Z Transform in Frequency

Domain Analysis

By
Suhas B C
The Frequency Domain Analysis
Z-Transform
The z-transform is a useful tool for the frequency
analysis of discrete-time signals and systems.
The z-transform may be used to solve constant
coefficient difference equations, evaluate the response of
a linear time-invariant system to a given input, and design
linear filters.
 The z-transform

Unilateral (one side z- bilateral (two side z-

transform) transform)
This type of z- This type of z-

transform is defined transform is defined

as as

Where z is a complex variable. The main disadvantages is its

We can see that X(z) is not convergence conditions . Its
concerned with the history of the mathematical conditions
x(n) prior to n=0 for the transform to exist and
converge
Example : Find the Z-transform of the finite duration
signal

Solution:-
The properties of Z-transform
 Linearity

 Shifting Property

 Convolution Theorem
FOURIER TRANSFORM
IN QUANTUM
MECHANICS
S. YASASWITHA REDDY
FOURIER TRANSFORM APPLICATION IN POSITION
AND MOMENTUM SPACE
 DYNAMIC DUO OF FOURIER TRANSFORM IN QUANTUM

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 A KEY TO UNDERSTANDING WHAT EACH OF THESE EQUATIONS ARE SAYING IS THAT

A MOMENTUM EIGEN FUNCTION IS:
 ANY WAVE EQUATION CAN BE WRITTEN AS A LINEAR COMBINATION OF
MOMENTUM EIGENFUNCTIONS .
 NOW AGAIN LET'S REFER BACK TO THE FIRST EQUATION
OF THE DYNAMIC DUO OF FOURIER TRANSFFORMS ,

 THIS NEGATIVE INFINITY TO INFINITY BOUNDS ARE THERE BECAUSE WE INTEGRATE OVER ALL
THE MOMENTUM EIGENVALUES.
 NOW WE HAVE TO DO THE INVERSE TO GET BACK FROM POSITION SPACE
TO MOMENTUM SPACE.
 THIS BRINGS THE SECOND EQUATION CALLED INVERSE FOURIER TRANSFORM.
 HERE WE HAVE PERFORMED MULTIPLICATION TO GET TO POSITION SPACE AND WE SHOULD
DO INVERSE OPERATION DIVISION TO GET BACK TO MOMENTUM SPACE .
 THIS IS HOW WE USE THE FOURIER TRANSFORM IN CHANGE OF BASIS BETWEEN
POSITION AND MOMENTUM SPACE .
 FEW OTHER APPLICATIONS IN QUANTUM
MECHANICS
 FOURIER TRANSFORM IS USED IN TIME DEPENDENCE OF A GUASSIAN WAVE PACKET .

 FOURIER TRENSFORM IS WIDELY USED IN QUANTUM COMPUTING .

 IT CONVERTS A FUNCTION FROM THE TIME DOMAIN TO FREQUENCY DOMAIN.

 HEISENBERG'S UNCERTAINITY PRINICPLE IS DERIVED FROM THIS FOURIER TRANSFORM .

TAYLOR SERIES AND IT’S
APPLICATION

By
Srinath R
 INFORMATION OF TAYLOR SERIES

What is the Taylor Series?

• The Taylor series is a way to write a function as an infinite sum of
terms that are constructed from the function’s derivatives at a
single point. A Taylor series is composed of individual terms called
Taylor polynomials. Summation of Taylor polynomials will
approximate a function with increasing accuracy as the number of
polynomials is increased. If the point where derivatives are
calculated is zero, the Taylor series is called a Maclaurin series.
• The Taylor Series, named after famed mathematician Brook Taylor, is a
way to represent a function as a sum of its derivatives (plus some other
things called weighted coefficients). Taylor series are extremely important
for calculus and useful in a wide range of mathematics, engineering, and
physics applications.
•
• The general idea is that any function should be able to be formulated by
adding together a string of other functions. If the other functions we are
adding together are powers of themselves it is called a power series. The
weighted coefficients are the important part, and discovering what they
should be is how the Taylor series was discovered.
 • Why are Taylor series
important?
• The Taylor series is useful
because it gives a framework
for approximating functions.
An approximation is when you
can describe the behavior of a
function in a relatively
accurate manner without
using the full (and difficult to
solve) full equation. Here are
some examples of the Taylor
series in action.
 APPLICATION OF TAYLOR SERIES

• Quantum and Nano Physics

• A number of very strange things happen at quantum and nano
scales of physics. Normal interactions like gravity become less
important and interactions between molecules follow a
completely different set of physics. When predicting these
behaviours it is often easy to express a function as a Taylor
series, then “chop off” some of the higher order terms. For
instance, you might only use the first, second, and third
derivatives because including the fourth makes the equation
harder to solve and no less able to predict the phenomena
being modelled.
 • USE IN CALCULATOR
• Ever wonder how a calculator can figure out sin x,
cos x, or a multitude of other functions so quickly?
Using a Maclaurin series (a Taylor series centered
at zero), many normal functions can be represented
as straight forward sums. Calculators are really
good at sums, so in order to make a calculator
quickly find sin(x) with 12 decimal point accuracy,
the Taylor series expansion of sin x centered at zero
is used. Taylor series are used a lot in computer
programming to help improve computational
efficiency, especially with the trigonometric
functions.
THANK YOU 🙂
Application of
Laplace Transform

SUHAS G L.
Introduction

 Transformation in mathematics deals with the conversion of one function to

another function that may not be in the same domain.
 Laplace transform is a powerful transformation tool, which literally transforms
the original differential equation into an elementary algebraic expression. This
latter can then simply be transformed once again, into the solution of the
original problem.
 This transform is named after the mathematician and renowned astronomer
Pierre Simon Laplace who lived in France.
Definition of Laplace Transform

