Liquid Penetrant Testing

Introduction

LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING is a nondestructive method of revealing discontinuities that are

open to thesurfaces of solid and essentially nonporous materials. Indications of a wide spectrum of
flaw sizes can be found regardlessof the configuration of the workpiece and regardless of flaw
orientations. Liquid penetrants seep into various types ofminute surface openings by capillary
action. Because of this, the process is well suited to the detection of all types ofsurface cracks,
shrinkage laps, porosityareas, laminations, and similar discontinuities. It is extensively used for
theinspection of wrought and cast products of both ferrous and nonferrous metals, powder
metallurgy parts, ceramics,plastics, and glass objects.
In practice, the liquid penetrant process is relatively simple to utilize and control. The equipment
used in liquid penetrantinspection can vary from an arrangement of simple tanks containing
penetrant, emulsifier, and developer to sophisticatedcomputer-controlled automated processing and
inspection systems. Establishing procedures and standards for theinspection of specific parts or
products is critical for optimum end results.
The liquid penetrant method does not depend on ferromagnetism (as does, for example, magnetic
particle inspection), andthe arrangement of the discontinuities is not a factor. The penetrant method
is effective not only for detecting surfaceflaws in non-magnetic metals but also for revealing surface
flaws in a variety of other nonmagnetic materials. Liquidpenetrant inspection is also used to inspect
items made from ferromagnetic steels; generally, its sensitivity is greater thanthat of magnetic
particle inspection.
The major limitation of liquid penetrant inspection is that it can detect only imperfections that are
open to the surface;some other method must be used for detecting subsurface flaws. Another factor
that can limit the use of liquid penetrantsis surface roughness or porosity. Such surfaces produce
excessive background and interfere with inspection.

Physical Principles

Liquid penetrant inspection depends mainly on a penetrant's effectively wetting the surface of a
solid workpiece orspecimen, flowing over that surface to form a continuous and reasonably uniform
coating, and then migrating into cavitiesthat are open to the surface. The cavities of interest are
usually exceedingly small, often invisible to the unaided eye. Theability of a given liquid to flow
over a surface and enter surface cavities depends principally on the following:
· Cleanliness of the surface
· Configuration of the cavity
· Cleanliness of the cavity
· Size of surface opening of the cavity
· Surface tension of the liquid
· Ability of the liquid to wet the surface
· Contact angle of the liquid

The cohesive forces between molecules of a liquid cause surface tension. An example of the
influence of surface tensionis the tendency of free liquid, such as a droplet of water, to contract into
a sphere. In such a droplet, surface tension iscounterbalanced by the internal hydrostatic pressure of
the liquid. When the liquid comes into contact with a solidsurface, the cohesive force responsible
for surface tension competes with the adhesive force between the molecules of theliquid and the
solid surface. These forces jointly determine the contact angle, θ, between the liquid and the surface
(Fig.1). If θ is less than 90° (Fig. 1a), the liquid is said to wet the surface, or to have good wetting
ability; if the angle is equalto or greater than 90° (Fig. 1b and c), the wetting ability is considered
poor.
Fig. 1 Wetting characteristics as evaluated by the angle, θ, between a droplet of liquid and a solid surface.Good wetting
is obtained when θ< 90° (a); poor wetting, when θ 90° (b) and (c).

Closely related to wetting ability is the phenomenon of capillary rise or depression (Fig. 2). If the
contact angle, θ,between the liquid and the wall of the capillary tube is less than 90° (that is, if the
liquid wets the tube wall), the liquidmeniscus in the tube is concave, and the liquid rises in the tube
(Fig. 2a). If θ is equal to 90°, there is no capillarydepression or rise (Fig. 2b). If θ is greater than
90°, the liquid is depressed in the tube and does not wet the tube wall, andthe meniscus is convex
(Fig. 2c). In capillary rise (Fig. 2a), the meniscus does not pull the liquid up the tube; rather,
thehydrostatic pressure immediately under the meniscus is reduced by the distribution of the surface
tension in the concavesurface, and the liquid is pushed up the capillary tube by the hydraulically
transmitted pressure of the atmosphere at thefree surface of the liquid outside the capillary tube.

