Cesare Beccaria

In 1764, with the encouragement of Pietro Verri, Beccaria

published a brief but celebrated treatise On Crimes and
Punishments. Some background information was provided
by Pietro, who was in the process of authoring a text on the
history of torture, and Alessandro Verri was an official at a
Milan prison who had firsthand experience of the prison's
appalling conditions. In this essay, Beccaria reflected the
convictions of his friends in the Il Caffè (Coffee House) group, who sought to cause reform
through Enlightenment discourse.

Almost immediately, the work was translated into French and English and went through several
editions. Editions of Beccaria's text follow two distinct arrangements of the material: that by
Beccaria himself, and that by French translator Andre Morellet (1765) who imposed a more
systematic order to Beccaria's original text.. He therefore left parts away, and sometimes added
to it. But he mainly changed the structure of the essay by moving, merging or splitting chapters.
These interventions were known to experts, but because Beccaria himself had indicated in a
letter to Morellet that he fully agreed with him, it was assumed that these adaptations also had
Beccaria's consent in substance. The differences are so great, however, that the book from the
hands of Morellet became quite another book than the book that Beccari wrote.

Beccaria opens his work describing the great need for reform in the criminal justice system, and
he observes how few studies there are on the subject of such reform. Throughout his work,
Beccaria develops his position by appealing to two key philosophical theories: social contract
and utility. Concerning utility (perhaps influenced by Helvetius), Beccaria argues that the
method of punishment selected should be that which serves the greatest public good.
 Cesare Lombroso , (born Nov. 6, 1835, Verona,
Austrian Empire [now in Italy]—died Oct. 19, 1909, Turin, Italy),
Italian criminologist whose views, though now largely
discredited, brought about a shift in criminology from a legalistic
preoccupation with crime to a scientific study of criminals.

Lombroso studied at the universities of Padua, Vienna, and

Paris, and from 1862 to 1876 he was professor
of psychiatry at the University of Pavia. In 1871 he became
director of the mental asylum at Pesaro, and in 1876 he
became professor of forensic medicine and hygiene at the University of Turin, where he
subsequently held appointments as professor of psychiatry (1896) and then of criminal
anthropology (1906).
Lombroso tried to discern a possible relationship between criminal psychopathology and
physical or constitutional defects. His chief contention was the existence of a hereditary, or
atavistic, class of criminals who are in effect biological throwbacks to a more primitive stage
of human evolution. Lombroso contended that such criminals exhibit a higher percentage of
physical and mental anomalies than do noncriminals. Among these anomalies, which he termed
stigmata, were various unusual skull sizes and asymmetries of the facial bones. Lombroso’s
theories were widely influential in Europe for a time, but his emphasis on hereditary causes of
crime was later strongly rejected in favour of environmental factors. Lombroso tried to reform
the Italian penal system, and he encouraged more humane and constructive treatment of convicts
through the use of work programs intended to make them more productive members of society.
Among his books are L’uomo delinquente (1876; “The Criminal Man”) and Le Crime, causes et
remèdes (1899; Crime, Its Causes and Remedies).
 Enrico Ferri
Their effort was called 19th century this was considered
the cutting edge of criminology. Criminologists were
trying to find out positivism. While some positivists
believed that criminals were born, not made, Enrico Ferri,
an Italian criminologist, was ahead of his time. Ferri
rejected these sorts of beliefs, known as biological
determinism, in favor of examining the role of social and
environmental factors in crime. This is an example of the
''nature versus nurture'' debate; whether an individual's
behavior or character is innate, or a result of experience. Ferri focused much more on the
''nuture'' side of the debate.

