Unesco Studyguide

UNITED NATIONS
IMUNC'19
EDUCATIONAL
SCIENTIFIC
AND CULTURAL
ORGANISATION
The Issue of Providing Education in Conflict Zones
The Question of Internet Censorship
INTERNATIONAL MODEL UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE 2019
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation
FOREWORD
Greetings delegates,
Welcome to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)!
UNESCO is one of the organs of the UN, usually dealing with matters of social culture, while
simultaneously promoting international cooperation in, as the name suggests, Education, the
Sciences, and Cultural issues.
Delegates will be engaging with two topics during this conference: The Issue of Providing
Education in Conflict Zones, and The Question of Internet Censorship. Firstly, regarding the
issue of providing education for the many children who lack access to this fundamental right
in conflict zones, contentious problems such as the potential violation of a country’s
sovereignty, and the enforcement of punishment for those who hinder children’s access to
education, need to be resolved to safeguard their equal right to education. Secondly, regarding
the controversy of internet censorship, since the Internet is becoming increasingly important in
shaping one’s beliefs, the challenges caused by different political stances of countries need to
be overcome to grant all citizens the freedom of speech on the internet, to ensure the vox populi
can be seen and heard online without restrictions.
The Chairs hope that delegates put in time and effort to understand the problems and their
implications in both issues. Only through a thorough understanding of their countries’ stances,
strengths, and flaws, will delegates be able to come up with effective solutions to both these
pertinent issues. The Chairs look forward to meeting all delegates, and hope that delegates will
have an enriching experience at IMUNC 2019!
Warmest regards,
Benecia Yeo
Head Chair, UNESCO
IMUNC 2019
Nicole Yeong, Aidan Low

Vice-Chair, UNESCO
IMUNC 2019
Swords Into Ploughshares
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PRIMARY TOPIC: THE QUESTION OF PROVISION OF EDUCATION IN
CONFLICT ZONES
INTRODUCTION
Education transforms lives and is at the heart of UNESCO’s mission to build peace, eradicate
poverty and drive sustainable development. This is particularly important in breaking status
quo in conflict zones, especially those that are long-running. However, in conflict zones,
access to education is scarce and a rarity to come upon. In fact, a new paper by UNESCO’s
EFA Global Monitoring Report shows that half of the 57 million children out of school live in
conflict-affected countries. This omission of education is a large impairment to the growth and
development of these children. When children lack access to education, children grow up
without the knowledge and skills they need to contribute to the peace and the development of
their countries and economies, aggravating an already desperate situation for millions of
children. Many of these children are fated to never be able to enter a classroom setting for the
entirety of their lives.
At present, there is a gradual, but nonetheless noticeable trend in an increase in accessibility of

