Fuel Processing Technology 104 (2012) 80–89

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Fuel Processing Technology

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Characterisation of the properties of alternative fuels containing sewage sludge

Małgorzata Wzorek ⁎
Department of Process Engineering, Opole University of Technology, ul. Mikołajczyka 5, 45–271 Opole, Poland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The paper presents the characteristics of the fuels which were prepared with the use of sewage sludge and
Received 26 September 2011 other waste materials. Applicability of those fuels was analysed in the coal co-combustion processes, and
Received in revised form 10 April 2012 in particular in the cement clinker manufacturing process.
Accepted 18 April 2012
Three types of sludge-derived fuels were subjected to comparative analyses: the fuel which was prepared
Available online 10 June 2012
with the use of sewage sludge and coal slurry (PBS fuel), that involving sewage sludge and meat and bone
Keywords:
meal (PBM fuel), and that in which sewage sludge was composed with sawdust (PBT fuel).
Sewage sludge Physical and chemical properties of those fuels were investigated, with special attention paid to their calorific
Fuel from waste values and physical properties.
Co-combustion process The results showed that the fuels manufactured with the use of waste materials offered the energy values
Cement rotary kiln which were satisfactory for the cement industry as specified for alternative fuels in that branch. The tests
for physical properties revealed that such fuels may be subjected to mechanical handling operations in the
transport and storage processes.
© 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The municipal sewage sludge makes the principal type of waste
materials which are connected with sewage treatment. Its volume is
evaluated to reach about 3% of the waste water which is subjected
to treatment. Expansion of the sewerage systems and construction
of new sewage treatment plants resulted in the rapid growth of the
available volumes of the sludge, and consequently the problem of
their utilisation was faced.
That problem relates in particular to new EU member states, inclu-
sive of Poland, where the sewerage systems have been expanded ex-
tensively. EU Directives [1,2] restricted considerably the use of the
sewage sludge in agriculture and imposed a ban on their landfilling.
Hence, it is necessary and urgent to seek solutions for safe neu-
tralisation and disposal of those materials.
Thermal methods for the sewage sludge utilisation attract more
and more interest recently. The heat energy which is contained in the
sludge may be recovered in the combustion processes, in incineration
plants intended for the municipal sewage sludge only [3,4], or in co-
combustion processes with other energy carriers within various indus-
trial plants, e.g. in power plants, heat and power stations, municipal
waste incineration plants, and in high-temperature processes which
provide favourable conditions for thermal degradation of wastes [5–8].
The cement clinker burning process in particular is especially
favourable for degradation of wastes. That advantageous situation
results, among other things, from the high temperature level in a
rotary kiln, where the feeds need to be heated up to about 1450 °C,
where the heat exchange and mass transfer surface areas are high,
and where there is no problem of incineration residue at all (the
whole volume of ash makes a component of the clinker product).
The cement industry makes use of various alternative fuels which
are based on wastes, and these may substitute for as much as about
40% of conventional fuels.
Additional sources of energy attract the attention of the cement in-
dustry since the clinker burning process is highly energy-consuming.
The theoretical heat demand for clinker burning is about 1760 kJ/
kgclinker (dry production method) while the actual heat consump-
tion ranges from 3000 to 4000 kJ/kgclinker [9,10].
Many years of experience of the cement producers in the use of
alternative fuels make it possible to evaluate the applicability of
wastes which are charged to the clinker burning process. In particular,
the clinker quality is a matter of concern. Hence, physical–chemical
properties were defined which should be offered by the alternative
fuels in order to avoid any disturbances in the kiln operation and
any negative effects on the clinker quality, and in order to control
emissions of pollutants [11–13].
The wastes to be employed as fuels must meet a number of
parameters which are required by the process itself. The alternative
fuels should first of all show the acceptable level of the following
performance properties:

– performance as fuels, including their calorific values which make

⁎ Tel.: + 48 774006013; fax: + 48 774006681. the decisive parameters for the amounts of the conventional fuel
E-mail address: m.wzorek@po.opole.pl. to be substituted,

0378-3820/$ – see front matter. © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.fuproc.2012.04.023
 M. Wzorek / Fuel Processing Technology 104 (2012) 80–89 81

– chemical composition, since the ash produced in the combustion Table 1

process will then be absorbed by the clinker product, Composition of biologically stabilized sewage sludge samples.

– physical properties, which define stability of such fuels in the trans- Parameter Unit Sewage 1 Sewage 2 Sewage 3 Sewage 4
port, storage and kiln feeding operations.
[20] [21] [22] [23]