Fig. 2 Rise or depression in small vertical capillary tubes, determined by the contact angle θ, between a liquidand the
wall of a capillary tube. (a) θ< 90°: capillary rise. (b) θ= 90°: no capillary depression or rise. (c) θ>90°: capillary
depression

Basic Processing Steps of a Liquid Penetrant Inspection

Surface Preparation: One of the most critical steps of a liquid penetrant inspection is the surface
preparation. The surface must be free of oil, grease, water, or other contaminants that may prevent
penetrant from entering flaws. The sample may also require etching if mechanical operations such
as machining, sanding, or grit blasting have been performed. These and other mechanical operations
can smear metal over the flaw opening and prevent the penetrant from entering.
Penetrant Application: Once the surface has been thoroughly cleaned and dried, the penetrant
material is applied by spraying, brushing, or immersing the part in a penetrant bath.
Penetrant Dwell: The penetrant is left on the surface for a sufficient time to allow as much penetrant
as possible to be drawn from or to seep into a defect. Penetrant dwell time is the total time that the
penetrant is in contact with the part surface. Dwell times are usually recommended by the penetrant
producers or required by the specification being followed. The times vary depending on the
application, penetrant materials used, the material, the form of the material being inspected, and the
type of defect being inspected for. Minimum dwell times typically range from five to 60 minutes.
Generally, there is no harm in using a longer penetrant dwell time as long as the penetrant is not
allowed to dry. The ideal dwell time is often determined by experimentation and may be very
specific to a particular application.
Excess Penetrant Removal: This is the most delicate part of the inspection procedure because the
excess penetrant must be removed from the surface of the sample while removing as little penetrant
as possible from defects. Depending on the penetrant system used, this step may involve cleaning
with a solvent, direct rinsing with water, or first treating the part with an emulsifier and then rinsing
with water.

Developer Application: A thin layer of developer is then applied to the sample to draw penetrant
trapped in flaws back to the surface where it will be visible. Developers come in a variety of forms
that may be applied by dusting (dry powdered), dipping, or spraying (wet developers).

Indication Development: The developer is allowed to stand on the part surface for a period of time
sufficient to permit the extraction of the trapped penetrant out of any surface flaws. This
development time is usually a minimum of 10 minutes. Significantly longer times may be
necessary for tight cracks.
Inspection: Inspection is then performed under appropriate lighting to detect indications from any
flaws which may be present.
Clean Surface: The final step in the process is to thoroughly clean the part surface to remove the
developer from the parts that were found to be acceptable.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Penetrant Testing
Advantages
 The method has high sensitivity to small surface discontinuities.
 The method has few material limitations, i.e. metallic and nonmetallic, magnetic and
nonmagnetic, and conductive and nonconductive materials may be inspected.
 Large areas and large volumes of parts/materials can be inspected rapidly and at low cost.
 Parts with complex geometric shapes are routinely inspected.
 Indications are produced directly on the surface of the part and constitute a visual
representation of the flaw.
 Aerosol spray cans make penetrant materials very portable.
 Penetrant materials and associated equipment are relatively inexpensive.
Disadvantages
 Only surface breaking defects can be detected.
 Only materials with a relatively nonporous surface can be inspected.
 Precleaning is critical since contaminants can mask defects.
 Metal smearing from machining, grinding, and grit or vapor blasting must be removed prior
to LPI.
 The inspector must have direct access to the surface being inspected.
 Surface finish and roughness can affect inspection sensitivity.
 Multiple process operations must be performed and controlled.
 Post cleaning of acceptable parts or materials is required.
 Chemical handling and proper disposal is required.