Ferri came to reject this view of biological determinism and instead recognized that an
individual's environment plays a role in whether or not they commit a crime. However, he also
had some beliefs that people disagree about today. He thought that environment, such as the use
of slang, works of art and literature, could cause someone to become a criminal. While this might
sound silly, how do you feel about Ferri came to reject this view of biological determinism and
instead recognized that an individual's environment plays a role in whether or not they commit a
crime. However, he also had some beliefs that people disagree about today. He thought that
environment, such as the use of slang, works of art and literature, could cause someone to
become a criminal. While this might sound silly, how do you feel about the belief that violent
video games and violence in films encourage people to commit crimes? Regardless of what you
think about it, it is still an influential idea today.
 Kretschmer, Ernest
Asthenic type
The essential characteristic of the asthenic type, in Kretschmer's
words, "a deficiency in thickness combined with an average
unlessened length". The deficiency is present in all parts of
body: muscle, bone, neck, face, trunk, extremities, and in all the
tissues skin. The average weight as well as the other body
measurements is below the general value for males.
We have, consequently, in the clearest cases a lean narrowly-
built man: with narrow shoulders, with thin muscles, delicately
boned hands, with a narrow, long, flat chest, on which we can usually see the ribs.
Athletic type
The male athletic type is characterized by the strong development of the musculature, skeleton,
and also the skin.
The athletic type among female corresponds to the male form. The certain characteristic
deviation is the development of fat, it's rich, but not electively abnormal as with pyknics. Besides
of these athletic type women with feminine rounded figure, there are also those women which
have outstanding musculature in body face and face. In many cases, athletic type women are
actually masculine in muscle relief.

Pyknic type
The pyknic type is characterized by the peripheral development of the body cavities
(breast, head, and stomach), and a tendency to a distribution of fat about the torso. They also
have a more graceful construction of the motor apparatus (limbs and shoulders).
The characteristics of the well-developed cases: rounded figure, middle height, a soft
broad face on a short massive neck, sitting between the shoulders, shoulders are not broad; soft,
rounded, and displaying little muscle relief limbs, the hands soft, rather wide and short.
 François-Marie Arouet (1694 - 1778) was

a French philosopher and writer of the Age of Enlightenment.

His intelligence, wit and style made him one of
France's greatest writers and philosophers, despite
the controversy he attracted.Voltaire (born François-Marie
Arouet) was a writer and philosopher in France in the 1700s.
At this time in Europe, popular thought was undergoing drastic
changes.

For centuries, our understandings of science, social laws, morality, etc. had been governed
almost exclusively by tradition and superstition, and by powerful institutions, such as
governments and organized religion. But with exciting scientific breakthroughs and rapid
technological progress, people were starting to question that. Instead of believing what
governments and churches told them, they started thinking empirically, meaning that they relied
on observation, experimentation, reason, etc. The result was a widespread challenge to
establishment authority, which led to revolutions in government, religion, education, and other
facets of society, a movement which we call the Enlightenment. Voltaire, whom you'll read
about in this lesson, was both shaped by the Enlightenment and was himself an Enlightenment
force, molding with his writings how others of his day understood the world around them.
 Karuppannan Jaishankar
Indian criminologist who teaches at Raksha Shakti
University. He is the editor in chief of International Journal of
Cyber Criminology[ and the founding father of Cyber
Criminology, an academic sub-discipline of Criminology.
Jaishankar is the Professor and Head of the Department of
Criminology at the Raksha Shakti University (First Internal
Security and Police University of India) Ahmedabad, Gujarat,
India. Earlier, he was a faculty member at the Department of
Criminology and Criminal Justice, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli. He was a
Commonwealth Academic Fellow during 2009-10 at the Centre for Criminal Justice Studies,
School of Law, University of Leeds. He proposed what he calls the "space transition theory",
which holds that people behave differently online than they do in real life. He is the founder
president of the South Asian Society of Criminology and Victimology (SASCV), which works
with motto "to develop Criminology and Victimology in the South Asian region" and has
organized three international conferences of SASCV as the General Chair (Jaipur, 2011,
Kanyakumari, 2013 and Goa, 2016).

