Water Resour Manage

DOI 10.1007/s11269-013-0360-x

A Modified SEBAL Modeling Approach for Estimating

Crop Evapotranspiration in Semi-arid Conditions

Giorgos Papadavid & Diofantos G. Hadjimitsis &

Leonidas Toulios & Silas Michaelides

Received: 5 October 2012 / Accepted: 21 April 2013

# Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013

Abstract Remote sensing methods are becoming attractive to estimate crop evapotranspi-
ration, as they cover large areas and can provide accurate and reliable estimations; intensive
field monitoring is also not required, although some ground-truth measurements can be
helpful in interpreting satellite images. For the purposes of this paper, modeling and remote
sensing techniques were integrated for estimating actual evapotranspiration of groundnuts
(Arachishypogaea, L.) that is cultivated near Mandria Village in Paphos District of Cyprus.
The Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land (SEBAL) was adopted for the first time in
Cyprus, employing the essential adaptations for local soil and meteorological conditions.
Landsat-5 TM and 7 ETM+ images were used to retrieve the needed spectral data. The
SEBAL model is enhanced with empirical equations determined as part of the present study,
regarding crop canopy factors, in order to increase its accuracy. Maps of ETa were created
using the SEBAL modified model (CYSEBAL) for the area of interest. The results have
been compared to the measurements from an evaporation pan (which was used as a
reference) and those of the original SEBAL model. The statistical comparison has shown
that the modified SEBAL yields results that are comparable to those of the evaporation pan.
T-test application has revealed that the statistical difference between SEBAL and CYSEBAL
is significant and quite crucial, especially in a place with limited surface and underground
water resources.

Keywords SEBAL model . Evapotranspiration . Crop canopy factors . Remote sensing

G. Papadavid (*)
Agricultural Research Institute, Athalassa 1516, Nicosia, Cyprus
e-mail: papadavid@arinet.ari.gov.cy

D. G. Hadjimitsis
Department of Civil Engineering & Geomatics, Cyprus University of Technology,
31 Archbishop Kyprianos, P.O. Box 50329, 3603 Lemesos, Cyprus

L. Toulios
National Agricultural Research Foundation (NAGREF), 1, Theofrastou str., 413 35 GR Larissa, Greece

S. Michaelides
Cyprus Meteorological Service, Nicosia, Cyprus
 G. Papadavid et al.

1 Introduction

The actual evapotranspiration of crops (ETa) is one of the most useful indicators for
optimizing crop production. The variability of ETa, from a spatiotemporal viewpoint and
for different land use classes, is thought to be highly indicative for the adequacy, reliability
and equity in water use. Evapotranspiration estimation is important for hydrologic modeling
and irrigation scheduling (Rogers et al. 1983; Souch et al. 1996; Pereira et al. 1999).
Unfortunately, ETa estimation under actual field conditions is still a very challenging task
for scientists and water managers (Petra et al. 2010).
The Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land (SEBAL; see Bastiaanssen 2000;
Bastiaanssen et al. 1998, 2005) is a model used in several countries; however, the effective-
ness of this model over different geographical areas is still an open question. Within this
framework, the present study explores the importance of appropriately revising SEBAL over
the island of Cyprus for estimating crop evapotranspiration of groundnuts, under semi-arid
conditions. Currently, remote sensing based agro-meteorological models are the most
suitable for estimating crop water use at both field and regional scales (Bastiaanssen et al.
2005; Papastergiadou et al. 2008). Numerous evapotranspiration algorithms have been
developed making use of remote sensing data acquired from sensors on airborne and satellite
platforms (D’Urso and Menenti 1995; Roerink et al. 1997; Hadjimitsis et al. 2008).
This study demonstrates the application of SEBAL for estimating actual evapotranspira-
tion of groundnuts (Arachis hypogaea, L.), by employing the necessary modifications and
adaptations regarding crop canopy parameters, such as Leaf Area Index (LAI) and Crop
Height (CH). The SEBAL model has been used in several studies in many countries around
the world and it was validated with high accuracy (e.g., Spiliotopoulos et al. 2008; Bandara
2006; Bastiaanssen et al. 2005; Alexandridis and Chemin 2001; Bastiaanssen et al. 2000).
SEBAL was originally applied in Egypt (Bastiaanssen et al. 1998) and subsequently in
Turkey (Bastiaanssen 2000) and Greece (Alexandridis 2003). Cyprus is located in the
crossroads of these countries and it would be very challenging to test its reliability in a
country with similar meteorological conditions. Eighteen Landsat 5 TM & 7 ETM+ images
were transformed into ETa maps. It is worth clarifying here that the use of different satellite
images does not create any problem, because a radiometric calibration is performed and the
respective calibration factors are available with each satellite image; therefore, different
satellite images provide the same remotely sensed data in terms of reflectance. The images
were acquired for specific dates in the irrigation period of the crop in study, which starts in
mid May and ends in mid September. Classic SEBAL and modified SEBAL have been
applied for the same satellite image; these estimations are subsequently compared to a direct
evaporation measurement, namely that from an evaporation pan, Epan, which is hereby used
as a reference; it was further examined to determine whether there is room for increasing the
algorithm’s accuracy (Kite and Droogers 2000; D’Urso and Menenti 1995). The results of
this paper refer to specific dates in the four-year period 2008–2011.
A brief description of the SEBAL modeling approach is given in Section 2. Section 3
presents the resources used in the present study, such as data, methodologies and software. The
findings are discussed in Section 4 and, finally, concluding remarks are given in Section 5.

