Chapter - V

Criminal Tribes Act

 140

CHAPTER-V

CRIMINAL TRIBES ACT

After the Sepoy Revolt of 1857, the Administration of the East India

Company was taken over by the Crown of England. The Viceroys had to give

more importance to political stability by maintaining law and order in the British

Indian Territories. Before 1857, these territories were governed by Lieutenant

Governors and Chief Commissioners. After 1857, they came directly under the

responsibility of the Viceroys and the criminal activities of certain people in

such territories were to be checked by Viceroys directly. Though some efforts

were taken earlier by the East Indian Company by Regulation of xxx of 1793

and by the Act xxx of 1836, to deal with the criminal activities of such people,

the Government could not succeed in preventing such criminal activities. Hence

the Act of 1871* was passed. This Act was passed to control rural criminal

problems in the North Western Provinces and Punjab and also to continue the

efforts-taken by the Police to campaign against Thugs and Dacoity. The purpose

of the Act was "to ensure peace, law and order" by bringing under "effective

control anti-social elements chronically addicted to criminal activities". This Act

was not extended to Madras.^ Moreover, the application of the old Act involved

certain difficulties, which the new Act was designed to remove. Hence it was

amended in 1896

' 'Criminal Tribes Act, 187', Act No. XXVII, .British Library, Oriental and India office Collections,
Shelfmark V/8/42.
^ David Arnold, Police Power and Colonial Rule in Madras, 1859-1947, Delhi, 1986, p. 138.
^ Gazette of India, Calcutta, 9 January 1896, p.l
 141

The Madras Government did not agree to implement this Act till 1896

and hence this Act was not relevant to Madras Presidency. However, 'Criminal

Tribes' caused concern to pohce thinking and civilian administration in Madras.

During the later part of Nineteenth Century, the Act was widely employed.'*

Madras was the Last Presidency to implement this Act. Under this Act, the

District Magistrates were empowered to declare and register a person, a class or

a caste or a gang as Criminal Tribe^. The Superintendent of Police maintained

this Register^ in every District and secured fingerprints of members of the tribe

and issued Identification Passes to them and required them to report to the police

at regular intervals . Because of this settlement, the Criminal Tribes were to be

kept under police surveillance. The Act provides for their arrest without warrant

if there was any violation.

In Madurai, the Act was gradually implemented. The Local Government

had reason to believe that some caste persons were addicted to the systematic

commission of non-bailable offences . Hence the Local Government requested

the Governor General in Council's permission^ to declare such persons to be a

Criminal Tribe. After the consideration of the report, if he is satisfied, he may

authorize the Local Government to publish it in the Local Gazette,'^ declaring

that such caste is a Criminal Tribe. When the notification was published, the

" Kavita Philip, Ethnographers Caviling Natures; Race, Resources and Modernity in Colonial South
India, Orient Blackwaii,2004,p.l74.
^ 'Criminal Tribes Act,1871',op.cit, Sec.7.
^ Ibid., Seel0.
•' Ibid., Sec.18.
* Ibid,, Sec.2.
' Ibid.,Sec.4
'" Ibid., Sec.5.
 142

Local Government must direct the Magistrate of Madurai District to maintain a

Register for the members of such caste. The Register was maintained by the

District Superintendent of Police. Kallar, Maravar, Kuravans, Valaiyars were the

communities declared as Criminal Tribes in Madurai District .Only the District

Magistrate had the power to alter the Register'\ A Separate Register was

maintained by the Police or the Village Headman'^ to monitor the Criminal

Tribes. Finger Impressions were also registered in the above mentioned Register.

The Criminal Tribes had to report daily to the Police or Village Headman. If

they opposed this rule, any Police Officer or Village Watch Man had power to

arrest without warrant'^ and take them before the District Magistrate. Many

tribes were 'settled' in villages under the Police Guard, whose job was to ensure

that no member of the Notified Tribe was absent with notice. Imposition of

Punitive Police Posts on the villages, with a history of 'misconduct', was also

common.

Mudiraja Community in Madurai

The Mudiraj - Mudiraja - Muthuraja, a warrior community, is one of the

ancient royal communities of South India, which absorbed all kinds of warrior

tribes into its fold. This community probably came from Bhil, with hunting and

fishing background. They had mixed blood with Rajputs, resulting from

matrimonial alliances with Aryans and Scythians. Some of them were

agriculturalists. These were the people of wild, militant, ferocious and warrior in

"lbid.,Sec.ll.
'^ Ibid., Sec.24..
'^ Ibid., Sec.20.
 143

their character. They were basically soldiers, commandos, daredevils,

administrators, ministers, chiefs, chieftains. Kings and also Emperors, It is a

community that could not be easily forced to submit to alien rule and

domination. When these warriors failed to win in open wars, they launched

Gorilla Warfare. They could dare to commit crimes against their enemies.^"*

Dravidian Warrior Tribes were the sole rulers of Ancient India till Aryans

and Scythians arrived into this country. After their arrival, the Native Dravidian

Tribes got mixed up with them and developed matrimonial relations. Thus the

Dravidian Bhills, Aryans, Scythians, Indo-Aryans and Indo-Scythians ruled this

country just like Native Indians. These Indian and Indianised Hindu Rulers

resisted the Muslim Invaders and the Imperial British as these new alien forces

started grabbing their land, forests and the country and also started imposing

their religion, culture and customs on the Native Indians, reducing them to

slaves.

It has been observed that the Mudiraja Community of South India always

fought their enemies to protect their country, religion, culture and customs. They

believed in freedom of worship and practice of their own tribal culture and

customs. Mudirja Tribes became Hindus but they never stopped worshipping

Mother Goddess, the essence of Tribal Warrior Religion. The great quality of

these Dravidian Tribal Sections was that they could accept all kinds of religious

faiths in the world but they never forgot their Mother Goddess.

'"'www.oocitieSjOrg/mudiraja/mudiraja-warriortribes.html
 144

Many Sections of Mudiraja (Muthuraja) community of South India

include several Warrior Tribes that spread across the country from Sindhu River

to Kaveri River Basins. A great many Mudiraja Kings laid down their lives in

opposing the Islamic Invaders who tried to destroy Hinduism and their Hindu

Culture. The Mudiraja Warrior also opposed and revolted against the British

Rule in India. They were all declared Criminal Tribes by the British when they

miserably failed to stop them from fighting against British Rule. Kallars,

Maravars, Kuruvars, were some of the Warrior Tribes of Mudiraja who lived in

Madurai. They were labeled Criminal Tribes because it was the only way to deal

with them mercilessly through oppressive methods.

Veera Pandya katta Bomman, Rana Pratap Singh, Rani Abbakka were
0

some of the great patriotic rulers belonging to Muthuraja Warrior Community.

Hence we must declare them as the First Freedom Fighters of India and salute

them for inspiring our leaders like Mangal Pande, Bhagat Singh, Subhas

Chandra Bose, Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, and so on, during the

British Rule.

Criminal Tribes in Madurai

Madurai was one of the most Criminal Districts in Madras Presidency.

The criminal activities were higher than in any other Collectorate .Madurai stood

at the head of all Districts in offenses against the public tranquility, with regard

to thefts was second among them, third in the matter of murder and assaults and

cattle thefts, fourth in offenses against property and fifth in culpable homicides
 145

and dacoities .Very large portion of the crime was committed by one particular

caste, the Kallars, and it is not too much to say that if these people could by any

miracle be reclaimed from their evil ways, the District would immediately lose

the unenviable reputation it possessed'^. The other criminal castes may be

dismissed in a few words. The Maravans and Agamudaiyars, who were

prominent in the Ramnad and the Zamindars in the north of Tirunelveli did not

commit any serious crime in Madurai. The Kuravans and Valaiyans gave some

trouble in Palani Taluk, the former being addicts chiefly to theft and the latter

being daring at dacoities, especially on the Coimbatore Border'^. A certain

number of wandering gangs were generally classified as Criminal but their share

of the crime was small. The last two, especially the Togamalai Kuravans were

often prominent at festivals, where they committed much petty theft among the

pilgrims. Several other sub-divisions of the Kumvans, such as those which

practise ear-boring and basket making, were common in the District, but they

were usually harmless folk.

Criminal Tribes were widespread in different parts of the Madurai

District. Kallar, Maravar, Kuravans, Valaiyans, Agamudaiyar, Kammalans and

Thottiya Naicks'^, were the Tribes notified as Criminal Tribes in Madurai. As

they were people belonging to different areas due to their alleged involvement in

theft and robbery, they were branded Criminal Tribes by the Alien Government.

