AI

ASSIGNMENT
Vedansh Sahu
(DD1611303021)

UNIT-1

Q1. Explain AI and typical AI problems.

Ans. In the field of arCficial intelligence, the most difficult problems are
informally known as AI-complete or AI-hard, implying that the difficulty of these
computaConal problems is equivalent to that of solving the central arCficial
intelligence problem—making computers as intelligent as people, or strong AI.
[1] To call a problem AI-complete reflects an aUtude that it would not be solved
by a simple specific algorithm.
AI-complete problems are hypothesised to include computer vision, natural
language understanding, and dealing with unexpected circumstances while
solving any real world problem.[2]
Currently, AI-complete problems cannot be solved with modern computer
technology alone, but would also require human computaCon. This property
could be useful, for example, to test for the presence of humans
as CAPTCHAs aim to do, and for computer security to circumvent brute-force
aZacks.
Q2. List down measure of intelligence.
If you have an intelligent machine, in order to define an MQ for it, you need ,
perhaps to:
1) Define the environment ; Choose a parameter that defines the complexity of
the environment.
2) Define what performance means for your machine in that environment.
3) Formalise an equaCon for success in that environment.
This is just a simple framework, but may help to understand the MQ sensiCviCes
with the environment and pin down the performance.

Q3. Explain Chinese room thought experiment and Turing test.

Ans. The Chinese room argument is a thought experiment of John Searle
(1980a) and associated (1984) derivaCon. It is one of the best known and widely
credited counters to claims of arCficial intelligence (AI)---that is, to claims that
computers do or at least can (someday might) think. According to Searle's
original presentaCon, the argument is based on two key claims: brains cause
minds and syntax doesn't suffice for seman4cs. Its target is what Searle dubs
"strong AI." According to strong AI, Searle says, "the computer is not merely a
tool in the study of the mind, rather the appropriately programmed computer
really is a mind in the sense that computers given the right programs can be
literally said to understand and have other cogniCve states" . Searle contrasts
strong AI with "weak AI." According to weak AI, computers just simulate thought,
their seeming understanding isn't real understanding (just as-if), their seeming
calculaCon is only as-if calculaCon, etc. Nevertheless, computer simulaCon is
useful for studying the mind (as for studying the weather and other things).

Q4.Explain raConal agent.

Ans. In machine learning and arCficial intelligence research, the “raConal agent”
is a concept that guides the use of game theory and decision theory in applying
arCficial intelligence to various real-world scenarios. The raConal agent is a
theoreCcal enCty based on a realisCc model, that has preferences for
advantageous outcomes, and will seek to achieve them in a learning scenario.
Q5. Explain following Search algorithms-
a)BFS-Best-first search in its most general form is a simple heurisCc
search algorithm. “HeurisCc” here refers to a general problem-solving rule or set
of rules that do not guarantee the best soluCon or even any soluCon, but serves
as a useful guide for problem-solving.
b)DFS-Depth-first search (DFS) is an algorithm for traversing or searching tree or
graph data structures. The algorithm starts at the root node (selecCng some
arbitrary node as the root node in the case of a graph) and explores as far as
possible along each branch before backtracking.
c)BidirecConal search- It is a graph search algorithm that finds a shortest
path from an iniCal vertex to a goal vertex in a directed graph. It runs two
simultaneous searches: one forward from the iniCal state, and one backward
from the goal, stopping when the two meet. The reason for this approach is that
in many cases it is faster: for instance, in a simplified model of search problem
complexity in which both searches expand a tree with branching factor b, and the
distance from start to goal is d, each of the two searches has complexity O(bd/2)
(in Big O notaCon), and the sum of these two search Cmes is much less than
the O(bd) complexity that would result from a single search from the beginning
to the goal.
d)Depth limited search-The unbounded tree problem appeared in DFS can be
fixed by imposing a limit on the depth that DFS can reach, this limit we will call
depth limit l, this solves the infinite path problem.
Q6. Explain heurisCc funcCon.
Ans. The heurisCc funcCon is a way to inform the search about the direcCon to a
goal. It provides an informed way to guess which neighbour of a node will lead to
a goal. There is nothing magical about a heurisCc funcCon. It must use only
informaCon that can be readily obtained about a node.
Q7. Explain with example- A*, AO* and BFS.
Ans. A*-In computer science, A* (pronounced "A star") is a computer
algorithm that is widely used in pathfinding and graph traversal, which is the
process of finding a path between mulCple points, called "nodes". It enjoys
widespread use due to its performance and accuracy. However, in pracCcal travel-
rouCng systems, it is generally outperformed by algorithms which can pre-
process the graph to aZain beZer performance, although other work has found
A* to be superior to other approaches.
AO*-When a problem can be divided into a set of sub problems, where each sub
problem can be solved separately and a combinaCon of these will be a soluCon,
AND-OR graphs or AND - OR trees are used for represenCng the soluCon. The
decomposiCon of the problem or problem reducCon generates AND arcs. One
AND are may point to any number of successor nodes. All these must be solved
so that the arc will rise to many arcs, indicaCng several possible soluCons. Hence
the graph is known as AND - OR instead of AND. 