education, given that globally, the number of children out of school has fallen from 60 million
in 2008 to 57 million in 2011. However, the benefits of this meagre progress have yet to reach
children in conflict-affected countries; they now make up 50% of children who are denied an
education, up from 42% in 2008.
When considering conflict zones, the field of education is often overlooked in favour of
seemingly more critical issues due to the less glaring short-term impacts of the disruption of
education. This leads to much more focus being placed other areas such as (short term)
humanitarian aid and accommodating refugees, to name a few. While it is undeniably necessary
to address said issues, long term issues such as education, as a result of their oft perceived
unimportance, end up being left unattended to despite their imperative role in creating peace
in the long run. As aptly summed up by Irina Bokova, Director-General of UNESCO
mentioned, “Education seldom figures in assessments of the damage inflicted by conflict”,
International attention and the media invariably focus on the most immediate images of
humanitarian suffering, not on the hidden costs and lasting legacies of violence. Yet nowhere
are these costs more evident than in education. Across many of the world’s poorest countries,
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armed conflict continues to destroy not just school infrastructure, but also the hopes and
ambitions of a whole generation of children.”
As such, finding ways to increase access to education, identifying and resolving root causes
that inhibit children from access to education is key in order to empower and enable these
people who lack such access.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
The crux of this issue can be summarised into 4 primary aspects, as follows:
a) the lack of funding and attention placed on education
b) potential dangers for students,
c) issues related to teachers
d) other salient barriers.
For one, while there has always been little interest in education in conflict zones, this lack of
focus on education in conflict zones increasingly apparent as of recent times. According to The
EFA Global Monitoring Report paper, the share of humanitarian aid for education has declined
from 2% in 2009 to just 1.4% in 2011. Not only does it receive a small share overall, but it also
receives the smallest proportion of the amount requested from humanitarian aid of any sector:
in 2010, of the modest amount requested for education in humanitarian crises, just over a
quarter was actually received, leaving a funding gap of around $220 million.
At present, there is a severe lack of focus and attention placed on education and increasing the
accessibility of it to the populace. “The decline in humanitarian aid for education is especially
bad news because funds are needed more than ever,” said Pauline Rose, Director of the EFA
Global Monitoring Report. “There are more refugees now than there have been since 1994;
children make up half of those who have been forcibly displaced. Nowhere is this more
painfully visible than in Syria today. These girls and boys face a disruption of their learning
process at a critical time – and the risk of a lifetime of disadvantage as a result.”
The reality is that in conflict zones, there are many roadblocks to the provision of education.
For one, amidst the volatility of a conflict zone, walking around outside is in itself dangerous,
with a pervasive threat of violence and danger, such as the dangers of weaponry and thus injury
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with the widespreadness of guns. With girls, this issue is compounded to be even more
precarious, given unique risks such as the threat of sexual violence and attack. "It’s insecure to
walk to school," she said. For young girls, there’s a fear for their sexual safety, of harassment.
In conflict-affected countries, rape and sexual violence for young girls are not uncommon."
Fig. 1: Gender Parity in Secondary School enrollment, 2012.
As such, the partial occupation of schools by armed forces often discourages parents from
sending their daughters to school, as parents fear their daughters will become victims of sexual
harassment and assault by military actors.
In January 2010, families from a village near Bocaranga in the Central African Republic
stopped sending girls to the local school, for fear of sexual violence by armed forces occupying
the school. These worries are not unfounded. In conflict areas around the world, girls continue
to be the most at risk group. For example, the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human
Rights in Colombia registered complaints alleging that soldiers from the High Mountain
Battalion, which had periodically occupied a local school in Valle de Cauca, had sex with two
14-year-old girls, who became pregnant as a result.
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Also, girls have been intimidated by terrorist groups, who have used attacks, kidnappings and
sexual violence to prevent them from obtaining an education. In Pakistan, Taliban forces
banned girls from attending school, and attempted to assassinate schoolgirl Malala Yousafzai
for her advocacy of girls’ education in 2012; Yousafzai has since become an international
activist for children’s and girls’ right to education.
Fig. 2: Countries with attacks on girls’ education, 2009-2014.
Militarized environments can also burden teachers with pragmatic challenges such as over-
crowded classes, reduced availability of materials, and compromised facilities, compromising
the ability to teach well as a result. These obstacles may then lead to distraction, job
dissatisfaction, and burnout among teachers, causing some teachers to choose to leave their
jobs, as studies have shown. Insufficient teachers will reduce the quality of education children
receive, or even prevent some children from getting an education. Additionally, rebel forces
may attack teachers to prevent children from gaining access to education. For example, in
Afghanistan, around 100 teachers and education officials were killed in 2013. A spokesman
for the Minister of Education of Afghanistan said that militants were looking to create fears
and terror among the students, teachers, and education administrators through assassinating
teachers, in an attempt to prevent children from going to school.
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Furthermore, there are many legal and logistical barriers which may keep children from being
able to attend school, especially for children who reside in countries outside their native
homelands. These barriers include language and cultural barriers, and legal barriers, as seen in
the 10 European Union Member States failing to recognise the right of undocumented migrant
children to enter the school system and five explicitly excluding them. and from a logistical
standpoint, the upheaval of the journey and the instability of living arrangements and routines
in a new environment can make it difficult for a child to learn. Even if all these things are
resolved, the school environment itself may pose further challenges for prospective foreign
students. Xenophobia, the exclusion and stigmatization can create inhospitable – or even
dangerous – environments for children seeking to join a new school system, such as through
discrimination.
PAST ACTIONS
So far, many organizations from around the world are engaged in providing children with safe
spaces to learn, such as UNICEF, who is committed to raising these children's quality of life
through education. In 2016, UNICEF reached 11.7 million children in emergencies, providing
education through formal and non-formal learning opportunities and materials, teacher training
and offering life skills classes. Through such initiatives, UNICEF alone reaches 45% of
children in need of education services in emergencies. Additionally, UNICEF is currently
hosting the secretariat of a global fund for education, Education Cannot Wait, which has
mobilized over US$113 million from government donors and a pledge of US$100 million in
both financial and in-kind support from the private sector.
The United Nations has taken steps to outline the civil, political, economic, social, health and
cultural rights of a child, including a child’s unassailable right to education, in the Convention
on the Rights of the Child (CRC), which came into force in 1990. Under this Convention, the
first Optional Protocol, the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on
the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict (OP-AC), further ensures that children can be
educated in conditions of peace and security. 1 The Committee on the Rights of the Child is
1
“Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Involvement of Children in Armed
Conflict”, United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner,
https://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/OPACCRC.aspx.
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then tasked with monitoring countries’ compliance with the CRC and OP-AC, as well as other
related treaties. The ratification of the CRC has been the basis of other actions taken by the UN
to protect the children’s equal right to quality education. For example, after CRC’s ratification,
resolution 1612 was passed in 2005. This established the Monitoring and Reporting
Mechanism on Children and Armed Conflict (MRM). The MRM is the most comprehensive
global monitoring system that currently exists for attacks on children during periods of armed
conflict, providing timely, accurate, objective, and reliable information on grave violations
committed against children during that period, such as the use of child soldiers and attacks
against schools. 2 In Resolution 1998, passed in 2011, the Security Council urged parties to
armed conflict to “refrain from actions that impede children’s access to education”. 3 Security
Council resolution 2143 of 2014 also reiterated the Council’s concern regarding attacks on
schools and requested enhanced monitoring of the military use of schools. That practice, which
deprives children of their basic right to access to education and puts them at risk, was
documented in 15 of 23 situations. 4
Many NGOs similarly continue to push to break the status quo of the lack of accessibility of
education, with many charities and organisations raising funds and even taking more practical
approaches such as building schools in conflict zones.
However, despite the actions that have been taken, the problem has clearly only shown itself
to be escalating in severity. This is due to the issues and roadblocks not being currently tackled
and dealt with, with the persisting lack of funding and safety issues, amongst many other issues.
2
“Attacks on Schools and Hospitals,” Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Children
and Armed Conflict, https://childrenandarmedconflict.un.org/six-grave-violations/attacks-against-schools/.
3
UNSC Resolution 1998, July 12, 2011 (S/Res/1998), Paragraph 4
4
“Children and armed conflict | Report of the Secretary-General,” United Nations General Assembly Security
Council, http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/2014/339.

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STAKEHOLDERS
Stakeholders who are not directly involved in conflict