He co-founded the Centre for Cyber Victim Counselling (CCVC) along with Debarati Halder,
which works with the motto to prevent cyber victimization and protect cyber victims.
 John Augustus Larson (December 1892 1965) was
a Police Officer for Berkeley, California, United States, and famous
for his invention of modern polygraph used in forensic
investigations. He was the first American police officer having an
academic doctorate and to use polygraph in criminal
investigations. After a famed career in criminal investigation

With its diverse collection of physiological indices, became known as the polygraph, which
Larson then fully developed for forensic use in 1921, and applied it in police investigations at the
Berkeley Police Department. His instrument provided continuous readings of blood pressure,
rather than discontinuous readings of the sort found in Marston's device. The first practical use
was in the summer of 1921.

The graphic results of the interrogation were printed large across the page, with arrows marking
each presumed lie. Vollmer exalted the machine to the press, which renamed it the 'lie detector.'
However, Larson himself used to refer to his apparatus as a 'cardio-pneumo psychogram,' which
basically consisted of a modification of an Erlanger Sphygmomanometer.
 Benjamin Mandelson
He is the Father of Victimology, exalted the machine to
the press, which renamed it the 'lie detector.' However,
Larson himself used to refer to his apparatus as a 'cardio-
pneumo psychogram,' which basically consisted of a
modification of an Erlanger Sphygmomanometer.

Victimology focuses on whether the perpetrators were

complete strangers, mere acquaintances, friends, family members, or even intimates and why a
particular person or place was targeted. Criminal victimization may inflict economic costs,
physical injuries, and psychological harm. Victimology is enriched by other fields of study,
particularly psychology, social work, sociology, economics, law, and political science. Whereas
lawyers, criminal justice officials, counselors, therapists, and medical professionals provide the
actual services, victimologists study the kinds of help injured parties need and the effectiveness
of efforts intended to make them “whole again,” both financially and emotionally. Victims
of murder, rape, spousal abuse, elder abuse, child abuse, and kidnapping have received the most
research attention, but entire categories of victims that were formerly overlooked have been
rediscovered (e.g., people with disabilities that make them unusually vulnerable and targets of
workplace violence, hate crimes, and terrorist attacks). Other groups have been discovered and
protected, such as individuals who have fallen victim to identity theft.
 August "Gus" Vollmer
He was the first police chief of Berkeley, California and a leading
figure in the development of the field of criminal justice in the
United States in the early 20th century. Vollmer contributed to
sections of the Wickersham Commission national criminal justice
report of 1931, namely to the fourteenth and final volume, The
Police, which advocated for a well-selected, well-educated, and well-funded professionalized
police force. Other portions of the Wickersham report were sharply critical of current police
practice; one of the volumes was entitled Lawlessness in Law Enforcement. Vollmer was the
1931 recipient of the Benjamin Ide Wheeler Medal. He was instrumental in the establishment of
what would become the American Society of Criminology, the leading professional
criminological association in the world. In the ensuing years, Vollmer's reputation as the "father
of modern law enforcement" grew. He was the first chief to require that police officers attain
college degrees, and persuaded the University of California to teach criminal justice. In 1916,
UC Berkeley established a criminal justice program, headed by Vollmer. At Berkeley, he
taught O.W. Wilson, who went on to become a professor and continued efforts to professionalize
policing, by being the first to establish the first police science degree at Municipal University of
Wichita (now Wichita State University). This is often seen as the start of criminal justice as an
academic field.
 Dr Edmond Locard
Was a French criminalist renowned for being a pioneer in forensic
science and criminology, often informally referred to as the
“Sherlock Holmes of France”. Whilst studying medicine he
developed an interest in the application of science to legal matters,
writing his thesis on Legal Medicine under the Great King (La
medecine legale sous le Grand Roy). He went on to publish over 40
pieces of work, the most famous being his seven-volume series
Traite de criminalistique (Treaty of Criminalistics). the opportunity to form the first police
laboratory in the form of a few small attic rooms, where evidence collected from crime scenes
could be scientifically examined Locard is also renowned for his contribution to the
improvement of dactylography, an area of study which deals with fingerprints. After the
laboratory in Lyon was established, he developed the science of poroscopy, the study of
fingerprint pores and the impressions produced by these pores. He went on to write that if 12
specific points were identical between two fingerprints, it would be sufficient for positive
identification. This work led to the use of fingerprints in identifying criminals being adopted
over Bertillon’s earlier technique of anthropometry. In 1929, Locard and numerous other
criminalists founded the International Academy of Criminalistics in Switzerland. However this
building did not survive the Second World War. however his exchange principle has been a
greatly influential piece of work in forensic science, and is frequently quoted to this day.
 Erving Goffman