An algorithm to find a soluCon in an AND - OR graph must handle AND area
appropriately. A* algorithm can not search AND - OR graphs efficiently.
Q8. Explain state space and search.
Ans. The state space is then searched to find a soluCon to the problem. A state
space essenCally consists of a set of nodes represenCng each state of the
problem, arcs between nodes represenCng the legal moves from one state to
another, an iniCal state and a goal state.
Q9- What is producCon system?
Ans-A producCon system (or producCon rule system) is a computer program
typically used to provide some form of arCficial intelligence, which consists
primarily of a set of rules about behaviour but it also includes the mechanism
necessary to follow those rules as the system responds to states of the
world[citaCon needed]. Those rules, termed producCons, are a
basic representaCon found useful in automated planning, expert
systems and acCon selecCon.
Q10. Explain game theory.
Ans. Game theory is the process of modelling the strategic interacCon between
two or more players in a situaCon containing set rules and outcomes. While used
in a number of disciplines, game theory is most notably used as a tool within the
study of economics. The economic applicaCon of game theory can be a valuable
tool to aide in the fundamental analysis of industries, sectors and any strategic
interacCon between two or more firms.
Q11. DifferenCate minimax algorithm and Alpha beta pruning.
Ans. Minimax is a recursive algorithm which is used to choose an opCmal move
for a player assuming that the other player is also playing opCmally.
It is used in games such as Cc-tac-toe, go, chess, Isola, checkers, and many other
two-player games.
Such games are called games of perfect informaCon because it is possible to see
all the possible moves of a parCcular game.
There can be two-player games which are not of perfect informaCon such as
Scrabble because the opponent’s move cannot be predicted.
It is similar to how we think when we play a game: “if I make this move, then my
opponent can only make only these moves,” and so on.
Minimax is called so because it helps in minimising the loss when the other
player chooses the strategy having the maximum loss.
If we apply alpha-beta pruning to a standard minimax algorithm, it returns the
same move as the standard one, but it removes (prunes) all the nodes that are
possibly not affecCng the final decision. Alpha–beta pruning is a search algorithm
that seeks to decrease the number of nodes that are evaluated by the minimax
algorithm in its search tree. ... When applied to a standard minimax tree, it
returns the same move as minimax would, but prunes away branches that cannot
possibly influence the final decision.
Q12.What is an agent and explain different types of agent architecture.
Ans. An agent is anything that can perceive its environment through sensors and
acts upon that environment through effector.
Types of Agents
Agents can be grouped into four classes based on their degree of perceived
intelligence and capability :
Simple Reflex Agents
Model-Based Reflex Agents
Goal-Based Agents
UClity-Based Agents
Simple reflex agents
Simple reflex agents ignore the rest of the percept history and act only on the
basis of the current percept. Percept history is the history of all that an agent has
perceived Cll date. The agent funcCon is based on the condiCon-acCon rule. A
condiCon-acCon rule is a rule that maps a state i.e, condiCon to an acCon. If the
condiCon is true, then the acCon is taken, else not. This agent funcCon only
succeeds when the environment is fully observable. For simple reflex agents
operaCng in parCally observable environments, infinite loops are oqen
unavoidable. It may be possible to escape from infinite loops if the agent can
randomise its acCons. Problems with Simple reflex agents are :
Very limited intelligence.
No knowledge of non-perceptual parts of state.
Usually too big to generate and store.
If their occurs any change in the environment, then the collecCon of rules need
to be updated.

Model-based reflex agents
It works by finding a rule whose condiCon matches the current situaCon. A
model-based agent can handle parCally observable environments by use of
model about the world. The agent has to keep track of internal state which is
adjusted by each percept and that depends on the percept history. The current
state is stored inside the agent which maintains some kind of structure describing
the part of the world which cannot be seen. UpdaCng the state requires the
informaCon about :
how the world evolves in-dependently from the agent, and
how the agent acCons affects the world.

Goal-based agents
These kind of agents take decision based on how far they are currently from
their goal(descripCon of desirable situaCons). Their every acCon is intended to
reduce its distance from goal. This allows the agent a way to choose among
mulCple possibiliCes, selecCng the one which reaches a goal state. The
knowledge that supports its decisions is represented explicitly and can be
modified, which makes these agents more flexible. They usually require search
and planning. The goal based agent’s behavior can easily be changed.


UClity-based agents
The agents which are developed having their end uses as building blocks are
called uClity based agents. When there are mulCple possible alternaCves, then to
decide which one is best, uClity based agents are used.They choose acCons based
on a preference (uClity) for each state. SomeCmes achieving the desired goal is
not enough. We may look for quicker, safer, cheaper trip to reach a desCnaCon.
Agent happiness should be taken into consideraCon. UClity describes
how “happy” the agent is. Because of the uncertainty in the world, a uClity agent
chooses the acCon that maximizes the expected uClity. A uClity funcCon maps a
state onto a real number which describes the associated degree of happiness.




Q13.Write short notes on:
a)State space search is a process used in the field of computer science, including
arCficial intelligence (AI), in which successive configuraCons or states of an
instance are considered, with the intenCon of finding a goal state with a desired
property.
b) A Water Jug Problem: You are given two jugs, a 4-gallon one and a 3-gallon
one, a pump which has unlimited water which you can use to fill the jug, and the
ground on which water may be poured. Neither jug has any measuring markings
on it.
c) A producCon system (or producCon rule system) is a computer program
typically used to provide some form of arCficial intelligence, which consists
primarily of a set of rules about behavior but it also includes the mechanism
necessary to follow those rules as the system responds to states of the world.
d) In the missionaries and cannibals problem, three missionaries and three
cannibals must cross a river using a boat which can carry at most two people,
under the constraint that, for both banks, if there are missionaries present on the
bank, they cannot be outnumbered by cannibals (if they were, the cannibals
would eat the missionaries). The boat cannot cross the river by itself with no
people on board. And, in some variaCons, one of the cannibals has only one arm
and cannot row.
e) The problem. The 4-Queens Problem consists in placing four queens on
a 4 x 4 chessboard so that no two queens can capture each other. That is, no
two queens are allowed to be placed on the same row, the same column or the
same diagonal.

Q14.List down different types of searching techniques.
Ans. An uninformed search is a brute-force or "blind" search. ...
Uniformed search technique have access only to the problem definiCon
whereas Informed search technique have access to the heurisCc funcCon and
problem definiCon. Uniformed search is less efficient whereas informed search is
more efficient.
Q4.Explain knowledge representaCon techniques in AI and what are the semanCc
elements used in each techniques.
Ans. All of these, in different ways, involve hierarchical representaCon of data.
Lists - linked lists are used to represent hierarchical knowledge
Trees - graphs which represent hierarchical knowledge. LISP, the main
programming language of AI, was developed to process lists and trees.
SemanCc networks - nodes and links - stored as proposiCon.
Schemas - used to represent common-sense or stereotyped knowledge.
Frames (Minsky) - Describe objects. Consist of a cluster of nodes and links
manipulated as a whole. Knowledge is organised in slots. Frames are
hierarchically organised.
Scripts (Schank and Abelson) - Describe event rather than objects. Consist of
stereotypically ordered causal or temporal chain of events.
Rule-based representaCons (Newell and Simon) - used in specific problem-solving
contexts. Involve producCon rules containing if-then or situaCon-acCon pairs.
Specific example: problem space representaCons. Contain:
IniCal state
Goal state
Legal operators, i.e. things you are allowed to do
Operator restricCons, i.e. factors which constrain the applicaCon of operators
(More on Problem-space representaCons and strategies in Semester 2 - Problem
solving - expert-novice studies)
Logic-based representaCons - may use deducCve or inducCve reasoning. Contain:
Facts and premises
Rules of proposiConal logic (Boolean - dealing with complete statements
Rules of predicate calculus (allows use of addiConal informaCon about objects in
the proposiCon, use of variables and funcCons of variables
Measures of certainty - may involve Certainty Factors (eg. If symptom then (CF)
diagnosis) which could be derived from expert esCmaCon or from staCsCcal data;
Bayesian probability; or Fuzzy logic (in which the concepts or informaCon itself
has some associated certainty value)
Q15.Explain the process of resoluCon for proposiConal and predicate logic.
Ans. ProposiConal logic-The resoluCon rule in proposiConal logic is a single valid
inference rule that produces a new clause implied by two clauses containing
complementary literals. A literal is a proposiConal variable or the negaCon of a
proposiConal variable. Two literals are said to be complements if one is the
negaCon of the other (in the following, {\displaystyle \lnot c}is taken to be the
complement to {\displaystyle c}). The resulCng clause contains all the literals that
do not have complements.
Predicate logic- Two literals are contradictory if one can be unified with the
negaCon of the other. For example man(x) and man (Himalayas) are contradictory
since man(x) and man(Himalayas ) can be unified. In predicate logic unificaCon
algorithm is used to locate pairs of literals that cancel out. It is important that if
two instances of the same variable occur, then they must be given idenCcal
subsCtuCons. The resoluCon algorithm for predicate logic as follows