Proximate analysis
In order to satisfy the requirements for the wastes to be used as
HHV MJ/kg 11.32–12.90 9.50 9.09 13.34
energy sources, both in the cement industry and in other industries, Water % 79.25–82.50 3.90a 76.20 8.50a
various types of wastes are more and more frequently combined to- Ash a
% 35.51–40.28 53.80 36.62 43.30
a
gether to yield blends which are adjusted, both from the viewpoint Volatiles % 47.55–56.94 42.80 50.10 50.80
of their energy potentials and physical properties, to the intended
Ultimate analysis wt.% of dry matter
utilisation processes. The wastes are subjected to consolidation, e.g. C % 23.75–27.24 22.70 21.81 30.10
pelletizing, briquetting or granulation, and those processes produce H % 3.37–3.72 3.30 3.66 4.12
fuels with a pre-defined form to make their transport and storage op- O % 26.57–27.90 15.50 18.07 17.84
erations easier [14–17]. The processed wastes, in the form of granules N % 3.98–4.37 3.10 3.94 3.79
S % 1.11–1.18 1.60 1.10 0.85
or briquettes, can be stored safely with no risk of secondary environ-
Cl % 0.85–0.17 No data 0.057 No data
mental pollution. As they can be transported easily, the area of their
potential outlets is expanded, too. HHV—high heat value.
a
In dry matter.
The sewage sludge, and in particular the material after mechanical
dehydration, does not carry much energy with it since its water con-
tent is 70–80% on average. Only after it is dried, or after it is utilised as The heavy metal contents in various sewage sludge samples are
a component in the fuel manufacturing processes, it can make an at- presented in Table 2.
tractive source of energy. The analytically established properties which are interesting for
This paper provides a suggested route for the use of the sewage the energy industry demonstrate that the thermal utilisation (i.e.
sludge in combination with other selected wastes, i.e. with coal slurry, combustion) of the sewage sludge is possible only when its moisture
with the meat and bone meal and with wastes from the wood indus- content is low; the sludge may be used together with other fuels or it
try. Those compositions could then be converted into granulated may be a component in a composition fuel product.
fuels with the performance properties as required by the cement
industry. 1.1.2. Meat and bone meal
The volume of wastes of animal origin which are neutralised and
1.1. Characteristics of fuel components disposed of annually in the EU is as high as 9 million t (data for the
earlier fifteen countries), inclusive of about 2 million t/year in Germany
1.1.1. Sewage sludge and 2.4 million t/year in France. Poland processes about 685,000 t of
The EU countries are estimated to produce about 8 million Mg (as animal wastes per year and that level is predicted to reach about
dry matter) of municipal sludge per year. In Poland, the amount of 770,000 t over the next 5–7 years [26].
stabilised sewage sludge reached 613,000 Mg (dry matter) in 2010, The animal by-products which are generated chiefly by the meat
and that amount grows by about 30,000 Mg/year (dry matter) on industry need special treatment because of the risk of biological pol-
average [18]. lution of the environment. They have to be utilised quickly due to
The physical–chemical properties of the municipal sewage sludge the bacteriological hazard, repulsive stench and problems in storage.
make that material hard to utilise from the technical point of view. Since problems were faced recently in utilisation of animal meals
That problem is essentially conditioned by high water contents (ban on feeding the meals to animals because of BSE), more attention
in sewage sludge materials which exceed 99% for the green sludge was paid to the energy content of those materials. Energy-related
and which can be reduced by mechanical dewatering to 80–65%. properties of animal meals are presented in Table 3.
The sludge is greasy at such a high water content which makes the Meals offer some properties which are favourable for their use in
handling and transport operations hard to do. Moreover, the sludge industrial combustion processes. These are: low water content, calo-
contains biologically active substances; they are responsible for the rific value which is close to that of midrange hard coal, and sulphur
specific stinking odour which is repulsive for the surroundings. content – below that of brown coal.
The fraction of organic components makes the indication for The use of the meat-and-bone meals in the energy sector faces
the performance of sewage sludge as a fuel. Werther and Ogada [3] technical problems which result from the dust generated by those
state that the primary sludge contains 3–5% of dry matter in which materials and from their fat content—they tend to stick all over the
organic substances make 55–70%. After fermentation, the organic
substances content is reduced to 40–55% (of dry matter) [7]. The
scope of that decline affects the calorific value of the sludge. Table 2
Contents of trace elements in sewage sludge samples.
The literature reports [3,8,19] specify that the residue after
methane fermentation offers the calorific value within 6.7–12.0 MJ/ Metal Sewage 1 Sewage 2 Sewage 3 Sewage 4
kgdry matter, which is lower than for the primary sludge (13.30– ppm [20] [21] [24] [25]
17.50 MJ/kgdry matter) and for the surplus activated sludge (15.00–
Fe 1236–57,994 23,586–26,000 No data 1000–154,000
17.00 MJ/kgdry matter).
Cr 28.0–53.56 106.0–380.0 66–2021 10–990,000
The energy-related properties of sewage sludge samples are pres- Zn 1931–3503 2432–6100 354–640 101–49,000
ented in Table 1. Pb 36.34–64.89 20.0–49.5 26–465 13–223.0
The municipal sewage sludge also carries the load of various Co 2.88–9.30 10.9–40.0 No data 11.3–2,490
Ni 1.96–33.39 16.0–50.0 37–179 23.2–36.5
organic micro-pollutants (like PAHs, PCBs, PCDDs and PCDFs) and
Cu 104–193.5 80.0–800.0 80–2300 204–1337
pathogenic organisms. As 2.77–6.72 6.2–15.3 No data 1.1–230
However, the most important and most numerous groups of micro- Hg 0.91–2.57 1.99–2.50 No data 0.6–56
pollutants are formed by heavy metals. The waste water treatment Tl 0.15–0.64 No data No data 2.6–329
process will transfer them to and accumulate in the sewage sludge Cd 1.03–3.09 No data 2.3–10 1–3.410
Sn 0.06–1.13 23.1–27.1 No data 1.7–17.2
material, and their contents in the sludge may vary within a wide range.
82 M. Wzorek / Fuel Processing Technology 104 (2012) 80–89

Table 3 Table 5
Properties of animal meals [27,28]. Energy-related specification of Polish coal slurry [31].