'^ Francis, W., op.cit, p.216.

^^Ibid.
^'' Ibid..
 146

1 R

Kallar, Maravar and Agamudaiyar were the descendants of the earlier Tamil

Rulers like Chera, Chola and Pandyas . They were warriors or heroes of the

battle field. These martial communities during Eighteenth Century were known

for their bravery and heroism. They were the Zamindars of Ramnad, Sivagangai,

Sethur. Singumpatti, Uthumalai, Kadambur, Maniatchi, Alagupuri etc. Kallar

and Maravar who had been referred to as the Military Tribes of the Southern

Provinces by the early British Writers, were classified as Criminal Tribes

towards the end of the Nineteenth Century. Piranmalai Kallars were in the list of

Criminal Tribes. Servaikarars, Kallars and Maravar^' subcastes of Tamil

Muthuraja Community, fought against Muslim Invaders and also revolted

against the British imperialists.

Kallar

Kallar, Maravar and Agamudaiyar Communities constitute the Kshatriya

or Warrior Class of Tamil Nadu in South India. They were all believed to have

originated from an ancient people called Kalabhrar. Kallars, Maravars and

Agamudayars together formed the Mukkulathor (three clans) Group of Warrior

Community who once ruled the Chera, Chola, and Pandyan Countries. That is

why that these clans were believed to be the descendants of Kalabhras. The clan

name, "Kallar" seems to be the gradual modification of the name "Kalabhra"^^.

The Kallars and Kalvars seem to be one and the same people who descended

" en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mukkulathor
''Ibid.
^° en.cyclopio.com/Mukkulathor
^' wapedia.mobi/en/Mukkulathor
^^ topic.askjot.com/Kallar
 147

from Kalabhras or Kalappalars^^ Many historians believe that Mutharayars are

the descendants of Kalabhras.

Kalabeera = > Kalabira => Kalabra => Kalabhra

Kalabra => kalbra = > kalbar => kalvar => Kallar^"*

Spencer Wells and Pitchappan have found an ancient DNA marker in

the blood of Kallar that links them to the very first modem humans who

migrated out of Africa about 60,000 years ago and traveling through the

southern coastline of Asia and eventually reached Australia. Based on this

theory, it is assumed that the Piramala Kallars were the oldest human inhabitants

of the subcontinent.

It is believed that Maravar, Agamudayars, Thanjai Cholarkula Kalla

Nattars, Pandiya Vellalars, Chola Vellalars, Chera Vellalar, Vellala Mudaliyars,

Agamudaya Mudaliars, Conjeevaram Mudaliars and Udayars have all descended

from Kallars. The surnames used by the Kallars are Ambalakarar , Servai,

Vandaiyar, Thallaivan Nattaar (not Nadar), etc. Women use the title, Nachiyaar

and it is a general practice in Southern Tamil Nadu to address a Thevar Woman

as "Nachchiyaar".^^ As per Chola - Mutharayar Research Center, the

Ambalakarar and Servaikarar are sumames of Tamil Muthuraja.

^' Ibid.
^* en.wikipedia.org/wiki/kallar_(caste)
'' Ibid.
^^ ambalakarar.hpage.com/
^^ www.digparty.com/wiki/Kallar
 148

The Kallars of Dindigul, Trichy, Thanja\air, Theni, Madurai, Sivaganga,

Pudukkotti and Ramnad Districts bear District Surnames . Some of the most

common names are Sendapiriyar, Alathondamar, Ambalam, Aarsuthiyar,

Kaadavaraayar, Kalingarayar, Vandaiyar, Mazhavaraayar, Pallavaraayar,

Ponnapoondar, Pullavaraayar, Servai, Karaimeendar, Vanavarayar, Vairayar,

Ponpethiar, Goplar, Thondaimaan, Thevar, Kandapillai, Vairayar, Vanniar,

Nattar, Alankara Priyar, Munaiyatriyar, Keerudayar, Saaluvar, Manraayar,

Kaadavaraayar, madhavarayar, Onthiriyar, Serumadar, Vambaliar, Thenkondaar,

Mankondaar, Kaaduvetiyaar, Sozhagar, Chozanaga Nattar etc. There are over

700 surnames in use and many of these surnames can be seen in the surname list

of Tamil Muthuraj as.

Kallars were found largely in Madurai, Sivagangai, Pudukkottai,

Thanjavur, Trichy, Theni and Ramand Districts of Tamil Nadu. One of their

popular deities was Kallazhagar who was a warrior form of Lord Thimmala or

Venkadavan. Kalabhras were said to belong to Thirupathi Region and they

attacked the Tamil Country. Kallar is one of the three communities which

constitute the Mukkalathor Confederacy^^. European eye witnesses of the

Eighteenth Century referred to Kallars as "a fearless tribe who showd many

signs of independence and non-submission to any form of subjugation". They

were expert soldiers and constituted the bulk of Chola and Pandya Armies.

^* Ibid.
^' nattarkallar.page.tl/Home.htm
^° www. statemaster. com/encyclopedia/Mukkulathor
 149

One of the principal weapons of the Kallars was the Boomerang. This has

evoked comparisons with the Australian Aborigines and vouch for the theory

that Kallars were one of the earliest people to inhabit the Indian subcontinent.

The principal occupation of Kallars was fanning.

Ambalakarars

There were various sub-castes of Kallars, amongst_whom the Ambalkarar

was the most important. Ambalakarar was also one of the surnames of Tamil

Muthuraja Community and this indicates that Muthurajas were the descendants

of Kalabhras. They were a warlike people who strongly resisted every British

attempt to subjugate them. They were found in Madurai and Sivagangai

Districts. In these Districts, each village was headed by an Amblakarar

(President of an Assembly) and the Ambalakarars took upon themselves the

power to adjudicate disputes that arose among the inhabitants in the "nadu",

belonging to different castes. They used to hear complaints, hear inquiries and

punish the offenders. They wielded considerable powers to intervene in any kind

of transaction or transfer of property among the people. No land could be

alienated from one man to another without the permission of the Ambalakarars.

Piramalai Kallars

Another important Kallar subcaste was the Piranmalai Kallar. They were

highly conservative and preserved their customs and traditions to the present

day. They were also believed to be the oldest inhabitants of the Tamil Country,

with reports of their presence going back to Tamil Literary Works of the Fourth
 150

Century B.C. They were found mainly in the Districts of Madurai and Theni.

Their popular deity was Amman, the Mother Goddess.^'

Portions of the Madurai and Tanjore Districts were divided into areas

known as Nadus, a name which, as observed by N.H. Nelson, were specially

applicable to Kalian Tracts. On the whole there were 37 "Nadus" in the two

districts, of which 14 were said to be in the Sivagangai Region. Kalian or Kallar

denotes a caste group, which is part of the Mukkulathor, a dominant caste in the

Southern Districts of Tamil Nadu. Maravar and Agamudaiyar were the other

components of the Mukkulathor Community. The Chola Country of Tanjore is

stated to be the original abode of the Kallars before they migrated to the Madurai

Region, the then Pandya Kingdom. Agriculture was said to be their major

occupation. "Nadu" was a group of villages under the Chola Administrative

System. This Nadu was known as Mutha in Telugu Speaking Land and the Head

of Mutha was Mutharacha (Mudira).^^

The Act of 1896 was once again amended and the Act of 1911 came into

being." By 1911, the Criminal Tribes Act was extended to Madras Presidency.

Stuart Blackburn described the Criminal Tribes Act was to be "in essence a

Kallar Control Act". But hundreds of communities were brought under the

Criminal Act. In 1931, 237 tribes were brought under the Criminal Act. In

Madras Presidency alone, Kallars were the most significant of the castes notified

^' Louis Dumont, A South Indian Sub-Caste: Social Organization and Religion of the Pramalai
Kallar, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 1986,pp.5-12.
^^ nattarkallar.page.tl/Home.htm
^^ Lalitha , V., The Making of the Criminal Tribes Patterns and Transitions, Madras, 1995, p. 15
 151

under the colonial Criminal Tribes Act of 1911^'*. Charged with highway

robbery, cattle rustling and many other putatively habitual crimes, Kallars were

subjected to an extraordinary degree of repression and police supervision. In

addition to such measures, the Colonial State also made a series of agrarian

interventions, from minor land grants to massive regional irrigation projects. In

order to use agriculture as a potent vehicle for social reform. Pandian conducted

ethnographic research at the head of the Cumbam Valley, where a voluntary

agricultural settlement was opened for the Kallars in 1917. Efforts to reform

Kallar Conduct through interventions on the landscape provided an exemplary

instance of cultivation as both an environmental technique and an idiom of

subjection, both a material practice and a metaphor for selfhood, a doubled

means of becoming modem.