Canadian-American sociologist, social psychologist, and writer,

considered by some "the most influential American sociologist of
the twentieth century". In 2007 he was listed by The Times Higher
Education Guide as the sixth most-cited author in
the humanities and social sciences, behind Anthony
Giddens, Pierre Bourdieu and Michel Foucault, and ahead
of Jürgen Habermas.

Goffman was the 73rd president of the American Sociological Association. His best-known
contribution to social theory is his study of symbolic interaction. This took the form
of dramaturgical analysis, beginning with his 1956 book, The Presentation of Self in Everyday
Life. Goffman's other major works include Asylums (1961), Stigma (1963), Interaction
Ritual(1967), Frame Analysis (1974), and Forms of Talk (1981). His major areas of study
included the sociology of everyday life, social interaction, the social construction of self, social
organization (framing) of experience, and particular elements of social life such as total
institutions and stigmas.
 Alfred Blumstein
Is an American scientist and the J. Erik Jonsson University
Professor of Urban Systems and Operations Research at
the Heinz College and Department of Engineering and
Public Policy at Carnegie Mellon University. He is known as
one of the top researchers in criminology and operations
research.He was awarded the Wolfgang Award for
Distinguished Achievement in Criminology in 1998 and was
elected to the National Academy of Engineering in 1998. He also shares the 2007 Stockholm
Prize in Criminology, the highest award in the field—he and his co-recipient are the first two
Americans to earn the prize. In 1996, he was awarded an honorary Doctor of Laws degree by
the John Jay College of Criminal Justice of the City University of New York.

 1968. National program of research, development, test, and evaluation on law enforcement
and criminal justice.
 1970. Systems analysis for social problems. Edited with Murray Kamrass and Armand B.
Weiss.
 1978. Assembly of Behavioral and Social Sciences (U.S.). Panel on Research on Deterrent
and Incapacitative Effects. Deterrence and incapacitation : estimating the effects of criminal
sanctions on crime rates. Edited with Jacqueline Cohen and Daniel Nagin.
 1983. Research on sentencing : the search for reform. Edited with others.
 1986. Criminal careers and "career criminals". Edited with others.
 2000. Crime drop in America. Edited with Joel Wallman.
 2007. Key issues in criminal career research : new analyses of the Cambridge Study in
Delinquent Development. With Alex R. Piquero and David P. Farrington
 Mathieu Orfila

