µ∞ = 1.7894 ∗ 10−5 kg/ (ms) , calculate:
(a) The total skin-friction drag of the wings (assume the transition Reynolds number is 650000).
(b) The power required to overcome this skin friction drag.
Note: Boundary Layer (BL) Results for a Flat Plate:
Parameter Symbol Laminar BL Turbulent BL

5.2x 0.37x
BL Thickness δ √
Rex Re0.2
x
Skin Friction Coefficient Cf x = qτ∞ 0.664
√
Rex
0.0592
Re0.2
x
Df 1.328 0.074
Total Skin Friction Coefficient Cf = q∞ A
√
ReL Re0.2
L
6.165 Exams-WingRectBLChanged
The wing span of the Wright-Flyer-I Biplane is 12 m and the planform area of the wing is 24 m2 .
Assume the wing shape
h is rectangular. If the flyer is flying at ai velocity of 48 km/hr at standard
3
sea-level conditions ρ∞ = 1.225 kg/m , µ∞ = 1.789 ∗ 10−5 kg/ (ms) , calculate
(a) The total skin-friction drag of the wings (the transition Reynolds number is Rextr = 650000)
(b) The power required to overcome this skin-friction drag
Note: Total Skin Friction Force Coefficient (One Side of Flat Plate of Length L),
Laminar Boundary Layer Turbulent Boundary Layer

1.328
CF = Re 0.5 CF = 0.0744
Re0.2
L L
6.166. EXAMS-WINGRECTBLOTHER 141
6.166 Exams-WingRectBLOther
The Piper Cherokee general aviation aircraft has a rectangular wing with a span of 9.75 m and a
chord of 1.6 m. The aircraft is flying at cruising speed of 227 km/hr at sea level. Assume that the
friction drag on the wing can be approximated by the drag on a flat plate of the same dimensions.
Calculate:
(a) The boundary layer thickness at the trailing edge of the wing for completely laminar flow
(b) The boundary layer thickness at the trailing edge of the wing for completely turbulent flow
(c) The skin friction drag on the wing if the flow were completely laminar (not the case in real life)
(d) The skin friction drag on the wing if the flow were completely turbulent (more realistic)
(e) The skin friction drag on the wing accounting for transition
6.167 Exams-WingRectDelta
(a) The Piper Cherokee (a light, single-engine general aviation airplane) has a rectangular wing
having an area of 15.8 m2 and a span of 9.75 m. The maximum gross weight of the airplane
is 10900 N. The wing uses a NACA-65415 airfoil, which has a lift slope of 0.1033
degree−1 and
3
α0l = −3 degree. The airplane is cruising at 193 km/hr at standard sea-level ρ∞ = 1.225 kg/m
at its maximum gross weight and is in straight and level flight. Solving for two coefficients of the
loading distribution (i.e. 4- term series), calculate
i. the geometric angle of attack, αg

ii. the induced drag of the wing, CDi
(b) Consider a delta wing with an aspect ratio of 1.46 at an angle of attack of 20o . Calculate the
low-speed lift coefficient.
6.168 Exams-WingRectDeltaArrow
Consider the shown wing planforms.
(a) Mention two significant conclusions that can be drawn from studies of delta and arrow planforms
(b) Mention two advantages of the arrow wing over rectangular and delta wings
(c) For a freestream Mach number of 1.5 and for each of the shown planforms, find:
i. The lift-curve slope

ii. The maximum lift/drag ratio
6.169 Exams-WingRectDeltaPart
The Piper Cherokee (a light, single-engine general aviation airplane) has a rectangular wing having
an area of 15.8 m2 and a span of 9.75 m. The maximum gross weight of the airplane is 10900 N. The
wing uses a NACA-65415 airfoil, which has a lift slope of0.1033 degree−1 and α0l = −3 degree. The
3
airplane is cruising at 193 km/hr at standard sea-level ρ∞ = 1.225 kg/m at its maximum gross
weight and is in straight and level flight. Solving for two coefficients of the loading distribution (i.e.
4- term series), calculate
(a) the geometric angle of attack, αg
(b) the induced drag of the wing, CDi
6.170 Exams-WingRectDiamond1
Consider a wing with a rectangular planform, whose aspect ratio is 4 and whose section is shown
in the sketch. Determine CL and CD for this wing for the flow conditions shown.
6.171 Exams-WingRectDiamond2
The shown symmetrical double-wedge shaped airfoil with an included angle of 20 deg and a chord
of 1 m, is inclined at an angle of attack of 5 deg to an air stream having a Mach number of 3 and a
static pressure of 1.0133 bar.
angle of each wave.
(b) Apply the shock-expansion technique and find the static pressure on each of the four surfaces
(2), (3), (4), and (5) of the shown airfoil.
(c) Use the results obtained in (b) to calculate the lift and drag forces per meter span.
6.172 Exams-WingRectDiamond2Easier
A symmetrical double-wedge shaped airfoil with an included angle of 20 deg and a chord of 1 m,
is inclined at an angle of attack of 5 deg to an air stream having a Mach number of 3 and a static
pressure of 1.0133 bar.
angle of each wave.
(b) Knowing that the application of the shock-expansion technique gives the following values for
the static pressure on the four surfaces of the airfoil (in ascending order): 0.273 bar, 0.693 bar,
1.475 bar, and 2.858 bar, estimate which one of these pressures corresponds to which one of the
four surfaces. Give reasons for your answer. Note: You are not required to do the calculations.
6.173. EXAMS-WINGRECTINTEGOFCP 143
(c) Use the correct pressure distribution on the airfoil surface to calculate the lift and drag forces
per meter span.
6.173 Exams-WingRectIntegOfCp
A large aspect ratio wing of rectangular plan-form has a constant thin-airfoil section from tip to
tip. Pressure measurements were taken on several chord-wise locations on the upper and lower
surfaces of the center-plane at an angle of attack of 16 deg. Use information presented in the table
to answer the following questions:
(a) Plot the CP distribution on the upper and lower surfaces on the same graph.
(b) Determine the position and value of the maximum velocity on the section.
(c) Integrate numerically the pressure distributions to obtain the lift coefficient of the airfoil section;
R1
based on the relation: Cn = 0 (CP,Lower − CP,U pper ) d (x/c).
Upper 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Surface
x/c 0.00 0.01 0.05 0.10 0.30 0.50 0.70 0.85 1.00
CP -3.65 -5.21 -3.19 -2.44 -1.44 -0.79 -0.32 -0.08 0.01
Lower 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Surface
x/c 0.00 0.01 0.03 0.10 0.30 0.50 0.75 0.95 1.00
CP -3.65 0.26 0.99 0.82 0.55 0.43 0.32 0.18 0.01
6.174 Exams-WingRectIntegOfCpxCP
(a) A large aspect-ratio wing of rectangular planform has a constant thin-airfoil section from tip to
tip. Pressure measurements were taken on several chordwise locations on the upper and lower
surfaces of the center-plane at an angle-of-attack of 16◦ . Use information presented in the table
to answer the following questions:
i. Determine the position and value of the maximum velocity on the section.
ii. Integrate numerically the pressure distributions to obtain the lift coefficient of the airfoil
section.
Point Upper Surface Lower Surface
x/c CP −upper x/c CP −lower
1 0.00 -3.65 0.00 -3.65
2 0.01 -5.21 0.01 0.26
3 0.05 -3.19 0.03 0.99
4 0.10 -2.44 0.10 0.82
5 0.30 -1.44 0.30 0.55
6 0.50 -0.79 0.50 0.43
7 0.70 -0.32 0.75 0.32
8 0.85 -0.08 0.95 0.18
9 1.00 0.01 1.00 0.01
(b) Consider a NACA 2412 airfoil. The following is a tabulation of the lift, drag, and moment coeffi-
cients about the quarter chord for this airfoil, as a function of angle of attack. From this table,
plot on graph paper the variation of xCP as a function of α.
α (degrees) Cl Cd Cm,c/4
-2 0.05 0.0060 -0.042
0 0.25 0.0060 -0.040
2 0.44 0.0060 -0.038
4 0.64 0.0070 -0.036
6 0.85 0.0075 -0.036
8 1.08 0.0092 -0.036
10 1.26 0.0115 -0.034
12 1.43 0.0150 -0.030
14 1.56 0.0186 -0.025
6.175 Exams-WingRectModified
(a) In the Vortex Lattice Method (VLM), what type of panels are used? What type of boundary
conditions are imposed? What is the best application of the method?
(b) Consider a flat plate rectangular wing of span 6 m and chord 0.6 m at an angle of attack of
6 degrees and U∞ = 30 m/s. If this wing is modeled by a single vortex lattice as shown below,
i. What is the strength of the vortex filament?

ii. What is the wing lift coefficient, CL , predicted by this very simple panel method?
6.176 Exams-WingRectPlateFlat
Bonney has shown that the lift inside the Mach cone at the tip of a rectangular wing is equal to
one-half the lift of a 2-D flow region of equal area. Using this fact, derive the lift coefficient, CL ,
expression for a flat plate rectangular wing. Assume that βAR > 2 so that the Mach cones emanating
from the tip do not overlap. If AR = 4, M∞ = 2, and α = 10◦ , evaluate CL and CD for this wing.
6.177 Exams-WingRectPlungingPitching
(a) A rectangular wing has an aspect ratio of 2.
i. For a reduced frequency of 0.75, obtain |Clz |.

ii. For a reduced frequency of 0.50, obtain |Clα |.
(b) A rectangular wing has an aspect ratio of 5. Reduced frequency is 0.33. Obtain the circulation
at the wing root,
i. for a plunging oscillation

ii. for a pitching oscillation
6.178. EXAMS-WINGRECTPLUNGINGPITCHINGDIFFERENTGIVEN 145
6.178 Exams-WingRectPlungingPitchingDifferentGiven
(a) A rectangular wing has an aspect ratio of 4.