USA
The United States is the only country in the United Nations to have not ratified the CRC, 5 due
to opposition from religious and political conservatives. Even though then Senator Barack
Obama promised to review the United State’s failure to ratify the Convention during his 2008
Presidential campaign, this did not come to fruition, and no President of the United States has
brought up the Convention’s ratification to the Senate. However, the United States has ratified
the OP-AC.
Norway
Norway has been a key player in the international work to ensure the protection of children’s
education in conflict areas. In May 2015, Norway hosted the inaugural Oslo Conference on
Safe Schools, an international conference on the protection of children and education during
armed conflict. Norway also was a leading country in the development of the Safe Schools
Declaration on the protection of education in areas of armed conflict. The safe schools initiative
is part of Norway's efforts to promote education for development, which have made Norway a
leading actor in the international work to ensure education for all. 6
Non-Governmental Organisation(s)
The Global Coalition to Protect Education from Attack (GCPEA) was established in 2010 by
organizations from the fields of education in emergencies and conflict-affected fragile states,
higher education, protection, international human rights, and international humanitarian law
who were concerned about ongoing attacks on educational institutions, their students, and staff
in countries affected by conflict and insecurity. GCPEA aims to catalyze enhanced prevention
of attacks on education, effective response to attacks, improved knowledge and understanding,
better monitoring and reporting, stronger international norms and standards, and increased
accountability, 7 to ensure education for all.
5
“Convention on the Rights of the Child”, United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner,
https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/crc.aspx.
6
“Safe schools for children in conflict areas”, ReliefWeb, https://reliefweb.int/report/world/safe-schools-children-
conflict-areas.
7
“Lessons in War” Global Coalition to Protect Education from Attack,
http://www.protectingeducation.org/sites/default/files/documents/lessons_in_war.pdf
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Stakeholders who are directly involved in conflict
Fig. 3: Countries with education institutions used for military purposes, 2005-2012. 8
Syria
The ongoing Syrian Civil War, which started in 2011, has caused up to 1000 schools to
allegedly be used as detention, interrogation or torture centers, disrupting student’s lessons.
Furthermore, thousands of schools and universities have been destroyed in the course of the
conflict, and there have been insufficient replacement schools. It was reported that both
government and oppositional forces had intentionally or indiscriminately attacked schools in
Aleppo, Damascus and Dara’a. 9 ISIS militants have also kidnapped or forcibly recruited
children into their ranks, effectively ending those children’s access to school education. Some
of these children are then used as child soldiers. Due to the situation in Syria, an estimated half
of all Syrian children are out of school, both in and outside the country. 10
Gaza strip
During the 2014 Gaza War, the militarisation of schools, whether partial or complete, by both
Israeli and Palestinian forces resulted in schools becoming the targets of attack. In 2015, Israel
was found to be guilty of a “criminal attack” on the United Nations Relief and Works Agency
school, that killed 20 people and wounded dozens. Palestinian militant groups were also found
8
Ibid.
9
“Safe No More | Students and Schools under Attack in Syria,” Human Rights Watch,
https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/syria0613webwcover.pdf.
10
“Syria Crisis: Education Interrupted | Global action to rescue the schooling of a generation,” UNICEF,
https://www.unicef.org/media/files/Education_Interrupted_Dec_2013.pdf.

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guilty for putting some UN schools in Gaza at risk by hiding weapons in three of those schools.
11
Yemen
During Yemen’s 2011 uprising, Houthi rebels risked the lives of tens of thousands of students
and prevented them from going to school due to their occupation of at least 54 schools in Sanaa,
Yemen’s capital. Even after the formal cessation of hostilities due to the signing of a peace
agreement between the regime and opposition forces in November 2011, soldiers and members
of armed groups continued living or were deployed in a number of schools until August 2012,
without regard for the grave threats posed to the children and the damage to their education. 12
India
Due to the Maoist Insurgency in Jharkhand, more than 129 schools were used as barracks or
military bases across the country, disrupting the studies of an estimated 20800 students, and
endangering students and teachers by turning their schools into enemy targets. 13 Although a
Supreme Court order for paramilitary forces to vacate schools was passed in February 2010,
security forces continued to use schools in 2012 and 2013. 14 In many cases, security forces
took over entire school facilities and campuses, completely shutting down schools. In other
instances, they occupied a part of the school, forcing classes to continue in crowded quarters
and alongside armed men. India was also one of the 38 countries that choose not to endorse the
Safe Schools Declaration in 2015.
Philippines
Philippines has experienced multiple armed conflicts, such as the conflicts between the
government and the New People’s Army, the Moro Islamic Liberation Front, and the Abu
Sayaf Group. Although in 1992, the Philippines’ Special Protection of Children against Abuse,
11
“Israel responsible for Gaza strikes on UN schools and shelters, inquiry finds,” The Guardian,
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/apr/27/israel-responsible-gaza-strikes-un-schools-ban-ki-moon.
12
“Classroom in the Crosshairs: Military Use of Schools in Yemen’s Capital,” Human Rights Watch,
https://www.hrw.org/report/2012/09/11/classrooms-crosshairs/military-use-schools-yemens-capital#.
13
“Sabotaged Schooling: Naxalite Attacks and Police Occupation of Schools in India’s Bihar and Jharkhand
States,” Human Rights Watch, https://www.hrw.org/report/2009/12/09/sabotaged-schooling/naxalite-attacks-
and-police-occupation-schools-indias-bihar#.
14
“Lessons in War 2015 | Military Use of Schools and Universities during Armed Conflict,” Global Coalition to
Protect Education from Attack”,
http://protectingeducation.org/sites/default/files/documents/lessons_in_war_2015.pdf.

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Exploitation, and Discrimination Act declared that school “units shall not be utilized for
15
military purposes such as command posts, barracks, detachments, and supply depots,”
incidents of the Armed Forces of the Philippines using schools continue to be reported.
SCOPE OF DEBATE
Short-term measures during times of conflict

A review of the short-term measures put in place is needed. Currently, conflicts usually mean
a stop in education for the time being, making the education process in war torn regions
extremely disruptive. War-filled regions such as Chad and Afghanistan have the highest rate
of out-of-school children in the primary levels of schooling, having only 50% and 46% of all
children attending primary schools respectively. Furthermore, when school buildings are used
for military purposes by parties of a conflict, the education can only progress if the
schoolchildren and their families are notified of a change in venue and timings. As such,
delegates would need to come up with creative solutions which can address the continuation
of education during conflicts, an accessible way to notify people of school venue and timing
changes, while also taking into account the overall safety of the people. It might also be
noteworthy to discuss where to draw the line on when a conflict becomes too severe for
education to continue.
Ensuring access to basic requirements

Even if governments find a way for education to continue, the next problem would be the lack
of basic educational conditions for students. These would include humanitarian accessibility
and simply the safety of educational areas. On the topic of humanitarian accessibility, it
troubles many parents as a change in schooling venues may result in having to send their
children to walk long distances for education, not to mention the ongoing conflict increases the
need for more safety measures. Safety of schooling areas is one of the more significant
problems as it is the main deterrent for students attending education in times of conflict. Under
international humanitarian law, schools are deemed as civilian objects and are not to be
attacked in conflicts. However, the problem would simply be the lack of compliance with these
15
“An act providing for stronger deterrence and special protection against child abuse, exploitation and
discrimination, and for other purposes,” The LawPhiL Project | Philippine Laws and Jurisprudence Databank,
https://www.lawphil.net/statutes/repacts/ra1992/ra_7610_1992.html.

