MULTILEVEL PATHWAYS OF URBAN POVERTY AS DETERMINANTS OF

CHILDHOOD ILLITERACY IN METRO MANILA, PHILIPPINES

CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

This chapter discusses the nature of the study and its background. Specifically,

the paper consists of an introduction, theoretical framework, research paradigm,

statement of the problem, hypothesis, significance of the study, scope and delimitation,

and definition of terms.

Introduction

The study is engaged to identify the determinants that caused childhood illiteracy

of individuals in different urban areas. Illiteracy commonly falls under the inability to read

and write or basically the absence of education that causes ignorance. Having illiteracy

from these abilities may cause problems in the standard of living that a person may

attain in future. As stated by Nordquist (2019), childhood illiteracy is the major problem

of most of the countries. It can also lead as one of the factors for some other problems

of the countries such as unemployment issues, low income, crime crisis, and poor

economic status of the country. Specifically, childhood illiteracy has the whole ability to

create poverty to the country and to its people.

The lack of education and illiteracy rate is a common impact of poverty yet both

problems can be a cause and effect of itself. Although poverty is the main cause of
childhood illiteracy it is also the possible outcome of lack of education. Poverty is a

condition wherein an individual is involved in lack of resources, security, opportunities,

and capabilities. According to Palatino (2022), the record of poverty rate in the

Philippines has been increased in the year 2022. There is 1 in 5 Filipinos that are

experiencing extreme poverty that leads to not just an illiteracy crisis but also lack of

supply of foods that can possibly cause undernutrition. It only implies that up until

poverty is just one of those common problems that a country used to solve. Poverty is

everywhere and capable of negatively affecting the state of living of an individual. It has

all the means of destroying the economy of a country and restricting the great future of

everyone.

The study also aims to compare the pathways of childhood illiteracy among the

cities that are under urban poverty. The paper wants to identify the specific factor under

poverty that triggered childhood illiteracy besides the places in urban areas that are

notable for having more advanced and well-developed structures unlike some of rural

areas. Urban areas have several physical infrastructures including school buildings and

its school infrastructures like classrooms, libraries, toilets, and such. There are plenty of

public schools that provide free education and these are indeed helpful in attaining

basic education. Moreover, these schools are also commonly distributed according to

their barangay and so education will be accessible for all its people within the city and

transportation will never be a hindrance to gain basic education.

In an article released by the Manila Bulletin (2022), Philippine Statistics Authority

(PSA) conducted a survey in the year 2019 under Functional Literacy, Education, Mass

Media Survey (FLEMMS), there are 91.9 percent of Filipinos from aged 10 to 65 years
old that were considered functional literate. Basically, 8.4 percent of Filipinos in the year

2019 experiencing conflicts in basic comprehension and out of 79.7 million population of

the Philippines, there were 6 million of Filipinos facing the crisis of illiteracy by the time

the survey was made. Crisis of illiteracy are still at 771 million youths and adults all over

the world and it intensified when COVID-19 commenced (Azuolay, 2020). The shutdown

of most learning facilities because of the pandemic caused losses of driven learning and

drop-outs of students.This closures of facilities for learning was made to prevent and

handle the growth of COVID-19 cases.

Dr. Jose Rizal once said, “the youth is the hope of the nation.” This notion

emphasized that a country must give importance to the power of education and so any

problems that are under education should seek solutions. For any reason, every

individual should possess the benefits that education has and so a country could create

a good society with productive citizens. The concept of knowing how to read and write is

a huge accomplishment for a country and for its people. Education has the ability to

reduce poverty, create productivity, lessen unemployment, reduce crime rate, prevent

the threat for the life expectancy of a person, and construct better economic status. That

is why each and every one must hold the importance of having basic education and so

the next generation will retain the same perception.

Theoretical Framework

Before the coronavirus declared as global pandemic, first quarter of 2020,

Philippines is already experiencing crisis of illiteracy (Butuyan, 2020), while in the span

of two years, during COVID-19 and its effect on urban poverty, the food insecurity

coupled by the inability of families to keep their children in school have long-run
implications on cognitive development of children (UNDP Ph, 2020). In this study,

Sociocultural Theory will be used in the context of poverty and literacy to analyze the

pathways of urban poverty as determinants of childhood illiteracy.

The Sociocultural Theory describes that a man’s cognitive development is

influenced by their surrounding culture (Cherry, 2019). Most literacy policies and

programs have been shaped by cognitive perspectives in its large part (Muth & Perry,

2010). Lev Vygotsky, the principal of sociocultural theory, stated “…A child’s

development cannot be understood by a study of the individual. We must also examine

the external social world in which that individual life has developed” (Kublin, 1989,

p.6-7). According to Literacy New York, illiteracy is an effect of man’s living condition,

low educational attainment of parents, and having few to nothing books at home.

Considering the increasing poverty rate in the Philippines and majority are still living in

fear of coronavirus– people, events, and environment will always have an impact to help

or hinder learning (Adamson & Chance, 1989).