(b) A rectangular wing has an aspect ratio of 5. Reduced frequency is 0.33. Obtain the circulation
at the wing root,

6.179 Exams-WingRectTap
(a) Consider a wing with a rectangular planform, whose aspect ratio is 3.0 and whose section is
that shown in the figure. Determine CL , CD , and CM 0 for this wing for the given flow conditions.
(b) Determine the lower and upper limits for the free-stream Mach number M∞ to have supersonic
leading edges and subsonic trailing edges for the shown wing.
6.180 Exams-WingRectTapDeltaArrow
Consider the shown wing planforms in air where M∞ = 2 and all dimensions are in meters.
(a) Name two basic methods that can be used to analyze the above wing planforms.
(b) For each of the above planforms, indicate the regions (by shading) that could be analyzed using
conical flow theory and indicate the type of each edge (i.e. supersonic or subsonic).
(c) For wing I, determine CL , CD , Cmo , and xcp for the shown section and flow condition.
(d) For wing II, determine the lower limit for M∞ so that the wing has a supersonic LE.
(e) For wing IV, determine the upper limit for M∞ so that the wing has a subsonic TE.
6.181 Exams-WingRectTapDeltaArrowOther
Consider the shown wing planforms in air where M∞ = 2 and all dimensions are in meters.
(a) Name two basic methods that can be used to analyze the above wing planforms.
(b) Indicate the regions (by shading) that could be analyzed using conical flow theory for each of the
above planforms.
(c) Indicate the type of each edge (i.e. supersonic or subsonic) for each of the above planforms.
(d) For wing I, and for the shown section and flow condition, determine CL and CD .
(e) For wing II, and for AR = 3, λ = 0.5, ΛLE = 45◦ , M∞ = 2, and α = 2◦ , determine CL and CD .
(f) For wing III, and for M∞ = 2, and α = 2◦ , determine CL and CD .
6.182 Exams-WingSubsonic
A model of a subsonic wing is tested in a laboratory wind-tunnel and the following data are taken:
Angle of Attack, α (◦ ) 0 5 10 15 20
Lift Force, L (N) 10 45 80 105 80
The total area of the model wing is 900 cm2 and is tested with standard air at a speed of 35 m/s.
(a) Plot the lift coefficient, CL , versus the angle of attack, α.
(b) What information can you tell about the aerodynamic characteristics of this wing?
(c) For a prototype wing of area 9 m2 , what would be the lift force for an air-speed of 200 km/hr
and an angle of attack of 5o ?
6.183. EXAMS-WINGTAP 147
6.183 Exams-WingTap
Consider a finite wing with an aspect ratio of 7; the airfoil section of the wing is a symmetric airfoil
with an infinite wing lift slope of 0.11 per degree. The lift-to-drag ratio for this wing is 29 when
the lift coefficient is equal to 0.35. If the angle of attack remains the same, and the aspect ratio is
simply increased to 10 by adding extensions to the span of the wing, what is the new value of the
lift-to-drag ratio? Assume the span efficiency factors e = e1 = 0.9for both cases. Note: For a finite
wing,
2
a0 CL
Lift slope a= 57.3 a0 [/ deg] Total Drag Coefficient CD = Cd + πeAR
1+ πe AR
1
6.184 Exams-WingTapDrag
A flying wing has a plan-form area of 4100 ft2 , a root chord at the airplane centerline of 36 ft, an
overall taper ratio of 0.25, a span of 180 ft, and a span efficiency factor of 0.9. The average weighted
airfoil thickness ratio is 10 % and the wing has 38◦ of sweepback at the 25% chordline. The airplane
is cruising at a pressure altitude of 20,000 ft on a standard day with a wing loading of 100 lb/ft2 .
The cruise Mach number is 0.30. Determine the following:
(b) the parasite-drag coefficient, CD0
(c) the induced-drag coefficient, CDi
(d) the total drag coefficient, CD
6.185 Exams-WingTapOther
An airplane weighs 10000
N and cruises with U∞ = 51.39 m/s in level flight at an altitude of 3 km
whereρ∞ = 0.90926 kg m3 . Wing and airfoil data are as follows,
Airfoil Data No Aerodynamic Twist

NACA-2412 airfoil section, α0l = −2◦ and a∞ ≡ Cl,α = 6
Wing Data Unswept Wing, Λc/4 = 0◦
Surface Area, A = 16.3 m2
Aspect Ratio, AR = 7.52
Taper Ratio, λ = 0.69
Linear Geometric Twist, αincidence (y) = c1 + c2 y/ (b/2) , {c1 , c2 ≡ constants
with a Root Section Incidence of 1.5◦ , and a Tip Section Incidence of
−1.5◦ .
(a) Determine the main dimensions and angles of the wing plan-form including: b, cr , ct , ΛLE , and ΛTE .
(b) Draw a neat sketch of the wing plan-form indicating its dimensions and angles.
(c) Find the lift coefficient, CL , and the induced drag coefficient, CDi , of the given wing.
NB: Use a 4-term series to represent the load distribution and apply Prandtl’s Equation at
θ = π4 , π2 .
6.186 Exams-WingWake
(a) The flow about the shown three-dimensional wing is unsteady, inviscid, irrotational, and incom-
pressible. You are to model this flow-field by using appropriate singularity elements. Write out
clearly the governing equation, boundary conditions, auxiliary conditions, etc for your model.
Organize your equations in a table.
(b) In the Vortex Box Model, state the types of singularities used and the advantages – disadvantages
of this method.
(c) A rectangular wing has an aspect ratio of 2.

(d) A rectangular wing has an aspect ratio of 5. Reduced frequency is 0.33. Obtain the circulation
at the wing root,
Hint: Use the results below when solving parts (c) and (d) above.
Chapter 7
Computational Fluid Dynamics
7.1 Exams-AER401BConcepts1
Briefly discuss the following:
(a) Advantages of the numerical approach in solving fluid flow problems
(b) Classification of linear partial differential equations
(c) Properly posed boundary/initial value problems
(d) Partial differential operators and the principle of superposition
(e) Consistency, stability and convergence of a difference representation
7.2 Exams-AER401BConcepts2
(a) How can you reduce the amount of experimental effort and its associated cost using numerical
aerodynamic design concepts? Explain.
(b) Give an example (problem statement only) of a low speed airfoil optimization problem.
7.3 Exams-AER401BIntroduction
Multiple choice type question.
(a) AERO 401B is a CFD class mainly about flows.
i. inviscid
ii. inviscid irrotational
iii. viscous
iv. viscous rotational
(b) In AERO 401B, a continuous governing PDE is transformed into a finite-difference problem.
i. discrete
ii. discontinuous
iii. nonlinear algebraic
iv. linear partial
(c) Finite-difference equations can be obtained using .
i. Leibniz rule
ii. integration by parts
iii. L’hopital’s rule
iv. Taylor series expansions
149
150 CHAPTER 7. COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS
(d) finite-difference schemes require the simultaneous solution of several equations involving
the unknowns.
i. Implicit
ii. Continuous
iii. Explicit
iv. Discontinuous
7.4 Exams-CFDConcepts1
(a) Classify the following PDE’s,
∂2u ∂2u ∂u
i. ∂x2 − ∂x∂y + ∂y =4
∂2φ ∂2φ
ii. 1 − M 2 ∂x2 + ∂y 2 =0

(b) Use a Taylor series expansion to derive a central difference approximation for ∂ 3 f ∂x3 which is
2
of order (∆x) .
(c) Consider the function f (x) = exp (x). Use a mesh increment ∆x = 0.1 and determine f 0 (0.5)
2
using forward, backward, and central differences each of order (∆x) . Compare the numerical
results with the exact value. Repeat using ∆x = 0.01 and ∆x = 0.2. Show your results in a table
then comment on the effect of mesh increment.
(a) Structured grids are used with the integral form of the equations whereas unstructured grids
are used with the differential form.
(b) Practically, there is only one method of approximating the viscous terms which form the RHS
of the Navier-Stokes equations; typically that approximation is accomplished by the use of first-
order forward difference formulation.
(c) A difference formulation based on a PDE in non-divergence form may lead to numerical diffi-
culties in situations where the coefficients may be discontinuous e.g. in flows containing shock
waves.
(d) Implicit schemes based on linearization using a Taylor series expansion result in a coefficient
matrix which is block penta-diagonal.
(e) For the quasi 1-D Euler equations, numerical boundary conditions are usually specified by
interpolation.
(f) The technique of flux-vector splitting involves splitting the inviscid convective fluxes into forward
and backward contributions according to the signs of the eigen-values of the Jacobian matrices.
Hence, correct differencing associated with signal propagation is retained.
(g) Finite difference methods ensure that conservation properties can be satisfied on both local and
global bases, and they can be readily generalized to unstructured control volumes of arbitrary
shape.
(h) Elliptic partial differential equations require boundary conditions whereas parabolic and hyper-
bolic equations require both initial and boundary conditions.
(i) In an implicit scheme, the finite difference equation contains only one unknown and therefore
can be solved explicitly for this unknown in a straightforward manner.
(j) The objective of grid generation is to determine the mapping which takes the grid points from the
physical domain to the computational domain i.e. to identify the location of grid points in the
computational domain and the location of the corresponding grid points in the physical space.
7.6. EXAMS-CFDCONCEPTS11ANDEQS 151
7.6 Exams-CFDConcepts11AndEqs
Answer the Following.
# [A] Fluid Flow Model [B] Classification Based on Characteristics

1 Unsteady Navier-Stokes Mixed: Hyperbolic for M>1, Parabolic for M=1, El-
liptic for M<1
2 Steady Navier-Stokes Hyperbolic
3 Unsteady Euler Elliptic
4 Steady Euler Mixed: Hyperbolic in Inviscid Region, Parabolic in
Viscous Region
5 Parabolized Navier-Stokes Mixed: Hyperbolic in Inviscid Region, Elliptic in Vis-
cous Region
6 placeLaplace Parabolic

1 Inviscid Navier-Stokes (Euler) Neglect viscous terms
2 Incompressible Navier-Stokes Neglect pressure gradient normal to the wall, Ne-
(c) Starting from the incompressible Navier-Stokes momentum equation with gravity included,
D~v ~ + µ∇2~v − ∇Ω
~ V
ρ = −∇P
Dt
D~v∗ 1 ~∗ ∗ 1 1 ~∗ ∗
[Sr] =− ∇ P + ∇∗2~v∗ − ∇ ΩV
Dt∗ [Ru] [Re] [Fr]
Where [Sr] , [Ru] , [Re] , and [Fr] are Strouhal’s, Ruark’s, Reynolds, and Froude’s numbers respec-
tively, and star denotes non-dimensional quantities.
(d) Linearize the finite difference representation of the convective term u∂u/∂x using Newton’s iter-
ative linearization with forward differencing. Show that for a steady 2-D flow,
∂u 1 h k 2 i
u = 2ui+1,j uk+1 k
i+1,j − ui+1,j − ui,j uk+1
i+1,j
∂x ∆x
(a) Before implementing a numerical technique, it is necessary to carry out various analyses. Briefly
explain the objective of each of the following,
i. Consistency analysis
ii. Stability analysis
iii. Modified equation analysis
(b) Perform a stability analysis for the Upwind Differencing Method applied to the first order wave
equation ut + aux = 0, a > 0, and hence derive the stability condition.
(c) Perform a modified equation analysis for the Lax Wendroff Differencing Method applied to the
first order wave equation ut + aux = 0, a > 0.
(a) Classify the following PDE’s,
∂2u 2
∂ u
i. − 2 ∂x∂y
∂x2 + ∂u
∂y = 4
2 2
ii. M 2 − 1 ∂∂xφ2 − ∂∂yφ2 = 0