The Kallar Reclamation Schemes were intended for the welfare of the

Piranmalai Kallars of Madurai, Dindigul and Theni ^^Districts. This Scheme was

launched in 1920 as a result of enforcement of the Criminal Tribes Act.

Originally, Kallar Reclamation was looked after by the Police Department after

the Repeal of Criminal Tribes Act. It was transferred to the Adi Dravidar and

Tribal Welfare Department and subsequentiy to the Backward Classes

Department. Now, Kallar Reclamation is administered by the Department of the

Most Backward Classes and Denotified communities from 1989-1990 onwards.

^* www.sangam.org/articles/view2/?uid=l 128
•'^ www.tn.gon.in/rti/proactive/bcmbc/handbook_bcmbc.pdf
 152

The common name for the Thevars was Kallar (thief). They were

classified by the British as a Criminal Group through the infamous Criminal

Tribes Act. Today they prefer to use the title, Thevar, meaning 'the Divine'. The

Kallar history of being notorious dacoits (highway robbers), feared for their

militant manner, is not something they would deny today. This is part of their

pride and the claim to be descendants of warriors, underwritten by the legend

that together with other associated caste sections, they were bom of Indra, the

Warrior God. Today they are mainly farmers, although both theft and protection

from theft (the Kaval System) is still an important part of their identity. The

Thevars in the area of the Palani Hills belong to the Piranmalai Kallar, the

subsection of the Kallars that was studied by Louis Dumont in the early 1950s.

Marriage within Maravars, Kallars and Agamudiyars was not common until

recently and they are considered to be inter-caste. Some Maravar and Kallar

groups are categorized under Denotified Communities. Kondavan Kottai

Maravar^^ is one such group that has been classified as 'Seer Marabinar' or

Denotified Community. This group was categorized as Criminal Tribes during

the British Rule. During the British Era, even after the fall of the Hindu

Kingdoms in Southem Districts, the Maravars were involved in tax collection

(which used to be their hereditary profession.) The money collected by these

Maravars were used for organized crimes against the British. There were several

decoity / armed robbery committed by Maravars during this period. To contain

this activity the British declared laws to ban tax collection and arrested several

Maravars and subjected them to comply with several regulatory procedures.

36 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maravar_(caste>
 153

These Maravar Families were regarded as Criminal Tribes and they had to

follow the regulations laid by the British or other wise get arrested. This was the

history of the origin of "Denotified Community"". Even today large parts of

Tirunelveli and Ramnad, where Maravars live, are under-developed without

access to basic amenities such as schools or hospitals etc.

One of the first concerns of the British, as soon as they conquered the

southern parts of India, was with the ancient and ingrained "habits of predatory

war " among the Tamils. The British Proclamation abolished the Poligar

System^ in the "confident expectation of redeeming the people of the southern

provinces from the habits of predatory warfare", and in the hope of inducing

them to take up "the arts of peace and agriculture". It was stated in the

Proclamation that "wherefore the Right Honorable Edward Lord Clive with the

view to preventing the occurrence of the fatal evils which have attended the

possession of arms by the Poligars and Servaikaras of the southern provinces,

formally announces to the Poligars, Servaikaras and inhabitants of the southern

provinces the positive determination of His Lordship to suppress the use and

exercise of all weapons of offence' and that the Palayams would be Tamil

Military Zamindari Estates for the purpose of preventing the Tamil Military

Castes from engaging in their customary military services.

The ban on carrying weapons was crucial to the urgent task of depriving

the Tamil Military Castes of their traditional status in the Southern Provinces.

" Ibid.
^* www.facebook.com/notes/.../history-of-maravar/178977212128792
^' thevarhistory.blogspot.com/
 154

The woods and fortresses of the turbulent Poligars were destroyed and removed

from all maps and official documents. The Demilitarization of the Tamil Region

did not spare even the Kallar Caste which had rendered valuable service to the

British in the important wars of the Camatic and in the process, subjugating the

whole of South India. The Hereditary Chiefs of this Military Caste were the

Kings of Pudukkottai, the Thondaimans, who had supported the British against

Hyder Ali and later his son, Tippu Sultan. In many of the early wars, the British

fought on behalf of the Nawab of Arcot in South India and the Kallars had made

up a sizeable portion of their forces. But Kallar and the other Tamil Military

Castes had to be disfranchised in order to rid Tamil Society of its ancient habits

and Culture of Predatory Warfare.

Like many other Martial Castes of the subcontinent, Kallars and Maravars

were not peasants who dropped the plough for the sword only in times of war.

They had to seek battles even when their King or Chieftain was not at war. Most

of the hero-stones found in Tamil Nadu commemorate such battles between

Groups of Kallars and Maravars.

Some of the warrior gods who are worshipped to this day in Southern

Tamil Nadu are Maravars, who distinguished themselves in such battles which

took place even after the British began to abolish the Culture of Predatory War.

The bow-song of Eena Muthu Pandian, a Tamil Demigod, describes the martial

life and heroic deeds of that Maravar Warrior who lived in British Times. The

warrior's virtue was to desire the bliss of the hero's heaven and it was degrading

for him to seek fertile lands. The Purananooru (an anthology of Tamil Heroic
 155

Poems) derides the newly arisen kings for their interest in rice yielding fields.

War was the sole occupation and aim of the Tamil Warrior Clans. A mother

describes the Tamil Martial Ethos thus : 'To bring forth and rear a son is my

duty; To make him warrior is the father's duty. To make spears for him, is the

blacksmith's; to bear bright sword and do battle, to battle enemy's elephants and

return, that is the young man's duty".

The most important structure, which gave the Kallars and Maravars

immense power in the Tamil Countryside was the System of Kaval. It was

abolished in 1832. This has been the traditional means by which the Kallars,

Maravars and Ahamuadiyars derived their livelihood in times of peace when

they were not employed as soldiers. Many efforts were taken to put a stop to the

Kaval Services of the Tamil Military Castes in the countryside in the first half of

the Nineteenth Century, culminating in the organization of a New Police System

in 1860, which recruited mostly from among castes which were considered

favorable to the British. The Nadu-Ambalakarar Institution of the Kallars' by

which justice was traditionally dispensed in regions dominated by them, was

also abolished to make way for the penal and judiciary system introduced by the

British. Deprived of their traditional occupations of Kaval and soldiering and in

some instances of their lands, a large section of the Tamil Military Castes

became in the eyes of the Colonial Government, a delinquent mass, a danger to

the rural social order.

 156

Maravars

Maravars, another warrior Tribe, are related to Tamil Muthurajas.

Maravars are one of the oldest social groups to be mentioned by the Sangam

Tamil Literature. This indicates an association with the Tamil Land which is at

least 2,000 years old. Maravar in Tamil, means a Warrior. Maravars are a

courageous breed and they were involved in the major wars that Tamil Nadu

witnessed. Historians postulate that Maravar is derived from Tamil word

Marutham. The name of the city Madurai is also postulated to be derived from

Maruthi and honorific title of Local Pandya Kings."*"

The Maravars were according to the Madras Presidency Census Report

for 1891, "a fierce and turbulent race famous for their military prowess" and

were "chiefly found in Madura and Tinnevely where they occupy the tracts

bordering in the coast from Cape Comorin to the northern limits of the Ramnad

Zamindari". The Dutch found them to be a traditional soldier caste of Jaffna and

availed themselves of their caste services and it was one of the earliest instances

of a colonial power making use of a specific military caste in South Asia."*'

As a community, the Maravars were hailed as patriotic, brave,

courageous, and fighters for freedom. The Villupattu Ballads, 'Poolithevan

KathaV and 'Veerapandiya Kattanbomman KathaV, are interesting to read.