Suppose that, f is a real or complex valued function of the

variable t > 0 and s is a real or complex parameter. We define
the Laplace transform of f as

F(s) = L{f(t)} = 0∫∞𝒆−𝒔𝒕 𝒇(𝒕)𝒅𝒕

Application in Power Systems Load
Frequency control

Load frequency:
Load frequency control of an interconnected power system means the interconnection of
more than one control area through tie lines. Sudden load variation in any control area of an
interconnected power system will lead to both frequency change and tie line power deviation
Power systems are comprised of generation, transmission and distribution systems. A generating system
consists of a turbogenerator set in which a turbine drives the electrical generator and the generator serves
the loads through transmission and distribution lines. It is required that the system voltage and frequency
has to be maintained at some pre-specified standards eg. frequency have to be maintained at 50 or 60 Hz
and voltage magnitude should be 0.95-1.05 per unit. In an interconnected power system, Load Frequency
Control (LFC) and Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) equipment are installed for each generator. The
controllers are set for a particular operating condition and take care of small changes in load demand to
maintain the frequency and voltage within specified limits. Changes in real power is dependent on the rotor
angle, δ and thus system frequency and the reactive power is dependent on the voltage magnitude that is,
the generator excitation. In order to design the control system, the initial step is the modeling of generator,
load, prime mover (turbine) and governer .
Generator Model

The modeling of a generator by applying the swing equation of a synchronous machine. When small per- 3 turbation is applied to
the swing equation, the equation modifies as follows:
(2H/ωs)(d2∆δ/dt2 ) = ∆Pm − ∆Pe (1)
This can be written for a small deviation in speed with speed expressed in per unit as
d∆ω/dt = 1/2H(∆Pm − ∆Pe) (2)
Now, applying Laplace transform to Eq(2), we obtain
∆Ω(s) = 1/2Hs[∆Pm(s) − ∆Pe(s)] (3)
This relation can be shown in the block diagram in Fig
Load model

The loads in the power system comprise of different kinds of electrical devices. Some loads are frequency
dependent such as motor loads and other loads like lighting and heating loads are independent of frequency. The
frequency sensitivity of the loads depend on the speed load characteristics of all the driven devices. The speed load
characteristic of a composite load is approximated by
∆Pe = ∆PL + D∆ω (4)
where ∆PL is the non frequency sensitive load change and D ∆ω is the frequency sensitive load change. D is
expressed as a percentage change in load divided by percent change in frequency. The combined block diagram
representation of generator and load is as shown in Fig
Conclusion:

The paper presented the application of Laplace transform in different areas of physics and electrical
power engineering. Besides these, Laplace transform is a very effective mathematical tool to
simplify very complex problems in the area of stability and control. With the ease of application of
Laplace transforms in myriad of scientific applications, many research softwares have made it
possible to simulate the Laplace transformable equations directly which has made a good
advancement in the research field.
Application of fourier series in heat
equation

By - Sudarshan Singh
Fourier series
 Heat on an insulated wire

Let us first study the heat equation.

Suppose that we have a wire (or a thin
metal rod) of length L that is insulated
except at the endpoints. Let “x” denote
the position along the wire and let “t”
denote time. See Figure
Let u(x; t) denote the temperature at
point x at time t. The equation governing
this setup is the so-called one-
dimensional heat equation:
 The Method of Separation of Variables

Let us divide the partial differential equation shown

earlier by the positive number σ, define κ/σ ≡ α and
rename α f(x, t) as f (x, t) again. Then we have,

We begin with the homogeneous case f(x, t) ≡ 0. To implement the

method of separation of variables we write T(x, t) = z(t) y(x), thus
expressing T(x, t) as the product of a function of t and a function of x.
Using ̇z to denote dz/dt and y’, y” to denote dy/dx, d 2y/dx 2,
respectively, we obtain,
 Assuming z(t), y(x) are non-zero,
Since the left hand side is a constant with respect to x
and the right hand side is a constant with respect to t,
both sides must, in fact, be constant. It turns out that
constant should be taken to be non-positive, so we
indicate it as −ω2; thus,

and we then have two ordinary differential equations ,

We first deal with the second equation, writing it as,

The general solution of this equation takes the

form , y(x) = c cosωx + d sinωx. Since we want y(x)
to be periodic with period L the choices for ω are,
 The choice k= 0 is only useful for the cosine; cos0 = 1.
Indexing the coefficients c, d to correspond to the
indicated choices of ω, we have solutions for the y
equation in the forms, C0 = constant.

Now, for each indicated choice ω=2πk/L the z equation

takes the form, Which has the general solution,

Absorbing the constant c appearing here into the earlier

ck, dk we have solutions of the homogeneous partial
differential equation in the form,
 Since we are working at this point with a linear
homogeneous equation, any linear combination of
these solutions will also be a solution. This means
we can represent a whole family of solutions,
involving an infinite number of parameters, in the
form,

It should be noted that this expression is a

representation of T (x, t) in the form of a Fourier series
with coefficients depending on the time, t:
 The coefficients ck(t), dk(t), k= 1,2,3,···in the above
representation of T(x, t) remain undetermined, of
course, to precisely the extent that the constants ck, dk
remain undetermined. In order to obtain definite values
for these coefficients it is necessary to use the initial
temperature distribution T0(x). This function has a
Fourier series representation,

Where,
 To obtain agreement at t= 0 between our Fourier series
representation of T(x,0) and this Fourier series
representation of T0 (x) we require, since exp(−α4π2k
2 / L 2 .0)= 1, c0=a0, ck=ak, dk=bk, k= 1,2,3,···

Thus we have, in fact, the heat equation,

Thank you