(b) Use a Taylor series expansion to derive a central difference approximation for ∂ 3 f ∂x3 which is
2
of order (∆x) .
(c) Consider the function f (x) = exp (x). Use a mesh increment ∆x = 0.1 and determine f 0 (0.5)
2
using forward, backward, and central differences each of order (∆x) . Compare the numerical
results with the exact value. Repeat using ∆x = 0.01 and ∆x = 0.2. Show your results in a table
then comment on the effect of mesh increment.
(a) Before implementing a numerical technique, it is necessary to carry out various analyses. Briefly
explain the objective of each of the following,
i. Consistency analysis
ii. Stability analysis
iii. Modified equation analysis
(b) Perform a modified equation analysis for the Lax Wendroff Differencing Method applied to the
first order wave equation ut + aux = 0, a > 0.
(a) Mention three famous approaches in the study of fluid dynamics.
(b) Compare between computational fluid dynamic (CFD) results and wind tunnel results.
(c) Discuss briefly how CFD is considered as a research tool and as a design tool.
(d) Mention three applications of CFD.
(e) All of CFD is based on the fundamental physical principles of fluid dynamics. Mention the names
of these principles.
Briefly explain each of the following,
(a) Consistency analysis of a finite difference scheme
(b) Stability analysis of a numerical scheme
(c) Modified equation analysis of a finite difference algorithm
Governing Equations Choose the correct answer for each of the following. (2 Marks each)
(a) Inviscid Irrotational Incompressible flow is governed by,

i. Laplace Eq, ii. Euler Eqs, iii. Navier-Stokes Eqs, iv. Full-Potential Eq
(b) Inviscid Rotational Compressible flow is governed by,

i. Laplace Eq, ii. Euler Eqs, iii. Navier-Stokes Eqs, iv. Full-Potential Eq
7.13. EXAMS-CFDCONCEPTS8 153
(c) Fluid flow equations obtained from a finite control volume fixed in space are in,
i. Non-conservative form, ii. Conservative form
(d) Many computations of flows with shocks are designed to have the shock waves appear naturally
within the computational space as a direct result of the overall flow-field solution. This approach
is called,
i. Shock fitting, ii. Shock capturing
(e) A finite difference approach in which each difference equation contains only one unknown and
therefore can be solved for this unknown in a straightforward manner is called,
i. Explicit approach, ii. Implicit approach
(a) The technique of flux-vector splitting involves splitting the inviscid convective fluxes into forward
and backward contributions according to the signs of the eigen-values of the Jacobian matrices.
Hence, correct differencing associated with signal propagation is retained.
(b) Finite difference methods ensure that conservation properties can be satisfied on both local and
global bases, and they can be readily generalized to unstructured control volumes of arbitrary
shape.
(c) Elliptic partial differential equations require boundary conditions whereas parabolic and hyper-
bolic equations require both initial and boundary conditions.
(d) In an implicit scheme, the finite difference equation contains only one unknown and therefore
can be solved explicitly for this unknown in a straightforward manner.
(e) The objective of grid generation is to determine the mapping which takes the grid points from the
physical domain to the computational domain i.e. to identify the location of grid points in the
computational domain and the location of the corresponding grid points in the physical space.
(f) Structured grids are used with the integral form of the equations whereas unstructured grids
are used with the differential form.
(g) Practically, there is only one method of approximating the viscous terms which form the RHS
of the Navier-Stokes equations; typically that approximation is accomplished by the use of first-
order forward difference formulation.
(h) A difference formulation based on a PDE in non-divergence form may lead to numerical diffi-
culties in situations where the coefficients may be discontinuous e.g. in flows containing shock
waves.
(i) Implicit schemes based on linearization using a Taylor series expansion result in a coefficient
matrix which is block penta-diagonal.
(j) For the quasi 1-D Euler equations, numerical boundary conditions are usually specified by
interpolation.
7.14 Exams-CFDConcepts9AndEqs
Answer the Following.
# [A] Fluid Flow Model [B] Classification Based on Characteristics

1 Unsteady Navier-Stokes Mixed: Hyperbolic for M>1, Parabolic for M=1, El-
liptic for M<1
2 Steady Navier-Stokes Hyperbolic
3 Unsteady Euler Elliptic
4 Steady Euler Mixed: Hyperbolic in Inviscid Region, Parabolic in
Viscous Region
5 Parabolized Navier-Stokes Parabolic
6 placeLaplace Mixed: Hyperbolic in Inviscid Region, Elliptic in Vis-
cous Region

(c) Starting from the incompressible Navier-Stokes momentum equation with gravity included,
D~v ~ + µ∇2~v − ∇Ω
~ V
ρ = −∇P
Dt
D~v∗ 1 ~∗ ∗ 1 1 ~∗ ∗
[Sr] =− ∇ P + ∇∗2~v∗ − ∇ ΩV
Dt∗ [Ru] [Re] [Fr]
Where [Sr] , [Ru] , [Re] , and [Fr] are Strouhal’s, Ruark’s, Reynolds, and Froude’s numbers respec-
tively, and star denotes non-dimensional quantities.
(d) Linearize the finite difference representation of the convective term u∂u/∂x using Newton’s iter-
ative linearization with forward differencing. Show that for a steady 2-D flow,
∂u 1 h k 2 i
u = 2ui+1,j uk+1
i+1,j − uk
i+1,j − ui,j uk+1
i+1,j
∂x ∆x
7.15 Exams-CFDEqClassification
(a) Classify each of the following differential equations as to whether they are ordinary or partial:
d2 u
i. du ∂u ∂u du
dx + xu = 5 ii. ∂x + xy ∂y = 0 iii. dx2 + dx + u = 0
∂2u
(b) Mention the order and degree of each of the following PDE’s: i. ∂x2 + ( ∂u 2
∂x ) + u = 0 ii.
∂u
∂x + u3 = 0
iii. ∂u
∂x + xu = 0
(c) Classify each of the following PDE’s as to whether it is linear, quasi-linear, or nonlinear:
2
∂2u ∂2u ∂2u
i. ∂∂xu2 + ( ∂u 2 ∂u
∂x ) + u = 0 ii. ∂x2 + u ∂x = x iii. ∂x2 + ∂y 2 = 0
(d) Classify each of the following PDE’s as to whether it is elliptic, parabolic, or hyperbolic:
2
2
∂2u 2 ∂ φ ∂2φ
i. ∂∂xu2 − ∂x∂y + ∂u
∂y = 4 ii. (1 − M ) ∂x2 + ∂y 2 = 0
7.16. EXAMS-CFDTAYLOR 155
7.16 Exams-CFDTaylor
(a) Write out a Taylor series expression of an analytic function f(x) at the location x = x0 and
expanded about x − x0 .
(b) What is the value of the function f [in part (a) above] at the location x = x + ∆x? i.e. give an
expression for f (x + ∆x).
(c) Use a Taylor series expansion to derive the central difference approximation for which is of order
(∆x)2 . NB: u = u(x, y).
(d) Consider the function f (x) = exp(x). Use a mesh increment ∆x = 0.1 and determine f 0 (0.5)
using forward, backward, and central differences each of (∆x)2 . Compare the numerical results
with the exact value. Repeat using ∆x = 0.01 and ∆x = 0.2. Show your results in a table then
comment on the effect of mesh increment.
7.17 Exams-CFDWave
∂T
(a) For the wave equation ∂t = −a ∂T
∂x , derive the First Upwind Difference (explicit) formulation,
∆t
Tin+1 = Tin − c Tin − Ti−1
n

, c=a
∆x
[Hint: replace the partial derivatives in the wave equation by appropriate finite difference ap-
proximations then rearrange]
(b) Take c = 0.5 above, and let the grid consist of 5 points including 3 interior points and 2 boundary
points. Assume a constant unity wall temperature and a zero initial temperature on the interior,
i.e.
Values of Tin
n \ i 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 0 0 0 1
2 1 ? ? ? 1
.. .. .. ..
. . . .
.. 1 .. ? .. ? .. ? 1
. . . .
10 1 ? ? ? 1
Use the First Upwind Difference formulation to calculate the temperature for 10 integration
steps. Display your results in the form of a table as shown above.
7.18 Exams-CFDWaveFortranCode
(a) Write a Fortran code to implement the calculations in part (b) of the previous problem. Your
code should include,
(b) Definition and initialization for all variables
(c) Two nested DO-LOOPS in time and space to calculate Tin+1
(d) A mechanism to print the results
7.19 Exams-EqCFDTransformation
Finite Difference Methods of Solution
A finite differenced Laplace equation using the transformation ξ = ξ (x) , η = η (y) is given by,

fi gj
2 f 1 (ϕi+1,j − ϕi,j ) − f 1 (ϕi,j − ϕi−1,j ) + 2 g 1 (ϕi,j+1 − ϕ i,j ) − g 1 (ϕ i,j − ϕi,j−1 ) ≡ Ri,j ≈ 0
(∆ξ) i+ 2 i− 2 (∆η) j+ 2 j− 2
In the Line Successive Over Relaxation (LSOR) scheme, the solution required for column (i) is de-
noted by ϕ̄n+1
i,− and is obtained from,

fi gj
ϕni+1,j ϕ̄n+1 ϕ̄n+1 ϕn+1 n+1 n+1 n+1 n+1

2 f 1 − i,j −f 1 i,j − i−1,j + 2 gj+ 1 ϕ̄i,j+1 − ϕ̄i,j − g 1 ϕ̄i,j − ϕ̄i,j−1 = 0
(∆ξ) i+ 2 i− 2 (∆η) 2 j− 2
n+1

This solution is then relaxed to obtain ϕi,− using the relaxation formula ϕn+1 = ϕn + ω ϕ̄n+1 − ϕn
i.e. ϕ̄n+1 = ϕn + ∆ϕ
ω where ∆ϕ = ϕ
n+1
− ϕn .
(a) (7 Marks) Show that a formulation in terms of ∆ϕ yields the tri-diagonal system,
a∆ϕi,j−1 + b∆ϕi,j + c∆ϕi,j+1 = d
where gj g 1
j−
a = − ω(∆η)22
 ! !
fi f 1 +f 1 gj g 1 +g 1
i+ i− j+ j−
b=
 2 2 + 2 2 
ω(∆ξ)2 ω(∆η)2 
gj g 1
j+
c = − ω(∆η)22
fi f 1
i−
n 2
d = Ri,j + (∆ξ) 2 ∆ϕi−1,j
(b) (3 Marks) What is the main advantage of the ∆ϕ formulation?
(c) (5 Marks) Calculate the coefficients a, b, c, and d above for the point (i, j) = (5, 10) given the
following,
Hyperbolic tangent transformation [ξ = tanh (x) , η = tanh (y)]
Grid IMAX * JMAX = 13 * 12
Relaxation Parameter ω = 1.8
∆ϕ4,10 = 0.01
n
ϕ values at and about (i, j) = (5, 10)
11 0.6 0.8 1.0