Their courage and love for freedom come out strongly in these ballads. The

Kallars and Agamudayars were part of the Maravar Community as belonging to

'"'www.foxitos.me/video/maravar-existing...caste.../r25uq5nawco/
•" www.museumstuff.com/leam/topics/Maravar_caste
 157

Mukkulathor'*^. Poolithevan, who belonged to the Maravar Community, was the

First Freedom Fighter from Tamil Nadu, a fact not well known. The other

Maravar Warriors about whom we can come across ballads are Vanclaiya

Thevar, Medium Peruman Pandiyan, Sonamuthu Pandian, Balammal,

Vannirajam, Vanniyadi Maravan and Sappani Muthiah. "^^ Puli or Pooli is one

of the surnames used by Maravars and this surname can also be seen among

Tamil Muthurajas and Telugu Mudirajas. The Maravar in Madurai and

Tirunelveli likewise claim the position of Rajputs, and if we regard them as a

Warrior Tribe, they were entitled to this distinction. They are also most probably

in some way connected with Mars (Maars)'*'* of the North India. Marwari bhils

belong to south Punjab north of Dadu and Nawabshah. They could be Bhils of

North India, who claimed to be Rajputs. Two Communities, Varmiars and

Maravars of Tamil Nadu were Jains at one point of time. Mutharayars were

essentially sea farers and traders and so were the Maravars. These Maravars

could most probably have belonged to Marwad at some point of time and this

was the region from where most Mudiraja related Tibes came to South India.

These clans mostly came from North where Jainism had its origin..

In Hindi and Sanskrit Language, the words,"Mara" and "Maro", are

related and points to killing. Maravar or Maravan could mean they could be a

Killer Tribe of Marwar Region near Rajasthan. The Maravars have to a great

extent preserved their freedom and independence because they were brave,

^^ www. statemaster. com/encyclopedia/Mukkulathor

wn.com/maravars.
'*' areweb.berkeley.edu/-antinori/prclass/Mosse.pdf
 158

warlike and like most semi barbarous races, they have latterly taken to more

peaceful pursuits. Their chief was the Sethupati of Ramnad, one of the oldest

and most respected Princes in South India, and who is still highly honoured. ''^

The Uttumalai Kings were members of the Maravar Caste. Maravars were

one of the three clans of Mukkulathor. There were many Palayams which were

governed by Maravars. Their history was officially recorded by lord Mackenzie

and they have been published by State Archaeology Department. One can find

these records that Maravar Zamins refused to give their daughters in marriage to

the Pandiya Kings. It is a known fact that Pandiya Kings claimed their origin to

Chandra Kulam. U. Muthuramalinga Thevar, also known as Pasumpon

Muthramalingam, was an Indian Politician who hailed from the Maravar

Community, the dominant Warrior Caste Group in his Home District in southern

Tamil Nadu. Thevar became the Leader of the All India Forward Bloc in Tamil

Nadu, and he was national Deputy Chairman of the Party from 1952 onwards.

He was elected three times to Parliament. He was anti-British, anti-Congress and

pro-Subhas Chandra Bose.'*^

The Mukkulathors recovered under the Vijayanagar Empire and later

under the Nayak Dynasty, they served as Poligars or Chieftains. The Nayaks

were actually Governors appointed by Vijayanagar Kings and they were Naidus

of Telugu origin. Later, after the Fall of Vijayanagar, they established some

measure of independence in the Provinces which they governed. They appointed

^^ www.ebooksread.com/.../castes.../page-9-castes-and-tribes-of-southem-india- volume-4-ala.shtml-
*^ www.sangam.org/articles/view2/?uid=l 128
 159

individuals from the Warrior Mukkulathor Clans as their Military Chieftains and

Governors. '^'^

Society of Criminal Tribes

Kallars

The main criminal tribe in Madurai District was Kallar. They were

divided into two main divisions called Melanudu (west) and Keelanadu (East).

The extensive possessions gained by the Kallars near Dindigul were known as

Melanadu. The Keelanadu comprises of the Villages around Melur, near

Madurai. In the Census Report of 1901, it is recorded that in Madurai (including

Ramnad ) the Kallars were divided into ten divisions which were territorial in

origin."*^ They were (1) Mela Nadu (2) Sirukudi Nadu (3) Vellur Nadu

(4) Mallakkottai Nadu (5) Pakaneri (6) Kandaramanickam (7) Kanduveni

(8) Piramalai Nadu (9) Palaya Nadu. (10) Keelanadu^^

The Police Administration Report of 1896 maintains that "many of the

Kallars are the Kavalars of the villages under the Kaval System. Kallars receive

fees and in some cases rent - free lands for undertaking to protect the property of

the villagers against theft and to restore anything equivalent in value of property

so lost. Gradually they drifted to house breaking and cattle theft. The more

ambitious of them started living by committing dacoities also. Cattle were lifted

for the sake of the system of 'TuppukkuW as some communities refused to pay

Kallar Fees. The bulls of villagers were stolen and they were to be informed of

''^ zso2.1egionowo.pl/admin/warrior-caste&page=7
*^ Census of India Report, 1901, Madras, Vol.XV, Pt.I, Government Press, Madras, 1902, pp.54-59.
••^ Edgar Thurston, Caste and Tribes of Southern /«<//«, Vol.III, Madras,1909, p.62.
 160

the place where the bulls were hidden by another Kallar, after recovering half the

price of the bull. They did not steal buffaloes because it was difficult for them to

carry it for long distance. If the owner of the animal refuses to pay the required

amount, then the animal was sold at a distant market for a higher rate. The gang

would carry out their activities after deep study of the area under the cover of

night. Before the morning, they finished their work and went away from that

place. ^°

Kallars belonging to Madurai Region were known as 'Terkatti Kallars'^^

and they grew long hair. Both men and women enlarged the holes in the lobes of

their ears to extra ordinary size by inserting rolls of palm leaf into them. They

were accustomed to eat flesh excepting beef and had no hesitation to the use of

intoxicating liquor. They used boomerangs for hunting deer. They were experts

in the use of Valaithadi. Even in Jalli Kattu or Bull Chasing Game the Kallar

was allowed to officiates as Priests. They offered no blood scarifies to their God

Azhagar. They were prepared to spare a portion of the spoil to the Village

Deities which they obtained from thefts. While celebrating the annual festival for

their village folk deities, they offered blood sacrifices. Kallars engaged

themselves in Devil worship. The Adi Friday, Tai Pongal Day and the Karthigai

Festival of the Tamil Month Karthigai^^ are even now treated as auspicious days

by the Kallars. They offer milk, jaggery coconut and toddy to the devils in the

form of propitiation. They train their animals for the sport and such animal was

50 Report on the Administration of Police in Madras Presidency, 1895-1896, Madras,1896, pp.5-9.

^' Edgar Thurston, op.cit., p.62.
^^ Ibid.,p.63.
 161

called as 'Paichal Madu'. It was a customary practice among the Kallar to use

the sure Caste Panchayats for settling their issues. They were people who lived

in concentrated areas. The Kuttapul Kallars were known for their desperate

character who involved in professions like dacoity, robbery, house - breaking,

cattle lifting and theft and the people of the surrounding villager were very much

afraid of them. Kallars were fearless and independent and were known for their

manly qualities, vigour and boldness. They presented hardly any social

phenomena of a striking nature and had few features of primitive aboriginal life.

In the Keelnadu of the Madurai District, the hereditary Kallar Headman was

known as Ambalakaran and he was the Ruler of the Village. Thus Kallars had

their own hereditary ruler and they were empowered to collect fees, fines and

betel nuts. He was the authority to settle the disputes among the caste members,

while the leader of the Kallars was fond of calling himself as Ambalakaran, the

Head of Maravars and Agemudaiyars call themselves as Tevar (God) or

Servaikaran (Commander).^'* Thus it is evident that the Kallars were particular in

maintaining their identities.

Maravars

Maravars were divided into seven principal clans of which

Kondayankottai and Sembunattu Maravars were the leading clans. The Poolam

Maravars belonged to the Kondayankottai^^ Clan. They were closely related to

the Arupanagonadu Maravars. The Maravars of Ramnad were addicted to heavy

" Ibid.
^'' kallar caste.co.tv/
55
Singh, K.S., Indian Communities, Delhi,1998,p.2229.
 162

drinking and they could be checked only by a severe Act enacted by the

Government. They were also active criminals averse to manual labour and they

were engaged in Kaval Duty for their maintenance and livelihood. Some served

as coolies during agriculture seasons^^. They picked up quarrel with those who

resisted them in paying Kaval Fee^^. The repeated attempts of Maravars did not

bear fruit. All the Maravars were not registered and it was difficult to take any
CO

action against them. In spite of the close watch the Police kept over them, they

had been carrying on criminal activities. Though they lived in different areas

they all had the same quality.

