issue 101   Mar 2011

Mapping the footprint of ore

deposits in 3D using geophysical data
Potential field data provides
alteration signatures
Richard Chopping and Simon van der Wielen

Geologists identify rocks mainly through identifying the minerals Recent developments in
they contain. These might include the minerals which make up technology allow for the
the majority of rocks we see at the Earth’s surface, such as quartz or mapping of the distribution of
feldspars. They could also be minerals which are more commonly physical properties derived from
associated with ore deposits, such as pyrite (fool’s gold), pyrrhotite geophysical data in 3D. These
or magnetite. Geologists identify these minerals by their unique developments, which utilise
properties such as hardness, colour, crystal form and cleavage, geophysical inversions of gravity
streak, how heavy the mineral is, or how magnetic it is. The latter and magnetic data (Williams
two properties are termed ‘physical properties’, namely density and et al 2009), have produced 3D
magnetic susceptibility. models of density and magnetic
susceptibility. In a project
conducted between 2006 and
2008 for the Predictive Mineral
“This link between mineralogy, physical Discovery Co-operative Research
properties and geophysical responses is Centre (pmd*CRC), the authors
examined the 3D signatures
the key to mapping the signatures of ore of ore deposits in the Cobar
region of New South Wales
deposits using geophysics.” (NSW; figure 1).

145° QLD 150°

30°

Linking geology and geophysical data NSW

The physical properties of geological materials are the link between SYDNEY
geology and geophysics. A high density area of the Earth will ACT 35°

produce a gravity high; a low density area will produce a gravity VIC
low. Likewise, an area with high magnetic susceptibility will MELBOURNE 10-4681-1

produce a magnetic high. These geophysical responses are linked 0 300 km

to the minerals contained within the rocks in those areas; an area
of rock which contains more dense minerals has a higher density T11 Project regional 3D map
and will thus produce a gravity high. This link between mineralogy,
This study
physical properties and geophysical responses is the key to mapping
the signatures of ore deposits using geophysics. Often the processes
Figure 1. Location of the study area
which form a mineral deposit will produce minerals which have used for alteration mapping and
vastly different physical properties to the minerals already formed the study area for the pmd*CRC
in the host rocks. These differing physical properties resulting from Cobar Project T11 in the Lachlan
Subprovince and Cobar Basin.
the processes of mineralisation can produce a geophysical response.

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 issue 101   Mar 2011

The study area have properties that differ by

a considerable amount to the
The Cobar region has a rich mining history spanning more than
primary minerals in a rock
100 years (Glen 1987). The area has mainly been mined for copper,
will produce a rock which
gold, silver, lead and zinc, at mines such as CSA, Great Cobar
has properties which differ
and Peak. Significantly for this study, geophysical responses due
from the original rock hosting
to mineralisation are known in the Cobar region. Studies of these
the alteration.
responses have focussed predominantly on the magnetic and gravity
However, it should be noted
responses, although there are also anomalies in other geophysical data
that chemical alteration does
(such as electromagnetic data). The focus of this study was to map the
not result in a completely
alteration mineralogy in 3D utilising geophysical techniques.
altered rock. Many rocks
remain a mixture of primary
Chemical alteration in 3D and alteration minerals. As an
To understand the method by which the changes resulting from the example, a rock may contain
formation of ore deposits (termed chemical alteration) can be mapped 40 per cent primary minerals
in 3D requires some elaboration of the concept. and 60 per cent alteration
Chemical alteration is defined here as the change in the original minerals. In this case, the
(termed primary) mineralogy of a rock that results from fluids and/ density of the rock will be
or heat from the mineralising system interacting with the rocks 40 per cent of the density
through which they pass. The physical properties of rocks that host of the primary minerals and
ore deposits are controlled, predominantly, by the mineralogy of the 60 per cent of the density of
rock (Carmichael 1989). Consequently alteration minerals which the alteration minerals. For
magnetic susceptibility, the
10 1
Magnetite
relationship is more complex,
10 0 but many authors suggest
that it can be assumed to be
10 -1 Pyrrhotite
(magnetic) linear for concentrations of
10 -2 magnetite less than 20 per cent
Magnetic susceptibility (SI)

Pyrrhotite (non-magnetic) (Carmichael 1989).

10 -3 Sericite
Because of variations in
10 -4 mineralogy and other factors,
Pyrite

10 -5
any host rock in a mineral system
will not have a single, definitive
10 -6 Each line represents properties from one extreme
of host properties to the alteration mineral. set of physical properties. When
10 -7 plotted on a graph of physical
Muscovite 10-4681-2
properties, the variability in
10 -8
2 3 4 5
properties of a host rock can be
Density (tm -3) defined by a limited field (shaded
Field encompassing unaltered polygon; figure 2). This limited
Sericite alteration cone
(host) rocks
Magnetite alteration cone Magnetic pyrrhotite alteration cone field implies that rocks altered
Pyrite alteration cone to an assemblage of alteration
Figure 2. Magnetic susceptibility versus density plot showing a hypothetical minerals will be contained by
location for a distribution of host rock properties and the location of some a field which converges around
alteration minerals. The dashed lines indicate paths that progressively altered the physical properties of that
samples will take on this scatter plot. Any samples that plot within the field
defined by these dashed lines (the ‘alteration cone’) can be inferred to be altered assemblage. This is a feature
to the property shown at the apex of the alteration cone. we term the ‘alteration cone’