2 Overview of the Surface Energy Balance Algorithm (SEBAL)

SEBAL computes a complete radiation and energy balance along with the resistances for
momentum, heat and water vapor transport for each pixel (Bastiaanssen et al. 1998;
A Modified SEBAL Modeling Approach for Estimating Crop

Bastiaanssen 2000). The key input data for SEBAL consists of spectral radiance in the
visible, near-infrared and thermal infrared part of the spectrum. The model can be applied
using satellite sensors having a thermal band; Landsat 5 and 7 images were used in this
study. In addition to satellite images, the SEBAL approach requires weather parameters
(wind speed, humidity, solar radiation, air temperature). These meteorological parameters
were used as input for the algorithm and they were provided from a meteorological station
very close to the study area. The latent heat flux is calculated from the relationship:

lE ¼ Rn  ðG0 þ HÞ ð1Þ

where, lE is the latent heat flux (W m−2), Rn is the net radiation (W m−2), G0 is the soil heat
flux (W m−2) and H is the sensible heat flux (W m−2).
In the stages for applying the SEBAL model, a crucial point is the selection of the two
‘anchor’ pixels (the ‘hot’ and the ‘cold’ pixels), over the area of interest. These two pixels
are used to find the difference of the temperature between surface temperature (Ts) and air
temperature (dT). A linear relationship is assumed between Ts and dT, in the form of:

dT ¼ aTs þ b ð2Þ

where, a and b are the linear relationship constants.

To determine these constants, SEBAL uses the two “anchor” pixels for which a value for H
can be reliably estimated. Ts is estimated from the thermal band of Landsat 5TM/7ETM+ for
each pixel, while dT, for either the ‘hot’or ‘cold’ pixel, is calculated using the relationship
.

dTcold=hot ¼ Hcold=hot rah cold=hot ρ cold=hot cp ð3Þ

where, H is sensible heat flux, which can be calculated for the anchor pixels using meteoro-
logical data only (temperature, relative humidity and wind speed), ρ is air density (kg/m3), cp is
air specific heat (1,004 J/kgK), dT (K) is the temperature difference between two heights, and
rah is the aerodynamic resistance to heat transport (s/m) for each ‘cold’ and ‘hot’ pixel.
The above linear relationship between dT and Ts is a major presumption in SEBAL.
Several studies indicate that this presumption appears to fit a large range of conditions (see
Bastiaanssen et al. 1998, 2005 and Bastiaanssen 2000; Tasumi et al. 2000; Bandara 2006).
Equation 3 is developed by using the dT values for the cold and hot pixels and surface
temperature. The cold pixel is used to define the amount of evapotranspiration, through H,
occurring from the most vegetated and well-watered areas of the image. Usually, an alfa-alfa
cultivation or water body is used to identify cold pixels in the area of interest. The ‘cold’
pixel was selected from vegetated areas in the image as one where albedo ranges between
0.22 and 0.24 and LAI >3. The ‘hot’ pixel is one where evapotranspiration should be zero;
this pixel is usually located in dry bare agricultural fields.