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basic laws that make education in conflicts dangerous. The Oslo Conference on Safe Schools
was held in Norway in May 2015, where the topic of protection of children and education
during armed conflict was brought up. Norway, Argentina, and several other civil society
organisations soon came up with the Safe Schools Declaration. This declaration aimed to
prevent attacks on educational facilities, having countries that sign on it endorse an extension
on guidelines being put in place for protecting schools and universities from military use during
times of conflict. On top of that, the Safe Schools Declaration also aims to raise awareness on
the millions of children being denied education due to war. As such, delegates’ solutions should
include ways to ensure easier access to schools, accountability with certain humanitarian laws
and enforcement on declarations such as mentioned above.
Ensuring cohesion between larger organisations

Delegates should be cognisant of the untapped potential of working on cohesion between larger
organisations. By making use of the UNs different bodies, as well as through international
cooperation, this problem can be tackled much more efficiently. For example, a basic problem
would be the threat of funding that the UN currently faces. The United Nations International
Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) is now falling behind on its education schemes laid out
for countries such as Central African Republic and Yemen due to a lack in funding. 16 UNICEF
has collaborated with certain educational partners to help disadvantaged children gain an
educational opportunity, requesting $932 million USD for its education programmes in conflict
zones, but has received barely $114 million USD. As such, UNICEF now seeks collaboration
between countries to aid in their funding, after all, the United Nations should put up a united
front. On the contrary, for organisations lacking funds for contribution such as Non-
Governmental Organisations (NGOs), they can also contribute by working with other
organisations such as other NGOs or non-profit organisations (eg UNICEF). NGOs have
previously contributed by helping other organisations develop their organisation schemes,
aiming for the education schemes to be as conducive and effective as possible. Delegates, in
the course of crafting solutions, are advised to take into account the power and authority of
these larger organisations, as well as keeping in mind that this power can be used to facilitate
a gender-neutral education system.
16
Recent actions by UNICEF on aiding children in need of education
https://www.unicef.org/media/media_100857.html (accessed 26 December 2018); Home page of UNICEF
www.unicef.org (accessed 26 December 2018)

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PROPOSED SOLUTIONS
Solving this problem is a particularly thorny one as solutions would have to balance safety,
risk, manpower and funding. An effective solution that balances all of these would be the
creation of safe zones.17 These safe zones can include youth centres and recreational zones,
where children can play, learn and grow freely. However, the problem is the process of marking
out safe zones, as well as ensuring compliance with these newly input laws. The term “safe
zones” is not a technical term under international law, and hence it may also be effective to
internationally adopt a working definition of “safe zones”. This would ensure ease of access
during discussion. An additional problem that comes with safe zones would be that with many
children and unarmed people there, it becomes a tempting target for persecutors.18As such,
delegates are advised to come up with solutions to up safety measures around safe zones.
Delegates can dive into the idea of setting up extra frameworks or councils to serve as
commissions of inquiry. This would allow parties of a conflict to be able to clearly define when
to draw the line during their military practices.
Another problem would be the long distances for students should there be a change in schooling
venues. Although a problem of lesser significance, ensuring humanitarian access for students
is still important, especially when their environments may be affected by conflicts. A common
solution would be data collection of students such as their addresses, allowing for temporary
school buses to be put in place during conflicts to help the transportation problem. However,
this solution would require funding for transport.
UN laws, humanitarian laws, as well as laws around safe zones ultimately require
accountability. Thus, a framework, programme or mechanism to monitor and report
compliance with these laws can be particularly effective. This was tried out and found to be
effective as a similar system was put in place as suggested by the UN Secretary General to
monitor the rates of children being taken up as child soldiers. Furthermore, the UN can come
up with further systems to incentivise and promote good practices (eg compliance with
international laws) to parties of a conflict. On the contrary, more punishments and sanctions
17 Trevor Keck, “What you need to know about safe zones” http://intercrossblog.icrc.org/blog/what-you-need-to-
know-about-safe-zones (accessed 28 December 2018)
18 Trevor Keck, “What you need to know about safe zones” http://intercrossblog.icrc.org/blog/what-you-need-to-
know-about-safe-zones (accessed 28 December 2018)

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can be put in place while increasing the severity of current sentences around the violation of
these laws, to act as a stronger deterrent for potential violators.19
Questions a resolution must answer (QARMA):
1. What are the most effective short-term solutions to this problem?

2. Should Safe Zones be endorsed?
3. How reliable are Safe Zones?
4. When should the line be drawn to fully halt education in times of conflict?
5. Should humanitarian access be answered via buses, weighing their costs and
reliability?
6. What would be the best way to carry out a conducive but yet safe education?
7. How can basic requirements of Man be ensured as far as possible?
8. Is there a way to include and sustain cohesion between larger organisations?
FURTHER READINGS
1. Unesdoc.unesco.org. Accessed May 09, 2019.

https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000190743.
2. "What Can We Do to Protect Education in War Zones?" World Economic Forum.
Accessed May 09, 2019. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2015/11/what-can-we-do-
to-protect-education-in-war-zones/
3. Yurtoğlu, Nadir. "Http://www.historystudies.net/dergi//birinci-dunya-savasinda-bir-
asayis-sorunu-sebinkarahisar-ermeni-isyani20181092a4a8f.pdf." History Studies
International Journal of History 10, no. 7 (2018): 241-64. doi:10.9737/hist.2018.658.
4. “Safe No More: Students and Schools under Attack in Syria,” Human Rights Watch,
https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/syria0613webwcover.pdf.
5. “Syria Crisis: Education Interrupted,” Global action to rescue the schooling of a
generation, https://www.unicef.org/media/files/Education_Interrupted_Dec_2013.pdf.
19
Peter Klanduch and Maleiha Malik, Special to Gulf News, “Protecting education in conflict zones”, Gulf News,
http://www.protectingeducation.org/news/protecting-education-conflict-zones (accessed 28 December 2018)

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6. “Living on hope, hoping for education: The failed response to the Syrian refugee
crisis,” ODI, https://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-
opinion-files/9169.pdf.
7. RA No. 7610, An Act Providing for Stronger Deterrence and Special Protection
against Child Abuse, Exploitation, and Discrimination, Providing Penalties for its
Violation and Other Purposes, June 17, 1992, art. X(22)(e).
8. "Human-rights-watch-world-report-2011." Human Rights Documents Online.
doi:10.1163/2210-7975_hrd-2156-0685.
9. "Annual-report-chapter-2c;hr." Human Rights Documents Online. doi:10.1163/2210-
7975_hrd-9962-3006.
10. Watchlist on Children and Armed Conflict, “Caught in the Middle: Mounting
Violations Against Children in Nepal’s Armed Conflict” (2005).
11. United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), Report of the High
Commissioner for Human Rights on the situation of human rights in Colombia,
February 28, 2005 (E/CN.4/2005/10).
12. Human Rights Watch, “Targets of Both Sides”: Violence against Students, Teachers,
and Schools in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces, (2010).
13. Internal Displacement Monitoring Center (IDMC) & Watchlist on Children and
Armed Conflict, An Uncertain Future: Children and Armed Conflict in the Central
African Republic, (2011).
14. Human Rights Watch, Sabotaged Schooling: Naxalite Attacks and Police Occupations
of Schools in India’s Bihar and Jharkhand States, December (2009).
15. “Peacebuilding, Education and Advocacy Programme,” Learning for Peace,
https://www.unicef.org/sites/default/files/2018-10/F_UNICEF1006_LFP_R3-
online_single.pdf.

