“Concepts of Highway Design” Expressway – highways designed for

high-speeds
Designing the Highway
Freeway – toll-free expressway
Fundamentals of Highway Design
Control of Access - restriction
Consistency
Full Control – all vehicles can
• The ability to remain the same in pass
behavior, attitudes, or qualities
(Macmillan Dictionary) Partial Control – only some vehicles
can pass
• Is the most important single rule in
highway design Through Street/Through Highway –
a portion of a street/highway that
• NO sudden changes gives right of way

Parkway – highway in park

Arterial Street – high-capacity urban

road

Collector Street – moves traffic from

local streets to arterial streets

Local Road – basic road

Highway Capacity – maximum

amount of vehicles that can pass

Design Speed

• Highest speed vehicles can travel

Definition of Terms safely

Roads and Highways – strips of land • Maximum speed when conditions

used for the movement of people are favourable
and goods
• Higher than the average speed
Road – public thoroughfare

Highway – road that can handle

heavy traffic
 Basic Design Features Importance:
1. Tightness of Curves
1. Serves as “stopping place”
2. Superelevation
2. Reduces accidents
3. Sight Distance
3. Strengthens the pavement
4. Grade
4. Increases sight distance
Cross Section of Typical Highway
Standards:
Factors :

1. Volume of Traffic
• If V > 250, outside
shoulder must be paved
2. Character of Traffic
for 3 – 3.6 m
3. Speed of the Traffic

4. Characteristics of Motor Vehicles

• Recommended width:
and of the Driver
• 6+ Lanes: shoulder must
AASHTO Standards
• 2-Lane Rural Highways: 7.20 m
wide
• Collector Roadway: 6 m wide
• Local Rural Roadway: 4.80 m wide
• Urban Roadway: 3.60 m/3 m wide
Road Shoulder
• Also known as verge
• Portion between the edge of the
traffic lane and the edge of the
ditch
1.20 – 2.40 m
be 3 m wide or 3.60 m if
V > 250
THE CROSS SLOPE
Cross slope, cross fall or camber is a
geometric feature of pavement
surfaces: the transverse slope with
respect to the horizon. It is a very
important safety factor. Cross slope
is provided to provide a drainage
gradient so that water will run off
the surface to a drainage system
such as a street gutter or ditch.
Inadequate cross slope will
contribute to aquaplaning.

• “Emergency stopping lane”

 hazardous locations in the road etc.
will be discussed in detail in this
chapter.

These are provided with two equal

uniform straight line slopes at both
sides of the crown and are also
known as Plane cross slopes. They
are generally adopted for very flat
slopes such as PCC or RCC
Pavement.

3 TYPES OF CROSS SLOPE Composite camber may be

composed of partly parabola and
• Parabolic Curve Cross slope partly straight line or two straight
• Straight line Cross slope lines having different slopes.
Generally central part of the road is
• Composite Cross slope made parabolic and provided with
straight slopes near edges. This
Parabolic Curved Cross helps to decrease in intensity of
slope pressure by increasing the contact
area of the wheel.
The essential purpose of road
markings is to guide and control
traffic on a highway. They
supplement the function of traffic
signs. The markings serve as a
psychological barrier and signify the
delineation of traffic path and its
lateral clearance from traffic
hazards for the safe movement of
traffic. Hence they are very
important to ensure the safe,
smooth and harmonious flow of CUT OR FILL SLOPE
traffic. Various types of road
markings like longitudinal markings, In earthmoving, cut and fill is the
transverse markings, object process of constructing
markings and special markings to a railway, road or canal whereby the
warn the driver about the amount of material from cuts
 roughly matches the amount of fill
needed to make
nearby embankments, so minimizing
the amount of construction labor.
CUT SLOPE
Cut slopes are rarely created greater
than a slope of two to one
(horizontal to vertical
dimensions). Cut sections of
roadway or rail are characterized by
the roadway being lower in
elevation than the surrounding
terrain. From an operational
standpoint there are unique
environmental effects associated
with cut sections of roadway. For
example, air pollutants can
concentrate in the ‘'valleys'‘ created
by the cut section. Conversely, noise
pollution is mitigated by cut sections
since an effective blockage of line of
sight sound propagation is created
by the depressed roadway design.
FILL SLOPE
• shall be no steeper than two
horizontal to one vertical (2:1),
exclusive of benches or terraces.
• All fill slopes shall be overfilled to a
distance from finished slope face
that will allow compaction
equipment to operate freely within
the zone of the finished slope, and
then cut back to the finish grade to
expose the compacted core
• The ground surface shall be
prepared to receive fill by removing
vegetation; non-complying fill;
topsoil and other unsuitable
materials; and by scarifying to a
minimum depth of twelve inches to
provide a bond with the new fill.
PROPER MARKINGS
The essential purpose of road
markings is to guide and control
traffic on a highway. They
supplement the function of traffic
signs. The markings serve as a
psychological barrier and signify the
delineation of traffic path and its
lateral clearance from traffic hazards
for the safe movement of traffic.
Hence they are very important to
ensure the safe, smooth and
harmonious flow of traffic.
SOLID WHITE SHOULDER LINE
– Solid white shoulder
line. This denotes the edge
of the roadway. Any asphalt
or concrete surface beyond
this line should not be used
during the normal operation
of your vehicle.
 Solid white center line

