6 tools you MUST learn before programming numerical

protection relays for real

electrical-engineering-portal.com/programming-numerical-protection-relays

By Edvard May 20,

2019

Programming of microprocessor relays

Developing basic setting specifications for numerical relays is a boring process for most
electrical engineers, but not for the protection engineers! It requires significant input data
but, for the most part, is exciting and relatively straightforward.

6 tools you MUST learn before programming numerical

protection relays for real (photo credit: Lucy Electric)

A basic understanding of Boolean expressions and methodologies is helpful in developing

the required programing to obtain the desired logic and for effectively using the full power
that is designed into numerical relays.

The capabilities and power that are built into microprocessor relay designs are continually
expanding. In addition to providing an array of protective functions, capability to fulfill most
of the control and data acquisition requirements at substations is provided.

Many modern numerical relays possess the power to replace other digital devices that are
required within substation control and data acquisition systems such as PLCs, RTUs, meters,
and control switches.

An obstacle to the practical use of the expanded power that is made available in
microprocessor-based protective devices is the complexity of the programing that is
required to use this power.
Protection engineers are not necessarily proficient in programing techniques and, as such,
they may be hesitant to apply numerical relays such that their full capability is used.
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Programming tools
An understanding of programing techniques is required to effectively use the many features
and flexibility that are designed into modern microprocessor-based relays.

Programing tools available for programing modern numerical relays include:

1. Boolean Algebra
1. Example
2. Control Equation Elements
3. Binary Elements
4. Analog Quantities
5. Math operators
6. Relay settings

Also, let’s mention the enhancements achieved by numerical relays in distribution and
transmission system with mentioning of some most typical examples:

7. Protection Enhancements
1. Distribution Protection Systems
2. Transmission protection Systems

1. Boolean Algebra
Knowledge of Boolean algebra and its relationship to logic created by electrical circuits is
important to facilitate the task of programing numerical relays.

It is advisable for protection engineers to obtain a degree of fluency in this subject.

Many good texts and courses are available for obtaining knowledge of this subject area. A
brief overview of some basic fundamentals follows.

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 Figure 1 – Expressions for Boolean addition – “OR” gate

In Boolean arithmetic, terms can only have two states—they can be either a 1 or a 0. Rules
for Boolean addition are illustrated in the following equations:

0 + 0 = 0, 0 + 1 = 1,
1 + 0 = 1, 1 + 1 = 1

It does not matter how many terms are added, the sum cannot be any larger than 1 since,
as noted earlier, only 1 and 0 can exist:

0 + 1 + 1 = 1,
1 + 1 + 1 + 0 = 1,
1+1+0+1+1+0=1

Boolean addition corresponds to the logical function of an ‘‘OR’’ gate and is representative
of parallel contacts in an electric circuit. The basic equations for Boolean addition along with
its logical ‘‘OR’’ gate and electric circuit representation are illustrated in Figure 1 above.

Following are the equations that represent the rules for Boolean multiplication:
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0 × 0 = 0,
0 × 1 = 0,
1 × 0 = 0,
1×1=1

Boolean multiplication corresponds to the logical function of an ‘‘AND’’ gate and is

representative of series contacts in an electric circuit.

Figure 2 – Expressions for Boolean multiplication – ‘‘AND’’

gate

Figure 2 illustrates expressions for Boolean multiplication. Boolean algebraic variables are
denoted by capital letters.

Boolean variable can only have one of two values – a 1 or a 0. Every variable has a
complement – the opposite of its value. If a variable A has a value of 1, then its complement
has a value of 0. The symbol used for the complement of a variable is denoted by a bar over
the associated capital letter.
A complement is referred to as a logical inversion and corresponds to the logical function of
a ‘‘NOT’’ gate.

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 Figure 3 – Expressions for Boolean complementation –
‘‘NOT’’ gate

Electrically, a logical inversion is equivalent to a normally closed contact. Expressions for

Boolean complementation are illustrated in Figure 3.

As in mathematics, identities also exist in Boolean algebra. These identities are derived from
the unique bi-variable nature of Boolean variables.

Basic Boolean additive and multiplicative identities are illustrated in Figure 4 below.

Boolean algebra also contains cumulative

and associative properties.

Cumulative property of addition: A + B =

B+A
Cumulative property of multiplication:
AB = BA
Associative property of addition: A + (B +
C) = (A + B) + C
Associative property of multiplication: Figure 4 – Basic Boolean identities

A(BC) = (AB)C
Distributive property: A(B + C) = AB + AC

Some other operators used in Boolean expressions include comparisons (<, >, = , etc.),
parentheses, and rising and falling edge triggers. Numerical relays often use symbols to
represent Boolean operators (i.e., + = OR,* = AND, ! = NOT).
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Truth tables are often used as a first step in the programing process to illustrate exactly
what the logic circuit must perform. Truth tables provide a systematic manner for setting up
the associated Boolean expressions.
To promote programing efficiency, the initial expressions developed from the truth table
should be reduced, using the laws of Boolean algebra, to a simplified form. The required
logic circuit can then be developed from the simplified expression.