Parameter Units Bone meal Meat meal Blood meal Region Water short-lived Asha Volatilesa LHV
hygroscopic % %
Proximate analysis
LHV MJ/kg 13.8–14.1 17.3–25.0 21.9–23.4 % % MJ/kg
Water % 3.3–4.9 0.5–7.0 3.9–4.0
Lower-Silesian 10.5–38 1.0–1.5 27–34 21–27 19.80–24.60
Asha % 34.5–41.4 10.9–20.5 1.4–1.6
South–East 13–31 3.5–8.5 23–24 37–38 16.95–20.90
East 11.5–36 2.5–7.0 12–30 36–39 18.30–25.40
Ultimate analysis wt.% of dry matter
Central 22–28 3.5–4.5 19–31 35–37 19.20–23.40
C % 30.5–33.3 40.5–43.8 51.8–52.0
West 16–31 1.0–2.0 17–29 27–41 21.10–28.90
N % 3.5–51.8 7.7–43.8 15.6
South 16–31 1.0–3.5 16–26 32–37 22.80–27.60
H % 7.3–7.9 4.1–5.3 6.5
O % 0.1–0.3 13.9–20.0 – a
In dry matter.
S % 4.4–4.7 0.3–0.5 0.64

LHV—high heat value. its volume reaches 6–16% of the total amount of coal-related wastes
a
In dry matter.
[30].
Coal slurry offers a relatively low calorific value, high ash and
transportation systems. Moreover, biological activity of meals will water contents, and a very low grain size (0 ÷ 1 mm). The properties
become evident under high humidity conditions: digestion processes of Polish coal slurry from different region of the country are presented
will be initiated which will pose a health hazard to the operating per- in Table 5.
sonnel [28]. Coal slurry makes a commercial product at present; it is offered as
The energy value of the meat-and-bone meal suggests its utilisation a separate size grade product which may be used in the professional
in the combustion processes, and when used in combination with the power engineering, in fluidized-bed combustion processes.
municipal sludge, it may add to the energy advantages of the fuel pro- Coal slurry may be used in the production of coal concentrates,
duced for such a mix. special fuels in the form of aqueous coal suspensions and/or bri-
quettes, in soil consolidation, in reclamation of light soils, etc. [32].
Despite numerous possible outlets for coal slurry, most of its volume
1.1.3. Wood industry wastes
remains outside any commercial utilisation and it is transferred to
The woodworking companies are estimated to produce about
settlers.
7.5 million m 3 of waste wood material per year, which makes 27%
of the total timber harvested [29].
2. Experimental
More than 63% of the wood waste come from sawmills. That group
of wastes comprises first of all lump wastes in the form of various
2.1. Materials
types of edgings, root swellings, and also sawdust and bark. Additional
volumes of wastes come from the furniture industry (wastes of wood-
The sewage sludge for the study was obtained from the municipal
base materials and of solid wood, wood dust, as well as sawdust and
mechanical-biological sewage-treatment plant with Population Equiva-
shavings).
lent of 225,000. In order to improve the properties of the sludge and
Properties of industrial wood wastes are presented in Table 4.
to convert it into an alternative fuel which is applicable in the clinker
Joint utilisation of the sewage sludge and wood biomass makes it
process, the sludge was blended with other wastes.
possible to take advantage of the favourable legislation which pro-
Because of the greasy consistence of the sludge, other components
motes the growth of the renewable energy production. Hence, that
had to offer a low water content and a powdery structure. Moreover,
outlet may help in eliminating the waste disposal problem.
their calorific values should be high enough for the final fuel to have
the value of over 13 MJ/kg.
1.1.4. Coal slurry The meat and bone meal was one of the components which were
In Poland, classless size grades of coal, inclusive of coal slurry, employed for the conversion of the sludge into fuel. Its grain size was
make a considerable group of selectively recovered wastes which ≥4 mm and its odour was strong. Broken up bone pieces and animal
are produced in the hard coal treatment and cleaning processes. hair could be observed in the structure of the meal.
Coal slurry is recovered from water-slurry cycles in coal mines, and Concentrated coal slurry was also used for blending. The size of its
particles was b1 mm and its humidity was about 6%.
Table 4 The beech sawdust made the third component for fuel blending.
Properties of industrial wood wastes [29]. Its grain size was b12 mm and it was received from the wood pro-
Parameter Units Sawing wastes sawn Shavings from Dust from Plywood cessing works.
timber cutting sawn timber milling wastes The energy properties and ash compounds of the fuel components
Proximate analysis are presented in Tables 6 and 7.
LHVa, MJ/kg 6–10 13–16 15–17 15–17 Three types of alternative fuels were produced on the basis of the
LHVb MJ/kg 18.5–20.0 19–19.2 19–19.2 19–19.2 sewage sludge and other waste materials. In order to identify the pro-
Water % 45–60 5–15 5–15 5–15 duced fuels, individual symbols were attributed to them:
Ashb % 0.5–2.0 0.4–0.5 0.4–0.8 0.4–0.8
− PBS—fuel which was based on the sewage sludge and coal slurry,
Ultimate analysis wt. % of dry matter
C % 43.5–50.7 43.5–50.0 43.5–50.0 43.5–50.0 − PBM—fuel obtained from the sewage sludge and meat and bone
N % 0.1–0.5 0.1–0.5 0.1–0.5 0.1–0.5 meal,
H % 6.2–6.4 6.2–6.4 6.2–6.4 6–6.4 − PBT—fuel which was produced with the use of sawdust.
S % b0.05 b0.05 b 0.05 b0.05

Bulk density kg/m3 250–350 80–120 100–150 200–300 2.2. Preparation of fuel samples and operating procedure
LHV—low heat value.
a
Fresh material. The sludge and other waste materials were processed and con-
b
In dry matter. verted into fuels in a demonstration stand as shown in Fig. 1, with
 M. Wzorek / Fuel Processing Technology 104 (2012) 80–89 83

Table 6
Energy properties of fuel components.