3 Resources and Methodology

3.1 Study Area

The study area is located near Mandria village, in the vicinity of Paphos International
Airport in Cyprus (see Fig. 1). The area is characterized by mild climate which provides
the opportunity for early production of leafy and annual crops. The area is flat and almost at
 G. Papadavid et al.

Fig. 1 Landsat 5 satellite image (26 March 2009)

sea level, while the surface can be considered homogenous with only annual leafy vegeta-
bles being cultivated. Weather can briefly be described as hot, humid and cloud-free during
May to beginning of October (Papadavid and Hadjimitsis 2009).
Groundnut is a traditional crop cultivated in Cyprus and especially in the Paphos District,
since it requires mild weather conditions and certain type of soils (well-drained, loose,
friable medium textured soils). Its growing period varies from 90 to 115 days for the
sequential, branched varieties and from 120 to 140 days for the alternately branched varieties
(Markou and Papadavid 2007).

3.2 Resources

This sub-section outlines the instrumentation, data and software that were used for carrying
out the research.

Field Spectroradiometer The GER (Geophysical Environmental Research) 1500 field

spectroradiometer is a light-weight, high performance, single-beam field spectroradiometer.
It is a field portable spectroradiometer covering the ultraviolet, visible and near-infrared
wavelengths from 350 nm to 1,050 nm.

SunScan Canopy Analyzer for LAI Estimation LAI is commonly used for monitoring crop
growth. Instead of the traditional, direct and labor-consuming method of physically mea-
suring the plant with a ruler (direct method), an optical instrument, namely, the SunScan
canopy analysis system (Delta-T Devices Ltd., UK) is used (indirect method). The instru-
ment indirectly calculates LAI by measuring the ratio of transmitted radiation through
canopy to incident radiation (Lang et al. 1991; Welles and Norman 1991).

Time Series of Satellite Images For studies dealing with crop water requirements, spatial,
spectral and temporal resolution of satellite images is very important. Landsat 5 TM and 7
ETM+ have been widely used for hydrological studies due to their relatively good temporal
resolution (16 days) which is important for providing regular snapshots during the crop
growth season (Oetter et al. 2000). Alexandridis (2003) has indicated that the resolution of
Landsat images is sufficient when they are to be used for hydrological purposes. An
advantage of Landsat images is that they provide a complete coverage of the island in a
single image (Fig. 1).
A Modified SEBAL Modeling Approach for Estimating Crop

Meteorological Records Meteorological data for Paphos Airport and for the period of the
project (2008–2011) were provided by the Cyprus Meteorological Service and used as input
parameters in the SEBAL algorithm (temperature, relative humidity and wind speed).

Image Processing Software ERDAS V.10 Imagine image processing software was used for
the analysis and interpretation of multi-spectral digital satellite images

3.3 Methodology

SEBAL is an algorithm that takes into account crop canopy factors in order to estimate ETa.
This fact provides the opportunity to feed the model with local data in an attempt to increase
its effectiveness. Empirical equations (using VI’s) describing LAI and CH could be ingested
in the algorithm.
The methodology adopted in this study is based on the hypothesis that SEBAL’s accuracy
could be enhanced if the algorithm is supported with ground data, regarding crop canopy
factors and meteorological conditions of the area.
In the following, the methodology adopted is analyzed.

Spectroradiometric Measurements A two-year (2009–2010 from April to July) field cam-

paign was undertaken in order to collect spectral signatures of each crop included in the
study. The aim was to have the reflectance of each crop during their phenological stages after
the data was passed through the Relative Spectral Response filters. Field spectroradiometric
measurements were made using a GER 1500 field spectroradiometer with reflectance
spectrum from 350 nm to 1,050 nm. The task was to estimate the surface reflectance values
equivalent to the Landsat TM/ETM+ bands 1, 2, 3 and 4 using in situ the GER1500
spectroradiometer. To filter the data through the Relative Spectral Response (RSR) values
of Landsat TM/ETM+, the GER1500 reflectance values were interpolated to obtain the
reflectance values at the incremental wavelength of the RSR. It has to be mentioned that the
initial spectroradiometric measurement was taken after each crop had enough foliage
(27 days) in order to avoid soil effects on spectroradiometric data, while the final measure-
ment was taken just after the crop started drying and became yellowish.
LAI and CH measurements were also taken simultaneously to spectroradiometric mea-
surements, following the same phenological cycle of each crop for the corresponding
cultivating periods. The purpose was to create time series of these two parameters and
correlate them to VI (Baret et al. 2007).