10 0.8 1.0 1.2
9 1.0 1.2 1.4
4 5 6
7.20 Exams-EqConceptFCNC
What are the differences between fully conservative (FC) and non-conservative (NC) forms of the
equations? Discuss these differences as regards 2-D and 3-D potential flow solutions.
7.21 Exams-EqGridBC
(a) State advantages and disadvantages of O-Type and C-Type Meshes for two-dimensional and
axisymmetric flows.
(b) The velocity field for an irrotational flow of an incompressible inviscid fluid around a circular
cylinder with center at the origin and radius r is represented by the potential function,

1
φ (r, θ) = U∞ r + cos (θ)
r
~ = 0 where F (r, θ) = 0 is
the equation of the surface of the cylinder.
7.22. EXAMS-GRID1 157
7.22 Exams-Grid1
(a) Find the metrics and Jacobian of the two-dimensional transformation given explicitly by,
p y
ξ (x, y) = x2 + y 2 , η (x, y) = tan−1
x
(b) Use the transformation in (b) together with the results obtained in (b) to transform Laplace
equation, ϕxx + ϕyy = 0, from the x − y physical domain to the ξ − η domain. Show that the
transformed equation is, ϕξξ + 1ξ ϕξ + ξ12 ϕηη = 0.
(c) A small portion of a 2-D curvilinear grid is as shown below (not to scale) in the x-y grid. The
ξ, η grid lines and the i, j values for each point are as shown. The (x,y) coordinates of the points
shown are given in the following table,
i/j 1 2 3
1 (-0.1732, 0.3) (0.8268, 0.8774) (1.8268, 1.4547)
2 (-0.0577, 0.1) (0.9423, 0.6774) (1.9423, 1.2547)
3 (0.0, 0.0) (1.0, 0.5773) (2.0, 1.1547)
i. Find the value of the Jacobian of the transformation at point E. Note that in the ξ, η system,
∆ξ = ∆η = 1, and hence ξ = i − 1, η = j − 1.
ii. Find the values of the contra-variant velocities U, V at point E given that u = 17.32 m/s and
v = 10.0 m/s at point E.
7.23 Exams-Grid2
Grids and Transformation
(a) (4 Marks) Mention advantages and disadvantages of O-Type and C-Type Meshes for two-dimensional
and axisymmetric flows.
(b) (4 Marks) Mention one type of grid suitable for each of the shown applications. What are the
advantages of each type of grid you chose?
(c) (3 Marks) Find the metrics and Jacobian of the two-dimensional transformation,
p y
ξ (x, y) = x2 + y 2 , η (x, y) = tan−1
x
(d) (4 Marks) Use your results from part (c) to transform Laplace equation from Cartesian coordi-
nates (x, y) to (ξ, η) coordinates.
7.24 Exams-GridAirfoilTE
Boundary Conditions
(a) (5 Marks) The velocity field for an irrotational flow of an incompressible inviscid fluid around
a circular cylinder with center at the origin and radius r = R is represented by the potential
function,
R
φ (r, θ) = U∞ r + cos (θ)
r
~ = 0 where F (r, θ) ≡
r − R = 0 is the equation of the surface of the cylinder.
~ and ∇ ~ ≡ ∂,1 ∂

Hint: In polar coordinates, ~v=∇φ ∂r r ∂θ
(b) (5 Marks) Find an expression for the circulation Γ at an airfoil trailing edge in terms of the values
of the potential ϕ at the shown surrounding points.
7.25 Exams-GridAirfoilTEAirfoil
Refer to the transonic small perturbation model given below before answering the following.
(a) Transform the T.S.P. model from the physical (x,y) domain into the computatinal (ξ, η) domain.
Use a hyperbolic tangent mapping and transform all candidate equations. Show all your steps.
(b) Sketch the (ξ, η) plane showing all details (grid lines, airfoil, special boundary points, etc).
(c) Write out the upper surface boundary condition function Fu (x,T,C,L,α) for a NACA four-digit
airfoil section.
(d) Obtain an expression for the circulation Γ at the airfoil trailing edge in terms of the values of the
potential at the shown surrounding points.
(e) Mention the names of some schemes that are used in the numerical solution of the T.S.P. model.
Notes: Transonic Small Perturbation B.V.P.

7.25. EXAMS-GRIDAIRFOILTEAIRFOIL 159
• Solve:
R ≡ (B1 + B2 φx )φxx + φyy = 0
• Subject to:
1. Surface (airfoil) Boundary Condition
u,l u,l
± dy dy
φy (xb , 0 ) = = − α = F u,l (x, T, C, L, α)
dx b dx
2. Infinity Boundary Condition
(a) For M∞ < 1 :
Γθ nπ
φ∞ = − , θ= , n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
2π 2
(b) For M∞ > 1 :
nπ
φ∞ = 0, θ= , n = 1, 2, 3
2
nπ
φx = 0, θ= , n = 0, 4
2
3. Kutta Condition
∆P = 0, (Γ = ∆φ = const), xT E < x ≤ ∞
where:
R Residual
2
B1 1 − M∞
2
B2 −(γ + 1)M∞
φ Unknown small perturbation potential φ(x, y, XD)
XD Set of design variables e.g. {M∞ , α, T, C, L }
M∞ Freestream Mach number
α Angle of attack
T Airfoil maximum thickness in fraction of chord
C Airfoil maximum camber in fraction of chord
L Chordwise location of maximum camber
b Body (airfoil)
u,l Upper, lower surfaces respectively
Γ Circulation
P Pressure
TE Body (airfoil) trailing edge
Note:
Cp Pressure Coefficient, [Cp = −2φx (xb , 0± )]
CL Lift Coefficient, [CL = 2Γ]
Chapter 8
Aircraft Performance and

Optimization
8.1 Exams-PerformanceAircraft
Aerodynamics:
(a) For the given aircraft, obtain expressions for the wing lift coefficient, CL (α), at Mach numbers;
(i) M∞ = 0.4, (ii) M∞ = 0.88, and (iii) M∞ = 1.23.
. .
3/2 1/2
(b) For the given aircraft, calculate; (i) CL CD , (ii)(CL /CD )max , & (iii) CL CD .
max max
(c) Calculate each of the corresponding velocities; (i)vC 3/2 .C , (ii)v(CL /CD )max , & (iii)vC 1/2 .C
L D L D
max max
at h = 0 ft, and at h = 36000 ft.
(d) What flight speed would give a suitable compromise between maximum range (most economical)
and higher velocity (least flight time)? What is the name of this speed?
8.2 Exams-PerformanceAirplaneJet

3
A jet-powered airplane cruising at 10 km ρ∞ = 0.41351 kg/m has the following characteristics:
Gross Weight, W0 400000 kgf

Cruise Weight, WC RU ISE 85% W0
Fuel Weight, WF 20% W0
Wing Area 90 m2
Power Plant Two Turbojet Engines, 70 kN Thrust Each at S.L.
Thrust Available TA = TSL (ρ∞ /ρ∞SL )
Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption TSFC = 0.6 N fuel / (N thrust . hr)
Maximum Lift Coefficient 1.4 (Flaps-Up)
Obtain (either graphically or analytically) each of the shown parameters at the specified condition(s).
161
162 CHAPTER 8. AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE AND OPTIMIZATION
1 Thrust Required TR (v∞ ) Straight Level Un-
accelerated Flight
@ SL, W ≈ WCRUISE
2 Min and Max Velocities vmin , vmax
3 Stall Velocity vstall
4 Velocity @Max Angle of Climb vθmax Steady Climb
@ SL, W ≈ WCRUISE
5 Max Angle of Climb θmax
6 Rate of Climb @Max Angle of Climb (R/C)θmax
7 Velocity @Max Rate of Climb v(R/C)max Steady Climb
@ SL, W ≈ WCRUISE
8 Angle of Climb @Max Rate of Climb θ(R/C)max
9 Max Rate of Climb (R/C)max
10 Max Range and Max Endurance Rmax , Emax @ hG = 10 km, W ≈ WCRUISE
8.3 Exams-PerformanceCeilingGlideRangeEndurance
1 Min Time to Climb tmin From SL to h = 22000 ft
2 Service Ceiling hs
3 Absolute Ceiling ha
4 Min Glide Angle θmin
5 Max Range in Glide RG,max @ h = 22000 ft
6 Max Range Rmax @ h = 22000 ft, W ≈ WCRUISE
7 Max Endurance Emax
8.4 Exams-PerformanceClimbCeilingRangeEndurance
Obtain (Either Graphically or Analytically) Each of the Shown Parameters at the Specified Condi-
tion(s).
1 Velocity @Max Rate of Climb v(R/C)max @ hG = 0 ft, 10000

ft, 33000 ft, and W ≈
WCRUISE
4 Service Ceiling hs @ W ≈ WCRUISE
6 Min Time to Climb tmin From SL to hG =
33000 ft
1/2
CL
7 Max
1/2 Range
& the Corresponding Speed & Rmax vRmax , CD @ hG = 33000 ft,
CL max M∞ = 0.78
CD Ratio

CL
8 Max
Endurance & the Corresponding Speed Emax vEmax , CD
max
CL
& CD Ratio
8.5 Exams-PerformanceLanding1
Obtain the following landing parameters at the specified conditions.
1 LAND Ground Roll Distance sg,LAND @ SSL, W = WLAND

2 Approach Distance sa,LAND
3 Flare Distance sf
4 Total PlaceTypeLAND Distance sLAND
8.6. EXAMS-PERFORMANCELANDING2 163
8.6 Exams-PerformanceLanding2
Obtain each of the shown parameters at the specified condition(s). During landing, assume no
thrust reversal is used, and the approach angle is θa = 3 deg.
1 LAND Ground Roll Distance sg,LAND @ SSL, W = WLAND

3 Flare Distance sf
4 Total LAND Distance on a Dry Con- sLAND
crete Runway
8.7 Exams-PerformanceLevelCeilingRangeEndurance
Obtain the following parameters at the specified conditions.
1 Min Time to Climb tmin From SL to h = 10000 ft

2 Service Ceiling hs
4 Max Range (assuming no wind) Rmax @ h = 10000 ft, W ≈ WCRUISE
5 Max Endurance Emax
6 Max Range (assuming head-wind of Rmax,head
45 mi/h)
7 Max Range (assuming tail-wind of 45 Rmax,tail
mi/h)
8.8 Exams-PerformanceLevelClimb
Obtain (either graphically or analytically) the following parameters at the specified condition(s).
1 Thrust Required TR (v∞ ) @ SL, W = WTO