Diagonal White Lines • This is often used to divide traffic on

a two-way multi-lane road. As this is
• An area filled with diagonal white
a solid line, you are discouraged
lines and bordered by solid white
from overtaking over it unless the
lines is not considered part of the
way is absolutely clear.
roadway, and vehicles are expected
to stay off unless there is an
emergency. These areas are often
used to ease the flow of traffic
where roads diverge or intersect.

Solid white double center line

• You are forbidden from overtaking

over this line, but you may make left
Broken white centre line or lane turns over it, provided the way is
divider clear. Remember, however, that
oncoming traffic still automatically
• This denotes the center of a two-
has right of way.
lane road, or marks the division
between lanes on multi-lane roads.
It is a reminder to stay in your lane.
Straddling the line is illegal and
punishable under the law. As the
line is “broken,” however, this
means it is legal to cross it when
overtaking or changing lanes.
Solid yellow double center line

• As we noted a while back, this line

indicates that it is unsafe to
overtake at any time. It is often
found around blind curves or in
areas where fast-moving two-way
traffic meets on an undivided road.
 Mixed center line/solid yellow with
broken yellow or white line
• This indicates that only one side can
overtake--the side with the broken
line. This is often found entering
curves where the view is obstructed
coming from one direction, but is
clear from the opposite side.
Solid white lane divider
• These are often found near
intersections, and are reminders to
stay in lane. As a practice, if you're
turning at an intersection, it's best
to get into the turning lane 50m
before the intersection, while the
lane divider is still broken.
Broken blue lane divider
• This indicates the motorbike lane
along major thoroughfares. The
broken line indicates that you can
move into and out of it, but the lane
is preferentially for motorbikes.
Solid yellow lane divider
• This indicates the bus lane on EDSA,
but can also be used to indicate
bicycle lanes in some areas. Bicycle
lanes may also be indicated by solid
white lines on the side of the road.
Broken yellow lane divider Rumble strips

 This indicates areas where • These tightly spaced horizontal

you can merge into the bus white lines not only give your car's
lane in preparation for suspension a bit of a workout, they
turning off EDSA. also indicate hazards ahead, such as
dangerous curves or merging traffic.

Solid white horizontal line

Mixed double lane divider/solid • This indicates where you must stop
yellow with broken yellow or white at a stoplight or stop sign.
line

 This indicates that traffic on

the solid yellow side cannot
cross lanes, while traffic on
the other side may do so if
the way is clear. This is often
used where smaller arteries
merge into main roads or Zebra crossing
where feeder roads merge
• This indicates a pedestrian crossing
onto the highway.
zone. Stopping over this at a red
light is a traffic violation, so make
sure to pay attention to those light
timers!
 The yellow box

• This box indicates the part of the

intersection that must--by law--be
NLEX
kept open at all times. Even if you
have a green light, if the traffic is
stopped on the other side ahead, it's
best to wait until there's enough
space for you to clear the yellow
box. Even in the absence of a light,
the yellow box must be kept clear.