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SECONDARY TOPIC: THE ISSUE OF INTERNET CENSORSHIP
INTRODUCTION
The advent of the internet has brought near unlimited information, comes great potential for
development. It provides an unprecedented volume of resources of information and knowledge
that opens up new opportunities and challenges for expression and participation. The impact
brought about by the internet comes in two schools of thought. On one hand, limiting this
access to information for the protection of people is crucial, due to the potential personal and
even societal dangers posed by vices such as pornography or gambling, which if left
unregulated could cause shambles. On the other hand, the great potential of the internet, given
the sudden inexpensive, global vessel for communication may bring about great convenience
and a platform to give individuals voice. Ultimately, this unprecedented freedom can easily
escalate into even greater social upheaval than convenience that it brings about, such as racial
and religious tension. As such, given the lurking danger that may erupt from the freedom, there
is a need for internet censorship as a form of protection from these dangers.
However, in the midst of providing such protection, it is difficult to strike a balance between
the upholding of human rights. Regardless of the underlying well-intentioned agenda behind
the actions, it is impermissible to impede on fundamental human rights of freedom of speech
and expression, as the principle of freedom of expression and human rights must apply not only
to traditional media but also to the Internet and all types of emerging media platforms.
The upholding of human rights is essential for development, democracy and dialogue, as with
censorship being misapplied, such as for selfish political agenda of regulatory authorities and
governmental bodies, people may be left ignorant to information they have the right to know.
Internet Censorship must thus in itself be regulated in order to avoid its misuse.
As such, it is certainly a convoluted task finding the delicate line of compromise that maintains
regard for the basic human right of freedom of expression, as well as permitting awareness of
current affairs and politics from an objective, non-biased source, yet creating a comprehensive
shell of protection for all users of the internet to keep all safe from the potential threats of the
internet. As such, addressing the issue of internet censorship demands a coherent understanding

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of the stances and arguments of the proponents and opponents of internet censorship to create
the safest and fairest internet environment for all.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Internet Censorship primarily conflicts with the human right toright to freedom of expression;
this right shall include freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds,
as delineated by article 19 of the International Covenant of Political and Civil Rights (IPCPR),
as signed by the United Nations General Assembly. The application of this idea is explained
by the United Nations Human Rights Council (HRC) as follows:
“A free, uncensored and unhindered press or other media is essential in any society to ensure
freedom of opinion and expression and the enjoyment of other Covenant rights. It constitutes
one of the cornerstones of a democratic society. ... The free communication of information and
ideas about public and political issues between citizens, candidates and elected representatives
is essential. This implies a free press and other media able to comment on public issues without
censorship or restraint and to inform public opinion. The public also has a corresponding right
to receive media output.”
A free, uncensored and unhindered press or other media is essential in any society to ensure
freedom of opinion and expression and the enjoyment of other Covenant rights. It constitutes
one of the cornerstones of a society. The free communication of information and ideas about
public and political issues between citizens, candidates and elected representatives is essential.
This implies a free press and other media able to comment on public issues without censorship
or restraint and to inform public opinion. The public also has a corresponding right to receive
media output.
However, in countries such as the People’s Republic of China, the right to such information
and thereby freedom of such expression is completely disregarded. The Chinese government
oversees one of the strictest online censorship regimes in the world. This includes the limiting
of the provision of censorship circumvention tools and strengthened ideological control over
education and mass media in 2017. Large degrees of control are imposed on state media, such
as with Schools and state media incessantly tout the supremacy of the Chinese Communist
Party, and, increasingly, of President Xi Jinping as “core” leader, inhibiting access to any
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material suggesting otherwise. This materialised in various forms such as Apple removing
dozens of VPNs, which would allow for increased access to information forbidden by Chinese
law, from its App store in China, citing compliance with government regulations. In August,
the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) ordered five websites, including shopping
giant Alibaba, to remove vendors that offered access to VPNs. Such actions are cogently
extreme in nature and a misuse of internet censorship that ignores the human right to freedom
of expression, with extreme measures taken to limit freedom of expression through tight
internet censorship.
On the other hand, the omission of internet censorship similarly brings about great
consequences. For example, lack of regulation allows for Cyber-bullying to thrive. Cyber-
bullying can be defined as a person (or a group of people) using technology to repeatedly and
intentionally use negative words and/or actions against a person, which causes distress and
risks that person’s wellbeing. For example, in the Republic of India, a staggering 37% of
parents reported that their children were victims of cyberbullying in 2018. This is only a rising
trend given the ease of use of the internet to accomplish such. Similarly, cyber-racism, cyber-
homophobia and cyber-homophobia are widespread and highly dangerous trends that are only
on the rise. As such, censorship is necessary to protect internet users from such harm.
PAST ACTIONS
At present, there is some degree of policy in place to protect internet users within individual
states. For example, in Australia, given the rise of online crimes, increased focus has been
placed on online crime, laws have been passed to match such a trend, such as enhancing
protection from sexual harassment in the amended Racial Discrimination Act, which was
amended specifically to include online sexual harassment. 20
On the international stage, steps have also been taken to protect internet users, such as the
European Additional Protocol to the Convention on Cybercrime. 21 This was inducted with the
aim of regulating hate speech through limiting or at least reducing the amount of hate material
20
Racial Discrimination Act 1975 (Cth) s 18C.
21
Additional Protocol to the Convention on Cybercrime, concerning the criminalisation of acts of a racist
and xenophobic nature committed through computer systems, opened for signature 28 January 2003, CETS
No. 189 (entered into force 1 March 2006). At http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Treaties/Html/189.htm
(viewed 28 August 2013).
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online by requiring States Parties to criminalise the ‘making available’ or ‘distribution’ of racist
or xenophobic material through a computer system within their jurisdictions.
On battling against extreme internet censorship, such as the “great firewall of China”, many
activists have attempted to step up against the censorship, such as finding ways to circumvent
the firewall through app development and distribution of VPNs. 22 Additionally, many NGOs
continue to attempt to push for freedom of expression. However, given the stronghold that the
Chinese government has on the internet, many of these steps and attempts by NGOs and
activists have proved futile, with the issue of internet censorship only exacerbating in countries
like China.
STAKEHOLDERS
China
China’s infamous Great Firewall blocks most international social media sites, such as Twitter,
YouTube and Instagram, which have been blacklisted by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP),
in favour of Chinese-based sites such as Baidu and WeChat. In theory, this restriction allows
the CCP to censor everything its citizens post online, as the CCP can easily obtain and monitor
user data on Chinese-based websites. However, London-based market research firm
GlobalWebIndex claimed that 103,205,014 Facebook users had accessed Facebook within
China in Q4 2014 alone. 23 This is due to the prevalence of circumvention tools like VPNs and
VCNs, with GlobalWebIndex reporting that 166 million VPN users are based in China. Within
China, sensitive topics such as the commemoration of the Tiananmen Square massacre, John
Oliver, or Winnie the Pooh are blocked as well. All the attempts at internet censorship by the
CCP are aimed at strengthening the government’s hold on society.
Russia
Internet freedom in Russia has been increasingly restricted, with 115000 recorded cases of
censorship. This would be enhanced after the Yarovaya Law comes into force, as the Law
22
Ritzen, Yarno. "Meet the Activists Fighting the Great Chinese Firewall." GCC News | Al Jazeera. June 21,
2018. Accessed January 06, 2019. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/06/meet-activists-fighting-great-
chinese-firewall-180603134803816.html.
23
A/N: The figures published by GlobalWebIndex have often been disputed. See
https://thenextweb.com/asia/2012/09/28/no-way-jose/.