2 Min Velocity vmin
3 Max Velocity vmax
5 Velocity @Max Angle of Climb vθmax @ SL, W = WTO And
for the Altitudes: @
h = 10000 ft, W ≈
WCRUISE @ h = 22000
ft, W ≈ WCRUISE
7 Rate of Climb @Max Angle of (R/C)θmax
Climb
8 Velocity @Max Rate of Climb v(R/C)max
9 Angle of Climb @Max Rate of θ(R/C)max
Climb
8.9 Exams-PerformanceLevelClimbGlide
Un-Accelerated Flight: Level Flight, Climb, and Glide.
(a) Thrust Required TR (v∞ ) @ SL
(b) Min Velocity vmin @ SL, @ Mil Power Set-
tings And for the con-
ditions: @ SL, @ Max
Power Settings
Max Velocity vmax
Stall Velocity vstall @ SL And @ h = 36000
ft
(c) Velocity @Max Angle of Climb vθmax @ SL, @ Max Power
Settings And for the
conditions: @ h =
36000 ft, @ Max
Power Settings
Max Angle of Climb θmax
Rate of Climb @Max Angle of (R/C)θmax
Climb
(d) Velocity @Max Rate of Climb v(R/C)max
Angle of Climb @Max Rate of θ(R/C)max
Climb
Max Rate of Climb (R/C)max
(e) Min Time to Climb (From SL to h tmin @ Max Power Settings
= 36000 ft)
Service Ceiling hs
Absolute Ceiling ha
(f) Min Glide Angle θmin
Max Range in Glide (@ h = 36000 RG,max
ft )
(g) Max Range Rmax @ h = 36000 ft, @ Mil
Power Settings
Max Endurance Emax
8.10 Exams-PerformanceLevelClimbOther
Obtain (either graphically or analytically) each of the shown parameters at the specified condition(s).
1 Thrust Required TR (v∞ ) @ SL, W ≈ WCRUISE

2 Min Velocity vmin
3 Max Velocity vmax
5 Velocity @Max Angle of Climb vθmax @ SL, W ≈ WCRUISE
7 Rate of Climb @Max Angle of Climb (R/C)θmax
8.11 Exams-PerformanceLevelClimbOtherOther
1 Power Required PR (v∞ ) @ SL, W = WTO

2 Min Velocity vmin
3 Max Velocity vmax
5 Velocity @Max Rate of Climb v(R/C)max
8.12 Exams-PerformanceLevelTurnPullupdownVn
Accelerated Flight: Level Turn, Pull-Up, Pull-Down, and V-n Diagram.
8.13. EXAMS-PERFORMANCELEVELTURNPULLUPDOWNVNOTHER 165
(a) The given aircraft performs a level turn at a speed of 100 m/s and a bank angle of 60 deg.
i. Calculate the load factor, turn radius, and turn rate if the level turn is on earth.
ii. Calculate the load factor, turn radius, and turn rate if the level turn is on mars (g = 3.72
m/s2 ).
iii. Compare your results.
(b) The given aircraft performs a circular loop starting from a dive. At the bottom of the loop;
v∞ = 530 ft/s, n = 4, at the end of the first quarter of the loop; v∞ = 400 ft/s, n = 3, and at the top
of the loop; v∞ = 230 ft/s, n = 1.5. Sketch the situation then calculate the turn radius for each of
the three given locations.
(c) Estimate the actual shape of the aircraft’s flight path as it performs the loop in part (b). What
does the loop look like from the ground?
(d) For a maximum structural load limit of 9, what is the corner velocity of the given aircraft at SL?
8.13 Exams-PerformanceLevelTurnPullupdownVnOther
(a) The given aircraft performs a level turn at a speed of 100 m/s and a bank angle of 60 deg.
i. Calculate the load factor, turn radius, and turn rate if the level turn is on earth.
ii. Calculate the load factor, turn radius, and turn rate if the level turn is on mars (g = 3.72
m/s2 ).
iii. Compare your results.
(b) The given aircraft performs a circular loop starting from a dive. At the bottom of the loop;
v∞ = 450 ft/s, n = 4, at the end of the first quarter of the loop; v∞ = 350 ft/s, n = 3, and at the top
of the loop; v∞ = 200 ft/s, n = 1.5. Sketch the situation then calculate the turn radius for each of
the three given locations.
(c) Estimate the actual shape of the aircraft’s flight path as it performs the loop in part (b). What
does the loop look like from the ground?
(d) For a maximum structural load limit of 9, what is the corner velocity of the given aircraft at SL?
8.14 Exams-PerformanceLevelTurnVn
For the given aircraft at sea-level, calculate
(a) The velocity of the aircraft corresponding to the maximum of the maximum load factor, nM , for
sustained level turn.
(b) The bank angle, φ, radius of turn, R, and turn rate, ω, each corresponding to nM .
(c) φRmin , Rmin , ωRmin , and vRmin at sea-level.
8.15 Exams-PerformanceTakeoff1
Obtain the following takeoff parameters at the specified conditions.
1 TO Ground Roll Distance sg,TO @ SSL, W = WTO

2 Airborne Distance To Clear An Obstacle sa,TO
of Height 50 ft
3 Total TO Distance sTO
8.16 Exams-PerformanceTakeoff2
Obtain each of the shown parameters at the specified condition(s). During takeoff, assume TA =
2
31000 − 21.28 v∞ + 0.0117 v∞ lb (v∞ in ft/s).
1 TO Ground Roll Distance sg,TO @ SSL, W = WTOmax

3 Total TO Distance on a Dry Concrete Run- sTO
way
8.17 Exams-PerformanceTakeoffLanding
Accelerated Flight: Takeoff and Landing.
Obtain the following takeoff and landing parameters at the specified condition(s).
1 TO Ground Roll Distance sg,TO @ Max Power Settings

3 Total TO Distance sTO
4 LAND Ground Roll Distance sg,LAND
6 Flare Distance sf
7 Total PlaceTypeLAND Distance sLAND
8.18 Exams-PerformanceTrends
State the desirable direction of change, of each of the shown design variables, that optimizes the
shown performance parameter. Use one of the letters; I (increase), D (decrease), or X (no effect), to
indicate the favourable direction of change and fill out the cells of the following table.
# Design Variable Performance Parameter

(Cause) (Effect)
W WF PA TA
S S CD0 K CL |max W , W SFC h
1 Max Speed
2 Stall Speed, (Maximize This)
3 Max Rate Of Climb
4 Min Rate Of Sink
5 Max Turn Rate
6 Max Range, (Powered)
7 Max Range, (Un-Powered)
Min Glide Angle
8 Max Alt, Ceiling (Absolute)
9 Min Turn Radius
10 Min TO Run
11 Min PlaceTypeLAND Run
12 Max Climb Angle
13 Min Time To Climb
14 Max Endurance
8.19 Exams-PerformanceTrendsOther
State the desirable direction of change, of each of the shown design variables, that optimizes the
shown performance parameter. Use one of the letters; I (increase), D (decrease), or X (no effect), to
indicate the favourable direction of change and fill out the cells of the following table.
8.20. EXAMS-PERFORMANCEVARIOUS 167
# Design Variable Performance Parameter
(Cause) (Effect)
W WF PA
S S CD0 K CL |max W SFC h
1 Max Speed
2 Stall Speed, (Maximize This)
3 Max Rate Of Climb
4 Min Rate Of Sink
5 Max Turn Rate
6 Max Range, (Powered)
7 Max Range, (Un-Powered)
Min Glide Angle
8 Max Alt, Ceiling (Absolute)
9 Min Turn Radius
10 Min TO Run
11 Min PlaceTypeLAND Run
12 Max Climb Angle
13 Min Time To Climb
14 Max Endurance
8.20 Exams-PerformanceVarious
Answer True (T) or False (F). If False, correct the statement.
(a) Range of an aircraft is not affected by wind. Endurance of an aircraft is affected by wind,
beneficially by a tailwind and adversely by a headwind.
(b) Endurance can be improved by decreasing the airspeed for a tailwind and increasing it for a
headwind.
(c) An improvement in range translates into fuel savings for a fixed range, or into a payload increase.
(d) High-Lift devices make efficient high-speed flight possible.
(e) On hot summer days, a given aircraft requires shorter ground roll to get off the ground. There-
fore, shorter ground rolls are required at airports located at higher altitudes.
(f) Minimum velocity is determined either by stalling or by the low speed intersection of the power or
thrust curves. At high enough altitude, the low speed limit of velocity, which is usually dictated
by stall speed, may instead be determined by maximum available power (or maximum available
thrust). For this case, we can make the interesting conclusion that stalling speed cannot be
reached in steady level flight.
(g) If the velocity corresponding to maximum climb angle is less than the stalling velocity, then it is
possible for the aircraft to achieve the theoretical climb angle.
(h) For transonic aircrafts, taking into account the drag divergence effects is not essential in obtain-
ing a realistic prediction of maximum velocity.
(i) The consideration of using vectored thrust to improve turning performance is part of the new
design philosophy for high performance transport aircrafts.
(j) Airplanes frequently execute sustained level turns, but rarely a sustained pull-up manoeuvre
with constant flight properties. The instantaneous pull-up is of much greater interest.
(k) In the preliminary design process for a turbofan-powered aircraft, it is essential to take into
account the velocity variation of available thrust.
(l) Minimum sink rate occurs at the flight velocity for minimum power required.
(m) The turbo-prop generates less thrust than a reciprocating engine/propeller device, but more
than a turbofan or turbojet. On the other hand, the turbo-prop has a specific fuel consumption
lower than that of the reciprocating/propeller combination, but higher than that of a turbofan
or turbojet.
(n) The v-n diagram illustrates both aerodynamics and structural limitations for a given aircraft, so
it is a type of ”flight envelope” establishing manoeuvre boundaries for the given aircraft.
Chapter 9
Continuum Mechanics
9.1 Exams-BeamCantilever1
Consider the shown cantilever beam carrying a uniformly varying load. The following stress func-
tion,
x3 x3 y xy 3 x3 y 3 xy 5
φ = C1 xy + C2 + C3 + C4 + C5 + C6
6 6 6 9 20
is proposed to solve this problem.
(a) Explicitly verify that this stress function will satisfy all conditions on the problem.
(b) Determine each of the constants, Ci .
(c) Determine the resulting stress field.
Use resultant force boundary conditions at the beam-ends.
(a) Consider the deformation given by the mapping,
1 1
x1 = [4X1 + (9 − 3X1 − 5X2 − X1 X2 ) t] , x2 = [4X2 + (16 + 8X1 ) t]
4 4
i. For X = (0, 0) and t = 1, determine the deformation gradient tensor F̃ and the right Cauchy-
Green strain tensor C̃.
ii. Find the e-values (stretches) λ1 , λ2 and the associated e-vectors N̂1 , N̂2 .
iii. Use polar decomposition to determine the symmetric stretch tensor Ũ and the rotation tensor
R̃.
(b) Consider the shown problem of the isotropic cantilever beam bent by a load P at the free end.
From elementary beam theory, we have the following strains:

P x1 x2 P x1 x2 (1 + ν) P h2 − x22
ε11 = − , ε22 = −νε11 = ν , ε12 = −
EI EI 2EI
169
170 CHAPTER 9. CONTINUUM MECHANICS
(a) Determine whether the strains are compatible, and if it is,

(b) Find the displacement field using the linearized strain-displacement relations, and
(c) Determine the constants of integration using suitable boundary conditions.
A rectangular beam of height 2a, and length L is subjected to an end loading as shown. A suitable
Airy stress function for this beam is,

φ = A1 x41 + A2 x31 x2 + A3 x21 x22 + A4 x1 x32 + A5 x42 + B1 x31 + B2 x21 x2 + B3 x1 x22 + B4 x32 + C1 x21 + C2 x1 x2 + C3 x22
(a) Find the constants of the stress function so that both equilibrium and boundary conditions are
satisfied, then write out the stress field σij (x1 , x2 ) using the values of these constants.
(b) Obtain the strains using the elastic stress-strain equations then integrate and show that the
displacements are,

3P h 2 2 ν 3i 3P 2 2 1 3 3 3νP
x1 x22

u1 = x 1 − L x 2 + x , u2 = L + 2 (1 + ν) a (x 1 − L) − x − L −
4Ea3 b 3 2 4Ea3 b 3 1 4Ea3 b
(c) Compare the vertical displacement u2 of the centerline of the beam (x2 = 0) with the expression
predicted by simple beam theory and discuss.
9.4 Exams-BeamRect
The shown rectangular beam of width unity and length 2L carries a uniformly distributed load of
q N/m as shown. Shear forces V support the beam at both ends.
(a) Verify that a valid Airy stress function is φ = D5 x21 x32 − 51 x52 + 12 B3 x21 x2 + 21 A2 x21 + D3 x32 .

(b) Find the stress field [σij (x1 , x2 , x3 )] corresponding to the stress function in (a).
(c) For this beam, list the six boundary conditions the stresses must satisfy.
(d) Find the constants of the stress function in (a) so that the boundary conditions in (c) are satisfied.
Write out the stress field [σij (x1 , x2 , x3 )] using the values of these constants.
9.5. EXAMS-CONTINUUMBALANCELAWS 171
9.5 Exams-ContinuumBalanceLaws
Consider a fixed volume in space and let Q denote some quantity (scalar, vector, or tensor) per unit
volume, J~ be the current (flow per unit area across the control surface) due to transport processes,
and SQ be the sources (sinks) denoting generation (loss) of material per unit volume. A General
Form for a balance law could then be written as shown in the following table.
INTEGRAL FORM OF BALANCE LAW DIFFERENTIAL FORM OF BALANCE LAW

Using the Using the
−−−−−−−−−−→−−−−−−−−−−→ V ∂Q dV + A J~ · ∂Q ~ · J~ = SQ
RRR RR
∂t ∂t +∇
Divergence
RRRThm Divergence Thm
n̂dA = S dV
V Q
NB: n̂ is the outward unit normal.
~ and SQ corresponding to the listed

Complete the following table by writing out expressions for Q, J,
fundamental physical principles. Give your expressions in both Tensor & Index notations.
# PRINCIPLE Q J~ SQ
1 Mass Conservation ρ ρ~v, ρvi 0
2 Momentum Conservation ??? ?? ? ???
3 Energy Conservation ??? ?? ? ???
4 Entropy Balance ??? ?? ? ???
9.6 Exams-ContinuumIndex1
Match the meaning of each index notation expression in the first column of the following table with
an option from the second column.
First Column Second Column

[A] λ = Tij Sij [1] Cross product of two vectors
[B] ai = εkij bj ck [2] Product of a vector and a tensor
[C] λ = ai bi [3] Equation for the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a tensor
[D] Tij mj = λmi [4] Contracted (inner) product of two tensors
[E] ai = Sij bj [5] Dot product of two vectors
[F] Aki Akj = δij [6] Definition of an orthogonal tensor
(the transpose of an orthogonal tensor is equal to its inverse)
[G] Aij = Aji [7] Definition of a symmetric tensor
9.7 Exams-ContinuumIndex2
Match the meaning of each index notation expression in the first column of the following table with
an option from the second column.
[A] ai = εkij bj ck [1] Cross product of two vectors
[B] Aij = Aji [2] Product of a vector and a tensor
[C] Tij mj = λmi [3] Equation for the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a tensor
[D] λ = ai bi [4] Contracted (inner) product of two tensors
[G] λ = Tij Sij [7] Definition of a symmetric tensor
9.8 Exams-ContinuumIntroduction1
(a) How many components does a tensor of rank 5 have in a space of 4 dimensions?
dy1
dt = a11 y1 + a12 y2
(b) Represent the shown system of ODE’s using index notation: dy2 .
dt = a21 y1 + a22 y2
(c) Invert the thermo-elastic constitutive equation eij = 1+ν σij − Eν δij σkk + α (T − T0 ) δij and obtain

E
the stress in terms of the strain and temperature difference.
(d) Show that the velocity of a fluid at any point is a contravariant tensor of rank one.
(a) How many components does a tensor of rank 3 have in a space of 4 dimensions?

~∧ B
(b) Using index notation, verify the vector identity: A ~ ∧C
~ =B~ A~·C
~ −C~ A ~·B
~ .
(c) Invert the thermo-elastic constitutive equation eij = 1+ν σij − Eν δij σkk + α (T − T0 ) δij and obtain

E
(a) Show that the velocity of a fluid at any point is a contravariant tensor of rank one.

(b) Using index notation, verify the vector identity: A~· B~ ∧C~ =C ~· A ~∧B~ .
(c) Which of the following equations are valid expressions using index notation? If you decide an
expression
is invalid, state which rule is violated. (i) σij = Cijkl εij , (ii) εkkk = 0, (iii) ui,kk +
1
1−2ν uk,ik = 0, (iv) εijk εijk = 6
(a) Show that the velocity of a fluid at any point is a contravariant tensor of rank one.
(b) Using index notation, verify the vector identity:

~ ∧ φA
~ = ∇φ
~

~+φ ∇~ ∧A

~ , φ ≡ Scalar Function
∇ ∧A ~ ≡ Vector Function .
A
(c) Which of the following equations are valid expressions using index notation? If you decide an
expression
is invalid, state which rule is violated. (i) σij = Cijkl εij , (ii) εkkk = 0, (iii) ui,kk +
1
1−2ν uk,ik = 0, (iv) εijk εijk = 6
9.12. EXAMS-CONTINUUMINTRODUCTION5 173

~∧ B
(a) Using index notation, verify the vector identity: A ~ ∧C ~ =B ~ A ~·C
~ −C ~ A ~·B ~ .
h i
1
(b) Using index notation, algebraically manipulate the equation, µ δkj ai ai + 1−2ν ak aj Uk = Pj , and
solve for Uk in terms of Pi and ai .
 
30 50 20
(c) If the Rectangular components of the strain tensor at a point are, [eij ] =  50 40 0  ∗ 10−6 ,
20 0 30
and the material is steel with values of Lame’s constants, λ, µ equal to 119.2 GPa, 79.2 GPa
respectively, find the components of the stress tensor [σij ] at the given point.

(a) Using index notation, verify the vector identity: A ~∧B~ · C
~ ∧D ~ = A ~·C~ D ~ ·B
~ − A ~·D~ B~ ·C
~ .
(b) Invert the thermo-elastic constitutive equation eij = 1+ν σij − Eν δij σkk + α (T − T0 ) δij and obtain

E
√
(c) For the scalar field Φ (r), with r = xi xi , show that
2 0 x x x x
i. ∂x∂i ∂x
Φ
j
= Φr δij − ri 2 j + ri 2 j Φ” whereΦ0 (r) = dΦ
dr
∂2Φ
ii. ∂xi ∂xj is a second order tensor
2
∂2Φ ∂2Φ 1 d (rΦ)
iii. the contraction of ∂xi ∂xj is given by ∂xi ∂xi = r dr 2

(a) Using index notation, verify the vector identity: A ~∧ B ~ ∧C~ =B ~ A ~·C ~ −C ~ A ~·B ~ .
(b) Invert the thermo-elastic constitutive equation eij = 1+ν σij − Eν δij σkk + α (T − T0 ) δij and obtain

E
h i
1
(c) Using index notation, algebraically manipulate the equation, µ δkj ai ai + 1−2ν ak aj Uk = Pj , and
solve for Uk in terms of Pi and ai .
√
(d) For the scalar field Φ (r), with r = xi xi , show that
2
Φ0 xi xj x x
i. ∂x∂i ∂x
Φ
j
= r δ ij − r2 + ri 2 j Φ” whereΦ0 (r) = dΦ
dr ,
∂2Φ
ii. ∂xi ∂xj is a second order tensor

~· B
(a) Using index notation, verify the vector identity: A ~ ∧C
~ =C~· A~∧B
~ .
(b) Match the meaning of each index notation expression in the first column of the following table
with an option from the second column.

[A] λ = Tij Sij [1] Cross product of two vectors
[B] ai = εkij bj ck [2] Product of a vector and a tensor
[C] λ = ai bi [3] Equation for the e-values and e-vectors of a tensor
[D] Tij mj = λmi [4] Contracted (inner) product of two tensors
[G] Aij = Aji [7] Definition of a symmetric tensor

Consider the implicit transformation, ξ = ξ (x, y) , and answer the following:
η = η (x, y)
i
(c) Write out the forward & backward transformation matrices and Jacobians, [ami ] , bm , Ja , Jb .

ξx ξy xξ xη
(d) Find various forward & backward metric elements of the transformation, , .
ηx ηy yξ yη
(e) Find the natural base vectors (covariant and contravariant) and the metric tensors (covariant
and contravariant), ~gi , ~g i , gij , g ij .
~ ~ ~T ~T
(f) Show that the system of equations, ∂F
∂x + ∂G
∂y = ~0 transforms to ∂F
∂ξ + ∂G
∂η = ~0 where
ξx F~ + ξy G
~ ~ ~
~ T = ηx F + ηy G ,
F~T = , G Jb = ξx ηy − ξy ηx
Jb Jb
9.16 Exams-ContinuumStress1
 
5 2 0
At a point P in a body, the Cartesian components of the stress tensor are given by, [σ] =  2 2 0 .
0 0 3
(a) Calculate the principal stresses σ1 , σ2 , σ3 and corresponding principal directions of the stress
tensor.
(b) Determine the rotation matrix that transforms [σ] to a diagonal form. Perform the transforma-
tion.
(c) Determine the transformation matrix that transforms [σ] to a cylindrical component form. Per-
form the transformation.
(d) Find the physical components of [σ] relative to the cylindrical coordinate system.
 