Parameter Units Sewage Coal Meat and Sawdust

sludge slurry bone meal

Grain size/consistence mm/– Greasy 0–1 ≥4 5–12

Proximate analysis
LHV MJ/kg 2.27/11.37a 23.53 17.45 17.50
Moisture % 80.10 6.46 5.27 7.31
Volatilesa % 49.57 45.19 68.82 64.60
Asha % 38.70 24.33 23.75 6.16

Ultimate analysis wt.% of dry matter

C % 24.99 59.57 43.57 50.94
H % 3.73 4.30 5.35 5.61
N % 4.20 1.29 9.84 0.00
O % 27.18b 8.68b 16.67b 37.28b
S % 1.07 1.54 0.47 0.01 Fig. 1. Drum drier. 1—screw-conveyor feeder, 2—screw-conveyor motor, 3—control box,
Cl % 0.13 0.29 0.35 0.00 4—drum motor, 5—discharge bin, 6—supply of drying air, 7—drum, 8—drying air outlet.
a
In dry matter.
b
Calculated from the balance (difference). 2.3. Methods

The fuels obtained from the sewage sludge were subjected to

the use of a drum drier which had been designed especially for that numerous tests and investigations to find their properties which
purpose [33]. might affect the combustion process itself and the cement clinker
The fuel production method comprised two steps: pre-mixing the process. Their physical properties were analysed as well.
sludge with other waste materials at pre-defined ratios, and granula- The energy properties, i.e. calorific value was conducted by using
tion and drying. Oxygen Bomb Calorimeter KL-Mn, in accordance with PN-ISO 1928:
The fuel granulate is formed in the feeding device (1). There is a 2002, the ash content—in accordance with PN-ISO-562:2002, and
screw conveyor there with the exchangeable die plate at its end. the volatile matter content—in accordance with PN-ISO-562:2000.
The cutting tool which is located downstream is driven by the The ultimate analyses of the samples were performed via Elementary
screw conveyor shaft. The fuel material is forced through the die Analyser Vario Macro EL.
plate and cut off to form the extrudate. Depending on the size of The flash point values for the fuels were found by the Marcusson
the holes in the die plate, it is possible to control the diameter of method, up to the standard PN-82/C-04008, and characteristic tem-
fuel particles within 10–40 mm. peratures for ash fusibility—according to PN-82/-04535:1982.
The granulated fuel then enters the drum (7) for drying. There are The thermal and thermogravimetric analyses involved the differential
vertical flight plates inside the drum which are arranged along 1/3 thermal analyser NETZSCH, type STA 4009EP, within 0÷1400 °C and
of the drum length (preliminary drying section). The fuel material be- under the oxygen atmosphere.
comes dry when it is contacted with the counter-current flow of the The chemical composition of ashes was analysed by using the ICP
drying medium (hot air or hot combustion gas) at the temperature method, and the remaining component levels—using the PANalitical
below 200 °C. After passing along the drum, the granulated fuel XRF method.
goes to the discharge bin (5). The mass spectrometer ICP MS Perkin Elmer, ‘Elan’ 6100, was used
The produced fuels were left to stabilise over about 7 days, and to learn the heavy metal contents, while polychlorinated biphenyls
then their physical-chemical properties were investigated. The grain (PCBs) were determined as the total of congeners: PCB 28, PCB 52,
size of the fuels was 35 mm and their compositions were as follows: PCB 101, PCB 138 and PCB 180, with the use of the Agilent 6890N
gas chromatograph which was equipped with the ECD detector.
PBS—60 wt.% of sewage sludge, 34 wt.% of coal slurry, and 6 wt.% The total polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were analysed
of burnt lime; with the use of the liquid chromatography assembly: HPLC 1200
PBM—75 wt.% of sewage sludge, 24 wt.% of meat-and-bone meal, Series. The analysis yielded (PAHs) like: naphthalene, phenanthrene,
1 wt.% of burnt lime; anthracene, fluoranthene, benzo-(a)-anthracene, chrysene, benzo-
PBT—80 wt.% of sewage sludge, 19 wt.% of sawdust, 1 wt.% of (a)-pyrene, benzo-(b)-fluoranthene, benzo-(k)-fluoranthene, benzo-
burnt lime. (g,h,i)-perylene.
Within the physical properties of the fuels, the following parameters
were studied: bulk density (according to PN-ISO 567), strength-by-
dropping, water resistance, water absorbability and frost resistance
Table 7 (these were tested according to the procedures as below).
Major ash compounds of fuel components.
In the strength-by-dropping test, as per PN-G-04651, samples
Parameter wt.% Sewage sludge Coal slurry Meat and bone meal Sawdust were dropped down twice from 1.5 m against a concrete surface.
SiO2 24.26 47.36 13.61 16.34 The strength-by-dropping factor was calculated from the formula:
Al2O3 6.18 28.83 1.55 3.16
Fe2O3 12.88 9.57 0.72 1.43 N1
W ZR ¼ ⋅100%
CaO 31.62 4.23 42.79 38.89 N
MgO 1.33 2.26 3.09 7.44
P2O5 13.00 0.78 33.79 2.06 where:
SO3 5.49 3.55 0.64 2.62
Mn3O4 0.29 0.10 0.02 2.02 N—number of granules which were subjected to testing [pcs]
TiO2 0.54 1.21 0.06 0.20
N1—number of granules which survived with no damage [pcs]
SrO 0.15 0.09 0.04 0.08
Na2O 0.41 1.02 1.92 0.60 The water absorbability test was based on finding the amount of
K2O 1.16 2.89 0.86 11.06
water which had been absorbed by the fuel material under conditions
84 M. Wzorek / Fuel Processing Technology 104 (2012) 80–89