Ref.:
http://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/PenetrantTest/Principles/liquidpi.htm
https://eis.hu.edu.jo/ACUploads/10526/Liquid%20Penetrant%20Testing.pdf
Hands on Experiments (Ultrasonic NDT)
Calibration of the Reference Block

Exercise 1: Calibration of the time base in terms of steel thickness

Place the probe in position A on the test block (Fig. 1a) and by controlled movement of the
horizontal shift (or delay if no horizontal shift is provided) and the fine time base control, a

Figure: 1a
series of echoes are obtained at the screen positions of 25, 50, 75 and 100 scale divisions. These
movements of the two instrument controls automatically set the zero point. If the echoes will not
coincide with appropriate scale divisions, the time base is not linear and a graphical calibration
should be prepared.
Now place the probe in the position B as shown in figure 1b and obtain the backwall echo at a
position as shown in figure 1c. Screen display represents 100mm steel thickness.

Figure: 1b
Figure: 1c
Exercise 2: Determine the probe index and the angle of refraction of the transverse wave probe
The probe index is given on the probe; in order to check that the position marked on the probe is
correct, place the probe in position H (Fig. 2a).

Figure: 2a
Move the probe until maximum amplitude is received from the 100 mm curved surface. The central
mark on the graduated scale will be the position at which the beam leaves the Plexi- glass and
enters the steel, i.e. the probe index.

Move the probe until maximum signal amplitude is obtained from the Plexiglass cylinder (Fig. 2b).

Figure: 2b

The reference block has calibrated scales engraved at 40-70° and the relevant angle of refraction
marked on the probe should coincide with the correct scale position. The probe index which has
been previously determined should be marked on the probe in order to obtain the correct results.
Exercise 3: Determine the radius of curvature of V1 block using the angle beam probe.

Figure: 2c

The angle beam probe placed at the position shown in figure 2c. When the angle-beam probe is
exactly coupled at the centre of the circle segment, a first echo is exactly received from 100 mm out
of V1 block. Because the radius of the circle segment is exactly 100 mm you will regularly receive
an echo sequence with distances of 100 mm, 200 mm, 300 mm etc. (get the echo sequences).

Exercise 4: Determine the radii of curvatures of the V2 block using angle beam probe
The V2 block has two circle segments of different radius with a common centre point. Place the
angle beam probe as shown in figure 2d and 2e and check the echo sequences at the values
mentioned in the figures respectively.

Figure: 2d Figure: 2e
Exercise 5: Locating of Reflectors with an Angle-beam Probe

Figure: 2f

Figure: 2g

Place the angle beam probe on the V2 block (fig 2f) and move the probe in the horizontal direction
to find the position of maximum echo amplitude. Mark the position, then use the triangle law (figure
2g) to locate the position of the drill hole.
Exercise 6: Find the extreme boundary of the existing flaw in the supplied reference block.

B A

Figure 3a

Place the straight beam probe on the surface of the test block at some position (A) where from you
will get the flaw echo. Note the amplitude of the flaw echo. Now scan the test object and find the
position (B) where the echo amplitude becomes just half of the flaw amplitude. That position (B)
corresponds to the boundary of the flaw.

Ref.
https://www.ndt.net/article/v05n09/berke/berke3.htm
Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing

 Phased array calibrations shall be performed for velocity, wedge delay, sensitivity and
DAC or TCG.
 Any changes in search unit, wedges, instrumentation, aperture, focus etc. shall be cause
for re-calibration.
 Calibration for sound velocity may be done using radius, depth, or thickness.

 According to the type of probe and the calibration block used, calibration can be
performed using radius, depth, or thickness.

 Generally, sound velocity calibration is performed before the wedge delay calibration
because most of the systems use the sound velocity calibration result for the wedge delay
calibration.

 Sensitivity calibration may be done for an angle-beam probe, using a calibration block
with a side drilled hole or using the radius of a calibration block.

 Time Corrected Gain (TCG) or Distance Amplitude Correction (DAC) may be used by
continuing the same process over a wide series of side drilled holes to calibrate reflectors
at different depths or metal paths so they are all detected at the same amplitude (typically
80% amplitude).