The Maravars lived in illiteracy and poverty. They had no legal protection

because they lived on the main hereditary occupations like salt trade, basket

making, Kaval work under Local Chief^^. The economic backwardness and

crude nature, influenced these individuals and clans to indulge in criminal

actives such as house breaking, robbery, dacoiting pickpacketing, theft etc.. The

Maravars were Dravidian Tribes and they were little affected by the Bramanical

Influence. They were associated with the Tamil Word Maravar which means

Killing, Ferocity, Bravery.^" They were fierce and turbulent and they were

known for their martial prowess. They were associated with Kallars and

Agamudaiyars. They were Rulers of Maravar Seemai *' which comprises of

Ramnad and Sivagangai Region. They maintained long and curled locks of hair

'* Kadhirvel, S., A History ofMaravas, Madras,1977, p.l7.

"/Z>/</.,p.24.
58
www.enotes.com
^' Nicholas B. Dirks, The Hollow Crown; Ethnohistory of an Indian Kingdom, Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, 1987, p. 262.
^°/AW.,p.267.
^'/Wrf., p.271.
 163

and had a fierce looking face. They were anned with the bow, bound with

leather.

Koravars

These people are closely related to Kaikadi Erukalas who founded

Kakatiya Kingdom. They were a variant of Bhils and they could be part of the

Kalabhras who invaded South Indian Dynasties.

Kalaveera => kalabeera, Kalabeera => kalabra => kalabhra,

Kalaveera => karaveera => karavar => Kuravar => koravar^^

These "wandering tribes" of Madras Presidency were declared Criminal

Tribes in 1913. Koravas were commonly spoken of as a Gyipsy Tribe, but in

some parts of Salem District, they organized a regular Kaval System similar to

that of the Kallars in Trichi and Tanjore^^. They are commonest in Auttur and

Uttankarai and they were to be found in every Taluk of the District. Their

language is a medley of Tamil, Telugu and Kanarese, the Tamil element usually

preponderating and they use their own peculiar thieves' slang. Difference in

language is not, apparently, a bar to intermarriage. The exact relationship that

their numerous sub-divisions bear to one another is by no means clear. Korava or

Kuruva seems to be closely related to Kuruba. It is also believed that Kallars

were a branch of the Kurumbas.

Karava => kuruva = kuruba = kurumba

62
www.ebooksread.com/.../castes.../page-9-castes-and-tribes-of-southem-mdia- volume-4-ala.shtinl
" Ibid.
 164

The best known sections of Korava were : (1) Dhabai, (2) Uppu (3)

Kamveppiliai and (4) Kavalkaran Koravas,^"* all of which were probably sub-

castes. The Dhabhai Koravas made baskets and other articles of bamboo and

palm-leaves. The Uppu Koravas, who were also known as Ghattada or Ettina

Koravas were itinerant traders in salt. It is doubtful whether the Kunjam, Nari

and Punai-Kutti Koravas were distinct sub-castes, or whether any of these terms

were synonymous with other sections. The Pachi-Kutti Koravas enjoyed a

monopoly in the art of tattooing. The Ina Koravas were pickpocketers.

All Koravas appear to recognize four quasi-exogamous subdivisions, viz.,

\ 65

(1) Kavadi, (2) Menpadi, (3) Mendra-Kutti and (4) Sattupadi . These names are

said to be connected with worship. Kavadis were carried in connection with the

worship of Subramaniya, who is the Patron Deity of the whole caste. Menpadis

offered praises, and Mendra-Kuttis offered shoes to the idol, while Sattupadis

adorned their god with flowers and jewels. Kavadis and Sattupadis ranked higher

than other sections, and they alone were regarded as true Koravas. Two other

clans were reported, the Uyyalu and the Bandi.

Koravars were divided int^^-Narikoravar, Dabi Koravars, Gandarvakottai

Koravars, Inji Koravars, Koravars, Kalinji Dabikoravar, Kala Koravar, Monda

Koravars, and so on. Kavalkara Koravas were also called Morasu, Monda and

Kadukutti but the significance of these terms is not clear.

^ zso2.1egionowo.pl/adinin/warrior-caste&page=7
" Ibid.
'^^ www.oocities.org/mudiraja/mudiraju_various_names.html •
 165

The salutary custom of recovering, or giving compensation for, all

property stolen in villages protected by the Kaval is unfortunately dying out.

When a burglary was committed, those who kept watch"^^ outside were entitled

to one third. It is said that two shares were also allotted to the Headman, half

shares to wives whose husbands were also allotted to the headman, half shares to

wives whose husbands were in jail, a fourth share each to old men, and to those

who stayed at home to guard the huts and property of those who went out to

commit the crime, and an eighth share to their Swami. To evade indentification,

every Korava had a bewildering string of names for identification.

Koravas buried their dead. Among the Uppu Koravas, if the deceased was

unmarried, the body was wrapped in a yellow sheet and decked with flowers,

and if married, in a white sheet, while the corpse of a widow was not honoured

with either sheet or with flowers. As regards specific occupations among the

Koravas, the Bidar or Nomad Koravas originally carried merchandise in the

form of salt, tamarinds, curry leaves from place to place on pack - bullocks or

donkeys.

Koravars are still being called by different caste titles which were

supposedly given by the administration from the dark ages of Colonial India. As

a consequence, ^^ the Koravars were divided into small communities and became

minorities with no real strength. Koravas, one of the communities under the

purview of the Criminal Tribes Act, continue to be treated as criminals and

''Ibid.
' areweb.berkeley.edu/~antinori/prclass/Mosse.pdf
 166

harassed by the State Police even after the repeal of the Act following prolonged

struggles by Leaders of the National Movement. These hapless people silently

suffer this humiliation and many incidents of police torture often go unnoticed

by the media. Interestingly, "Kurava Crimes" is part of the Police Training

Syllabus. In Tamil Nadu, Kuravas and other tribal communities bear the brunt of

police prejudice. Unlike Kallars, another denotified community with a

significant presence in the Southern Districts, who had benefited to some extent

from the reformatory schools and advanced a little, Kuravas, numbering about

2.5 lakhs^^, remain backward.

There are about 28 sub-sects among them. They include Narikkuravas

who move from place to place, selling honey, herbal medicines and needles and

others, whose occupations range from agricultural labour to conservancy work,

from vending vegetables and curry leaves to government service, from fortune-

telling to teaching. Whenever crime is reported, the Kuravas in the area became

the prime suspects of the police. The police take photographs and fingerprints of

every Kurava suspect they confront. Almost every police station has a register of

local Kuravas, with their photographs and fingerprints.

79

People of Korava / Kurava community are called by different names in

different parts of South India. They are called Kuravan or Kuruvar in Tamil

Nadu. Korama or Koracha in Kamataka, Kaikadi in Maharashtra, Oddanar in

Kerala and Kattu Naicker in Puducherry. In essence, these communities form a

'Ubid.
^ www.sangam.org/articles/view2/?uid=l 128
''Ibid.
^^ en.peperonity.comygo/sites/mview/vamsam/28225082
 167

great big community from South India. Prior to the British Colonial Rule, all

these communities were part of that great big community since there were no

real boundaries in India at that time. People from these communities used to

roam around freely for their trading purposes. The splitting of this great

community into numerous small communities is attributed to the Indian Caste

System and the subsequent exploitation of our inherent weakness in an

exponential way by the British Divide and Rule Policy.

These communities were conscious of their martial traditions and aspired

to play their legitimate part in the larger life of the nation. But unfortunately

owing to various different forces, the aspirations and legitimate claims of the

community have been over looked and they were frustrated. They were reduced

to a back ward condition as a servile agricultural class. They were not habitual

law breakers and marauders like some of the North Indian Hill Tribes. But the

police harassed these communities and the CTA added to their misery.

The next important Criminal Tribes in Madurai were Thottiya Naicks and

Kammalans,^^ the descendants and soldiers of Poligars of Nayak Kingdom in

Madurai. They settled as agriculturalists in Madurai and Ramnad Districts. After

the downfall of the Nayak Rule, they drifted from their routine life and engaged

themselves in crimes.

In addition to the above mentioned traits of the various individual

criminal tribes, the ever increasing professional crimes of such nature by various

''^ Muhammad Abdul, Notes on Criminal Class on Madras Presidency, Madras,1975, p.24.
 168

sets of people from different regions of the Madurai, compelled the Police of the

Province to document them with all details. The names of known decoits and

wandering gangs increased gradually. As it was mainly due to economic

imbalance and disparities, the Police and Criminal Investigation Department

adopted the system of collecting the finger prints of the dacoits and insisted that

they must report either to the Police Station or to the Magistrate periodically.