Let f be a set of given statements and S is a statement to be proved.

1. Covert all the statements of F to clause form.

2. Negate S and convert the result to clause form. Add it to the set of clauses
obtained in 1.

3. Repeat unCl either a contradicCon is found or no progress can be made or a

predetermined amount of effort has been expended.

Q16.Explain weak slot and filer structure and strong slot and filler structure.

Weak slot and filler structures are a data structure and the reasons to use this
data structure are as follows: It enables aZribute values to be retrieved quickly.
AsserCons are indexed by the enCCes. Binary predicates are indexed by first
argument. ProperCes of relaCons are easy to describe. And it allows ease of
consideraCon as it embraces aspects of object oriented programming. We
describe the two kinds of structures here: SemanCcs and Frames.
The main problem with semanCc networks and frames is that they lack formality,
there is no specific guideline on how to use the representaCon and if I use the
word “has” in a way other than “physical property”, your reasoning might break
down and isa and instance aZributes seem clearly defined, but the aZributes
may not be. In frame when things change, we need to modify all frames that are
relevant – this can be Cme consuming. Strong slot and filler structures typically
represent links between objects according to more rigid rules, specific noCons of
what types of object and relaCons between them are provided. We have types of
strong slot and filler structure.
Q17.What are the different approaches to knowledge representaCon.
Ans. The symbolic approach is the classical approach to AI, someCmes called
“Good Old Fashioned AI” or GOFAI. It is based on the ‘physical symbol system
hypothesis’ that states that a system based on the processing of symbols has the
“necessary and sufficient means for general intelligent acCon” (Newell and
Simon). Symbols in this case are things that represent or stand for something else
by associaCon. Human language consists of symbols; for example, the word ‘moa’
is a symbol that represents the concept of the New Zealand bird depicted above.
In the field of knowledge representaCon, symbols are usually denoted by an
idenCfier in a programming language.
The symbolic approach to AI is a “knowledge-based” approach requiring the
building of knowledge bases with substanCal knowledge of each problem
domain.It uses a top-down design philosophy consisCng of several levels: the
“knowledge level” at the top, which specifies all the knowledge that the system
needs; the “symbol level”, where the knowledge is specified in symbolic
structures and idenCfiers in some programming language (for example, using lists
or tables in Net Logo); and the “implementaCon level”, which are the symbol
processing operaCons that are actually implemented (Nilsson). There are
immediate problems with a symbolic approach to represenCng knowledge. For
example, try using symbols (e.g. words) to describe the following:
what the Mona Lisa painCng on the right looks like (to a person blind from birth);
the sound of bagpipes (to a person born deaf);
the taste of milk;
how sandpaper feels like;
what coffee smells like.

Q18.Explain essenCal properCes of knowledge representaCon.

Ans. The following properCes should be possessed by a knowledge
representaCon system.
RepresentaConal Adequacy
-- the ability to represent the required knowledge;
InferenCal Adequacy
- the ability to manipulate the knowledge represented to produce new
knowledge corresponding to that inferred from the original;
InferenCal Efficiency
- the ability to direct the inferenCal mechanisms into the most producCve
direcCons by storing appropriate guides;
AcquisiCon Efficiency
- the ability to acquire new knowledge using automaCc methods wherever
possible rather than reliance on human intervenCon.
To date no single system opCmises all of the above
Q19. explain unificaCon and subsCtuCon in terms of predicate logic.
Ans. The process of finding a subsCtuCon for predicate parameters is called
unificaCon. ... – the subsCtuCon is that makes the literals idenCcal. • There is a
simple algorithm called the unificaCon algorithm that does this.
Q20. Approaches for knowledge representaCon.
Ans. The symbolic approach is the classical approach to AI, someCmes called
“Good Old Fashioned AI” or GOFAI. It is based on the ‘physical symbol system
hypothesis’ that states that a system based on the processing of symbols has the
“necessary and sufficient means for general intelligent acCon” (Newell and
Simon). Symbols in this case are things that represent or stand for something else
by associaCon. Human language consists of symbols; for example, the word ‘moa’
is a symbol that represents the concept of the New Zealand bird depicted above.
In the field of knowledge representaCon, symbols are usually denoted by an
idenCfier in a programming language.
The symbolic approach to AI is a “knowledge-based” approach requiring the
building of knowledge bases with substanCal knowledge of each problem
domain. It uses a top-down design philosophy consisCng of several levels: the
“knowledge level” at the top, which specifies all the knowledge that the system
needs; the “symbol level”, where the knowledge is specified in symbolic
structures and idenCfiers in some programming language (for example, using lists
or tables in Net Logo); and the “implementaCon level”, which are the symbol
processing operaCons that are actually implemented (Nilsson). There are
immediate problems with a symbolic approach to represenCng knowledge. For
example, try using symbols (e.g. words) to describe the following:
what the Mona Lisa painCng on the right looks like (to a person blind from birth);
the sound of bagpipes (to a person born deaf);
the taste of milk;
how sandpaper feels like;
what coffee smells like.

UNIT-2

Q1. Write a note on NLP, NLU and NLG.