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would greatly expand state powers of surveillance over internet correspondence. A report by
Agora international human rights group estimates that an internet user would be subject to
threats or physical attack every six days, while courts handed out prison sentences related to
internet censorship every eight days. In 2018, the Roskomnadzor, the official state internet
watchdog, has attempted to block the popular encrypted messaging app, Telegram, after
Telegram heads declined to provide the Kremlin with the means to decrypt messages. Due to
efforts to block Telegram, other websites like Yandex and Vkontakte, the Russian equivalents
of Facebook and Google, were temporarily shut down as well. More recently, as part of her
Digital Economy National Programme, it was reported that Russia would disconnect the entire
country from the global internet to simulate a cyber-attack, and instead redirect domestic web
traffic through the government’s routing points. This experiment would be part of the
Kremlin’s broader goal to route 95% of the country’s web traffic through the government’s
routing points by 2020, 24 opening up possibilities for setting up a massive web censorship
system like that in China. In the same vein, the Kremlin is planning to introduce a “digital
sovereignty bill”, which has been dubbed as an “internet iron curtain” by critics, who claim
that it would make it easier for the Kremlin to censor politically unfavourable content.
USA
Highlighting how Internet censorship is often a grey area even for democratic nations which
protect the freedom of speech as a human right, the United States was added to Reporters
Without Borders (RWB)'s list of "Enemies of the Internet" in 2014. This indicates it has the
25
highest level of Internet censorship and surveillance. RWB stated that the U.S. has
"undermined confidence in the Internet and its own standards of security" and that "U.S.
surveillance practices and decryption activities are a direct threat to investigative journalists,
especially those who work with sensitive sources for whom confidentiality is paramount and
who are already under pressure." This is despite direct censorship of the internet, other than for
child pornography, being prohibited under the First Amendment. Under the Trump
Administration, a bill was passed that released internet service providers from having to protect
consumer data, making citizens even more vulnerable to government surveillance.
24
“Рунет защитят от зарубежной прослушки,” Izvestia newspaper, https://iz.ru/news/700580.
25
A/N: Interestingly, US government funded Freedom House’s “Freedom On The Net 2017” report rates US as
one of the most free countries in terms of internet freedom.

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Singapore
Political and racially sensitive content is frequently censored in Singapore. In July 2006,
mrbrown's weekly column in newspaper Today was terminated after he highlighted the
immediate price hikes after the 2006 Singapore general elections. Prime Minister Lee Hsien
Loong said mrbrown's column had ‘‘hit out wildly at the government and in a very mocking
and dismissive sort of tone’’ and Minister for Information, Communication and the Arts sent a
letter saying his article could undermine national stability, and that it was "not the role of
journalists or newspapers in Singapore to champion issues, or campaign for or against the
government". Also, in 2013, Singapore enacted a law requiring licenses for news sites that
report regularly on the country, a move that critics of the ruling People’s Action Party see as
an attempt to silence online dissent. Sites which satisfy the criteria must also put up a
performance bond of $50,000 and are expected to remove content that is perceived by the MDA
to be against the public interest, public security, or national harmony within 24 hours.
Non-Governmental Organisations
Non-Governmental Organisations, such as Fight for the Future (formerly Reset the Net) and
Reporters without Borders publish data on the countries that have the most internet censorship.
SCOPE OF DEBATE
Ensuring accountability
An essential aspect to the problem would be the management of corruption. Somewhere out
there, there is a group of people under the governmental agency for censorship, bearing the full
power to censor anything on the internet as they see fit. This person is trusted with the power
to control what the populace sees, and thus regulation is of utmost importance. He/she gains
access to influence the population without any consequences. As such, delegates are strongly
advised to come up with a system to monitor the actions of those in charge of governmental
censors.
Economic Impact
Another noteworthy point of controversy would be the limiting effect on the economy that
censorship brings about. With censorship, brands may not be allowed to push forth certain
products online, and in the case that competitors do not receive the same amount of censorship
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from their respective governments, they lose out in terms of potential revenue. This would not
only negatively impact the business but also the economy.26 Thus, solutions should include a
method to balance a decent standard of censorship while also sustaining a stable revenue to
fuel the economy. Furthermore, this problem is worsened as it limits the thriving of
entrepreneurship. When governments place restrictions over local market interests, it slows
down new innovations as inventors and entrepreneurs have to work around these censorships.
With restrictions to protect local market interests, this could also lead to slower technological
and business innovation. Entrepreneurs would need their projects to be first be approved by an
external committee before being sent to market. If a business in the same industry has enough
wealth or influence, they could use censorship to deny the entrepreneur the chance to pursue
their ideas/inventions.27 Thus, delegates are advised to set up some form of oversight to ensure
accountability over industries using their sheer size to restrict progress of other smaller
companies.
Social issues
Another noteworthy issue at hand would be the controversy of “freedom-of-speech”. On one
hand, people long for the freedom to express their feelings and opinions, but yet there is a clear
need for censorship when opinions get too extreme. Some argue that censorship is a violation
of their right to express themselves, but yet racist/hate speech/discriminatory comments have
made a clear call for censorship. Should they still remain uncensored, it may cause extensive
conflict between people of different social groups. The controversy of this problem would be
that it is a blurry line differentiating freedom of hate speech and the simple act of curbing hate
speech for being discriminatory. Delegates would have to find creative solutions to balance
censorship against freedom-of-speech and knowing when to draw the line on offensive content.
PROPOSED SOLUTIONS
Increased Transparency
When discussing internet censorship, obviously the most viable solution would be for countries
to censor less websites and also to be more transparent about the websites or the information
26
A deeper look into weighing the pros and cons of censorship https://vittana.org/13-internet-censorship-pros-
and-cons
27
“3 downfalls of internet censorship” https://asia.fnst.org/content/3-downfalls-internet-censorship (accessed 29
December 2018)