They did not want to give up their traditions of Kaval. The police power was still

in conflict with the Maravars and Kallars of Ramnad and Madurai. They served

as frustrating and humiliating obstacles to police surveillance and detection and

they were audacious in their activities. Because of the prestige and command of

the Maravars among the rural mass, they were protected against Police

Investigation. Government was compelled to search for more enduring and

fundamental solutions. Decisive action on the part of the Police was a must to

prevent the Criminal Tribes from resorting to crimes.

It is evident that different Notified Criminal Tribes lived in different areas

of Madurai and had their own individual traits and social habits. They had their

own economic and social status. Some of them had their own ways and methods

in escaping from their crimes.

Effect of Criminal Tribe Act

The implementation of the Criminal Tribe Act affected the Criminal

Tribes. This Act was condemned because all members of the community were

not criminals. It caimot be denied that there were some criminals in all
 169

communities. Because a few persons in a community were involved in criminal

activities, the Government should not declare the whole community as criminals.

Regarding the social habits and economic status of the communities which were

notified as Criminal Tribes, as per the reports of the District Magistrate of

Madurai, Kallars and Maravars relied upon Kaval or Criminal Activities for their

maintenance. In this case, the Criminal was mainly related to Kaval System. It

is also found that Kaval System was an accepted system in the early British

Period. As this Kaval System was stronger in Madurai, the Colonial Police found

it was very difficult to combat them. Hence the CTA was implemented to

neutralize the Kaval System in rural Madurai. Hence it concluded that the CTA

was passed to control the criminal activities of the communities which were

declared as Criminal Tribes. But in reality, it was political motivation.

Strangely, the Kallar Crime Rate had remained much the same. There had

been an increase in the Kallar Crime in the District from 28.34% to 41.12% in

1945^"*. This increased Kallar Crime Rate was, however, less than 44.28%)

recorded in 1942^^. In Madurai District, Kallar Population was higher, roughly

70% when compared with other communities.^^. The following Table shows the

Total Kallar Crime compared with the District Crime Total

^* Report on the Administration of Police in Madras Presidency,! 944-1945, Madras,1945, pp.4-10

^' Ibid.
'"'Ibid.
 170

Year Total Crime Kallar Crime

1946 3184 717

4057 683
1947
22.6% 16.8%^^

Hence it would be concluded that the Kallars were not mainly responsible

for all the crimes in Madurai District. Thus the Act was imposed upon them not

with a view to preventing the Kallar form committing crimes but to isolate them

from entering into national politics and to put an end to the Kaval System.

Criminal Tribes were addicted to the systematic commission of non -

bailable offences and therefore once notified, the members of the Tribe had no

appeal in the court. Thus the Notified Criminal Tribes were put to a lot of

hardship and were deprived of their personal liberty. Members of the designated

Criminal Tribe were placed outside the provisions of the ordinary law and

subjected to intensive and indefinite Police Supervision. They were exposed to

the harassment of the police and the Local Land Lords and Village Officers who

were entrusted with supervision. As the police were ill-treating, the reclamation

work should have been removed from the hands of the police. Since the officials

were corrupt, it was demanded that for the ameliorative work and funds should

be transferred to Education Department. The police used them for their own

benefit. By breaking their power and by using their slavish mentality they

brought a large number of these people to the place visited by the Simon

Commission and persuaded that Commission to believe that they had come to

77
Report on the Administration of the Madras Presidency, 1946-1947, Madras, 1947, p.60.
 171

welcome them. Thus the CTA caused some negative impact which favored the

Alien British against the Natives.

The CTA was hated by the Kallars of Madurai and a riot took place at

Perungamanallur against the CTA Act. It is clear that the aim of the British Raj

was to confine them in a single location where they could be subject to a more

effective surveillance. By keeping Kallars in the Settlements, it was intended to

break their wandering and thievish ways and turn them in to settled cultivators,

basket makers and weavers. But the real aim was to prevent them from joining

the Freedom Struggle and Political Parties because these Criminal Tribes were

the strong Freedom Fighters against the British Rule in Madurai District.

Muthuramalinga Thevar was the best example for this. As a freedom fighter, he

stood for the social equality and abolition of caste discriminations. He was

prepared to challenge the activities of the Government which were against the

Criminal Tribes, though they were people who were responsible for social

service like Kaval System and stability of the native rulers. The British Rule

branded them as 'Criminal Tribes' because they worked against the penetration

of the Europeans into different parts of Tamil Country. Accounting to the

Criminal Tribes Act, a man who was bom of Notified Criminal Tribes, has to

appear before police everyday. Hence Mukkulator Community opposed this

Act, on S*"^ April 1920 at Perungamanallur Village in Madurai District. An

outrageous mob of that Village encircled the authorities resulting a few

'^Mukkulartor-Maravar.kallar.agamudiyar..
 172

causalities of Kallars. But an ugly incident was averted by the calm and cool

activates of the authorities.

As a lesson learnt from the above incident, Muthuramalinga Thevar was

firm in creating awareness among the people of the Notified Criminal Tribes to

set aside the cruel effects of the Criminal Tribes Act. By organizing meetings

and procession at Abiramam Village near Pasumpon on 13"" May 1934, he

submitted petitions to the Government to repeal the Criminal Tribes Act.^^

After his entry into politics, Thevar began to mobilize resistance to the

C.T.A. He toured villages in the affected areas and led Protest Rallies for the

rights of the individuals registered under the CTA. In 1929, the Maravars of 19

villages in Appanad were forced to register under the CTA. The authorities

partially withdrew, and reduced the number of CTA registrations in the areas

concerned from around 2000 to just 341. In 1934, Thevar organized a

Convention at Abhiram, which urged the authorities to repeal the CTA.

A Committee consisting of Thevar, P. Varadarajulu Naidu, Perumal Thevar,

Sasivama Thevar, and Navaneethakrishna Thevar, was appointed by the

Convention to carry on the efforts to persuade the Government to revoke the

Act. The CTA was, however, not revoked. On the contrary, its implementation

was widened. Thevar again led agitations and awareness-raising campaigns

against the Act. At the time the Justice Party was governing the Madras

79 http;//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/u._Muthuramalingam_Thevar#cite_note_l.
 173

Presidency, and their refusal to revoke the law created a strong animosity

towards the Justicites^^.

District Board Election, 1936

Infuriated over the attitude of the Government under the Justice Party

towards the CTA, Muthuramalinga Thevar came to the conclusion that the

communities affected by the Act had to be mobilized by the Congress. After

returning from a trip to Burma in 1936, he began to work to strengthen the

Congress in the Southern Areas of the Presidency. He contested the election to

the Ramnad District Board from the Muthukulathur Constituency, defeating his

opponent from the Justice Party. This was Thevar's first experience of being a

candidate in an election. After the election, Thevar made a bid to be elected the

President of the District Board. So did P.S. Kumarasamy, the Raja of

Rajapalyam. Conflict erupted within the Local Congress Organisation over the

issue. S. Satyamurthi, on behalf of the Tamil Nadu Congress Committee,

intervened to preserve the unity of the Congress. Thevar was convinced and

withdrew his candidature and presented a motion nominating Kumarasamy as

the President,

When the Congress Socialist Party began to mobilize in the Madras

Presidency in 1936, Thevar joined their ranks ^^ in the 1937 Provincial Election.

Ahead of the 1937 elections to the Assembly of the Madras Presidency, Thevar

enlisted youth from the Mukkulathor communities to work for the Congress. His

80
Ibid., note_2
^' Ibid.
 174

activities created worries for the Justice Party. Therefore the Government

forbade him to travel outside the Ramnad District and to make speeches in

public.

In February 1937, Thevar contested the Assembly Election as a candidate

from the Ramnad Constituency. He had a powerful opponent, the Raja of

Ramnad. However, Thevar won a landslide victory with 11,942 votes against 6,

057 for the Raja.

Following the election, the Congress formed Government in the

Presidency. Thevar had high hopes that the New Congress Ministry would

revoke the Criminal Tribes Act. But the New Chief minister, C. Rajagopalachari,

did not fulfill those hopes.^ . Thevar attended the 52nd Annual Session of the

Indian National Congress, held in Tripuri in March 1939. At this meeting, the

Presidency of Subhas Chandra Bose was challenged by Pattabhi Sitaramayya.