Figure 5 illustrates truth tables for a variety of logic gates used in logic diagrams .

Figure 5 – Logic gates and associated truth tables

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Example
The following example illustrates the process of developing logic for control circuits:

Three pilot relaying systems are applied on a very important transmission line. In order to
enhance security of the line it is desired that trip outputs from two out of the three pilot
systems must be present for a trip of the line to be initiated.

A1 represents a trip output from a pilot scheme and a (0) represents no trip output from a
pilot scheme. The associated truth table would look as
shown in Table 1.

A’ will be used to indicate a complement. From the four conditions in the truth table for
which an output is indicated, the following Boolean equations can be developed:

Table 1 – Truth Table for ‘Two–Out–Of–Three’ Pilot Logic

Pilot 1 = A Pilot 2 = B Pilot 3 = C Output

0 0 0 0
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 0 0 1 0

0 1 0 0

0 1 1 1

1 0 0 0

1 0 1 1

1 1 0 1

1 1 1 1

Line 4 – A’BC = 1
Line 6 – AB’C = 1
Line 7 – ABC’ = 1
Line 8 – ABC = 1

A Boolean equation could then be developed to cover the conditions given earlier:

Output = A’BC + AB’C + ABC’ + ABC

A logic circuit could be developed to match the Boolean equation stated earlier. However, it
would be rather complex. By using rules of Boolean
algebra, the aforementioned equation could be reduced to:

Output = AB + BC + AC

Whereas the logic requirements for this case were more or less intuitively obvious as the
required logic was quite simple, for more complex systems it is easy to develop errors when
shortcuts are taken and intuition is used instead of a step-by-step process.

It is highly recommended that when developing logic programs, truth tables and a
systematic approach be used to facilitate obtaining a valid result.
The associated logic circuit for the aforementioned output equation is illustrated in Figure 6
below.

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 Figure 6 – Logic circuit that satisfies output = AB + BC + AC

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2. Control Equation Elements

Control equation elements are a collection of storage locations, timers, and counters that
are available in the relay for the user to customize the operation of the relay and to provide
logic in data for substation automation.

These elements include control equation variables developed by programed Boolean

equations, control equation math variables that are developed by math control equations,
latches, and conditioning and sequencing timers.
They also provide storage locations for remote bits that are communicated to the relay to
identify the status of other equipment.

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3. Binary Elements
Binary elements are the outputs that are the result of internal relay logic . The logic that
controls the binary elements can be pre-programed or programed by the user.

Binary elements can be used in Boolean equations to create other logic or to initiate various
actions such as the trip output, close output, triggering of an event report, and so on.

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 Figure 7 – An example of logic diagram for the 50N-1
overcurrent current element (SIPROTEC protection relay
7SJ62/64)

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4. Analog Quantities
Analog quantities are current and voltage quantities that are received, measured, and
calculated. Analog quantities may be instantaneous, average, or RMS values of the
associated current or voltage.

Math operators are used to program the analog quantities.

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5. Math operators
Math operators are used for writing mathematical control equations using analog values.
Math operators include familiar operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, square root, logarithms, exponents, trig functions, and so on.

Programing mathematical equations by the user is usually associated with control

functions rather than protective functions.

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6. Relay Settings
In addition to programing for logic equations, microprocessor relays require inputs to assign
the level and time delay at which various binary elements change state (set points for
protective functions, timer setting, etc.) and to enable or disable various functions that are
available in the relay.

Inputs are also required to identify phase rotation, current transformer and potential
transformer ratios, time-current characteristics that are required for protection functions
that operate with inverse time delay, display indications, and so on.
Many numerical relays provide for a wide selection of protective functions that can be
selected for use along with a number of setting groups in which different settings can be
applied.

Only one setting group can be active at one particular time. The different settings in the
groups can be applied to provide the required protection for different operating conditions.

The active setting group can be selected or changed automatically or manually. Protective
functions that are not desired to be used should be disabled. With the vast array of features
available, numerical relays specifically require a significantly large amount of input data.
In dealing with such large amounts of data, the protection engineer must compile the input
requirements with care and due diligence to avoid errors. A simple slip of a digit or an
incorrect sign can have serious negative impacts on the reliability and safety of the related
power system.

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Protection Enhancements
Significant features of microprocessor-based relays that serve to enhance protection
previously available through application of traditional relaying include the following:

1. Numerical relays allow for a variety of protection systems to be applied with minimal
additional cost.
2. Changes can be made within microprocessor-based relaying systems with ease.

