MATHEMATICS PROJECT

CSE1B_GR3_2018_M201_PROJ

Sudip Biswas
CSE-1B-98
University Roll No- 123180703098

Subject: Application of Laplace Transform in

Electrical Circuit Theory
Theoretical Background:

Introduction to Laplace Transforms:

Most control system analysis and design techniques are based on linear
systems theory. Although we could develop these procedures using the state
space models, it is generally easier to work with transfer functions. Basically,
transfer functions allow us to make algebraic manipulations rather than
working directly with linear differential equations (state space models). To
create transfer functions, we need the notion of the Laplace transform.

The Laplace transform of a time-domain function, f(t), is represented

by L[f(t)] and is defined as

The Laplace transform is a linear operation, so the Laplace transform

of a constant (C) multiplying a time-domain function is just that constant
times the Laplace transform of the function.

Perhaps the greatest value of Laplace transforms is in simplifying the

mathematical analysis of a system of differential and integral equations by
converting them to algebraic relations. Although that is largely irrelevant to a
practitioner, Laplace transforms have provided the theoretical underpinning
of many control techniques and have become the standard representation of
process and controller dynamics. They are useful as a short-hand notation,
and a control technologist should be able to read the language. This second
part of the monograph explains the Laplace transform and relates transfer
functions to common dynamic behaviors.\

Mathematically, a Laplace transform is represented as the integral from

time zero (now) to forever into the future (infinity) of the signal weighted by
the exponential term 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 .
t"=∝
Y(s) = ŷ(s) ∬ e−st y ′ (t′)dt′
t"=0
 it is important to understand what the symbols represent. The variable
𝑡 represents time and 𝑦 represents the process variable (PV). Again,
however, they are indicated by 𝑡′ and 𝑦’ in the equation. These are deviation
variables. 𝑡’ is the time after the initiation of an event that causes 𝑦 to change,
and 𝑦’ is the PV deviation from its initial steady state value. Either the capital
𝑌 or the y-hat 𝑦̂ symbol represent the Laplace transformed variable.

As, I’ll show, 𝑌 and 𝑦̂ are not functions of time, even though the signal
changes in time. Both (𝑠) and 𝑦̂(𝑠) depend on the value of the coefficient 𝑠;
so, in the equation, 𝑌 and 𝑦̂ are explicitly shown as functions of 𝑠, not 𝑡. The
argument of the exponential must be dimensionless. Accordingly, the units
of the coefficient 𝑠 are the reciprocal of the units on time, 𝑡’. If you choose
time in minutes, then the units on coefficient 𝑠 are min-1. If time is in seconds,
then the units on coefficient 𝑠 are sec-1, or s-1, an unfortunate nomenclature
that can create confusion between the symbols representing the coefficient
and its units.

Electrical Circuit Theory:

Circuit theory is an important and perhaps the oldest branch of electrical

engineering. A circuit is an interconnection of electrical elements. These
include passive elements, such as resistances, capacitances, and
inductances, as well as active elements and sources (or excitations). Two
variables, namely voltage and current variables, are associated with each
circuit element. There are two aspects to circuit theory: analysis and design.
Circuit analysis involves the determination of current and voltage values in
different elements of the circuit, given the values of the sources or
excitations. On the other hand, circuit design focuses on the design of circuits
that exhibit a certain prespecified voltage or current characteristics at one or
more parts of the circuit. Circuits can also be broadly classified as linear or
nonlinear circuits.

This section consists of five chapters that provide a broad introduction to

most fundamental principles and techniques in circuit analysis and design:

 Linear Circuit Analysis

 Circuit Analysis: A Graph-Theoretic Foundation
 Computer-Aided Design
 Synthesis of Networks
 Nonlinear Circuits.
Mathematical Background:
Laplace Domain:

The Laplace domain, or the "Complex s Domain" is the domain into

which the Laplace transform transforms a time-domain equation. s is a
complex variable, composed of real and imaginary parts:

𝑠 = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔

The Laplace domain graphs the real part (σ) as the horizontal axis, and
the imaginary part (ω) as the vertical axis. The real and imaginary parts
of s can be considered as independent quantities.

The similarity of this notation with the notation used in Fourier transform
theory is no coincidence; for 𝜎 = 0, the Laplace transform is the same as
the Fourier transform if the signal is causal.

The Transform:
The mathematical definition of the Laplace transform is as follows:

The transform, by virtue of the definite integral, removes all t from the
resulting equation, leaving instead the new variable s, a complex number
that is normally written as 𝑠 = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔. In essence, this transform takes the
function f(t), and "transforms it" into a function in terms of s, F(s). As a
general rule the transform of a function f(t) is written as F(s). Time-domain
functions are written in lower-case, and the resultant s-domain functions
are written in upper-case.