With Sociocultural Theory, using it to understand illiteracy and factors that

surround it. Identifying the reasons of children who are forced not to avail the privilege

and lost the basic literacy skills (UNICEF, 2022). In the same manner, nearly 30%

affirmed that at least one child did not attend the academic year as per UNCB

Philippines (2020). Interconnecting the factors of urban poverty with the help of

Sociocultural Theory and reveal the determinants of childhood illiteracy.

Other organizations have reported that over USD 1$ trillion was the cost of

illiteracy to the global economy (Cree, et.al., April 2012). In the recommendation of the
World Literacy Foundation (2012) a literacy program for people living in rural African or

Asian villages must look different to a literacy program for the lower class living in the

US or UK. Which explains that environmental situation and locality can justify the

method to teach and learn capability of a child. Some studies have found that

consequences of school closures are on the rise. In addition to learning loss, school

closures have impacted children’s mental health, reduced their access to a regular

source of nutrition, and increased their risk of abuse (UNICEF, 2022). The same result

from some Sociocultural Theory studies revealed that community, people around

you—everyone you encountered growing up can influence and have an impact on one’s

learning inability. People are either literate or illiterate, and those who are illiterate are

deficient (Perry, 2012). In order for the illiteracy rate among children under urban

poverty to decrease, immediate action from the education sector is important: guidelines

and concrete planning. Pointing out that the coronavirus pandemic resulted in big

damage to the number of enrollees and job opportunities across the country.

Research Paradigm

Inspiration from the Sociocultural Health Behavior Model, developed by the

researchers, is used in this study to show the interconnection of predisposing factors,

social norms, vicinity, enabling factors, educational resources, and self-efficacy as

 pathways of urban poverty and determinants of childhood illiteracy.

Figure 1. Conceptual Model

The model wanted to demonstrate that there are factors of urban poverty that will

serve as determinants of childhood illiteracy. Predisposing factors and enabling factors

are among these determinants that might result in childhood illiteracy. Children's

educational resources are also viewed as a factor in childhood illiteracy. Children who

lack resources will lose the interest in learning and seeking educational materials, and

that will result in childhood illiteracy.

Statement of the Problem

This study aims to identify the Multilevel Pathways of Urban Poverty as

Determinants of Childhood Illiteracy in Metro Manila, Philippines by answering the

following questions:
1. What is the demographic profile of the respondents relative to:

1.1 Family income;

1.2 Family status; and

1.3 Family size?

2. What are the determinants of urban childhood illiteracy in Metro Manila?

3. Is there a significant difference in the causes of childhood illiteracy when they are

grouped according to their profile?

Hypothesis

𝐻𝑜1 There is no significant relationship between childhood illiteracy and their

family income, status, or size.

𝐻𝑜2 There are no determinants of childhood illiteracy found in urban poverty.

Significant of the Study

The findings of the study will benefit the following specific people differently. The

study determined the causes of urban poverty leading to child illiteracy.

Students. The findings of this study will benefit the students, helping them to

gain a better understanding of the problems associated with poverty and give

importance to the students to come up with appropriate solutions.

Parents. The study's findings will be useful to parents because they will broaden

their understanding of the factors that contribute to childhood illiteracy. Furthermore, it

will lessen the causes of poverty within their family.

 Teachers. The findings of this study will benefit the teachers, instructors and

administration of the school to assess and make some observations to the students in

childhood illiteracy. Teachers may decrease the effect of poverty by establishing safe

learning environments, increasing educational opportunities, and encouraging student

resilience.

Community. The study will provide the community a better understanding of

further information about the causes and effects of urban poverty. This will also benefit

them in creating programs and seminars that will enrich the knowledge and awareness

of the citizens within the said community about the benefits and disadvantages of

poverty.

Future researchers. The research will serve as a source of information or to

gather data for further studies and future researchers, if they want to replicate this study

using additional variables from another locale or different procedures. However, the

procedure and findings within this study may serve as guidelines for the ideas and

conceptual framework of their own research paper. It will be useful references for the

researchers who would make plans to make any related study precisely the standard

underlying the urban poverty and childhood illiteracy.

Scope and Delimitation

This study mainly focused on two (2) major variables: urban poverty and

childhood illiteracy.
 The first major variable of this study is urban poverty, wherein the respondents of

this study are only from Metro Manila. The second major variable of this study is

childhood illiteracy, which focused on the demographic profile of the respondents.

The study was divided into two (2) major variables. The first variable which limits

the cities in Metro Manila, namely, Mandaluyong, Pasig, and Valenzuela. Each location

will have at least 100 respondents to answer the prepared question conducted by the

researchers during the survey methodology of urban poverty. The second variable limits

the demographic profile of the respondents that consist of family income, family status,

and family size, where we identify the causes of childhood illiteracy in Metro Manila,

Philippines.

Definition of Terms

The following terms were defined within the context of their use in the study:

Childhood illiteracy – is defined as the effect of multiple determinats that limit the

child’s development (Regis College, 2020).

Determinants – are the causes or any factor, whether events, characteristics, or other

definable entity, that influence the occurrence or bring about a change in the defined

characteristics (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2019).

Urban poverty – is defined as the set of economic and social difficulties that are

present in developed cities. Urban poverty is considered a typology of poverty that has

the primary characteristic of occurring in industrialized societies (Cano, 2019).

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