as defined by the standard PN-G-04652. The fuel samples were left to Table 8
stand in water over 24 h, and the difference between the sample Energy properties of sludge—derived fuels, hard coal and requirements of the cement
industry.
weights after and before water absorption made the measure of this
parameter. Parameter Units PBS PBM PBT Hard coal Requirements of
Another parameter which was studied was water-resistance, fuel fuel fuel [14] cement industry [35]

according to PN-G-04652. It is defined as the ratio (in percent) of Proximate analysis

the strength-by-dropping factor after absorption of water (the sam- LHV MJ/kg 19.30 14.59 13.23 20.5–31.9 ≥13
HHV MJ/kg 21.71 15.97 15.54 – –
ple was immersed in water over 24 h) and the original value of that
Moisture % 8.58 8.67 10.37 5.5–10.00 b30
factor. In practice, that procedure was performed immediately after Volatiles a
% 34.44 56.84 66.74 2.40–5.90 –
the water absorbability test. Asha % 27.86 33.72 20.36 3.10–24.00 b40
In the frost resistance test, according to the adapted standard PN-
EN-1367-1, the fuel samples were stored in a low temperature cham- Ultimate analysis wt.% of dry matter
C % 50.28 36.64 31.42 64.1–72.5 –
ber over 50 cycles (i.e. 50 days). The number of cycles was selected to
H % 3.91 4.12 4.43 4.00–5.60 –
reflect the average period of negative temperature values in winter. N % 1.72 6.87 2.61 2.60–12.80 –
One cycle involved freezing fuel samples down to − 18 ± 2 °C which O % 15.01 17.95b 40.50b No data –
was followed by thawing them up to 18 ± 2 °C. The samples were S % 1.16 0.68 0.65 0.60–1.4 b2.50
Cl % 0.06 0.02 0.03 b 0.10 b0.30
then subjected to the strength-by-dropping tests.
a
In dry matter.
b
3. Results and discussion Calculated from the balance (difference).

3.1. Energy properties of sludge-derived fuels
The low calorific value for any alternative fuel makes the principal
parameter which is decisive for the share of the conventional fuel
which may be substituted in the clinker manufacturing process. A
good quality clinker can be produced only when adequate thermal
conditions are maintained in individual sections of the kiln; and
that is affected by the calorific value of the fuel employed and by
the way of its combustion. The low calorific value of the alternative
fuel should be close to that of the primary fuel (about 25 MJ/kg).
Wastes are known, however, to offer lower heating values, which are
considerably lower in many cases. The minimum low calorific value
has been established therefore for alternative fuels (≥13 MJ/kg)
which can assure both proper kiln operation and satisfactory quality
of the clinker product. Fuels with such low calorific values may not be
used in the clinker sintering zone (about 1450 °C) but only in the calci-
nation zone where the temperatures of only about 900 °C need to be
provided [34].
The heating potential of the sludge-derived fuels is shown in
Table 8 and compared with the properties of hard coal and with the
requirements as set by the cement industry for the alternative fuels.
The fuels produced from the sewage sludge offer the heating value
within 13–19 MJ/kg, hence they satisfy the minimum requirement of
the cement industry.
The heating values of the obtained fuels are comparable to that of
RDF (Residue-Derived Fuel) which is produced on the basis of the
flammable fraction of the municipal waste. Depending on its specific
composition, RDF may offer variable calorific values which may fall
within 15–20 MJ/kg, as per Genon et al. [36] but the values below
14 MJ/kg [37,38] are also possible. The fuels with such heating values
may be used to substitute up to about 10% of the conventional fuel in
the clinker burning process.
Within the alternative fuels prepared in this study, the highest
heating value was offered by PBS fuel, while the lowers value was
found for the fuel which was based on the sludge and on sawdust
fuel (PBT)—its calorific value was only one half of the value of hard
coal (the calorific value of Polish hard coal equals to 20–29 MJ/kg).
PBM and PBT fuels had high contents of volatiles (that figure is
2.4 ÷ 5.9% for coal) which suggested that their reactivity should be
high: they should catch fire more easily and they should burn faster.
When the figures in Table 8 are analysed and compared, it be-
comes apparent that hard coal and sludge-derived fuels have the
same basic elemental composition. The differences, however, appear
in the percentages for individual elements. The alternative fuels con-
tain more oxygen and nitrogen, but their elemental carbon contents
make only one half of that for hard coal (PBM and PBT fuels). In
relation to hard coal, they contain less sulphur at the lower limit
observed for coal (the sulphur content in coal is 0.6 ÷ 1.4%).
Because of the strongly alkaline conditions in the rotary kiln, in the
clinker production process, sulphur in the form of SO2 is chemically
bounded to produce sulphates and it is discharged from the kiln to-
gether with the clinker product as well as with the cement kiln dust
(CKD). The remainder is emitted in flue gases as SO2. The data pres-
ented by CEMBUREAU [39] show that the use of alternative fuels in
cement kilns does not increase the total emissions of SO2 and other
pollutants like: HCl, TOC, NOx.
Emissions of SO2 from the clinker manufacturing process results
predominantly from the sulphide contents in the natural raw mate-
rials contain volatile sulphur compounds (e.g. pyrite) which are
used in the cement industry [40]. Hence, the sulphur content in alter-
native fuels is restricted because of the required clinker quality.
Chlorine is another objectionable component of fuels. Its presence
affects the emission of acid gases. Moreover, it is responsible for the
so-called internal circulation between the sintering zone and the
cyclone heater in the dry method for the clinker production. The
solid material will consequently build up in cyclones, in pipelines
and in the heater, which will upset the stable flow of gas and other
material streams [41].
The chlorine content in a fuel may be responsible for the synthesis of
dioxins and furans (PCDDs and PCDFs) under some specific combustion
conditions. Hence, the combustion criteria have been established for
the chlorinated organic compounds and polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs). Said conditions have to be adhered to if those compounds are
to be destroyed in the incineration process [42].
In the light of available scientific information and numerous mea-
surements of PCDDs /PCDFs emissions, the modern European cement
plants and those operated in other parts of the world, in which alter-
native fuels are used, release dioxins at the concentration below
0.1 ng TEQ/m 3 in their flue gases, i.e. below the permissible level
[43]. Grochowalski [44] for example quoted the average concentra-
tion of dioxins in the flue gases from the clinker burning process for
Polish cement plants below 0.02% ng TEQ/m 3.
Previous studies [45,46] have established that partial substitution
of conventional fuels with alternative fuels (including meat meal,
used tires and waste materials with substantial chlorine contents)
in the process of clinker burning does not lead to increase of level of
emission of PCDDs/PCDFs.
The chlorine content in all sludge-derived fuels is comparable and
it makes about 15% of the level which is defined acceptable for the
cement industry (b3%). For example, the chlorine content in the
PASi fuel (fuel produced with the use of paper, sawdust and liquid
wastes, i.e. solvents, paints and lacquers) amounts to 0.24% [35], in
 M. Wzorek / Fuel Processing Technology 104 (2012) 80–89 85