We will use the following notation to show the transform of a function:

𝑓(𝑡) ⇔ 𝐹(𝑠)

We use this notation, because we can convert F(s) back into f(t) using
the inverse Laplace transform.

The Inverse Transform:

The inverse Laplace transform converts a function in the complex S-
domain to its counterpart in the time-domain. Its mathematical definition is
as follows:

where 𝑐 is a real constant such that all of the poles s1,s2,…,sn of 𝐹(𝑠) fall
in the region . In other words,𝑐 is chosen so that all of the poles of 𝐹(𝑠) are
to the left of the vertical line intersecting the real axis at 𝑠 = 𝑐
The inverse transform is more difficult mathematically than the transform
itself is. However, luckily for us, extensive tables of Laplace transforms and
their inverses have been computed, and are available for easy browsing.

Resistors:
The Laplace transform can be used independently on different circuit
elements, and then the circuit can be solved entirely in the S Domain
(Which is much easier). Let's take a look at some of the circuit elements:

Resistors are time and frequency invariant. Therefore, the transform of a

resistor is the same as the resistance of the resistor:

𝑅(𝑠) = 𝑟

Compare this result to the phasor impedance value for a resistance r:

You can see very quickly that resistance values are very similar between
phasors and Laplace transforms.

Ohm's Law:

If we transform Ohm's law, we get the following equation:

𝑉(𝑠) = 𝐼(𝑠)𝑅
Now, following ohms law, the resistance of the circuit element is a ratio of
the voltage to the current. So, we will solve for the quantity 𝑉(𝑠)/𝐼(𝑠) , and
the result will be the resistance of our circuit element:

𝑅 = 𝑉(𝑠)/𝐼(𝑠)

This ratio, the input/output ratio of our resistor is an important quantity, and
we will find this quantity for all of our circuit elements. We can say that the
transform of a resistor with resistance r is given by:
ℒ{𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟} = 𝑅 = 𝑟

Capacitors:
Let us look at the relationship between voltage, current, and capacitance, in
the time domain:

Solving for voltage, we get the following integral:

Then, transforming this equation into the Laplace domain, we get the

following:
Again, if we solve for the ratio 𝑉(𝑠)/𝐼(𝑠) , we get the following:

Therefore, the transform for a capacitor with capacitance C is given by:

ℒ{𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟} = 1/𝑠𝐶

Inductors:
Let us look at our equation for inductance:

putting this into the Laplace domain, we get the formula:

𝑉(𝑠) = 𝑠𝐿𝐼(𝑠)
And solving for our ratio 𝑉(𝑠)/𝐼(𝑠) , we get the following:
𝑉(𝑠)
= 𝑠𝐿
𝐼(𝑠)
Therefore, the transform of an inductor with inductance L is given by:
ℒ{𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟} = 𝑠𝐿
Use of Laplace transform in circuit theory:

The Laplace transform can be applied to solve the switching transient

phenomenon in the series or parallel RL, RC or RLC circuits. A simple
example of showing this application follows next.
Let us consider a series RLC circuit as shown in Fig 1. to which a D.C.
voltage V0 is suddenly applied.

Now, applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) to the circuit, we have,

Ri+Ldi/dt+1/C ∫ idt = V0 (3)

Differentiating both sides,

Ld2i/di2 +1/Ci+Rdi/dt = 0;

or, d2i/dt2 +(R/L) di/dt+(1/LC) i = 0 (4)

Now, applying Laplace transform to this equation, let us assume that the
solution of this equation is

i(t) = Kest where K and s are constants which may be real, imaginary or
complex. Now, from equation (4),

LKs2est+RKest +1/CKest = 0 which on simplification gives,

or, s2 +(R/L) s+1/LC = 0

The roots of this equation would be s1, s2\2 = R/2L ± √ (R2/4L2) -(1/LC)

The general solution of the differential equation is thus,

i(t) = K1es1t + K2es2t where K1 and K2 are determined from the initial
conditions.
 Now, if we define, α = Damping Coefficient = R/2L and Natural Frequency,
ωn = 1/√LC which is also known as undamped natural frequency or resonant
frequency.

Thus, roots are: s1, s2 =−α±√𝛼2—𝜔2n

The final form of solution depends on whether (R2/4L2) > 1/LC;(R2/4L2) =

1/LC and (R2/4L2) < 1/LC

The three cases can be analysed based on the initial conditions of the circuit
which are: overdamped case if α > ωn Critically damped case if α = ωn and
underdamped case if α < ωn.