Sitaramayya had the active support of Gandhi. Bose was re-elected as the

Congress President. Thevar strongly supported Bose in the Intra-Congress

Dispute Thevar mobilised from South India votes for Bose.

However, due to the maneuverings of the Gandhi-Led Clique in the

Congress Working Committee, Bose was forced to resign from the Congress

Presidency. He then launched the Forward Bloc on June 22, calling for the

unification of all leftwing elements into a united organisation within the

Congress. Thevar, who was disillusioned by the Official Congress Leadership

 175

which had not revoked the CTA, joined the Forward Bloc. When Bose visited

Madurai on September 6, Thevar organised a massive rally to honour his visif^^

The growing popularity of Thevar as a leader of elements opposing the

Official Congress Leadership in Tamil Nadu troubled the Congress-Led

Government. Thevar was also increasingly associated with labour militancy.

A criminal case, the so-called Madura Security Case, was foisted against him.

He was barred from leaving Madurai. When travelling to his birthplace,

Pasumpon, in September 1940, he was apprehended and jailed for 18 months at

the Central Jail in Tiruchirapalli. His capture sparked wide condemnation in

Tamil Nadu. Soon after his release, he was arrested again under the Defense of

India Rules. He was released from prison on 5 September 1945.

In 1945, C. Rajagopalachari tried to make a comeback within the

Congress Organisation but Tamil Nadu Congress Committee opposed him.

A Conference was held in Tirupparankundram, in which the leadership should

be elected. Chaos broke out during the Conference, as warring factions

confronted each other. Thevar interrupted the disputes and passed a motion

reelecting Kamaraj as the TNCC President^'*.

Election to the Assembly of the Madras Presidency was again held in

March 1946. Thevar contested from the Mudukulathur Constituency, and he was

elected unopposed. Soon thereafter, the CTA was repealed.

''Ibid.
'^ Ibid., note. 6.
''^ Ibid., note. 7.
 176

Even though he was prosecuted for anti - governmental activities, he was

firm in his convictions and he concentrated more on the elimination of atrocities

committed on Notified Criminal Tribes by the Alien Government. He even

pointed out that the British, who respect the Rule of Law should think whether

such an Act was available in any part of England. But the Criminal Tribes Act

(CTA) was repealed only after the attainment of Indian Independence. In this

regard it is wrong to say that Muthuramalinga Thevar fought only for the cause

of his Communities as many authors believe. He fought against the CTA which

affected more than 89 communities and Thevars were also part of them. Because

of the efforts of Muthuramalinga Thevar, the name. Criminal Tribes was

re-designated as Denotified Community. This initial measure by

Muthuramalinga Thever enabled the then Government to look into the details of

Kallar Reclamation Schemes like establishment of schools, settlement etc. Thus

he was firm in the uplift of Notified Criminal Tribes on par with others who

were progressive.

Reclamation of Criminal Tribes

The British Raj considered the economic necessity as one of the causes

for the crimes committed by the Notified Criminal Tribes. The CTA provided a

few measures to uplift the economic status of such tribes. The Government

established six settlements for the Notified Criminal Tribes and 5058 members

were in these settlements. They carried out the works entrusted to them. Co-

operative Societies, Special Boarding Homes and Schools and a number of

 177

Scholarships were granted these Tribes. These Kallar Reclamation Schemes

were designed to reform the criminals and to make them law abiding citizens.

In 1924, Kallar Reclamation Fund was created under the Kallar

Reclamation Scheme. It was for agricultural purpose and for the general welfare

of the community. It mainly endeavored to educate the students of the Kallar

Community. The Fund was managed by a Committee of 12 members^^. Further,

Kallar Students were granted scholarships and stipends. Thus the

implementation of the CTA also paved the way for the creation of funds for their

uplift and also paved the way for the appointment of Kallar Special Officers for
Of.

Madurai who took care of their employment opportunities.

Co-Operative Societies were created under the CTA. These Societies

were controlled by the Police, with the assistance of Special Co-Operative

Inspectors deputed by the Co-Operative Department. The amount reserved for

various purposes was utilized by the Societies only for appropriate reason and

such funds were handled by the Registrar of the Co-Operative Societies, under

the supervision of Police and Co-Operative Department Officials. Up to 1939,

the Takkavi Loans were granted for Kallars for purchasing lands for cultivation

and house sites. The District Forest Authorities were asked to grant land to

Kallars for cultivation. The selection of lands for assignment was monitored by a

Special Revenue Inspector. Such facts indicated that the CTA had caused the

promotion and development of Kallars.

^' Ibid.
^^ Short Notes on Kallar Reclamation Scheme, Madurai and Dindugul Anna Districts, Government of
Tamil Nadu, Madras, 1995, pp.1-12.
 178

Co-Operative Societies

The introduction of Co-Operative Societies for Kallars was also partly of

the reclamation work because the financial condition of those Notified Tribes

would have become deplorable and that, in turn would have prevented them

from changing their original attitude and criminal behavior. In 1936 - 1937,^^

there were 255 Kallar Co-Operative Societies. Collection work in these Societies

was fairly satisfactory and there was improvement in the recovery of loans. In

1938-1939,^^ there were 259 Kallar Co-Operative Societies. 11,694 members

were registered in these societies and their working capital was Rs.2,63,141/-. It

was a customary practice to deposit the share amounts in the Madurai - Ramnad

Central Co-Operative Bank. The Societies in North Madurai worked

satisfactorily and collected dues promptly. The South Madurai improved their

collection of short term loans but had large long standing arrears. A Labour

Society was formed to provide work by undertaking contracts. In 1944-1945

there were 262 Kallar Co-Operative Societies, functioning with a membership of

10,065/- and the registration of two Credit Co-Operative Societies and a Milk

Supply Co-perative Society was under consideration. During this period, a sum

of Rs.22,590 was advanced to 25 societies in Madurai North district as short

term loans from the Government Funds to enable them to grant loans to their

members for the purchase of cattle. The work in South Madurai District was

more extensive. The Labour Co-Operative Society Limited at Checkanuruni

^^ Report on the Administration of the Madras Presidency, 1936-1937, Madras, 1937, p.37.
"' /fcjrf.,J93S-J959,Madras, 1939,p.53.
89
Ibid.,1944-1945,Madias, 1945, p.71.
 179

underlook contracts and provided Kallars good rates. The Sales Society

established warehouses and marketed the produce brought in by Kallars. By the

end of 1947,^° there were 65 Kallar Co-Operative Societies in the Madurai North

District and 205 Co-Operative Societies in the Madurai South District. The

number of Co-Operative Societies increased from 265 to 270 and the

membership rose from 10,173 to 10,702. The Societies were working very

satisfactorily and their financial position was sound. Borrowers were able to

repay their dues on their own accord owing to the prevailing high prices of

agricultural produce. In South Madurai, Cottage Industry was making

appreciable progress. Sale Society at Usilampatti, which was previously

dormant, was revived as the Usilampatti Co-Operative Cottage Industries

Limited and brought under the control of the Department. Poultry Farming and

Soap Making Industries, started at Usilampatti, were financed by the Kallar

Common Fund and they worked satisfactorily. The Society undertook

Government of India Scheme of Egg Marketing and appointed an Egg Collector

for the purpose. The bee-keeping and jaggery making were prompted through

training programmes throughout the year. Poultry Farming also was supervised

by the Instructor. Much interest was taken by the villagers in improving cottage

industries.

90
Ibid,1946-1947,Madras, 1947, p.53.
 180

No Name of the Gange No. of Societies available^^

1. Uthana Palayam 26

2. Periya Kulam 26

3. Thimmangalam 26

4. Checkkanurani 'A' 21

5. Checkkanurani 'B' 18

6. Usilampatti "A" 20

7. Usilampatti "B" 26

8. Sindupatti 26

9. Madurai 19

Education

It was realized that the way of reforming a community would be possible

only by educating their children and hence more importance was given to

education under the Reclamation Work. Many schools were opened for Criminal

Tribes and scholarships were granted for their studies. In Madurai District, there

were 238 schools on 31" December 1936, with a strength of 12,424 of whom

3114 were girls as against 12,772 (2973 girls).^^ The decrease was due to the

introduction of the age limit of six for admission. The total number of teachers

employed was 393. Scouting was popular and there were 101 cub packs, 24

scout troops, 1 rover crew, 2 blue bird flocks and 3 girls guide companies with

2269 members.