HIGHWAY MEDIAN

• is the reserved area that separates

opposing lanes of traffic on divided
roadways, such as divided
highways, dual carriageways, freeways,
and motorways. The term also applies
to divided roadways other than
highways, such as some major streets in
urban or suburban areas. The reserved
area may simply be paved, but
commonly it is adapted to other
functions; for example, it may
accommodate
decorative landscaping, trees,
a median barrier or railway, light
rail or streetcar lines.
 GRADE LINE
Grade Line is a line or slope used as a longitudinal reference of a railroad or highway.
Inclinations with the horizontal of a road, railroad, etc., usually expressed by stating the vertical
rise or fall as a percentage of the horizontal distance; slope.

There are several ways to express slope:

• as an angle of inclination to the horizontal. (This is the angle α opposite the "rise" side of a
triangle with a right angle between vertical rise and horizontal run.)
𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒
• as a percentage, the formula for which is 100 which could also be expressed as the tangent
𝑟𝑢𝑛
of the angle of inclination times 100.

One factor that significantly influences the selection of a highway location is the terrain or the
land, which in turn affects the laying of the grade line. The primary factor that the designer
considers on laying the grade line is the amount of earthwork that will be necessary for the
selected grade line. The height of the grade line is usually dictated by expected floodwater level.
Grade lines should also be set such that the minimum sight distance requirements are obtained.

• Maximum Grade – Maximum grade is determined by a table, with up to 6% allowed in

mountainous areas and hilly urban areas.

• Profile Grade Line (PGL) - This is a single line, straight or curved, along the length of the highway,
sometimes but not always on the center of the highway.

• Grade Seperation – Is the process of aligning a junction of two or more transport axes at
different heights (grades) so that they will not disrupt the traffic flow on other transit routes
when they cross each other.
 Right-of-Way

A Right-of-Way (R/W) is a strip of land that is granted, through an easement or other

mechanism, for transportation purposes, such as for trail, driveway, rail line or highway.
A right-of-way is reserved for the purposes of maintenance or expansion of existing
services with the right-of-way. In the case of an easement, it may revert to its original
owners if the facility is abandoned.

Right-of-Way (R/W) is a term used to describe "the legal right, established by usage or
grant, to pass along a specific route through grounds or property belonging to another"

The right-of-way has three basic categories distinguished by the degree of separation from other
traffic:

• CATEGORY A: “a grade-separated” or “exclusive”. It is a fully controlled R/W without grade

crossings or any legal access by other vehicles.

• CATERGORY B: includes R/W types that are longitudinally physically separated from other traffic,
but with grade crossing for vehicles and pedestrians, including regular street intersections.

• CATEGORY C: surface streets with mixed traffics. Most bus systems and streetcar systems fall
into this category

[REPUBLIC ACT NO. 10752]

• AN ACT FACILITATING THE ACQUISITION OF RIGHT-OF-WAY SITE OR LOCATION FOR NATIONAL

GOVERNMENT INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS

• SECTION 1. Short Title. – This Act shall be known as “The Right-of-Way Act”.

• SEC. 2. Declaration of Policy. – Article III, Section 9 of the Constitution states that private
property shall not be taken for public use without just compensation. Towards this end, the
State shall ensure that owners of real property acquired for national government infrastructure
projects are promptly paid just compensation for the expeditious acquisition of the required
right-of-way for the projects.

• SEC. 3. National Government Projects. – As used in this Act, the term “national government projects” shall
refer to all national government infrastructure projects and its public service facilities, engineering works
and service contracts, including projects undertaken by government-owned and -controlled corporations,
all projects covered by Republic Act No. 6957, as amended by Republic Act No. 7718, otherwise known as
the “Build-Operate-and-Transfer Law”, and other related and necessary activities, such as site acquisition,
supply or installation of equipment and materials, implementation, construction, completion, operation,
maintenance, improvement, repair and rehabilitation, regardless of the source of funding. Subject to the
provisions of Republic Act No. 7160, otherwise known as the “Local Government Code of 1991”, local
government units (LGUs) may also adopt the provisions of this Act for use in the acquisition of right-of-
way for local government infrastructure projects.
 SIGHT DISTANCE
The characteristics of Safety Sight Distance depends on:

Driver

• Alertness of the Driver

• Recognition of the Hazard

• Actions available on the driver – to stop or to change direction.