5 2 0
At a point in a body, the Cartesian components of the stress tensor are given by, [σ] =  2 2 0 .
0 0 3
(a) Calculate the principal stresses σ1 , σ2 , σ3 and corresponding principal directions of [σ].
tion.
(d) Find the physical components of [σ] relative to the cylindrical coordinate system.
At a point in a body, the Cartesian components of the stress tensor are given by,
 √ 
√5 5 0
[σ] =  5 3 0  .
0 0 1
(a) Calculate the principal stresses σ1 , σ2 , σ3 .
(b) Calculate the corresponding principal directions of [σ].
(c) Determine the rotation matrix that transforms [σ] to a diagonal form. Perform the transforma-
tion.
9.19. EXAMS-CONTINUUMSTRESS4 175
 √ 
√5 3 0
[σ] =  3 3 0  .
0 0 1
(a) Calculate the principal stresses σ1 , σ2 , σ3 .

(b) Calculate the corresponding principal directions of [σ].
(c) Determine the rotation matrix that transforms [σ] to a diagonal form. Perform the transforma-
tion.
 √ 
√5 3 0
At a point in a body, the Cartesian components of the stress tensor are given by, [σ] =  3 3 0 .
0 0 1
tion.
(d) Find the stress vector and the magnitude of the normal stress on a plane that passes thru the
point and is parallel to the plane x + 2y + 2z − 6 = 0.
 
12 9 0
[σ] =  9 −12 0  MPa
0 0 6
(b) Determine the maximum shear stress.
(c) Find the stress vector and the magnitude of the normal stress on a plane that passes thru the
point and is parallel to the plane x + 2y + 2z − 6 = 0.
9.22 Exams-ContinuumTransformation1
Consider the transformation of coordinates ξ = ξ (x, y) , η = η (x, y) from Physical Rectangular coor-
dinates x, y to Computational Curvilinear coordinates ξ, η.

(a) Write out the forward & backward transformation matrices and Jacobians i.e. aim , [bm i ] and
Ja , Jb .
(b) Find various forward & backward metric elements of the transformation.
(c) For the
n Curvilinear
o coordinate system, write out expressions for the Natural Covariant Basis
~m ≡ E
E ~ 1, E
~ 2 and find the metric tensor gmn .
(d) If the Curvilinear coordinates

are both Conformal
(orthogonal & of equal scale
factors) and given

ξxx + ξyy = 0 xξξ + xηη = 0
implicitly by the system , show that the Hodograph system is .
ηxx + ηyy = 0 yξξ + yηη = 0
Consider the transformation of coordinates ξ = ξ (x, y, z) , η = η (x, y, z) , ζ = ζ (x, y, z) from Physical
Rectangular coordinates x, y, z to Computational Curvilinear coordinates ξ, η, ζ.

(a) Write out the forward transformation matrix and Jacobian i.e. aim and Ja .
(b) Find various forward metric elements of the transformation.
(c) For the

n Curvilinear
o coordinate system, write out expressions for the Natural Covariant Basis
~ ~ ~ ~
Em ≡ E1 , E2 , E3 and find the metric tensor gmn .
Consider the transformation of coordinates x̄1 = x̄1 (x1 , x2 ) , x̄2 = x̄2 (x1 , x2 ) from Rectangular coor-
dinates x1 , x2 to Polar coordinates x̄1 , x̄2 .

(a) Write out the forward transformation matrix aim and forward Jacobian Ja .
(b) Write out the backward transformation matrix [bm

i ] and backward Jacobian Jb .
(c) For the Polar coordinate system, write out expressions for the Natural Covariant Basis ~em ≡
{~e1 , ~e2 } and find the metric tensor gmn .
Consider Spherical coordinates defined by the transformation,
1
x ≡ x = r sin θ cos φ x2 ≡ y = r sin θ sin φ x3 ≡ z = r cos θ x̄1 ≡ r x̄2 ≡ θ x̄3 ≡ φ

,
(a) Find the natural base vectors (cov and contrav) and the metric tensors (cov and contrav).
(b) Find the christoffel symbol of the 2nd kind.
(c) Use the results obtained in (a) to find the Laplacian of a scalar function φ.
(d) Use the result obtained in (b) to find the components of the gradient of a contravariant vector ~v.
Note: For a generalized non-orthogonal coordinate system,
∂vi
T
1 ∂ √ ∂φ ~v i
∇2 φ = √ gg ij and ∇~ = + vk
g ∂ x̄i ∂ x̄j ∂ x̄j k j
Consider Oblique Cylindrical coordinates defined by the transformation,
1
x ≡ x = r cos θ x2 ≡ y = r sin θ + Z cos α x3 ≡ z = Z sin α , x̄1 ≡ r x̄2 ≡ θ x̄3 ≡ Z

, 0 < α ≤ π/2
(a) Find the natural base vectors (cov and contrav) and the metric tensors (cov and contrav).
(b) Find the christoffel symbol of the 2nd kind.
(c) Use the results obtained in (a) to find the Laplacian of a scalar function φ.
(d) Use the result obtained in (b) to find the components of the gradient of a contravariant vector ~v.
Note: For a generalized non-orthogonal coordinate system,
∂vi
T
1 ∂ √ ∂φ ~v i
∇2 φ = √ gg ij and ∇~ = + vk
g ∂ x̄i ∂ x̄j ∂ x̄j k j
9.27. EXAMS-ELASTICITYBEAMCANTILEVER1 177
9.27 Exams-ElasticityBeamCantilever1
(a) For each of the shown elasticity problems, write the boundary conditions and classify into Type
I, Type II, or Type III.
(b) Consider the shown cantilever beam carrying a uniformly varying load. The following stress
function,
x3 x3 y xy 3 x3 y 3 xy 5
φ = C1 xy + C2 + C3 + C4 + C5 + C6
6 6 6 9 20
i. Explicitly verify that this stress function will satisfy all conditions on the problem.
ii. Determine each of the constants, Ci .
iii. Determine the resulting stress field.
Use resultant force boundary conditions at the beam-ends.
9.28 Exams-ElasticityBeamCantilever2
(a) For each of the shown elasticity problems, write the boundary conditions and classify into Type
I, Type II, or Type III.
 
30 50 20
(b) If the Rectangular components of the strain tensor at a point are, [eij ] =  50 40 0  ∗ 10−6 ,
20 0 30
and the material is steel with values of Lame’s constants, λ, µ equal to 119.2 GPa, 79.2 GPa
respectively, find the components of the stress tensor [σij ] at the given point.
(c) The shown thin cantilever beam is subjected to a uniform shearing traction of magnitude τ0
along its upper surface. The following stress function,
φ (x, y) = C1 xy + C2 xy 2 + C3 xy 3 + C4 y 2 + C5 y 3

i. Explicitly verify that this stress function will satisfy all conditions on the problem.
ii. Determine each of the constants, Ci .
iii. Determine the resulting stress field.
Chapter 10
Instrumentation and Control
10.1 Exams-ControlBlock0
(a) (5 Marks) Write out the standard form for the differential equation of a second order system.
Define all variables that show up in this differential equation.
(b) (5 Marks) For the shown system, determine
i. Damping ratio
ii. Undamped natural frequency
iii. Damped natural frequency
iv. Time response C(t) when all initial conditions are zero
v. Characteristic equation, roots, and stability condition
(a) (6 Marks) A system is described by the differential equation dy
dt +y = x(t), y(0) = 0. Determine the
frequency response y(t) of this system to the sinusoidal input x(t) = x0 sin (ωt).
25 25
s (s + 6) s (s + 6)
(b) (4 Marks) For the shown system,
i. write the characteristic equation, then

ii. determine the roots, and hence
iii. the stability condition of the system.
179
180 CHAPTER 10. INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL
(a) (3 Marks) Show that the Laplace transform of eat is 1/(s-a).
(b) (3 Marks) Find the inverse Laplace transform of 100/[(s+2)2(s+10)].
(c) (4 Marks) Simplify the following block diagram and hence find the transfer function,
10.4 Exams-ControlBlock2Related
(a) (4 Marks) Sketch the standard form of a block diagram for a single-input single-output (SISO)
system. Use the symbols R, C, E, B, G, and H to denote the input, output, error, feedback,
forward transfer function, and feedback transfer function, respectively. Define the open loop
transfer function and the closed loop transfer function for this system, then show that the
closed loop transfer function is given by,
C G
=
R 1 + GH
(b) (6 Marks) Simplify the following block diagram and hence find the transfer function.
(a) (4 Marks) Sketch the standard form of a block diagram for a single-input single-output (SISO)
system. Use the symbols R, C, E, B, G, and H to denote the input, output, error, feedback,
forward transfer function, and feedback transfer function, respectively. Define the open loop
transfer function and the closed loop transfer function for this system, then show that the
closed loop transfer function is given by,
C G
=
R 1 + GH
(b) (6 Marks) The sketch illustrates the block diagram of a simple servo system. For K=10, determine
the values of a and b that give an overshoot of 16 % and a natural frequency of 10 rad/s during
the system response to a step input. If the value of K is decreased slightly, how does it affect the
damping ratio of the system?
10.6. EXAMS-CONTROLBLOCKFUNCTION 181
10.6 Exams-ControlBlockFunction
(a) (3 Marks) What is the Laplace Transform of the shown function.
dy
(b) (4 Marks) A system is described by the differential equation dt +y = x(t), y(0) = 0. Determine the
time response y(t) of this system.
25 25
s (s + 6) s (s + 6)
(c) (3 Marks) For the shown system,
i. write the characteristic equation, then