the tire derived fuel (TDF) [47] that content is 0.4%, while in the RDF Table 9
fuel—from 0.28 to 0.7% [36]. Heavy metal contents in sludge-derived fuels and in hard coal.

As mentioned earlier, ash from the fuel combustion process is Heavy PBS PBM PBT Hard coal Requirements of
absorbed by the clinker product. Hence, the amount of ash and its metal ppm fuel fuel fuel [14] cement industry [35]
chemical composition are important from the viewpoint of the clin- Mn 165 350.9 319.3 4–1990 Total content
ker quality. Cr b 181 22.08 93.68 0–60 b2500
The chemical compositions: for the ash from the studied fuels and Zn 250 446.1 881.2 2–3560
Pb 63.20 19.43 24.93 2–370
for the hard coal ash, are arranged for comparative presentation in
Co 14.12 3.89 6.27 0–140
Fig. 2. Ni b25 4.92 15.92 0–130
The ash materials from the sludge-containing fuels have different V 1.14 2.53 3.10 2–100
properties as compared to the hard coal ash. The former show much Cu 58.88 43.84 71.77 0.5–50
higher contents of CaO and lower contents of acidic components As 1.53 0.997 2.254 0–170 Cd + Tl + Hg
Sn 0.478 0.030 0.028 0.02–1 b100
(SiO2 and Al2O3), which is specific for biomass-derived fuels [50],
Tl 0.048 0.051 0.089 –
but they contain the same oxides as the raw materials which are Cd 1.25 0.434 1.690 0.1–3.0
used for the production of clinker. Hg 0.987 0.421 0.859 1–10 Hg b 10
Special attention should be paid to the content of P2O5 in the ash
from PBM, i.e. from the fuel prepared with the use of the sludge and
meat and bone meal. The content of P2O5 reaches up to about 20%. cadmium orantimony [53]. The use of spent oils and solvents [35],
A high content of P2O5 is undesirable since it may adversely impact and used tires [47], is considered to be the reason of increased zinc
the hydraulic activity of cement. content in clinker.
According to Lea [51], the phosphorus content in clinker should From the viewpoint of atmospheric pollution, not only sulphur
be reduced to 0.2-0.3% only since higher phosphorus levels impair and chlorine make the unwanted fuel components. The presence of
the clinker quality: they are catalytic to decomposition of alite—the volatile heavy metals (Hg, Cd and Tl) and polychlorinated biphenyls
principal phase component of clinker. Thus, the fuel which is based (PCBs) is also objectionable. Hence, limits have also been established
on sewage sludge and meat and bone meal (PBM fuel) may be used for those components in alternative fuels.
in the cement clinker process at the amount which is equivalent to The content of volatile heavy metals (mercury, cadmium and
about 5% of the total heat demand. In some European countries, how- thallium) is lowest in PBM fuel where it amounts to 0.9% of the
ever, where the meat and bone meal is used as a fuel, the P2O5 con- acceptable limit. That level for PBS fuel is 2.28%, while for PBT fuel it
tent in clinker may reach up to 0.5%. The alternative fuels may be is 2.69% of the allowable value. Table 10 shows the contents of poly-
substituents for 7% of conventional fuel then [34]. chlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
Besides the regular mineral components, the ash from PBS, PBM (PAHs) in the produced alternative fuels.
and PBT fuels contains also heavy metals. The heavy metal contents As regards the PCBs level, the limit value of 50 ppm was defined
for sludge-based fuels are provided in Table 9. The results demon- by Lafarge Cement. The PCBs contents were determined in the tested
strate that the levels of heavy metals contained in the studied fuels fuels and they were found to be very low, close to the determination
comply with the limits for hard coal. limits in practice.
The highest concentrations were noted for manganese (PBM and The flash point and the ash fusibility temperature should be
PBT fuels), zinc (PBT fuel) and chromium (PBS fuel). learned for the complete specification of a fuel. Those parameters
The heavy metals which can be found in the fuels come predomi- are not critical if the fuel is intended for the production of cement
nantly from the sewage sludge, and their amounts in a fuel are con- clinker. In the power industry, however, they provide the information
tingent upon their contents in the sludge which was taken for the on the efficiency of the combustion process and on potential hazards
production. in the operation of boilers.
The low-volatility trace elements, i.e. Sr, Mn, Sn, Ba, Sn, As, Cr, Co, The flash point values, as measured by the Marcusson method, are
Cu, Zn, Sb, Mo, Ni and V, become completely embedded in the clinker presented in Fig. 3. The lowest flash point (~315 °C) is offered by PBT
structure. The American research revealed that those elements could fuel which can be accounted for by the highest content of volatiles in
be fixed in various clinker phases up to 99.9% [52]. The progress in the that fuel.
technology for co-combustion of alternative fuels, however, may be A low flash point value means quick vaporisation and carbo-
declared to be responsible for the increased levels of some heavy nisation of a fuel, and violent combustion of fuel volatile components.
metals in clinker. That may be applicable for example to chromium, The flash point for PBM fuel equals to ~345 °C, while it is ~415 °C for
PBS. That difference results from the fact that the biomass compo-
nents were used in the production of PBT and PBM fuels which offer
lower flash point values than conventional fuels.
The combustion process is affected adversely by softening and
then melting of the slag and ash. The temperature level and range
at which that phenomenon is faced is dependent on many factors.
The chemical composition of ash, and the type of combustion atmo-
sphere, make the most important factors. If those parameters are
known, one may approximately assess the potential hazard which
will result from covering the heat exchange surfaces in power boilers