Vehicle

• Types of vehicle – car or truck.

• Friction between the tire and the road

• Eye height of the driver

• Speed of vehicles
 Sight Distance Elements
Each type of Sight Distance consists of three elements:

• Driver Eye Height – is the observed eye height of a driver.

• Object Height – is a possible object in the path of a vehicle; and

• Sight Distance is dependent on a design speed and vehicle type – It is a major road safety
design control when determining the horizontal and vertical geometric alignment for a new or
rehabilitation design.

Driver Eye Height

Driver’s eye height standards vary from 1.05m to 1.08m in different countries. The value has
certain practical limits due to passenger car heights and relatively small increases in the
lengths of vertical curves that would result. The values used in the Philippines are in table 16.2

Stopping Sight Distance

Is the shortest distance required for a vehicle traveling at the assumed design speed to stop
safely before reaching a stationary object in its path.

There are two components in stopping sight distance:

• Reaction Distance – the distance traveled while the driver perceives a hazard, decides to take
action, then acts by starting to apply the brakes to start slowing down; and

• Braking Distance – the distance required for the vehicle to slow down and stop.
 Perception Reaction Distance

The distance traveled by driver in perception-reaction process. The designed perception-reaction time
of American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) is 2.5s.

Dr = Vi x tr

Where:

Vi = initial velocity tr= perception-reaction time

Braking Distance

The horizontal length needed to stop a vehicle after the brakes have been applied.

𝒗𝟐𝟏
𝑫𝒃 = 𝒂
𝟐𝒈( ±𝑮)
𝒈

Where:

Db = braking distance

V1 = initial velocity

a = deceleration rate

g = gravitational constant, 32.2 ft/s2 (9.81m/s2)

G = roadway grade in decimal

Stopping Sight Distance and Crest Vertical Curve Design
Stopping Sight Distance and Crest Vertical Curve Design

Stopping Sight Distance and Sag Vertical Curve Design

 Passing Sight Distance
Is the shortest distance required for a vehicle to safely pull out of a traffic lane, pass a vehicle to
traveling in the same direction, and return to the correct lane without interfering either with the
overtaken vehicle or opposing traffic.

Certain assumptions are made:

• The passing vehicle is travelling at the same speed as the impeder (the vehicle being passed).

• The impeder is travelling at a uniform speed.

• The average passing speed is about 16km/hr more than the speed of the impeder vehicle.

The minimum Passing Sight Distance is the total of four components:

• d1- Distance traversed during perception and reaction time and during the initial acceleration to
the point where the passing vehicle just enter the left lane.

• d2- Distance traveled while the passing vehicle occupies the left lane.

• d3- Distance between the passing vehicle and the opposing vehicle at the end of the passing
maneuver. The clearance length between the opposing and passing vehicles at the end of the
passing maneuvers was found to range between 30m and 75m.

• d4- Distance moved by the opposing vehicle during two-thirds of the time the passing vehicle
occupies the left lane usually (usually taken 2/3 d2 … the dangerous part of d2.).
Passing Sight Distance (Sag/Underpass Curve)
 ROAD ALIGNMENT

Road Alignment has two characteristics:

• Horizontal Alignment

• Vertical Alignment

Difference between Horizontal and Vertical Curve

• Horizontal Curve - A horizontal curve in a roadway refers to the alignment, or how

“straight” the roadway section is.

• Vertical Curve - A vertical curve refers to a roadway’s change in elevation, or the

“flatness” of the roadway.
 Types of Horizontal Curvature
• Simple Curves - has a constant circular radius which achieves the desired deflection
without using an entering or exiting transition.