ii. determine the roots, and hence
iii. the stability condition of the system.
10.7 Exams-ControlBlockSystem
(a) (3 Marks) For the shown standard feedback control system, show that
C G
Transfer Function ≡ =
R 1 + GH
(b) (3 Marks) Give one example of each of the following control elements,
(i) mechanical (ii) electrical (iii) hydraulic
[Give a sketch, mathematical relation, and operation G(D) of each component]
(c) (4 Marks) Write out the differential equation relating the output y to the input x for the shown
system.
10.8 Exams-ControlSystem1
(a) (3 Marks) Sketch a standard closed loop (feedback) control system illustrating main elements of
the block diagram.
(b) (3 Marks) Give one example of each of the following control elements,
(i) mechanical (ii) electrical (iii) hydraulic
(c) (4 Marks) Write out the differential equation relating the output y to the input x for the following
system,
10.9 Exams-ControlSystem2
(a) (5 Marks) Write the governing differential equations for the shown system,
(b) (5 Marks) From (a), obtain a single ordinary differential equation relating the output y to the
input x.
10.10 Exams-MeasurementConceptsUncertainty
(a) (2 Marks) Define the following terms, (i) sensitivity, (ii) accuracy, (iii) precision, and (iv) uncer-
tainty.
(b) (2 Marks) Mention two basic types of uncertainty and the method of estimation of each.
(c) (3 Marks) From a sample of 150 marbles having mean diameter of 10 mm and a standard
deviation of ± 3.4 mm, how many marbles would you expect to find in the range from 10 to 15
mm?
(d) (3 Marks) A 68 kΩ resistor is paralleled with a 12 kΩ resistor. Each resistor has a ± 10 %

tolerance. What will be the nominal resistance and the uncertainty of the combination?
10.11. EXAMS-MEASUREMENTCONTROLELEMENTSUNCERTAINTY 183
10.11 Exams-MeasurementControlElementsUncertainty
(a) (3 Marks) Give one example of each of the following control elements,
i. mechanical ii. electrical iii. hydraulic
(b) (7 Marks) A lab technician has just received a box of 1000 resistors without color-coded bands.
To determine the nominal resistance and tolerance, the technician selects 10 resistors and
measures their resistances with a digital multimeter (DMM) having a possible bias uncertainty
of ± (0.5 % of reading + 0.05 % of full scale + 0.2 Ω) and full scale reading of 20 kΩ. His results
in kΩ are [18.12, 17.95, 18.17, 18.45, 16.24, 17.82, 16.28, 16.32, 17.91, 15.98]. Find,
i. nominal resistance of the resistors

ii. uncertainty in that value (consider both precision and bias uncertainty)
10.12 Exams-MeasurementIntroduction
(a) (2 Marks) Sketch a diagram showing the main elements of a generalized measuring system.
(b) (2 Marks) Define the following terms,

i. sensitivity ii. accuracy iii. precision iv. uncertainty
(c) (2 Marks) Mention two basic types of uncertainty and the method of estimation of each type.
(d) (2 Marks) Fill in the blanks: Many of the mechanical sensors transduce input to while
many of the electrical sensors change to output. This is fortunate for it yields practical
combinations in which the mechanical sensor serves as the transducer and the electrical
sensor as the transducer.
(e) (2 Marks) For a very large set of data, the measured mean is found to be 200 with a standard
deviation of 20. Assuming the data to be normally distributed, determine the range within which
60% of the data are expected to fall.
10.13 Exams-MeasurementIntroductionUncertainty
(a) (2 Marks) Sketch a diagram showing the main elements of a generalized measuring system.
(b) (2 Marks) Mention two basic types of uncertainty and the method of estimation of each.
(c) (3 Marks) For a very large set of data, the measured mean is found to be 200 with a standard
deviation of 20. Assuming the data to be normally distributed, determine the range within which
60% of the data are expected to fall.
(d) (3 Marks) A 68 kΩ resistor is connected in series with a 12 kΩ resistor. Each resistor has a ± 10
% tolerance. What will be the nominal resistance and the uncertainty of the combination?
10.14 Exams-MeasurementTransducersUncertainty
(a) (2 Marks) What are the relative advantages of using electrical transducers over mechanical trans-
ducers?
of +(0.5% of reading+0.05% of full scale+0.2 h) and full scale reading of 20 kh. His results (in
Kh) are [18.12,17.95,18.17,18.45,16.24,17.82,16.28,16.32,17.91,15.98]. Find,
i. Nominal resistance of the resistors

ii. Uncertainty in that value (consider both precision and bias uncertainty)
iii. Tolerance of the resistors
10.15 Exams-MeasurementTransducersUncertaintyPart
(a) (2 Marks) What are the relative advantages of using electrical transducers over mechanical trans-
ducers?
in kΩ are [18.12, 17.95, 18.17, 18.45, 16.24, 17.82, 16.28, 16.32, 17.91, 15.98, 18.32, 17.51].
Find,

10.16 Exams-MeasurementUncertainty
(a) (3 Marks) A 68 KΩ is paralleled with a 12 KΩ resistor. Each resistor has a ± 10% tolerance.
What will be the nominal resistance and the uncertainty of the combination?
in kΩ are [18.12, 17.95, 18.17, 18.45, 16.24, 17.82, 16.28, 16.32, 17.91, 15.98, 18.32, 17.51].
Find,

10.17 Exams-Microcontroller1
(a) For the Intel 8051 microcontroller, determine:
i. Size of the internal RAM.

ii. Number of register banks and their addresses.
iii. Which port has no alternate functions.
iv. The time it will take a timer in mode 1 to overflow if initially set to 03AEh with a 6 MHz
crystal.
v. Which bits in which registers must be set to 1 to have timer 0 count input pulses on pin T0
(port 3 bit 4) in timer mode 0.
(b) Find a number that, when XORed to the ”A” register, results in the number 3Fh in A. Write a
program in assembly language to show the solution.
(a) Explain the timer/counter logic of the internal counters associated with Intel 8051 microcon-
trollers working from 12 MHz clock. Explain mode 3 in details. What is the time taken by a
timer working in mode 1 to overflow if it is initially set to 03EAh with a 12 MHz crystal. Repeat
if the timer is working in mode 2.
(b) If the accumulator A contains the hexadecimal value ”45H” before the execution of the following
instructions. What would be the content of accumulator A by the end of the program? Repeat
the program execution if A is initially has a content ”54H”. What is the relation between the
content values of ”A” before and after the program execution?
10.19. EXAMS-MICROCONTROLLER3 185
MOV B,#10H
DIV AB
MUL AB
MOV B,#10
DIV AB
SWAP A
ORL A, B
END
Hint: SWAP A means that the high nibble and low nibble of ”A” are exchanged.
(a) Define the following terms regarding the Intel 8051 microcontroller:
i. Address latch enable ”ALE”
ii. Program status word ”PSW”
iii. Bit addressable area
iv. Baud rate
v. Program store enable ”PSEN”
(b) Explain the mechanism of the execution of the interrupts in Intel 8051 microcontrollers. State
the different types of interrupt sources. Which special function registers are used? What is the
interrupt vector? What is the differece between the reset interrupt and any other interrupt?
10.20 Exams-Signal
(a) (3 Marks) For the shown signal, complete the following table.
QUANTITY VALUE UNIT
AMPLITUDE
CYCLIC FREQUENCY
PERIOD OF OSCILLATION
(b) (1 Mark) Sketch the signal spectrum (i.e. frequency-amplitude plot) for the signal,
y = 2 sin (10t) + sin (20t)
(c) (2 Marks) Complete the following table for the signal, y = 10 cos (3t − 0.1) [m]
QUANTITY VALUE UNIT
AMPLITUDE
CIRCULAR FREQUENCY
PERIOD
PHASE SHIFT
(d) (4 Marks) Briefly mention one method of measurement for each of the following: i. temperature,
ii. pressure.
10.21 Exams-SignalPart
(a) (3 Marks) For the shown signal, complete the following table.
QUANTITY VALUE UNIT

AMPLITUDE
CYCLIC FREQUENCY
PERIOD OF OSCILLA-
TION
(b) (2 Marks) A signal is represented by x = 2 sin (10t) + sin (20t). Sketch the signal spectrum (i.e.
frequency-amplitude plot).
(c) (5 Marks) Complete the following table for the signal, y = 10 cos (3t − 0.1) [m]
QUANTITY VALUE UNIT

AMPLITUDE
CIRCULAR FREQUENCY
CYCLIC FREQUENCY
PERIOD
PHASE SHIFT

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Contents

4 Hydraulics and Pneumatics 47

7 Computational Fluid Dynamics 149

8 Aircraft Performance and Optimization 161

9 Continuum Mechanics 169

10 Instrumentation and Control 179

Match the Answer to its Question in the following Tables.

i. Orthographic Parallel Projection

(c) A sketch is usually carried out using,

(d) A schematic is a diagram that represents the elements of a system using

(e) To show frequency of occurrence, use

(f) To show distribution of observations, use

(g) An example of a computer aided design (CAD) software package is,

(h) DPI stands for

i. Don’t Place Into

i. 72 PPI and 300 DPI

(j) Microsoft Paint creates Bitmap images called

i. Use only one independent variable per plot

i. Computer aided design software package

(c) A sketch is usually carried out using,

(d) A schematic is a diagram that represents the elements of a system using

CASE INPUT (GIVEN) OUTPUT

i.e. find a, b, c, d where y (x) = a + bx + cx2 + dx3

Hint: Various equations for the required system are,

(d) What is cohesion and coupling of modules?

(e) What is the difference between parameter Call-By-Reference and Call-By-Value?

(f) What are three types of abstraction supported by programming languages?

For this problem, develop the following:

i. Problem Analysis Chart

ii. Interactivity Chart

iii. Input-Processing-Output Chart

vi. A Computer Code (Use a Programming Language of Your Choice)

(a) The basic principle of aerodynamics was discovered by:

(b) The forces produced by the airplane wing are:

(c) The sail-plane flight is:

i. heavier-than-air and powered

(d) The man who designed the ornithopter is:

(e) The glider pioneer is:

i. Flat plate normal to the flow direction with breadth d.

(e) Distinguish between ”skin friction drag” and ”form drag”.

(c) The NACA-2412 is a cambered airfoil section having a thickness ratio of 12 %.

(j) Turbojet engines are more efficient than turbofan engines.

(c) The NACA-2412 is a cambered airfoil section having a thickness ratio of 12 %.

i. The fuel/air ratio of the jet engine.

i. The mass flow rate of air and fuel.

α (◦ ) 2.8 4.3 5.7 8.7

(a) The helix angle, ϕ, and the angle of attack, α.

(b) The airflow velocity relative to the blade.

(c) Thrust, T, and torque, Q, produced by the blade element at sea-level.

Note: Assume that the local temperature difference, T − T0 << T0 .

(a) the expansion is reversible isothermal

(b) the expansion is reversible adiabatic

(c) the expansion takes place into vacuum

(d) One form of the Navier-Stokes Equation (NSE) is given by,

(e) Separation is delayed in turbulent boundary layer compared to laminar one.

(d) The solution for the homogeneous equation.

(b) outlet Mach number

(c) percent of change of stagnation pressure

i. Obtain the Linearized One-Dimensional Euler System modelling aero-acoustics.

EOS and Specific Total Energy:

EOS and Specific Total Energy:

# [A] Simplified Fluid Flow Model [B] Assumptions

Calculate the lift coefficient, cl , if the angle of attack α = 5 deg.