Vegetation Indices Time series of VI have been created based on the spectroradiometric
reflectance of each crop, in each phenological stage. VI’s have been widely used for assessing
vegetation condition, cover, phenology and various processes, such as evapotranspiration,
climate- and land-use-change detection and drought monitoring (Haboudane et al. 2004;
Glenn et al. 2008). NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index), SAVI (Soil-adjusted
Vegetation Index) and WDVI (Weighted Difference Vegetation Index) are the spectral VI’s that
were selected in order to be correlated to LAI and CH. Such indices are found to be widely used
in various evapotranspiration algorithms and models (Bannari et al. 1995).

Modeling LAI and CH in Terms of VI’s Different models were tested in order to identify the
best possible model which better describes LAI and CH in terms of VI’s. The fact that there
is no universal equation relating LAI to a VI (Qi et al. 2000), forces remote sensing users to
develop equations for each crop under the current relevant conditions, using a substantial
 G. Papadavid et al.

amount of true measurements of LAI and remote sensing data, such as spectroradiometric
measurements. As a result, each image must be transformed into a LAI map. Factors such as
soil, atmospheric effects and topography, which affect VI’s, must be considered and their
impact must be minimized in this procedure And thus iImproved VI’s such as SAVI and
WDVI, were used for this purpose (Huete 1988; Clevers 1989; Qi et al. 1994).
In this present modeling procedure, an attempt has been made to model LAI and CH in
terms of one of the three VI’s mentioned earlier (i.e., NDVI, SAVI, WDVI). The models for
LAI used in the present study are mathematically expressed as:

& Linear: LAI ¼ aðVIÞ þ b

& Exponential: LAI ¼ a ebðVIÞ
& Logarithmic: LAI ¼ alnðVIÞ þ b
& Polynomial: LAI ¼ aðVIÞ2 þ bðVIÞ þ c

Similar mathematical relationships were developed for CH modeling. The coefficients a, b and
c are determined from the statistical analysis and the most “sound” model, determined on the basis
of the respective coefficient of determination (R2) will be used in the algorithms for estimating ETa.

Mapping LAI, CH The three crop canopy parameters were mapped using the ERDAS Imagine
software. The satellite images were transformed into maps in order to, firstly, test in practice the
models and, secondly, to be inserted as inputs to the evapotranspiration algorithms. In order to
find out the soundest relationship it is needed to create time series of the needed parameters and
by using statistical methods to create empirical models to characterize LAI and CH.

Application of SEBAL Algorithm Both the original SEBAL and the one modified by empirical
equations (hereafter called as CYSEBAL) were applied in order to test the hypothesis that the
latter can provide more accurate results. SEBAL is essentially a single source model that solves
the Energy Balance equation and provides maps of ETa on a pixel basis.

CYSEBAL — Modifying SEBAL The effectiveness of the proposed CYSEBAL method is

assessed by using Epan data for the same dates as the satellite images. T-test is employed to
evaluate results and cross-check if there is significant statistical difference between the
CYSEBAL and SEBAL results.

4 Results and Discussion

It is noticeable that in SEBAL, empirical equations are used to describe parameters that need to be
directly measured. The intended purpose is to ingest into the algorithm the needed local empirical
equations and check if the accuracy can be enhanced. In this respect, the authors have managed to
develop empirical equations, adapted to the Cypriot conditions, and embed them in the algorithm,
in an attempt to have as accurate results as possible. The results from both SEBAL and CYSEBAL
are compared to those of the reference method measurements derived from the same plot.

4.1 Modeling LAI and CH with VI’s

The use of VI’s for statistically describing LAI and CH is common in international literature
and many empirical models are available depending on the conditions and the place
(Running and Coughlan 1988; Tiktak and Van Grinsven 1995; Clevers 1989). Time series
A Modified SEBAL Modeling Approach for Estimating Crop

of LAI, CH and VI’s (i.e., NDVI, SAVI and WDVI) were created in order to proceed with
correlations (Table 1).
LAI is used in SEBAL algorithm to estimate the two surface emissivities which are used
in turn to infer the surface temperature from the thermal band (band 6) of Landsat satellite in
order to calculate the net radiation (Rn).
LAI, defined as the ratio of the total area of all leaves of a plant to the ground area of the plant
(see Watson 1947), is related to SAVI (Huete 1988, 1989) in the classic SEBAL as shown below:
 