Application of microprocessor relaying systems along with a local area network provides a means to
easily modify logic and settings and to easily apply protective schemes that previously could not be
justified.

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Distribution Protection Systems
The use of microprocessor-based relaying at distribution substations has allowed for the
application of protective schemes that previously were too complex or costly to be justified.

One example is the application of breaker failure relaying. Most numerical relays come
equipped with timers incorporated into the software that are available for application as
desired by the user. These timers along with some simple programing can be set up to send
a signal through the relay’s communication port to trip backup devices, should a feeder
breaker fail to interrupt within a prescribed time after operation of an associated protective
relay.
Breaker failure relaying has been sparingly applied in the past at the distribution level
because of the complexity and cost involved with electromechanical breaker failure
schemes.

Figure 8 – Basic Breaker Failure Scheme

With microprocessor-based relaying, it is also a relatively simple matter to provide backup

relaying for protection applied on distribution lines.

Backup protection can be obtained by programing the alarm contact of each feeder
relay to trip the associated feeder breaker with permission from the operation of a backup
overcurrent relay. Closing of the alarm contact occurs when the self-checking mechanism of
a relay indicates a problem within the relay.

Overcurrent relaying that is supplied by current flowing through the substation transformer,
in many cases, is applied for bus or transformer protection. The overcurrent elements that
exist for this relaying can be used for the overcurrent supervision function for the feeder
backup protection at minimal additional cost.

The bus relay is programed to trip through an overcurrent relay with a short time delay. The
bus overcurrent relay is set to pick up at a level slightly above that of the blocking
overcurrent relays on each feeder.
For faults on a feeder, if sufficient fault current exists to pick up the bus overcurrent relay,
the blocking overcurrent relay on the faulted feeder will also always operate and block
tripping of the bus protection. If the fault is on the bus, none of the feeder overcurrent
relays will operate, and the bus scheme will operate after a short time delay.

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A time delay of about six cycles will usually be sufficient on the bus scheme.

Larger three-phase motors may be individually protected against unbalances. Smaller three-
phase motors and single-phase motors, however, may not be equipped with such
protection.

Utilities have received many complaints and lawsuits on account of the motors that have
failed when continued operation of a distribution substation with a blown high-side fuse
was allowed.

Refrigerator and air-conditioning motors are especially vulnerable under such

conditions and one substation may supply many hundreds of such motors.

Application of microprocessor-based relays makes it relatively easy to detect the earlier

mentioned blown fuse condition at distribution substations. Microprocessor relays are
usually equipped with undervoltage elements that can be programed to detect voltage
conditions representative of a blown high-side fuse on a delta–wye connected transformer
and to initiate appropriate action to disconnect affected loads.

Typical settings that could be programed into the relay might be such that an output is
initiated if, at the same time, any phase-to-phase voltage is less than 40% of nominal AND
any phase-to-phase voltage is above 70% of nominal.

Such a setting will detect conditions that exist for a blown high-side fuse condition but will
not initiate an output for a blown fuse on the potential transformer that supplies the
relay. For a blown PT fuse, two lowside phase-to-phase voltages drop to 58% whereas the
other phase-to-phase voltage remains normal.

The ability to automatically change settings on numerical relays can also provide beneficial
flexibility at distribution substations. Settings can be reduced at light load conditions to
obtain greater sensitivity for fault coverage.

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Transmission protection Systems

The flexibility provided by numerical relays can provide significant benefits for protecting
transmission systems. Many of the microprocessor-based relays that are designed for
transmission line protection offer a variety of distance characteristics that can be selected
by the user.

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 The best characteristic that fits a particular application can therefore be applied and easily
modified if system conditions change.

For example, for a short line, a quadrilateral characteristic might be best to provide the
desired arc resistance coverage. For long lines, distance characteristics that are specially
designed to provide immunity from operating on load are available on many numerical
relays.

If the system is rearranged such that short lines are made longer, long lines made shorter,
or multiterminal lines are created, the related distance characteristics can easily be changed
to best fit the specific need.

Figure 9 – The quadrilateral characteristic basically

involves the combination of four measuring units. These
units consist of a reactance unit (top line), two resistive
units (left and right sides), and a directional element
(bottom line).

Higher voltage substations often use a bus tie breaker that can be substituted for any line
breaker. The bus tie breaker is ideally used when a breaker is taken out of service for
maintenance or on account of a failure of the breaker.

With multiple setting groups that are available on most numerical relays, application of such
relays on bus tie breakers allows the settings to be easily changed to match those
requirements for the particular line for which the tie breaker currently provides termination.

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Transformer differential protection using SEL487E
To implement the differential protection setting on the power transformer in the Digsilent
Power Factory environment using SEL487E relay model.

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Sources:

1. Protective Relaying Principles and Applications by H. Lee Willis and Muhammad H. Rashid
2. SIPROTEC protection relay 7SJ62/64 manual

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