Toxicology is a discipline, overlapping

with biology, chemistry, pharmacology, and medicine, that
involves the study of the adverse effects of chemical
substances on living organisms and the practice
of diagnosing and treating exposures to toxins and toxicants.
The relationship between dose and its effects on the exposed
organism is of high significance in toxicology. Factors that
influence chemical toxicityinclude the dosage (and whether it is
acute or chronic), route of exposure, species, age, sex, and
environment. Toxicologists are experts on poisons and poisoning. The classic experimental tool
of toxicology is testing on non-human animals. Example of model organisms are Galleria
mellonella, which can replace small mammals, and Zebrafish, which allow for the study of
toxicology in a lower order vertebrate in vivo. As of 2014, such animal testing provides
information that is not available by other means about how substances function in a living
organism The use of non-human animals for toxicology testing is opposed by some organisations
for reasons of animal welfare, and it has been restricted or banned under some circumstances in
certain regions, such as the testing of cosmetics in the European Union.
 Ronald L. Akers
American criminologist widely known for his social
learning theory of crime. After earning a Ph.D.
in sociology from the University of Kentucky (1966), Akers
taught at several universities before joining the faculty of
the University of Florida (1980), where he served as professor
of sociology and director of the Center for Studies in
Criminology and Law. Akers argued that, although criminal
behaviour is acquired through social interaction and modeling, it
is maintained over time through the actual consequences of criminal acts, both social and
nonsocial. He further argued that social learning is the process that mediates the effects of social
structural factors on criminal and deviant behaviour. Akers tested his theory in a variety of
studies involving delinquencyand drug, alcohol, and cigarette use. In 1988 he received the Edwin
H. Sutherland Award from the American Society of Criminology for outstanding contributions to
theory and research.
 Marvin Wolfgang
American criminologist who was described by the British
Journal of Criminology as “the most influential criminologist
in the English-speaking world.”
He also served on numerous national commissions, including
the Presidential Commission on the Causes and Prevention of
Violence (1968–69), of which he was research director, and
the National Commission on Obscenity and Pornography
(1968–70).
In The Subculture of Violence: Towards an Integrated Theory in Criminology (1967), Wolfgang
and his coauthor, Franco Feracutti, argued that this behaviour was the product of violent
subcultures in which each person in a conflict typically believes that the other will become
violent, a finding that prompted proposals to break up the subcultures by scattering low-income
housing. Wolfgang and Feracutti’s theory became highly controversial when it was used to
explain high rates of violence among African Americans and Southern white males.
Wolfgang wrote more than 30 books. He was the recipient of numerous awards, including
the Edwin H. Sutherland Award of the American Society of Criminology, the Beccarian Gold
Medal from the German, Austrian, and Swiss Society of Criminology, and the Roscoe
Pound Award of the National Council on Crime and Delinquency. He advised nearly 100
doctoral students from throughout the world, many of whom became leading criminologists.
 Alexandre Lacassagne

Creating the Lacassagne School of Criminology in Lyon,

France, Alexandre Lacassagne was a contemporary and
rival of Lombroso, who came to crime and psychology
through his work as a physician. It was his belief that
criminality was influenced more by social factors, than
hereditary ones; he would determine his own categories
concerning criminality: thought; act; and instinctual. His
partial emphasis on phrenology meant his contributions were overlooked for some time. He had
a keen interest in sociology and psychology, and the correlation of these disciplines to criminal
and "deviant" behaviour. He considered an individual's biological predisposition and social
environment to be important factors in criminal behavior. Lacassagne supported the initiative of
his friend Léon Gambetta, an Opportunist Republican, in favour of the 27 May 1885 Act
establishing penal colonies, dubbed "Law on relegation of recidivists" (the draft project had been
deposed by Pierre Waldeck-Rousseau and Martin Feuillée). He also opposed the abolition
of death penalty, proposed in 1906 by an alliance of Radicals and Socialists and rejected in 1908,
as he considered that some criminals were unredeemable. Lacassagne was a principal founder in
the fields of medical jurisprudence and criminal anthropology. He was a specialist in the field
of toxicology, and was a pioneer regarding bloodstain pattern analysis and the research of bullet
markings and their relationship to specific weapons.
 Jock Young
He developed the concept of moral panic. The research
was published as The Drug takers. He was a founding
member of the National Deviancy Conferences and a
group of critical criminologists in which milieu he wrote
the groundbreaking, . He completed research on criminal
victimization, stop and search, and urban riots, and was a
frequent contributor to media debates on crime and policing. He was lead investigator in the
Gifford Inquiry of 1985 following the Broadwater Farm riot. The Centre for Criminology was
particularly known for left realist criminology and its series of local crime victimization surveys,
for example, the Islington Crime Surveys which were conducted in 1986 and 1990. In 1998 he
was awarded the Sellin-Glueck Award for Distinguished International Scholar by the American
Society of Criminology followed in 2003 by the Lifetime Achievement Award of the Critical
Criminology Division.
 Hans Gross
Austrian criminologist Handbuch für
Untersuchungsrichter (1893; Criminal Investigation) helped to
establish the science of forensics, especially in terms of a cross-
transfer of evidence, such as dirt, fingerprints, carpet fibres,
or hair, from the criminal to the victim. Early in the 20th century,
serological research led to the discovery of the A, B, AB, and
O blood groups, thus increasing the value of blood as evidence at
a crime scene. In the mid-20th century, advances
in biochemistry and technology resulted in the discovery of unique gene markers in each person;
these genetic differences allow for the DNA fingerprinting of hair, blood, semen, and tissue.
Thus, DNA testing was a major contribution to modern forensic science, though forensic
anthropologists generally do not conduct such DNA analyses and often only supplies samples to
be tested. The 20th and 21st centuries have also seen substantial growth in public and private
forensic laboratories, enabling the collection and study of empirical evidence.
Work of German anthropologist Johann Friedrich Blumenbach in comparative
human morphology, early forensic anthropologists relied upon anthropometry (the science of
recording measurements of various parts of the human body). They used such physical
measurements to determine general biological traits within a human population, as well as
morphological differences from population to population, including the alleged physical
characteristics of races and criminals. This comparative methodology has largely been
supplemented by the more exacting sciences of fingerprinting and DNA profiling for
determining a positive identification.
 Albert Sherman Osborn
is considered the father of the science of questioned
document examination in North America.