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that they censor. However, for most governments, simply censoring less content is harder than
it sounds.28 For some countries, being more transparent with the content they censor can be
dangerous, as sharing normally censored information could lead to civilian outbreaks and riots
over the now public information. For other countries, especially China, by uncensoring content,
it may result in economic downfall for their countries, as local companies would have to start
competing with other international companies. Thus, delegates are asked to come up with
solutions that will not cause economic downfall, or civil outbreaks. One solution that delegates
can look into, is the setting up of a committee to re-review previously censored content, and to
decide whether the content should continue to be censored, or if it is safe enough to dispense
to the public. However, delegates should note that this committee cannot only include
government officials but should also include an unbiased third party to argue for content that
should rightfully be open to the public.
Accountability
One way to make sure that government officials do not censor information which should be
shown to the public, is by having third parties review the censored information, as stated
previously. Delegates should consider the involvement of non-profit organisations, known
commonly as NGOs. The chairs look favourably upon delegates making use of NGOs with
proven achievement records, because of the reliability of the organisation, while also
considering how their goals align with what delegates need to solve this issue. Furthermore,
accountability can be regulated through an external council, acting as a governing body to: (i)
resolve any issues that arise from corruption/mismanagement of information (ii) doubling-up
as a form of deterrent (iii) closely keep track of censorship actions made by their respective
governments. This external council can work by having relatively neutral parties (e.g. NATO)
being the board of directors, serving as a body to regulate integrity of those with the power to
censor. However, unlike the above-mentioned basic ideas, delegates are encouraged to come
up with creative but yet feasible solutions to improve accountability.
28
Jessica Phelan, “Google Transparency Report reveals 'alarming' rise in government censorship requests”,
GlobalPost, https://www.pri.org/stories/2012-06-18/google-transparency-report-reveals-alarming-rise-
government-censorship-requests (accessed 29 December 2018)

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Guidelines (Frameworks to be followed)
Delegates may also want to consider making their own set of guidelines to follow to make sure
less content is censored. However, delegates should be reminded that individual countries
should be still be given the option of what to censor.29 As such, these guidelines should only
be a suggestion, and should not be forced. Delegates may want to refrain from uncensoring
topics regarding race, religion, nationality and other controversial topics, as this may lead to
civilian protest. Delegates are also advised to keep their citizens safety in mind, and as such,
are suggested to leave fake news websites, excess to the dark web, and other possibly
incriminating content as censored. Guidelines should not take into account what the public
favours. For example, if the public favours the sale of slaves on Black Markets, this is to be
censored. As such, an area which requires further debate would be to discern the fine line
between public favour and inappropriate content.
QARMA
1. Where to draw the line on what to censor/limiting governments to minimal items up

for censorship?
2. Who should implement censorship?
3. What is the best way to censor less content without allowing pure hate speech to slip
through the cracks?
4. What are the pros and cons of internet censorship and does one outweigh the other?
5. How can effective guidelines/frameworks be drawn up to ensure compliance, while
also serving its effect in resolving this problem?
FURTHER READINGS
1. "On Internet Censorship, China Can Tell the US: Told You so." South China Morning
Post. September 29, 2018. Accessed May 09, 2019. https://www.scmp.com/week-
asia/opinion/article/2163577/internet-censorship-china-can-tell-us-told-you-so.
29
“Embracing the Dark Web as a Tool for Privacy and Anti-Censorship (Yale)”, The TOR Project,
https://blog.torproject.org/events/embracing-dark-web-tool-privacy-and-anti-censorship-yale (accessed 30
December 2018)

24 of 28
2. Fukuyama, Francis. "Social Media and Censorship." The American Interest. August
09, 2018. Accessed May 09, 2019. https://www.the-american-
interest.com/2018/08/08/social-media-and-censorship/.
3. Wang, Chih. "Internet Censorship in the United States: Stumbling Blocks to the
Information Age." IFLA Journal 29, no. 3 (2003): 213-21.
doi:10.1177/034003520302900304.
4. Macfarquhar, Neil. "'They Want to Block Our Future': Thousands Protest Russia's
Internet Censorship." The New York Times. April 30, 2018. Accessed May 09, 2019.
https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/30/world/europe/russia-telegram-digital-
resistance.html.
5. Firth, Niall, and Niall Firth. "Thousands of People Are Protesting Russia's New
Internet Bill." MIT Technology Review. April 23, 2019. Accessed May 09, 2019.
https://www.technologyreview.com/the-download/613102/thousands-of-people-are-
protesting-russias-new-internet-bill/.
6. Gershkovich, Evan. "'Point of No Return': Russia's Libertarians Lead Protest Against
'Sovereign Internet'." The Moscow Times. May 09, 2019. Accessed May 09, 2019.
https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/03/10/point-of-no-return-russias-libertarians-
lead-protest-against-sovereign-internet-a64758.
7. Khrennikov, Ilya. "Putin Wants What China's Xi Already Has: His Own Internet."
The Moscow Times. May 09, 2019. Accessed May 09, 2019.
https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/03/05/putin-wants-what-chinas-xi-already-
has-his-own-internet-a64707.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
"3 Downfalls of Internet Censorship." Fnst.org. Accessed May 09, 2019.