 The same instrument, contact wedge, focal laws and focusing used during calibration
should be used for the examination.

 The phased array beam should be focused just beyond the component thickness. The
beam may be re-focused at the depth of an indication and evaluated in accordance with
the requirements of this procedure.

 Sectorial S- Scans may be used for the appropriate angles that ensure complete coverage
of the weld and heat affected zone.
Electromagnetic Sensors for damage detection and failure analysis
MagStar
MagStar is a multi-parameter, non-invasive magnetic sensing system developed at CSIR-NML
and commercialized in collaboration with M/s Techno four, Pune. The “MagStar” is a portable
Magnetic nondestructive testing equipment aimed to analyze both bulk and surface features of
ferromagnetic structural materials like steels, cast iron etc.
MagStar generates multiple Electromagnetic(EM) parameters based on the principles of
1. Magnetic Hysteresis Loop (MHL) and
2. Magnetic Barkhausen Emission (MBE)

Fig.1. The photographic view of MagStar sensing system and its industrial field trails on boiler
pipes and steel rolls.
Principle of technique

The ferromagnetic materials consist of small regions, known as

domains, which are separated from each other by domain walls, and
domains are oriented in such a way so that the net magnetization of
material is zero in the demagnetized state. Under the application of
magnetic field, the domains are favorably aligned with the field, and
tend to grow by domain wall motion at the expense of the
unfavorable aligned domain (Fig. 2). The amount of growth or the
distance that a domain wall travel depends on the strength and the
direction of applied magnetic field, microstructure, composition and
the stress state of the materials. When a ferromagnetic material is
subjected to a cyclic magnetic field of very low amplitude, the
reversible domain wall motion takes place and the materials returns Fig.2. Domain wall
to its initial state after withdrawing the magnetic field. Hysteresis movement under applied
loops are formed when the amplitude of the applied cyclic field magnetic field
crosses a critical value at which the domain wall moves irreversibly.
Fig. 3 Schematic diagram of Magnetic Hysteresis Loop (MHL) and Magnetic Barkhausen
Emissions (MBE)
Fig.3 shows various Magnetic Hysteresis Loop (MHL) parameters when the test material is
subjected to higher amplitude of cyclic magnetic field so that all the domains are oriented along
the field direction and the materials is known to reach its saturation (Bs) level. MHL parameters
represent the bulk properties of the test materials. On the microscopic scale the hysteresis loop is
not found to be the smooth function of magnetic induction (B) and field (H). The magnetic
induction curve near coercive field (shown as yellow circle) shows a structure composed of
many
individual steps which are caused by the sudden jumps of the domain walls from one position to
another during magnetization process. These small steps, which are irreversible changes in
magnetization, are known as Magnetic Barkhausen Emission (MBE).

Sensor
MagStar sensor probe is used for magnetic excitation and flux pick up from the test object, and
consequently generating MBE and MHL signals (as shown in Fig.3). Sensor probe head is
customized as per the requirement of shape and size of test objects, e.g., flat sheet, pipe/ tube,
curvature surfaces of rolls or rails etc.

Technical specifications
MHL measurement:
 Frequency Range: 50mHz to 200Hz,
 Excitation magnetic field: 1500 Oe (max.)
 Wave Shape: Sinusoidal / Triangular
MBE measurement:
  Frequency Range: 10Hz to 200 Hz
 Excitation magnetic field: 1500 Oe (max.)
 Number of cycles 3 to 10
 Gain 0 to 20 dB in steps of 1 dB
 Filter setting 10-300KHz independently variable low pass and high pass.
Power Requirement:230V, 50Hz, 200VA
Weight:4.25Kg
Connectivity: Ethernet
Control, Display and Analysis:External laptop /notebook/ personal computer
Operating System: Windows 7
Typical Applications
1. Microstructural phase evaluation of ferritic steels

Magnetic parameters (coercivity, r.ms. voltage) of

steel sample vary with changing microstructural
phases. Ferrite is magnetically softer, resulting in low
coercivity (Hc) and high r.m.s. voltage compared to
other hard magnetic phase like martensite. The
magnetic softness of pearlite is in-between ferrite and
martensite. The separation of two different type steels
(ferrite-pearlite & martensite) can be done through
monitoring of magnetic behaviours of phases (Fig.4).