ln 0:69SAVI
LAI ¼  0:59
ð4Þ
0:91
The whole procedure of statistically describing LAI in terms of VI’s in this current effort
is presented in Table 2: linear, exponential, logarithmic and polynomial models were used to
infer the best fitted model under the current conditions. Using empirical modeling tech-
niques and field spectroradiometric data, it was found that the coefficient of determination
obtains the highest value (R2 =0.88) when LAI is correlated to SAVI. In order to be as
accurate as possible, the measurements for both LAI and CH were taken following the
phenological stages of groundnuts (Papadavid and Hadjimitsis 2009). The mathematical
model used to describe LAI in terms of SAVI is the following:
LAI ¼ 7:99ðSAVIÞ  3:29 ð5Þ

Table 1 Spectroradiometric data, VI and Crop canopy factors (the phenological stages are: 1 = vegetative, 2 =
flowering, 3 = yield formation, 4 = ripening)

Phenological Band 1 Band 2 Band 3 Band 4 Vegetation indices Canopy

stage factors

(450– (520– (630– (760– NDVI SAVI WDVI LAI CH

520 nm) 600 nm) 670 nm) 900 nm)

1 0.03 0.14 0.08 0.42 0.68 0.54 0.31 0.90 0.19

1 0.02 0.14 0.08 0.40 0.66 0.52 0.29 0.90 0.20
1 0.03 0.13 0.09 0.48 0.69 0.59 0.36 0.90 0.21
1 0.03 0.15 0.10 0.50 0.66 0.58 0.36 1.00 0.22
2 0.03 0.14 0.10 0.50 0.67 0.58 0.36 1.10 0.25
2 0.02 0.12 0.11 0.51 0.65 0.57 0.36 1.40 0.27
2 0.02 0.13 0.10 0.52 0.68 0.60 0.38 1.40 0.28
2 0.02 0.13 0.09 0.53 0.71 0.63 0.41 1.60 0.29
2 0.02 0.12 0.08 0.53 0.74 0.65 0.42 2.00 0.35
3 0.05 0.15 0.09 0.56 0.72 0.65 0.44 2.40 0.37
3 0.05 0.16 0.08 0.57 0.75 0.68 0.46 2.50 0.41
3 0.03 0.13 0.07 0.66 0.81 0.77 0.57 2.70 0.43
3 0.03 0.13 0.08 0.69 0.79 0.77 0.58 2.90 0.44
3 0.04 0.13 0.08 0.68 0.79 0.76 0.57 2.80 0.44
3 0.03 0.09 0.07 0.63 0.80 0.74 0.53 2.70 0.43
4 0.03 0.09 0.05 0.62 0.86 0.78 0.55 2.50 0.43
4 0.01 0.08 0.05 0.53 0.81 0.70 0.45 2.50 0.42
4 0.02 0.05 0.06 0.43 0.76 0.60 0.35 2.20 0.41
Table 2 Results of the correlation analysis for LAI and CH to VI

Linear Exponential Logarithmic Polynomial

2 2 2
Model R Model R Model R Model R2

LAI(y) to VI’s (x)

LAI-NDVI y=0.07x+0.58 0.78 y=0.60e0.10x 0.79 y=0.12 ln(x)+0.66 0.74 y ¼ 0:01x2 þ 0:01x þ 0:63 0.79
LAI-SAVI y=7.99x−3.29 0.88 y=0.09e4.19x 0.86 y=4.81 ln(x)+3.75 0.87 y ¼ 2:36x2 þ 10:39x  4:10 0.87
LAI-WDVI y=6.56x−1.08 0.81 y=0.31e3.80x 0.78 y=2.96 ln(x)+4.31 0.82 y ¼ 7:84x2 þ 13:91x  2:73 0.83
CH (y) to VI’s (x)
CH to NDVI y=1.32x−0.64 0.81 y=0.01e4.17x 0.76 y=0.98 ln(x)+0.64 0.83 y ¼ 5:17x2 þ 9:02x  3:47 0.85
CH to SAVI y=0.89x−0.28 0.86 y=0.04e2.90x 0.85 y=0.65 ln(x)+0.62 0.87 y ¼ 1:02x2 þ 2:30x  0:75 0.86
CH to WDV y=0.807x−0.03 0.77 y=0.098e2.6x 0.76 y=0.36 ln(x)+0.63 0.79 y ¼ 1:61x2 þ 2:3243x  0:37 0.8
G. Papadavid et al.
A Modified SEBAL Modeling Approach for Estimating Crop