Ans. NLU, or Natural Language Understanding is a subset of NLP that
deals with the much narrower, but equally important facet of how to best
handle unstructured inputs and convert them into a structured form that a
machine can understand and act upon. While humans are able to
effortlessly handle mispronunciations, swapped words, contractions,
colloquialisms, and other quirks, machines are less adept at handling
unpredictable inputs.
NLG, or Natural Language Generation, simply put, is what happens
when computers write language. NLG processes turn structured data into
text.
Q2. Draw the architecture of NLP.
Ans.

Q3. What is discourse in NLP?
Ans. A discourse relation (or rhetorical relation) is a description of how two
segments of discourse are logically connected to one another. One
method of modeling discourse involves a set of concepts that constitute
"segmented discourse representation theory" (SDRT).
Q4. Explain Ambiguity and resolving methods in NLP.
Ans. Ambiguity can be referred as the ability of having more than one meaning
or being understood in more than one way. Natural languages are ambiguous, so
computers are not able to understand language the way people do. Natural
Language Processing (NLP) is concerned with the development of computaConal
models of aspects of human language processing. Ambiguity can occur at various
levels of NLP. Ambiguity could be Lexical, SyntacCc, SemanCc, PragmaCc etc.
Q5. Explain different parsing techniques with example for English
sentence. (top-down and bottom-up).
Ans.
Q6. Explain Chomsky hierarchy and context free grammar.
Ans.

Q. Explain following –
a) TransformaConal grammar-TransformaConal grammar is a theory of grammar
that accounts for the construcCons of a language by linguisCc transformaCons
and phrase structures. Also known as transformaConal-generaCve grammar or T-
G or TGG.
b) transiCon net-Augmented TransiCon Network (ATN) A transiCon network is
a network consisCng of nodes and labelled arcs. The nodes represent different
states of a process and the arcs represent the transiCons from state to state, with
labels refering to word categories in NLP.
c) Augmented transiCon net-Augmented TransiCon Network (ATN) A transiCon
network is a network consisCng of nodes and labelled arcs. The nodes represent
different states of a process and the arcs represent the transiCons from state to
state, with labels refering to word categories in NLP.
d) Sentence generaCon and translaCon-The aim of a typical text generaCon
system is to produce a text which saCsfies some set of pre-stated goals. Such
systems are provided with a knowledge base -- which contains informaCon to be
expressed -- and a set of goals. The system then organises this informaCon into
sentence-length chunks, realises these chunks as sentences, and prints or speaks
the text.
e) Fillmore’s grammar-According to Fillmore, each verb selects a certain number
of deep cases which form its case frame. Thus, a case frame describes important
aspects of semanCc valency, of verbs, adjecCves and nouns. Case frames are
subject to certain constraints, such as that a deep case can occur only once per
sentence. Some of the cases are obligatory and others are opConal. Obligatory
cases may not be deleted, at the risk of producing ungrammaCcal sentences. For
example, Mary gave the apples is ungrammaCcal in this sense.
A fundamental hypothesis of case grammar is that grammatical functions, such
as subject or object, are determined by the deep, semanCc valence of the verb,
which finds its syntacCc correlate in such grammaCcal categories as Subject and
Object, and in grammaCcal cases such as NominaCve, AccusaCve, etc.
Q8. Explain forward and backward deducCon with chaining engine.
Ans. Forward chaining.

1. It is also known as data driven inference technique.

2. Forward chaining matches the set of conditions and infer results
from these conditions. Basically, forward chaining starts from a
new data and aims for any conclusion.
3. It is bottom up reasoning.
4. It is a breadth first search.
5. It continues until no more rules can be applied or some cycle limit
is met.
6. For example: If it is cold then I will wear a sweater. Here “it is cold
is the data” and “I will wear a sweater”is a decision. It was already
known that it is cold that is why it was decided to wear a sweater,
This process is forward chaining.
7. It is mostly used in commercial applications i.e event driven
systems are common example of forward chaining.
8. It can create an infinite number of possible conclusions.
Backward chaining.

1. It is also called as goal driven inference technique.

2. It is a backward search from goal to the conditions used to get the
goal. Basically it starts from possible conclusion or goal and aims
for necessary data.
3. It is top down reasoning.
4. It is a depth first search.
5. It process operations in a backward direction from end to start, it
will stop when the matching initial condition is met.
6. For example: If it is cold then I will wear a sweater. Here we have
our possible conclusion “I will wear a sweater”. If I am wearing a
sweater then it can be stated that it is cold that is why I am wearing
a sweater. Hence it was derived in a backward direction so it is the
process of backward chaining.
7. It is used in interrogative commercial applications i.e finding items
that fulfill possible goals.
8. Number of possible final answers is reasonable.

AI Assignment UNIT 3

Q1. What are the different methods for knowledge representation.

There are mainly four ways of knowledge representation which are given as follows:
1. Logical Representation
2. Semantic Network Representation
3. Frame Representation
4. Production Rules

1. Logical Representation
Logical representation is a language with some concrete rules which deals with
propositions and has no ambiguity in representation. Logical representation means
drawing a conclusion based on various conditions. This representation lays down some
important communication rules. It consists of precisely defined syntax and semantics
which supports the sound inference. Each sentence can be translated into logics using
syntax and semantics.
2. Semantic Network Representation
Semantic networks are alternative of predicate logic for knowledge representation. In
 Semantic networks, we can represent our knowledge in the form of graphical networks.
This network consists of nodes representing objects and arcs which describe the
relationship between those objects. Semantic networks can categorize the object in
different forms and can also link those objects. Semantic networks are easy to
understand and can be easily extended.
This representation consist of mainly two types of relations:
a.IS-A relation (Inheritance)
b.
b.Kind-of-relation

3. Frame Representation

A frame is a record like structure which consists of a collection of attributes and its
values to describe an entity in the world. Frames are the AI data structure which divides
knowledge into substructures by representing stereotypes situations. It consists of a
collection of slots and slot values. These slots may be of any type and sizes. Slots have
names and values which are called facets.

Frames are derived from semantic networks and later evolved into our modern-day
classes and objects. A single frame is not much useful. Frames system consist of a
colletion of frames which are connected. In the frame, knowledge about an object or
event can be stored together in the knowledge base. The frame is a type of technology
which is widely used in various applications including Natural language processing and
machine visions.

3. Production Rules
Production rules system consist of (condition, action) pairs which mean, "If condition
then action". It has mainly three parts:

o The set of production rules

o Working Memory
o The recognize-act-cycle

In production rules agent checks for the condition and if the condition exists then production
rule fires and corresponding action is carried out. The condition part of the rule determines
which rule may be applied to a problem. And the action part carries out the associated problem-
solving steps. This complete process is called a recognize-act cycle.