His seminal book Questioned Documents was first

published in 1910 and later heavily revised as a second edition in
1929. Other publications, including The Problem of
Proof (1922), The Mind of the Juror (1937), and Questioned
Document Problems (1944) were widely acclaimed by both the legal profession and by public
and private laboratories concerned with matters involving questioned documents.

Osborn is also known for founding the American Society of Questioned Document
Examiners (ASQDE) on September 2, 1942. In 1913 Osborn began inviting select practitioners
to informal educational gatherings hosted in his home and those meetings eventually led to
formation of the ASQDE. He became the society's first president and was involved intimately
with the discipline and Society until his death four years later.

Osborn was involved in a number of high-profile cases during his time, including the
murder of Mary Phagan and the Lindbergh kidnapping, the latter of which was featured in the
film J. Edgar (2011), where Osborn is played by actor Denis O'Hare.
 Calvin H. Goddard Father of Forensic BallisticsCalvin
Hooker Goddard was born on October 30, 1891. He was an
army officer, academic researcher and most importantly to
students of and practicing criminal justice professionals, a
pioneer in forensic ballistics. In fact, most consider him to have
been the Father of Ballistic Forensics.Calvin Goddard introduced
the use of the scientific method to Forensic Firearm
Identification. This was an important contribution because at the
time, numerous individuals were taking a laissez faire approach
to ballistics; charlatanism was rampant in the field. His methods demonstrated that the science
was reliable and raised the level of professionalism demanded by law enforcement agencies and
the public. The Bureau of Forensic Ballistics was the United States’ first independent
criminalistics laboratory, which Goddard headed, and where ballistics, fingerprinting, blood
analysis and trace evidence were brought under one roof. When the lab began publishing
the American Journal of Police Science, which was edited by Colonel Goddard, FBI Director J.
Edgar Hoover strongly encouraged his special agents in charge to subscribe to it and he supplied
articles on fingerprint issues and Bureau responsibilities to the journal. The following year the
Bureau contributed three articles for the journal's series entitled “Organized Protection
Against Organized Crime”. Hoover also sent a number of representatives to a symposium that
Goddard sponsored on scientific crime detection. He was also an advisor to FBI when they set up
a similar forensic laboratory.