Table 10
PCBs and PAHs contents in sludge-derived fuels.

Parameter ppm PBS PBM PBT Requirements of

fuel fuel fuel cement industry [35]

PCBs b0.05 b0.05 0.11 b50

PAHs 9.1 2.9 9.3 –
Fig. 2. Chemical analysis of ashes of sludge-derived fuels and hard coal [14,48,49].
86 M. Wzorek / Fuel Processing Technology 104 (2012) 80–89

Fig. 3. Flash point values for selected fuels [14,48].

with slag. The sintering, softening and melting temperatures for

sludge-derived fuels in the oxidising and semi-reducing atmospheres
are presented in Table 11.
In order to observe the changes which take place in fuels at high
temperatures, the samples were subjected to differential thermal
analysis (DTA) and thermogravimetric analysis (TG), and the findings
are presented in Fig. 4.
Thermograms of test fuels demonstrate similar behaviours for
those fuels. A small loss in weight can be observed up to the temper-
ature of 150 °C for every fuel, which is attributable to water evapora-
tion. At about 300 °C, the highest exothermic peak was observed
which was due to fuel ignition (PBM fuel—310 °C, PBT fuel—290 °C).
Two peaks were observed, however, for PBS fuel: at 320 and at
360 °C, which were probably caused by fuel ignition and coal
decomposition.
The combustion process then takes place up to the temperature
of 800 °C. Some small endotherm is apparent at about 840 °C which
results from decomposition of calcium carbonate contained in the
ash. The loss in weight for PBS fuel is no longer observed at 1200 °C
and it amounts to 77%. The same for PBM fuel takes place at 920 °C
(loss in weight of 55%), and for PBT fuel at 820 °C (loss in weight of
69.7%).

3.2. Physical properties of sludge-derived fuels

The fuels produced from wastes, alike regular fuels, can be

characterised by a number of quality parameters which are important
from the viewpoint of applicability. Apart from power performance Fig. 4. TG and DTA profiles for sludge-derived fuels: a) PBS fuel, b) PBM fuel, c) PBT fuel.
properties, special attention is also paid to the fuel stability, homoge-
neity of its composition, and its physical properties.
The quality parameters represent the form of a fuel, like shape,
particle size, bulk density and stability of the fuel. operations. The measured values of the strength-by-dropping factor
Strength-by-dropping, water resistance, frost resistance or water for the sludge-derived fuels are presented in Fig. 5.
absorption of a fuel, these are the principal properties which define The fuel which was based on the sludge and meat and bone meal
the possible performance of that fuel in transport and storage (PBM fuel) and that based on the sludge in combination with sawdust
(PBT fuel) are characterised by similar and very high values of the
strength-by-dropping factor: it is 97% for PBM fuel and it reaches as
high as 100% for PBT fuel. Hence, those fuel samples did not suffer
Table 11
Fusibility of ash after combustion of sludge-derived fuels.
from any damage, cracking or disintegration in practice. The factor
for the PBS fuel, however, was much lower and considerable destruc-
Parameter Unit PBS PBM PBT Hard coal tion was noted for some part of samples in tests. The strength proper-
fuel fuel fuel [48]
ties of the fuels were not impaired by a month-long storage, and they
Oxidising Sintering point °C 1110 1110 1260 910–1180 even improved slightly for PBM.
atmosphere Softening point °C 1210 1260 1350 1250–1360
Most wastes which are utilised as fuel components have capillary
Melting point °C 1260 1400 1530 1280–1500
Pour point °C 1290 1440 1560 1350–1500 structures and they are hygroscopic—they absorb water from the en-
Melting point °C 1010 1080 1110 950 vironment. As declared by Wandrasz [14], the sorption potential of a
Semi-reducing Softening point °C 1110 1190 1320 1230 material is dependent on numerous factors, inter alia on the specific
atmosphere Melting point °C 1200 1340 1500 1400 properties which are defined by the molecular structure, chemical
Pour point °C 1230 1380 1540 1420
composition, etc. Sorption of water is also controlled by temperature
 M. Wzorek / Fuel Processing Technology 104 (2012) 80–89 87

Table 12
Bulk density for sludge-derived fuels.