5' Ibid.
^^Ibid., 1936-1937, Madras, 1937, pp.50-51.
 181

In 1938-1939, there were 255 Kallar Elementary Schools in Madurai, of

which 208 were made Complete during the year by the opening of the Fifth

Standard. The strength of the schools rose by nearly 17000 to over 14,000 and

attendance was satisfactory.^^ There was a fall in the number of pupils on the

rolls from 14,203 to 14,081. Night Schools were held in most of the schools for

adults. Scouting continued to be popular and the work was commended by the

Boy Scouts Association of India. In 1944-1945, there were 247 schools for

Kallar children and 9 more for Kallar girls only. All the schools except 12, were

maintained and managed by the Government and they were Complete

Elementary Schools, with I to V. The total number of Kallar pupils in the School

at the end of the year was 14701. It is worthy of note that more girls studied in

these schools in 1944^"^ than in the previous year. Two Government Boarding

Homes, with 375 boarders were run and the entire cost was met from the funds

of the budget. One additional Scout Instructor was sanctioned and attached to the

Uthamapalayam Boarding Home. 172 Kallar Pupils were granted scholarship, .of

which five were residential. The number of lower elementary schools at the end

of the year 1947^^ was 256, of which 249 were under Government Management.

The strength in all the schools was 19,198(18,199), of which 16,641 (15,907)

were Kallars and the rest Non-Kallars. The staff strength increased to 554,

excluding two Scout Instructors, and one Sewing and Knitting Mistress. 247

Kallars were granted scholarship. A Scholarship of Rs.225 was sanctioned to a

Kallar.

'^ Ibid,1938-1939, Madras, 1939, pp.50- 56

'" Ibid.,1944-1945, Madras, 1945, p.49..
95
Ibid.,1946-1947, Madras,1947, p.48.
 182

Boarding Grants were sanctioned to 1423 Kallar Children (862 boys and

561 girls). Kallar Children, who studied well, were encouraged by grant of

scholarships. Grants enabled them to continue their studies at the higher level in

the literary as well as technical lines.

As a result of the introduction of the CTA, the education of the Kallar

Community vastly expanded. Thus it is evident that the implementation of the

Act enabled the Government to devote much attention to Notified Criminal

Tribes and prevent them from crimes. The Kallar Advisory Committee was

constituted during 1938^^. This Committee functioned well in dealing with

refractory Kallars. A Kallar Reclamation Employment Bureau was started in

1937 and through this Bureau, 30 educated and 500 uneducated Kallars were

provided with suitable jobs.

The Reclamation Scheme had given the Criminal Tribes vocational

training in basket making, electrical, wiring, carpentry, printing etc. The girls

were taught sewing, knitting, gardening, house keeping, midwifery and nursing.

One Kallar Boy got admission in the YMCA College of Physical Education.

Thus the impact Of Reclamation was evident that as members belonging to the

Notified Criminal Tribes got widened scope for developing themselves through

vocational training. The existing Reclamation Arrangements continued even

after the CTA had been repealed.

^^ Ibid.,1938-1939,M^dTas, 1939, p.46.

"/Wrf.,i955-iPJ7,Madras, 1937, p.37.
 183

The Kallar Reclamation Scheme was implemented in Madurai, Dindigul

and Theni Districts and they were under the control of the Special Deputy

Collector (Kallar Reclamination) Madurai. There were 260 schools, under the

administrative control of this office, to uplift the educational standard of

Piranmalai Kallars. The details of schools are as follows

No.of No.of
No.of
Details of Schools Teachers Students
Sl.No Schools
working studying

1. Higher Secondary Schools 15

2. High Schools 23 1713 50071

3. Middle Schools 29

4. Elementary Schools 190

Total 260

Hostels

There were 48 Hostels under the control of Special Deputy Collector

(Kallar Reclamation), Madurai, for giving Board and Lodging to poor students.

The details of hostels are as follows;

Name Details Total Total

Admitted Govt. Private
Sl.No of of No.of No.of
strength Building building
District Hostels Buildings Staff

1. Madurai 15 7 3,513 13 9 22 102

2. Dindigul 5 2 570 2 5 7 29

3. Theni 14 5 1,210 5 14 19 74

Total 34 14 5,293 20 28 48 205

 184

Pachayat System

The introduction of Kallar Panchayat was also beneficial for Reclamation

Purpose. In 1939, there were 615 Panchayats in Madurai. Under the system of

individual Panchayat Responsibility, each Panchayat Member was responsible

for the good conduct of a limited number of Kallars. Each Kallar was placed in

charge of a Panchayatdar. If a gang operated from a village the whole village

was held collectively responsible and the entire Panchayat was suspended and

reporting enforced. This new system of Joint Responsibility worked

satisfactorily and helped better control over Kallars. The number of prosecutions

against Kallars under the CTA, decreased from 614 to 419. Panchayatdar and

Individual Kallars who did good work in detection of cases, were given Money

Awards and this had salutary effect. There was a drop in Kallar Crime in

Madurai North from 169 to 117 cases and a small increase in Madurai South

from 125 to 186 cases. Panchayats continued to render assistance in the

detection and prevention of Kallar Crime. This showed a further fall of 10%

during the year.

In the year 1944 - 1945 a new system was introduced in the Panchayat.

Members of the Panchayat were jointly and severally responsible for the good

behaviour of the Kallars in the village. The Kallar Homes in the village, were

^Ibid., 1938-1939,MadTas, 1939, p.48.

 185

divided into five sections or more sections. ^^ In 1947, there were 568
100
Panchayats. Fifty Panchayats were suspended and 11 of them were restored

This Act was introduced with the implied principle that it was to be

applied as a Reclamation Measure and not as a punitive one. The Abeyance

System was also working effectively. It is important to notice that the main

cause for the reduction of the crimes was the Abeyance System. This system

offered scope for severe punishments by Police Officials. As the system dealt

with the good conduct of a Notified Criminal Tribe, it led to the reduction in

crimes as a result.

In the year 1938, the number of registered Kallars were 37,255, of whom

8633 were under orders to report at intervals.^°^ But all except 202, were under

orders of abeyances on condition of good conduct. From this year, the Abeyance

System worked successfully. In 1944, the power of granting Abeyance was

transferred from the District Superintendent of Police to the District

Magistrate.'°^

In 1946 there were very few Registrations. Instead, there were very large

number of cases of Abeyance for good conduct and other causes. This was due

to the decision of the Government to repeal the CTA in its application in this

^' Ibid., 1944-1945, Madras, 1945, p.73.

'°°/Z./W., 1946-1947, Madras, 1947, p.53.
'°' Ibid., 1938-1939, Madras, 1939, p.39.
^°^Ibid., 1944-1945, Madras, 1945, p.45.
 186

Province. It was further ordered that restrictions should not be enforced against
103
Criminal Tribe outside the Settlements

104
The following table shows the Kallar Register in 1945 - 1946

Total number of Kallars 1945 1946

registered up to the end 27199 25997
of the previous year

Total number of Kallars

Registered upto the end 155 34
of the year

Number received on
transfer from other 833 57
Districts

Total number removed

From the Register upto
the end of the Year 28187 26088

Number of Kallars
removed on account 219 16,516
of good conduct, death
and other causes

Number remaining
on roll at the end 25997 957292
of the year

^^^Ibid., 1945-1946, Madras, 1946, p.59.

'"Vz-iW., p.60.
 187

The Criminal Tribes were removed from the Register as a reward of

continuous conduct and satisfactory perfomiance of their duties and

responsibility. The settlement of the Criminal Tribes was a great relief for the

Community of Criminal Tribes. Making entire communities responsible for

offences committed by a few individuals was seen as unjust. There was also

dissatisfaction over treating hard core criminals and hence this unjust Act was

repealed. The Communities "Notified" under the Act were since 'Denotified'.

As often happens, that term has in its turn acquired derogatory connotations.

Even though the Act was repealed after Independence, people belonging to

Criminal Tribes nearly 600 communities in India, still suffer from this historical

disadvantage. They suffer extreme backwardness which had worsened due to

police harassment and administrative apathy. In Madurai District, the Kallar

Community enjoyed benefits to some extent from the Reformatory Schools and

Settlements under the CTA. But they had to fight for their genuine rights and

gain a honorable place in the society. The Criminal Tribes Act was repealed in

1947. Then an alternative device of Habitual Offenders Act was passed.'°^The

Criminal Tribes are still struggling for Human Rights.

'°^ Jeganathan, P., The Kallar Panchayat System in Colonial TamilNadu, Madurai, 2006,p.95.