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 issue 101   Mar 2011

(Chopping 2007; figure 2). Samples plotting outside the field of simplest alteration assemblages
expected properties for a given host lithology, but within an alteration that can explain the physical
cone, are inferred to be altered to the alteration product which property trends observed in
is located at the apex of the alteration cone. the inversion results. These are
not the only alteration types
3D inversion of geophysical data anticipated in the Cobar region,
but these alteration minerals have
The concept of the alteration cone can be used to interpret the
the most significant density and
results of potential field 3D inversions. The gravity and magnetic
magnetic susceptibility contrasts
inversion programs—GRAV3D and MAG3D—used for this
when compared to the host rocks.
study were developed by The University of British Columbia-
They are also likely to occur in
Geophysical Inversion Facility. The programs produced volumes
sufficient quantities within the
of density contrast and magnetic susceptibility. These contrast with
inversion cells to be detected by
a background (reference) density or magnetic susceptibility which
the inversions. Some previous
can be converted to an absolute density or magnetic susceptibility
studies in the region indicate that
by adding the reference density or magnetic susceptibility for that
there may be alteration zones up
cell. For this study an area 40 kilometres east‑west, 50 kilometres
to 30 metres wide containing
north‑south and 16 kilometres deep was constructed, and this model
80 per cent sulphides; this
was divided into cubic cells of side length 250 metres. The density
would correspond to one or two
and magnetic susceptibility for each of these cells was derived using
per cent sulphides in a cell of
GRAV3D and MAG3D and the geological lithology for each cell was
250 cubic metres.
obtained from a 3D geological map constructed for the Cobar region
(van der Wielen and Korsch 2007). The property distribution for
each individual lithology, which was derived from the potential field
Changes in alteration
inversions, can be queried for signatures of alteration by applying the types
alteration cone methodology discussed above. A good illustration of the use of
Queries for alteration to magnetite, pyrrhotite, pyrite (potentially this technique is the Chesney
non-magnetic pyrrhotite) and sericite were undertaken. These are the Formation. This formation hosts
a significant quantity of base
10 1 metals in the region (Cook et al
10 0 1996). Its physical properties,
To magnetite
10 -1 derived from the potential
To magnetic pyrrhotite
10 -2 field inversions, show a fairly
Magnetic susceptibility (SI)

10 -3
typical trend, with the majority
To sericite To non-magnetic pyrrhotite
of cells clustered together
10 -4
(figure 3). The alteration
10 -5 To pyrite
-6
cones encompass almost all of
10
the samples that appear to be
10 -7 May represent pyrite + quartz,
interpreted as pyrite anomalous in their inverted
-8
10
properties. Some samples appear
10-4681-3
10 -9 to show densities and magnetic
2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0
Density (tm -3) susceptibilities that would be
Cobar model - Chesney Formation
more akin to alteration to pyrite
and quartz, however, these are
Figure 3. Magnetic susceptibility versus density plot for each cell of the interpreted to be pyrite in the
Chesney Formation. Properties are derived from a 3D potential field
inversion of magnetic and gravity data in the Cobar region.
final results to remain in our

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 issue 101   Mar 2011

a) Great Cobar Chesney a) The location of the known

New Occidental
Peak Gold Mine deposits in the Cobar region,
CSA
N
located on the change from
one alteration type to another,
CSA
8 km was entirely expected based on
our knowledge of the mineral
N

Great Cobar
Chesney
systems operating in the
New Occidental Cobar region. The change
Chesney Formation Peak Gold Mine
in alteration type corresponds
Chesney
to the conditions that promote
b) Great Cobar
New Occidental
Peak Gold Mine maximum deposition of base
CSA metals (Cook et al 1996; van
der Wielen and Korsch 2007).
b) Great Cobar
Chesney The change from magnetite-
8 km New Occidental
CSA Peak Gold Mine dominant to pyrrhotite-
N

dominant reflects a change in

10-4681-4
the redox state. The change
Magnetite Pyrite 8 km from pyrrhotite-dominant
to pyrite-dominant may also
N

