Ohmmeters

µA Meter µA Meter
I I

Rs Rx Rs Rp Rx I
Digital
Voltmeter Rx
E E

Series E R R p( Shunt Digital

I
E

V
I
R
R pR
I

=
R

x
R

= +
s

+
s

+
x
E
R

R )
)
I

+
pR

xR
R
(s
R

Rp
=
+ +
p

x
 )
2
R
For the meter to read zero

E 1
4R
4
R (4
E R 3R
+

E 4
R )
=

2 R 4 3 4
R 4 4
R R R
Wheatstone Bridge

R E R R
=

2 1
+

R 3
+

=
R
+

1 2
R 2
R
3 1 2
V 3R R
=

2
R
=

R 1( R
=

2
+

V
=

V1 2 2 r
V1 R R R o
R3

V2 R4
+
V1
+
R1

R2
E
 Wheatstone Bridge

R1 R3
E
+ +
R2 V1 V2 R4
R R
R

R
3 1

=
x

2
 Fundamental Principles of
Instrumentation
• Minimum Disturbance to Physiological
Systems
• Sensor must be at value of measured
variable
• Null Measurements (Measurement by
Comparison)
 Variable Capacitance
Displacement Sensor

A d
C C

Air Dielectric Solid Dielectric

A A
C = ε0 C = kε 0
d d
 Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT)

+ +

+
Other Displacement Sensors

• Variable capacitance
• Linear variable differential
transformer (LVDT)
• Variable inductance

• Mutual inductance

• Ultrasound transit time