2. Identification of steel rolling direction

Coercivity which is equivalent to core loss, is presented in

magnetic pole figure (Fig.5), as a functions of angular
positions with respect to rolling direction (RD) and
transverse direction (TD). Steel sheet indicates lowest
coercivity along rolling direction. Coercivity increases
gradually moving from rolling direction (RD) to transverse
direction (TD). The rolling direction of any cold rolled
ferritic steel isanalysis
3. Failure easily identified
of damagedby magnetic coercivity
boiler tubes
without microstructure evaluation.
After long service periods (105 hours), boiler tubes fail due to structural degradation and leak through
fish mouth opening (Fig. 6a). The SA210 steel is commonly ferrite-pearlite structure, which
deteriorates structurally byspheroidisationof lamellar cementite (carbide) in ferritematrix during
service period. This microstructural changes are well correlated by monitoring of MBE voltage
mapping at leaked and non-leaked region of failed boiler tubes (Fig. 6b)
4. Residual stress determination of low carbon steel

Residual stresses (RS) are self-balanced / locked in stresses that remain in a component in the absence
of external loading or thermal gradients. RS remains in a material during fabrication and processing.
Main concern lies in service inspection.
Coercivity increases with shot peening time and Almen intensity due to enhancement of compressive
stresses in the steel.

Conversely, Magnetic Barkahusen emission (MBE) signal decreases with increase of shot peening
time and Almen intensity for generating more compressive stresses (Fig. 7).
MagSys
MagSys is a Giant Magneto Impedance (GMI) principle based magnetic sensing device
developed at CSIR-National Metallurgical Laboratory, Jamshedpur. Giant Magneto-Impedance
(GMI) based sensing device for Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) of steels.The MagSysis a
portable device measuring GMI change in magnetic field. The device is capable of detecting
very low magnetic field and magnetic phases. The system is suitable for monitoring magnetic
field variation within a narrow region due to smaller core diameter (~100µm) of sensing element.

Fig. 8. The photographic view of MagSys system(left) and in-house prepared micro wire sensing
element (right)
Sensor

MagSys sensor comprises a nanostructured wire prepared by rapid solidification route through in-
rotating water quenching technique. The sensor operates on the large impedance change of the
sensing material at high frequency (250- 400 kHz) by the influence of local change in material
magnetic properties.

GMI Measurement

 Operating current and frequency range: 10mA and 250-400 kHz

 Capable to detect defects in materials within 100 micron range Field sensitivity ~ µT
Typical Applications

1.Plastic deformation of austenitic SS 304 steels

The strain induced martensite phase formed in austenitic stainless steels are magnetic in nature.
The strain induced martensite phases exerts residual magnetic field, which MagSys sensor
detects and corresponding sensor response will be obtained.

Fig. 9. MagSys sensor detecting phase fraction of

strain induced martensite present in deformed S.S
steel

2.Damage detection of Carburization in Stainless steelstab

The Johnson screen made of stainless (Grade: 321) are austenitic and non -magnetic
employed for naphtha cracking. During service exposure in hydrocarbon
environment, significant carburization happens locally and results in depletion of
chromium content. The chromium depleted regio ns exhibits ferromagnetic behaviour
and the MagSys sensor detects the carburized and magnetic rich damaged zones for
repair.

Fig. 10. MagSys sensor response indicating

carburized (damage) regions in the reactor
3.Integrity of weld joints in SS-304 steels
The MagSys sensor detects the use of carbon steel (magnetic) electrodes for root pass and
subsequent SS filler welds.

Fig. 11. The sensor output distinguishes the usage of carbon electrodes and SS electrodes in the
weld root pass.

Application Sectors
Power and petrochemical industries