-This is the most frequently used curve because of their simplicity for
design,layout, and construction.

• Reverse Curves - consists of two simple curves joined together, but curving in opposite
directions.

- For safety reasons, the use of this curve should be avoided when
possible. As with broken back curves, drivers do not expect to encounter this
arrangement on typical highway geometry.
 There are two types of Reversed Curves

• Parallel Tangents

• Nonparallel Tangents

• Compound Curves are a series of two or more simple curves with deflections in the
same direction immediately adjacent to each other.

• Compound curves are used to transition into and from a simple curve and to avoid
some control or obstacle which cannot be relocated.

Elements of Compound Curve

• Horizontal Stopping Sight Distance–is one of several types of sight distance used in road
design.

- It is a near worst-case distance a vehicle driver needs to be able

to see in order have room to stop before colliding with something in the roadway, such
as a pedestrian in a crosswalk, a stopped vehicle, or road debris.
• Superelevation - is the banking of a roadway around a curve.

WIDENING OF CURVES
 WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN Trumpet interchange (Dinalupihan
INTERSECTION AND INTERCHANGE? interchange)

• An intersection is the junction where

two roads either cross or meet.

• An interchange is a system of
interconnecting roadways in
conjunction with one or more grade
separations that provides for the
movement of traffic between two or
more roadways/highways on different
levels.

Trumpet interchange (NLEX-Balagtas)

TYPES OF INTERCHANGE
Three-Leg Interchange

Trumpet interchange (Filinvest

Alabang)
T-interchange (Clark North
Interchange)
T-interchange (Clark North Four-leg interchange
Interchange)

Y-interchange (NLEX-Marilao)

Diamond interchange

Y-interchange (C5 BGC Taguig)

Diamond interchange (NLEX-Bocaue) Single Point Urban Interchange (North
Carolina)

Diamond interchange (Paso de Blas)

Cloverleaf Interchange
• Full

• Partial

Full Cloverleaf Interchange (Smart

Connect)

Single Point Urban Interchange (SPUI)

Full Cloverleaf Interchange Partial Cloverleaf Interchange (Nichols)
(Balintawak)

HIGHWAY INTERSECTION AT GRADE

• An intersection is defined as the

general area where two or more
highways join or cross, including the
roadway and roadside facilities for
traffic movement.

General types

Partial Cloverleaf Interchange (SLEX- • Three-leg

Calamba) • Four-leg

• Multileg

• Roundabout

Three-leg (angle of intersection 60-120

deg)
Four leg (angle of intersection 60-120 Multi leg (should be avoided, if
deg) possible)

Multi leg (should be avoided, if Aligning multileg intersections

possible)
HIGHWAY INTERSECTION AT RAILROAD-HIGHWAY
GRADE SEPARATION
Railroad-highway crossing involves either a
separation of grade or an intersection at grade.
The horizontal and vertical geometrics of a
highway approaching a railroad grade crossing
should be constructed in a manner that does
divert driver attention to roadway conditions.

HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

• Practically intersects at right angle

• Should not be located on either

highway curve or railroad curve.

• When highway that’s parallel to main

track intersects, there should be
sufficient distance between the two. If
not, there should be traffic signals or a
“Do not stop on track” sign.

VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

• Ideally, should be levelled.

• When crossing the vertical highway

curve, the rail should be levelled.
WARNING DEVICES

PASSIVE WARNING DEVICES

• Signs and pavement markings

• warn drivers of the crossing location

but they still must determine whether
or not there are train movements for
which they should stop.

ACTIVE WARNING DEVICES

• Light signals and automatic gates

• give drivers positive indication of the

approaching train

CONSIDERATIONS

• Type of highway

• Volume of vehicular traffic

• Volume of railroad traffic

• Maximum speed of trains

• Permissible speed of vehicles

• Crash history

• Sight distance

• Geometrics

BICYCLE LANES

• Paved shoulders

• Wider outside traffic lanes(4.2m

minimum), if no shoulders exist

• Bicycle safe drainage grates

• Adjusting manhole covers to the grade

• Maintaining a smooth, clean riding

surface