The working memory contains the description of the current state of problems-solving and rule
can write knowledge to the working memory. This knowledge match and may fire other rules.

If there is a new situation (state) generates, then multiple production rules will be fired together,
this is called conflict set. In this situation, the agent needs to select a rule from these sets, and
it is called a conflict resolution.
 Q2. What is sematic net and partitioned Nets?

A semantic net (or semantic network) is a knowledge representation technique used for
propositional information. So it is also called a propositional net. Semantic nets convey
meaning. They are two dimensional representations of knowledge. Mathematically a
semantic net can be defined as a labelled directed graph.

Semantic nets consist of nodes, links (edges) and link labels. In the semantic network diagram,
nodes appear as circles or ellipses or rectangles to represent objects such as physical objects,
concepts or situations. Links appear as arrows to express the relationships between objects, and
link labels specify particular relations. Relationships provide the basic structure for
organizing knowledge. The objects and relations involved need not be so concrete. As nodes
are associated with other nodes semantic nets are also referred to as associative nets.

3. What is skolemization?

Skolemization is a way of removing existential quantifiers from a formula. Variables bound

by existential quantifiers which are not inside the scope of universal quantifiers can simply be

replaced by constants: ∃x[x<3] can be changed to c<3, with c a suitable constant.When the

existential quantifier is inside a universal quantifier, the bound variable must be replaced by a

Skolem function of the variables bound by universal quantifiers.

Thus ∀x[x=0∨∃y[x=y+1]] becomes ∀x[x=0∨x=f(x)+1].

In general, the functions and constants symbols are new ones added to the language for the
purpose of satisfying these formulas, and are often denoted by the formula they realize,

for instance c∃xϕ(x).

This is used in second order logic to move all existential quantifiers outside the scope
of first order universal quantifiers. This can be done since second order quantifiers can
quantify over functions. For

instance ∀1x∀1y∃1zϕ(x,y,z) is equivalent to ∃2F∀1x∀1yϕ(x,y,F(x,y)).

4. What is inference mechanism used in prolog.
An Inference Engine is a tool from artificial intelligence. The first inference engines were
components of expert systems. The typical expert system consisted of a knowledge base and
an inference engine. The knowledge base stored facts about the world. The inference engine
applied logical rules to the knowledge base and deduced new knowledge. This process would
iterate as each new fact in the knowledge base could trigger additional rules in the inference
engine. Inference engines work primarily in one of two modes either special rule or facts:
forward chaining and backward chaining. Forward chaining starts with the known facts and
asserts new facts. Backward chaining starts with goals, and works backward to determine what
facts must be asserted so that the goals can be achieved.
Inference Rules Deductive

inference rule:

Forward Chaining: Conclude from "A" and "A implies B" to "B".
A
A -> B B
-------- ------------- -------------

Example:
It is raining.
If it is raining, the street is wet.
The street is wet.
-------- ------------- -------------

 5. Explain weak slot-and-filter structure and strong slot-and-filter structure.
State an example for each method.

WEAK SLOT AND FILLER STRUCTURES

Weak slot and filler structures are a data structure and the reasons to use this data structure
are as follows: It enables attribute values to be retrieved quickly. Assertions are indexed by
the entities. Binary predicates are indexed by first argument. Properties of relations are
easy to describe. And it allows ease of consideration as it embraces aspects of object
oriented programming. We describe the two kinds of structures here: Semantics and
Frames.
• Semantic Net: Semantic nets are a simple way of representing the relationships
between entities and concepts. The major idea is that find the meaning of a
concept comes from its relationship to other concepts, and that, the information
is stored by interconnecting nodes with labeled arcs.
• Frames: A frame is a collection of attributes or slots and associated values that
describe some real-world entity. Frames on their own are not particularly
helpful but frame systems are a powerful way of encoding information to
support reasoning. Frames can inherit slots from parent frames. For example,
man might inherit properties from Ape or Mammal (A parent class of man).

STRONG SLOT AND FILLER STRUCTURES

The main problem with semantic networks and frames is that they lack formality, there is
no specific guideline on how to use the representation and if I use the word “has” in a way
other than “physical property”, your reasoning might break down and isa and instance
attributes seem clearly defined, but the attributes may not be. In frame when things
change, we need to modify all frames that are relevant – this can be time consuming.
Strong slot and filler structures typically represent links between objects according to
more rigid rules, specific notions of what types of object and relations between them are
provided. We have types of strong slot and filler structures:

1. Conceptual Dependency (CD)

2. Scripts

3. Cyc

Conceptual Dependency: Conceptual dependency (CD) slot and filler structures used to
represent the kind of knowledge about events that is usually conveyed in natural
language sentences. Goal is to represent knowledge so as to Facilitate drawing inferences
from sentences. Be independent of the language in which the sentences were originally
stated. Conceptual dependency has two Claim. First For any two sentences that are
identical in meaning, regardless of language, there should be only one representation.
Second any information in a sentence that is implicit must be made explicit in the
representation of the meaning of that sentence.
"

Scripts: Script is a structure that describe a stereotyped sequence of events in a context. Script
consist of a set of slots. Each slot may be some information about what kind of values it may
contain as well as a default value to be used if no other information is available.The
components of a script include:

• Entry Conditions -- these must be satisfied before events in the script can
occur. Results -- Conditions that will be true after events in script occur.
• Props -- Slots representing objects involved in events.
• Roles-- Persons involved in the events.
• Track --Variations on the script. Different tracks may share components of
the same script.
• Scenes -- The sequence of events that occur. Events are represented in
conceptual dependency form.

Example- Restaurant Script Structure. SCRIPT :

Restaurant

TRACK : Oberoi

PROPS : Tables, Chairs, Menu, Money, Food ROLES:Customer, Waiter,

Cashier, Owner, Cook

CYC: Cyc is a very large knowledge based project aimed at capturing human commonsense
knowledge. Goal of Cyc is to encode the large body of knowledge that is so obvious that it is
easy to forget to state it explicitly. Like CD, CYC represent a specific theory of how to
describe the world. CD provide a specific theory of representation of events. CYC provide a
specific theory of representation of events, objects, attributes and so on. The CYC is coded by
using the following methods: by hand. Special CYC languages such as LISP like, Frame
Based, Multiple inheritances, Slots are fully fledged objects. Generalized inheritance any link
not just „isa‟ and instance. CYC‟s knowledge is encoded in a representation language called
CYCL. CYCL is a frame-based system that incorporates most of the techniques like multiple
inheritance, slots as full-fledged objects, transfers-through, mutually-disjoint-with, etc.
CYCL generalizes the notion of inheritance so that properties can be inherited along any link,
not just isa and instance.