https://asia.fnst.org/content/3-downfalls-internet-censorship.
"27 Million Children out of School in Conflict Zones – UNICEF." UNICEF. September 18,
2017. Accessed May 09, 2019. https://www.unicef.org/media/media_100857.html.
"Attacks on Schools and Hospitals - United Nations Office of the Special Representative of the
Secretary-General for Children and Armed Conflict | To Promote and Protect the Rights of All
Children Affected by Armed Conflict." United Nations. Accessed May 09, 2019.
https://childrenandarmedconflict.un.org/six-grave-violations/attacks-against-schools/
Ayres, Crystal. "13 Internet Censorship Pros and Cons." Vittana.org. Accessed May 09, 2019.
https://vittana.org/13-internet-censorship-pros-and-cons.
Firth, Niall, and Niall Firth. "Thousands of People Are Protesting Russia's New Internet Bill."
MIT Technology Review. April 23, 2019. Accessed May 09, 2019.
https://www.technologyreview.com/the-download/613102/thousands-of-people-are-
protesting-russias-new-internet-bill/.
Fukuyama, Francis. "Social Media and Censorship." The American Interest. August 09, 2018.
Accessed May 09, 2019. https://www.the-american-interest.com/2018/08/08/social-media-
and-censorship/.
"Http://www.historystudies.net/dergi//birinci-dunya-savasinda-bir-asayis-sorunu-
sebinkarahisar-ermeni-isyani20181092a4a8f.pdf." History Studies International Journal of
History 10, no. 7 (2018): 241-64. doi:10.9737/hist.2018.658.
Human Rights Watch, Sabotaged Schooling: Naxalite Attacks and Police Occupations of
Schools in India’s Bihar and Jharkhand States, December (2009). Assessed May 09, 2019.
Human Rights Watch, “Targets of Both Sides”: Violence against Students, Teachers, and
Schools in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces, (2010). Assessed May 09, 2019.
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Internal Displacement Monitoring Center (IDMC) & Watchlist on Children and Armed
Conflict, An Uncertain Future: Children and Armed Conflict in the Central African Republic.
2011. Assessed May 09, 2019.
"Is Chinese-style Internet Censorship about to Go Global?" AsiaOne. April 15, 2019. Accessed
May 09, 2019. https://www.asiaone.com/world/chinese-style-internet-censorship-about-go-
global.
Keck, Trevor. "What You Need to Know About "Safe Zones"." INTERCROSS. February 27,
2017. Accessed May 09, 2019. http://intercrossblog.icrc.org/blog/what-you-need-to-know-
about-safe-zones.
"Mozilla Research Call: Tune up Tor for Integration and Scale." Tor Blog. May 08, 2019.
Accessed May 09, 2019. https://blog.torproject.org/events/embracing-dark-web-tool-privacy-
and-anti-censorship-yale.
Macfarquhar, Neil. "'They Want to Block Our Future': Thousands Protest Russia's Internet
Censorship." The New York Times. April 30, 2018. Accessed May 09, 2019.
https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/30/world/europe/russia-telegram-digital-resistance.html.
"On Internet Censorship, China Can Tell the US: Told You so." South China Morning Post.
September 29, 2018. Accessed May 09, 2019. https://www.scmp.com/week-
asia/opinion/article/2163577/internet-censorship-china-can-tell-us-told-you-so.
"Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child." OHCHR. Accessed May 09,
2019. https://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/OPACCRC.aspx.
Ritzen, Yarno. "Meet the Activists Fighting the Great Chinese Firewall." China News | Al
Jazeera. June 21, 2018. Accessed May 09, 2019.
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/06/meet-activists-fighting-great-chinese-firewall-
180603134803816.html.
"The Great Firewall of China" | Australian Institute of ..." Accessed May 9, 2019.
https://aiiansw.tidyhq.com/public/schedule/events/24892-the-great-firewall-of-china.
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Unesdoc.unesco.org. Accessed May 09, 2019.

https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000190743.
"United Nations Official Document." United Nations. Accessed May 09, 2019.
http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/2014/339.
Wang, Chih. "Internet Censorship in the United States: Stumbling Blocks to the Information
Age." IFLA Journal 29, no. 3 (2003): 213-21. doi:10.1177/034003520302900304.
Yurtoğlu, Nadir.
"What Can We Do to Protect Education in War Zones?" World Economic Forum. Accessed
May 09, 2019. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2015/11/what-can-we-do-to-protect-
education-in-war-zones/

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UNITED NATIONS

Nicole Yeong, Aidan Low

At present, there is a gradual, but nonetheless noticeable trend in an increase in accessibility of

Fig. 1: Gender Parity in Secondary School enrollment, 2012.

Fig. 2: Countries with attacks on girls’ education, 2009-2014.

Swords Into Ploughshares

Stakeholders who are not directly involved in conflict

Swords Into Ploughshares

Swords Into Ploughshares

Short-term measures during times of conflict

Ensuring access to basic requirements

Swords Into Ploughshares

Ensuring cohesion between larger organisations

Swords Into Ploughshares

know-about-safe-zones (accessed 28 December 2018)

Swords Into Ploughshares

Questions a resolution must answer (QARMA):

1. What are the most effective short-term solutions to this problem?

1. Unesdoc.unesco.org. Accessed May 09, 2019.

Swords Into Ploughshares

Swords Into Ploughshares

Swords Into Ploughshares

Swords Into Ploughshares

Swords Into Ploughshares

Swords Into Ploughshares

Swords Into Ploughshares

1. Where to draw the line on what to censor/limiting governments to minimal items up

Swords Into Ploughshares

Swords Into Ploughshares

"3 Downfalls of Internet Censorship." Fnst.org. Accessed May 09, 2019.

Unesdoc.unesco.org. Accessed May 09, 2019.

Swords Into Ploughshares

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