Type of fuel Bulk density kg/m3

PBS fuel 433

PBM fuel 325
PBT fuel 520
Wooden pallets [14] 528
Brown coal briquettes [14] 700–725

In order to be able to efficiently transport, store and use (i.e. burn)

fuels, the compaction processes are employed which are especially
Fig. 5. Strength-by-dropping factor for sludge-derived fuels.
applicable to biomass and agricultural wastes [54–56]. They are
intended to increase the bulk density of solid fuels up to at least
250 kg/m 3 [57]. The bulk density values for granular or briquetted
and time. Through sorption of atmospheric humidity, the fuels may wastes are much higher.
lose their mechanical strength. Moreover, the organic components The bulk density values for sludge-derived fuels against those of
of a fuel may undergo biological decomposition under storage other fuels as per [14] are provided in Table 12.
conditions. The sewage sludge fuels are presented in Fig. 7.
Water resistance makes one of parameters which define the To recapitulate, the fuels produced with the use of the sewage
change in strength-by-dropping of a fuel due to water absorption. sludge have the strength properties which make them stable in the
The water resistance findings for sludge-derived fuels are presented transport, storage and handling operations. However, it is necessary
in Fig. 6. to protect the fuels against rainfall and other negative atmospheric
The water resistance tests showed that water was destructive impacts under temporary storage conditions immediately before
for the strength-by-dropping that value decreased for all the tested their use, i.e. before charging them to a furnace. Such fuels can be
fuels. PBM fuel was found to be least water resistant, and its stored just in the open (the use of some roofing is recommended
strength-by-dropping was reduced dramatically after absorption of then) or in a closed storage accommodation.
water. That parameter declined by 30% for PBM fuel and by 10% for
PBS fuel.
Frost resistance shows the effect of changing temperatures on fuel
quality. With regard to frost resistance (Fig. 6), the impact of varying
temperatures (and in particular of negative temperatures) was not so
extensive on the structure of fuels as it was observed for water. After
the frost resistance test, the strength-by-dropping of PBS fell down by
30%. The PBM and PBT fuels, on the other hand, were more resistant
to that type of impacts as their strength was reduced on average by
10% only.
The water absorbability is another parameter which is used to
evaluate the fuel performance under storage conditions. That param-
eter defines the water absorption capacity under defined conditions.
This parameter is especially interesting because of considerable initial
water content in sludge-derived fuels.
The highest water absorbability potential was noted for PBT fuel
(120%). That can be accounted for by its content of sawdust which ab-
sorbs water quickly. The lowest imbibition level was measured for
PBM fuel (70%) which again results from its composition, i.e. from
the content of meat and bone meal and its properties.
Bulk density is an essential parameter from the viewpoint of
transport: that property tells us about the weight-to-volume ratio
for a loose material (granular, finely broken up crystalline substance,
etc.).

Fig. 6. Water resistance, frost resistance and water absorbability. Fig. 7. Sludge-derived fuels: a) PBS fuel, b) PBM fuel, c) PBT fuel.
88 M. Wzorek / Fuel Processing Technology 104 (2012) 80–89
4. Conclusions
In the paper it is suggested to utilise the sewage sludge by mixing
it together with other properly selected wastes, i.e. with under-grade
sized coal, with wastes from animal waste utilisation plants and with
wood wastes. Those components can be converted into granulated
fuels which meet the requirements of the cement industry. That
route will make it possible to utilise the sludge as a source of energy,
in an environmentally friendly way.
The useful “value” of the sewage sludge can be improved by the
admixture(s) of other waste(s) so that the sludge becomes applicable
in the production of energy, if the energy properties of the sludge
grade(s) are not unacceptably low. The fuels can be obtained in
this way which offers the pre-assumed parameters. The parameters
can be tailored to make the fuels fit for the co-combustion process
with coal. Moreover, when processed together with other wastes,
the sludge is converted into a granulated fuel which eliminates its
disadvantageous consistence. The produced fuel can be transported
and stored easily which expands its potential applicability.
The produced fuels offer the physical-chemical properties which
meet the requirements of the cement industry. The calorific values
of PBM and PBT fuels fall within 13–15 MJ/kg, which classifies those
materials as low-grade alternative fuels. The corresponding value
for PBS is higher, above 19 MJ/kg (medium-grade fuel).
When the content of harmful components is considered which
adversely affect the clinker burning process, i.e. chlorine, sulphur
and volatile heavy metals, the sludge-derived fuels satisfy the re-
quirements of the cement industry for alternative fuels.
The tests for physical properties demonstrated that the fuels may
be subjected to mechanical handling operations which are connected
with their transport, loading and unloading, etc. Definitely better
strength parameters are offered by PBM and PBT, i.e. by the fuels pre-
pared from the sludge and meat and bone meal, and from the sludge
and sawdust. Destructive effects of water on strength-by-dropping
were observed for all test fuels. The fuels are characterised by high
water absorbability and they should be protected against atmospheric
precipitation for short-time intermediate storage.
The fuels which were produced with the use of the sludge may be
employed in the clinker burning process instead of hard coal, and
they may be charged to rotary kilns by means of the alternative fuel
transport and feeding systems which exist in cement plants. Applica-
bility of the sludge-derived fuels, however, may be much more exten-
sive since their physical-chemical parameters make it possible to use
such fuels in other co‐combustion processes with coal.
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