Q7. What are the properties of a good knowledge representation system should
have and explain approaches used for knowledge representation.

Properties for knowledge Representation

The following properties should be possessed by a knowledge representation system.

 a. Representational Adequacy: It is the ability to represent the required knowledge.

b. Inferential Adequacy: It is the ability to manipulate the knowledge represented to

produce newknowledge corresponding to that inferred from the original.

c. Inferential Efficiency: The ability to direct the inferential mechanisms into the most
productivedirections by storing appropriate guides.

d. Acquisitional Efficiency: The ability to acquire new knowledge using automatic

methods wherever possible rather than reliance on human intervention.

Approaches to knowledge representation:

There are mainly four approaches to knowledge representation, which are givenbelow:

1. Simple relational knowledge:

o It is the simplest way of storing facts which uses the relational method, and each fact
about a set of the object is set out systematically in columns.
o This approach of knowledge representation is famous in database systems where the
relationship between different entities is represented.
o This approach has little opportunity for inference.

Example: The following is the simple relational knowledge representation.

Player Weight Age

Player1 65 23

Player2 58 18

Player3 75 24

2. Inheritable knowledge:
o In the inheritable knowledge approach, all data must be stored into a hierarchy of
classes.
o All classes should be arranged in a generalized form or a hierarchal manner.
o In this approach, we apply inheritance property.
o Elements inherit values from other members of a class.
o This approach contains inheritable knowledge which shows a relation between
instance and class, and it is called instance relation.
o Every individual frame can represent the collection of attributes and its value.
o In this approach, objects and values are represented in Boxed nodes.
 o We use Arrows which point from objects to their values.

Example:

"
3. Inferential knowledge:
o Inferential knowledge approach represents knowledge in the form of formal logics.
o This approach can be used to derive more facts.
o It guaranteed correctness.

Example: Let's suppose there are two statements:

a. Marcus is a man
b. All men are mortal Then
it can represent as;
man(Marcus)

∀x = man (x) ----------> mortal (x)s

4. Procedural knowledge:
o Procedural knowledge approach uses small programs and codes which describes how
to do specific things, and how to proceed.
o In this approach, one important rule is used which is If-Then rule.
o In this knowledge, we can use various coding languages such as LISP
language and Prolog language.
o We can easily represent heuristic or domain-specific knowledge using this approach.
 o But it is not necessary that we can represent all cases in this approach.

Q8. Explain factual, sequential and logical knowledge understanding.

Factual knowledge
Factual knowledge consists of the basic elements students must know to be acquainted with a
discipline or solve problems in it. It includes knowledge of terminology and specific facts. For
example, within an adventure game, students may learn that China is in Asia, or from the
instructions of a game, students may learn that start-up disk refers to a 3.5-inch square disk that
fits in a disk drive. /Subtype/ Examples Factual Knowledge -discrete, isolated content elements
Knowledge of terminology Technical vocabulary Knowledge of specific details and elements
Ten biggest cities in the world.

Sequential knowledge understanding

relating to or based on a method of testing a statistical hypothesis that involves examination
of a sequence of samples for each of which the decision is made to accept or reject the
hypothesis or to continue sampling.

Logical Knowledge
"Logical knowledge" can be understood in two ways: as knowledge of the laws of logic and as
knowledge derived by means of deductive reasoning. Most of the following is concerned with
the first of these interpretations; the second will be treated briefly at the end. Furthermore, only
deductive logic will be treated: As yet, there is no set of laws of inductive logic enjoying the
kind of consensus acceptance accorded to deductive logic.

9. Explain conceptual dependency and its primitive acts and primitive conceptual
category.

Conceptual Dependency originally developed to represent knowledge acquired from natural

language input.

The goals of this theory are:

• To help in the drawing of inference from sentences.

• To be independent of the words used in the original input.
• That is to say: For any 2 (or more) sentences that are identical in meaning there
should be only one representation of that meaning.

It has been used by many programs that portend to understand English (MARGIE, SAM, PAM).
CD developed by Schank et al. as were the previous examples.
CD provides:

• a structure into which nodes representing information can be placed

• a specific set of primitives
• at a given level of granularity.

Sentences are represented as a series of diagrams depicting actions using both abstract and
real physical situations.

• The agent and the objects are represented

• The actions are built up from a set of primitive acts which can be modified by tense.

Examples of Primitive Acts are:

ATRANS
-- Transfer of an abstract relationship. e.g. give.
PTRANS
-- Transfer of the physical location of an object. e.g. go.
PROPEL
-- Application of a physical force to an object. e.g. push.
MTRANS
-- Transfer of mental information. e.g. tell.
MBUILD
-- Construct new information from old. e.g. decide.
SPEAK
-- Utter a sound. e.g. say.
ATTEND
-- Focus a sense on a stimulus. e.g. listen, watch.
MOVE
-- Movement of a body part by owner. e.g. punch, kick.
GRASP
-- Actor grasping an object. e.g. clutch.
INGEST
-- Actor ingesting an object. e.g. eat.
EXPEL
-- Actor getting rid of an object from body. e.g. ????.

Six primitive conceptual categories provide building blocks which are the set of allowable
dependencies in the concepts in a sentence:

PP
-- Real world objects.
ACT
-- Real world actions.
PA
-- Attributes of objects.
AA T
-- Attributes of actions.

-- Time

Q10. Explain unification process in prolog. What are the necessary conditions?

The way in which Prolog matches two terms is called unification. The idea is similar to that
of unification in logic: we have two terms and we want to see if they can be made to
represent the same structure. For example, we might have in our database the single Polog
clause:

parent(alan, clive).
and give the query:
|?- parent(X,Y).
We would expect X to be instantiated to alan and Y to be instantiated to clive when the
query succeeds. We would say that the term parent(X,Y) unifies with the term parent(alan,
clive) with X bound to alan and Y bound to clive. The unification algorithm in Prolog is
roughly this:

df:un Given two terms and which are to be unified:

• If and are constants (i.e. atoms or numbers) then if they are the same
succeed. Otherwise fail.
• If is a variable then instantiate to .
• Otherwise, If is a variable then instantiate to .
• Otherwise, if and are complex terms with the same arity (number of
arguments), find the principal functor of and principal functor of . If
these

are the same, then take the ordered set of arguments of of and
the ordered set of arguments of . For each pair of

arguments and from the same position in the term, must unify with .
• Otherwise fail.