Pyrrhotite Sericite
10-4681-5
represent a change in the
Magnetite Pyrite redox state, a change in the
availability of iron (Shi 1992),
Pyrrhotite Sericite
or possibly a temperature effect
if the pyrite-dominant alteration
Figure 4. a) 3D distribution of the Figure 5. 3D distribution of actually represents non-
Chesney Formation; b) distribution alteration for all lithologies in
of cells according to alteration type the Cobar region, viewed from a) magnetic pyrrhotite-dominant
which was obtained by querying above and b) the same perspective alteration. Pyrite and non-
the 3D model for all cells of the as for figure 4. Areas shown in magnetic pyrrhotite cannot be
Chesney Formation with properties black indicate that the geological
interpreted from the alteration cones units show normal host rock distinguished on their densities
(figure 3). physical properties. and magnetic susceptibilities
alone, as these properties are
virtually identical for both
simple alteration classification (figure 3). The results, when viewed minerals. A higher temperature
in their true 3D context, show that there appears to be magnetite allows the non-magnetic
pipes, representing zones of more oxidised alteration, cutting into hexagonal crystal symmetry
pyrrhotite or pyrite, which may represent zones of more reduced form of pyrrhotite to be stable,
alteration (figure 4). whereas, at a lower temperature,
When viewing the alteration results for all lithologies in the study the magnetic monoclinic crystal
region (figure 5), it is apparent that the major deposits of the region symmetry form of pyrrhotite
lie within the changes between alteration types. These changes are is stable (Dekkers 1989).
either from magnetite-dominant alteration to pyrrhotite-dominant
alteration or from pyrrhotite-dominant alteration to pyrite-
dominant alteration. The overall pattern of magnetite, pyrrhotite
Conclusions
and pyrite-dominant alteration zones is consistent with previous This technique has allowed
alteration studies in the region (Cook et al 1996; Lawrie and us to attribute anomalies in
Hinman 1998; Stegman 2001). physical properties, with respect

Mapping ore deposits in 3D www.ga.gov.au/ausgeonews | 4

 issue 101   Mar 2011

to the ‘normal’ host properties, with an expected alteration type. The Stegman CL. 2001. Cobar
technique is particularly applicable in the Cobar region because there Deposits: Still Defying
Classification! Society of Economic
is limited physical property contrast between host units and alteration Geologists Newsletter 44.
is the predominant cause of geophysical anomalies. The technique is van der Wielen SE & Korsch
also applicable in regions that are under significant cover. As with any RJ. 2007. 3D Architecture and
geophysical technique, the exact results will depend on the property Predictive Mineral System Analysis
contrast from host to altered product. A strong host-to-host property of the Central Lachlan Subprovince
and Cobar Basin, NSW. pmd*CRC
contrast will require a more detailed geological model to obtain the Final Report: Project T11. Predictive
best results, but mapping of gross alteration trends should still be Mineral Discovery Cooperative
possible with only a very simple inversion reference model. Research Centre (pmd*CRC),
Melbourne, Australia.
Williams NC, Oldenburg DW
Acknowledgements
& Leliévre P. 2009. Reliable
The research that underpins this article was conducted as part subsurface models for mineral
of the Predictive Mineral Discovery Cooperative Research Centre exploration. AusGeo News 96.
Available at:
(pmd*CRC) Project T11 in the Cobar region of New South Wales
www.ga.gov.au/ausgeonews/
(NSW). The Project involved the collaboration of Geoscience ausgeonews200912/surface.jsp
Australia, the NSW Department of Primary Industries, and five
mining companies in the region: CBH Resources Ltd, Cobar
The authors
Management Pty Ltd, Peak Gold Mines, Triako Resources Ltd and
Tritton Resources Ltd. This article was greatly improved by the Richard Chopping and Simon van
der Wielen were Distinguished
contributions of colleagues at Geoscience Australia: Russell Korsch
Geoscience Australia Lecturers
and Anthony Schofield who provided constructive feedback for the (DGAL) for 2008 and this article is
original presentation and Natalie Kositcin who edited the draft article. based on material from their DGAL
presentation. It is also closely based
References on a presentation at the 2009
Australian Society of Exploration
Carmichael RS. 1989. Practical Handbook of Physical Properties of Rocks Geophysicists (ASEG) conference in
and Minerals. CRC Press. Adelaide. The extended abstract for
Chopping R. 2007. Relationship between physical properties and the presentation was awarded ‘Best
alteration at the St Ives Gold Mine, WA. Australian Society of Exploration Written Paper’ during the conference.
Geophysicists 19th International Geophysical Conference and Exhibition,
Perth, WA.
Cook WG, Ford AJH, McDermott JJ, Standish PN, Stegman CL & Stegman
Related websites/articles
TM. 1996. The Cobar Mineral Field – A 1996 Perspective. Australian Predictive Mineral Discovery
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Spectrum Series 3/96. Co-operative Research Centre
Dekkers MJ. 1989. Magnetic properties of natural pyrrhotite. II. High- (pmd*CRC)
and low-temperature behaviour of Jrs and TRM as a function of grain size. www.pmdcrc.com.au
Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 57. University of British Columbia-
Glen RA. 1987. Copper- and Gold-Rich Deposits in Deformed Turbidites Geophysical Inversion Facility
at Cobar, Australia: Their Structural Control and Hydrothermal Origin. www.eos.ubc.ca/ubcgif/
Economic Geology 82.
AusGeo News 96: Expanding our
Lawrie KC & Hinman MC. 1998. Cobar-style polmetallic Au-Cu-Ag-Pb-Zn
knowledge of North Queensland
deposits. AGSO Journal of Australian Geology and Geophysics 17.
www.ga.gov.au/ausgeonews/
Shi P. 1992. Fluid fugacities and phase equilibria in the Fe-Si-O-H-S system. ausgeonews200912/northqld.jsp
American Mineralogist 77.

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