For example: applying this procedure to unify foo(a,X) with foo(Y,b) we get:

• foo(a,X) and foo(Y,b) are complex terms with the same arity (2).
• The principal functor of both terms is foo.
• The arguments (in order) of foo(a,X) are a and X.
• The arguments (in order) of foo(Y,b) are Y and b.
• So a and Y must unify , and X and b must
unify. o Y is a variable so we instantiate
Y to a. o X is a variable so we instantiate
X to b.
• The resulting term, after unification is foo(a,b).
 UNIT- 4
1. WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CRISP SET AND FUZZY SET?

• Where the fuzzy set implements infinite-valued logic while crisp set employs bi-
valued logic.

2. EXPLAIN DIFFERENT FUZZY SET OPERATION WITH EQUIVALENT CRISP SET

OPERATION

3. WHAT IS FUZZY RELATION GIVE AN EXAMPLE?

Fuzzy relaCon is a fuzzy set defined on tuples (x1, . . . ,xn)that may have varying
degrees of membership within the relaCon. The membership grade indicates
strength of the present relaCon between elements of the tuple. The fuzzy relaCon
can also be represented by an n-dimensional membership array.

4. EXPLAIN FUZZY COMPOSITION, WHAT THE DIFFERENT METHOD



5. WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY FUZZY INFERENCE?

Fuzzy Inference System is the key unit of a fuzzy logic system having decision
making as its primary work. It uses the “IF…THEN” rules along with connectors
“OR” or “AND” for drawing essential decision rules.
CharacterisCcs of Fuzzy Inference System
Following are some characterisCcs of FIS −

• The output from FIS is always a fuzzy set irrespecCve of its input which can be fuzzy
or crisp.

• It is necessary to have fuzzy output when it is used as a controller.

• A defuzzificaCon unit would be there with FIS to convert fuzzy variables into crisp
variables.

FuncConal Blocks of FIS

The following five functional blocks will help you understand the construction of FIS –
• Rule Base − It contains fuzzy IF-THEN rules.
• Database − It defines the membership functions of fuzzy sets used in fuzzy rules.
• Decision-making Unit − It performs operation on rules.
• Fuzzification Interface Unit − It converts the crisp quantities into fuzzy
quantities.
• Defuzzification Interface Unit − It converts the fuzzy quantities into crisp
quantities. Following is a block diagram of fuzzy interference system.
6. EXPLAIN DIFFERENT MEMBERSHIP FUNCTION FOR FUZZY LOGIC.
 • A funcCon that specifies the degree to which a given input belongs to a set.
• Membership funcCons characterize fuzziness (i.e., all the informaCon in fuzzy set), whether the
elements in fuzzy sets are discrete or conCnuous.
• Membership funcCons can be defined as a technique to solve pracCcal problems by experience rather
than knowledge.
• Membership funcCons are represented by graphical forms.

· There are different forms of membership funcCons such as:

• Triangular.
• Trapezoidal.
• Piecewise linear.
• Gaussian.
• Singleton.

"

• Triangular function: defined by a lower limit a, an upper limit b, and a value m,

where a < m < b.

"

• Trapezoidal function: defined by a lower limit a, an upper limit d, a lower

support limit b, and an upper support limit c, where a < b < c < d.
 "

• Gaussian function: defined by a central value m and a standard deviation k > 0.

The smaller k is, the narrower the “bell” is.

"

Q7. Write a note on decision theory (decision tree, decision table).

Decision theory is principle associated with decisions. Contemporary decision theory was developed
in the mid of the 20th century with the support of several academic disciplines. Decision theory is
typically followed by researchers who pinpoint themselves as economists, staCsCcians, psychologists,
poliCcal and social scienCsts or philosophers. Decision theory provides a formal structure to make
raConal choices in the situaCon of uncertainty. Given a set of alternaCves, a set of consequences, and
a correspondence between those sets, decision theory offers conceptually simple procedures for
choice. The origin of decision theory is derived from economics by using the uClity funcCon of
payoffs. It proposes that decisions be made by compuCng the uClity and probability, the ranges of
opCons, and also lays down strategies for good decision.

Decision theory is a set of concepts, principles, tools and techniques that help the decision maker in
dealing with complex decision problems under uncertainty. More specifically, decision theory deals
with methods for determining the opCmal course of acCon when a number of alternaCves are
available and their consequences cannot be forecasted with certainty.

According to David Lewis (1974), "decision theory (at least if we omit the frills) is not an esoteric
science, however unfamiliar it may seem to an outsider. Rather it is a systemaCc exposiCon of the
consequences of certain well-chosen plaCtudes about belief, desire, preference and choice. It is the
very core of our common-sense theory of persons, dissected out and elegantly systemaCzed".
In theoreCcal literature, it is represented that decision theory signifies a generalized approach to
decision making. It enables the decision maker to analyze a set of complex situaCons with many
alternaCves and many different possible consequences and to idenCfy a course of acCon consistent
with the basic economic and psychological desires of the decision maker.

Decision theory problems are categorized by the following:

1. A decision criterion

2. A list of alternaCves

3. A list of possible future events (states of nature)

4. Payoffs associated with each combinaCon of alternaCves and events

5. The degree of certainty of possible future events

There are two categories of decisions theories that include normaCve or prescripCve decision theory
to idenCfy the best decision to take, assuming an ideal decision maker who is fully informed, able to
compute with perfect accuracy, and fully raConal. The pracCcal applicaCon of this prescripCve
approach is called decision analysis, and aimed at finding tools, methodologies and soqware to help
people make beZer decisions. The most systemaCc and comprehensive soqware tools developed in
this way are called decision support systems.

In contrast, posiCve or descripCve decision theory explain observed behaviors under the assumpCon
that the decision-making agents are behaving under some consistent rules. These rules may, for
instance, have a technical framework or an axiomaCc framework, integraCon the Von Neumann-
Morgenstern axioms with behavioral desecraCons of the expected uClity hypothesis, or they may
explicitly give a funcConal form for Cme-inconsistent uClity funcCons.

SoluCon to any decision problem include following steps:

1. IdenCfy the problem

2. Specify objecCves and the decision criteria for choosing a soluCon

3. Develop alternaCves

4. Analyze and compare alternaCves

5. Select the best alternaCve

6. Implement the chosen alternaCve

7. Verify that desired results are achieved

Q9. What is defuzzyficaCon?

It may be defined as the process of reducing a fuzzy set into a crisp set or to convert a fuzzy member
into a crisp member.

We have already studied that the fuzzificaCon process involves conversion from crisp quanCCes to
fuzzy quanCCes. In a number of engineering applicaCons, it is necessary to defuzzify the result or
rather “fuzzy result” so that it must be converted to crisp result. MathemaCcally, the process of
DefuzzificaCon is also called “rounding it off”.

The different methods of DefuzzificaCon are described below −

Max-Membership Method
This method is limited to peak output funcCons and also known as height method. MathemaCcally it
can be represented as follows −

Here, x∗ is the defuzzified output.

Centroid Method

This method is also known as the center of area or the center of gravity method. MathemaCcally, the
defuzzified output x∗ will be represented as −

Weighted Average Method

In this method, each membership funcCon is weighted by its maximum membership value.
MathemaCcally, the defuzzified output x∗ will be represented as −

Mean-Max Membership

This method is also known as the middle of the maxima. MathemaCcally, the defuzzified output x∗
will be represented as -

Q10. What are the applicaCons of fuzzy logic?

Aerospace

In aerospace, fuzzy logic is used in the following areas −

• AlCtude control of spacecraq

• Satellite alCtude control

• Flow and mixture regulaCon in aircraq deicing vehicles

AutomoCve

In automoCve, fuzzy logic is used in the following areas −

• Trainable fuzzy systems for idle speed control

• Shiq scheduling method for automaCc transmission

• Intelligent highway systems

 • Traffic control

• Improving efficiency of automaCc transmissions

Business

In business, fuzzy logic is used in the following areas −

• Decision-making support systems

• Personnel evaluaCon in a large company

Defense

In defense, fuzzy logic is used in the following areas −

• Underwater target recogniCon

• AutomaCc target recogniCon of thermal infrared images

• Naval decision support aids

• Control of a hypervelocity interceptor

• Fuzzy set modeling of NATO decision making

Electronics

In electronics, fuzzy logic is used in the following areas −

• Control of automaCc exposure in video cameras

• Humidity in a clean room

• Air condiConing systems

• Washing machine Cming

• Microwave ovens

• Vacuum cleaners

Finance

In the finance field, fuzzy logic is used in the following areas −

• Banknote transfer control

• Fund management

• Stock market predicCons

Industrial Sector

In industrial, fuzzy logic is used in following areas −

• Cement kiln controls heat exchanger control

• AcCvated sludge wastewater treatment process control

• Water purificaCon plant control

• QuanCtaCve paZern analysis for industrial quality assurance

• Control of constraint saCsfacCon problems in structural design

• Control of water purificaCon plants

Manufacturing

In the manufacturing industry, fuzzy logic is used in following areas −

• OpCmizaCon of cheese producCon

• OpCmizaCon of milk producCon

Marine

In the marine field, fuzzy logic is used in the following areas −

• Autopilot for ships

• OpCmal route selecCon

• Control of autonomous underwater vehicles

• Ship steering

Medical

In the medical field, fuzzy logic is used in the following areas −

• Medical diagnosCc support system

• Control of arterial pressure during anesthesia

• MulCvariable control of anesthesia

• Modeling of neuropathological findings in Alzheimer's paCents

• Radiology diagnoses

• Fuzzy inference diagnosis of diabetes and prostate cancer

SecuriCes

In securiCes, fuzzy logic is used in following areas −

• Decision systems for securiCes trading

• Various security appliances

TransportaCon: In transportaCon, fuzzy logic is used in the following areas −

• AutomaCc underground train operaCon

• Train schedule control

• Railway acceleraCon

• Braking and stopping

PaZern RecogniCon and ClassificaCon : In PaZern RecogniCon and ClassificaCon, fuzzy logic is used in
the following areas −

• Fuzzy logic based speech recogniCon

• Fuzzy logic based

• HandwriCng recogniCon

• Fuzzy logic based facial characterisCc analysis

• Command analysis

• Fuzzy image search

Psychology: In Psychology, fuzzy logic is used in following areas −

• Fuzzy logic based analysis of human behavior

• Criminal invesCgaCon and prevenCon based on fuzzy logic reasoning

AI Assignment Unit 5
1. Explain the following.

Pattern recognition
Pattern recognition is the process of recognizing patterns by using machine
learning algorithm. Pattern recognition can be defined as the classification of data
based on knowledge already gained or on statistical information extracted from
patterns and/or their representation. One of the important aspects of the pattern
recognition is its application potential.

Object identification
Object recognition is the area of artificial intelligence (AI) concerned with the
abilities of robots and other AI implementations to recognize various things and
entities.Object recognition allows robots and AI programs to pick out and identify
objects from inputs like video and still camera images. Methods used for object
identification include 3D models, component identification, edge detection and
analysis of appearances from different angles.Object recognition is at the
convergence points of robotics, machine vision, neural networks and AI. Google
and Microsoft are among the companies working in the area.

Structure and symbolic description

• Symbolism is the use of symbols to signify ideas and qualities, by giving
them symbolic meanings that are different from their literal sense.
Symbolism can take different forms. Generally, it is an object representing
another, to give an entirely different meaning that is much deeper and more
significant. Sometimes, however, an action, an event or a word spoken by
someone may have a symbolic value. For instance, “smile” is a symbol of
friendship. Similarly, the action of someone smiling at you may stand as a
symbol of the feeling of affection which that person has for you.
• Structure is a complete specification of a new XML notation for describing
classes of XML documents. The notation is designed to be a simple tool
based on familiar concepts. DSDs provide more flexible and precise
structural descriptions than possible with DTDs or the current XML
Schema proposal. A DSD generates a CSS-like default mechanism
independent of formatting models. Finally, it allows an extension
mechanism so that DSDs may be updated with new structural concepts.
Machine perception v. speech recognition
• Speech recognition is the ability of a machine or program to identify words and
phrases in spoken language and convert them to a machine-readable format.
Rudimentary speech recognition software has a limited vocabulary of words
and phrases, and it may only identify these if they are spoken very clearly.
More sophisticated software has the ability to accept natural speech.
• Machine perception is a term for technologies that simulate the ways that
humans perceive the world around them. Any type of technology that simulates
any human sense, whether it is sight, hearing, taste, touch or feel, could be
labeled machine perception, but the overwhelming use of machine perception
in the field relates to simulating the sense of sight.