CH is used to infer the momentum roughness (Zom) in order to estimate the friction
velocity and then the aerodynamic resistance to heat transport that is a basic element for
Sensible Heat Flux (Santos et al. 2012). In classic SEBAL, Zom is found by using the
empirical relationship:
Zom ¼ 0:12 CH ð6Þ
where, CH is set to a standard height, usually between 0.25 and 0.30 cm, or by utilizing a
LAI map.
In the present research, the above equation was modified by using a VI to estimate CH
and create a map of Zom, which was subsequently used as input in the algorithm describing
the whole area. Following the same procedure as for LAI, CH was described in the present
research by using SAVI as follows:
CH ¼ 0:65 lnðSAVIÞ þ 0:62 ð7Þ
2
This is the relationship in Table 2, having the highest coefficient of determination (R =0.87).
By adopting the above logarithmic model, Eq. 6 was subsequently transformed to:
Zom ¼ 0:07 lnðSAVIÞ þ 0:34 ð8Þ
Equations 5 and 7 are used to calculate LAI and CH, respectively, with the use of satellite
data. These equations have been fed to ERDAS Imagine software (Modeler module), in order
to create LAI and CH maps (Fig. 2). These maps are the satellite images transformed to pixel
based maps, where users can retrievethe values of the two specific parameters, LAI and CH.
The specific rasters are used as inputs in the SEBAL algorithm. One shoulc curry in mind

Fig. 2 Generation of LAI (b) and CH (c) maps (in pseudo color) using Landsat image (a)
 G. Papadavid et al.

that since the equations refer to groundnuts, they can exclusively be used for this specific
crop and not for any other.
Since SAVI is the vegetation index that was found to be best fitted for both models, it is
useful to address very briefly this particular vegetation index. SAVI is described by the
following equation:
SAVI ¼ ½ðNIR  RÞ=ðNIR þ R þ LÞð1 þ LÞ ð9Þ
where NIR is the reflectance value of the near infrared band, R is reflectance of the red band,
and L is the soil brightness correction factor.
SAVI was adapted to the local conditions with the custom soil-adjustment constant L set,
using more than 250 ground spectroradiometric measurements in the years 2009–2010
(Fig. 3); L is the sum of l1 and l2 (the co-ordinates of the point, where Early Vegetation
Line and Soil Line are intersected), as described by Huete (1988). Indeed, L is basically the
offset of the NIR/IR (Near Infrared/Infrared Reflectance), and it is set to the value of 0.41, as
it is determined from Fig. 3. When semi-empirical models are retrieved from the statistical
analysis, then LAI and CH maps are created using the available satellite images.

4.2 Employing the Modified SEBAL Model (CYSEBAL)

Maps of actual evapotranspiration were finally created for each satellite image, using the
empirical Eqs. 5 and 7. These maps were employed to infer the ETa of groundnuts for all the
available images at from Landsat 5 and Landsat 7 satellites (Table 3). The value of ETa refers
to the mean value of the four plots of groundnuts in the area of interest that follow the same
phenological cycle and are subject to the same meteorological conditions. ETa values of
groundnuts were compared to the Epan values provided by the Agricultural Research
Institute (ARI) of Cyprus. The ARI has the resources for estimating ETa by using Epan data
that were collected since 1978 (see Metochis 1997).
As it can be inferred from Table 3, the results of the three methods applied are very close.
It is noteworthy that that results from both SEBAL and CYSEBAL follow the same
variations as the results of the direct Epan method, implying that when the Epan results

50

40

30
NIR reflectance (%)

20

10

0
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
l2 -10

-20
l1
-30

-40
IR reflectance (%)

Fig. 3 Adapting SAVI to ground conditions

A Modified SEBAL Modeling Approach for Estimating Crop

Table 3 SEBAL, CYSEBAL and Epan measurements. Numbers in parenthesis represent the percentage error
(%) with respect to the reference method (Epan)

Satellite image Satellite Sensor SEBAL(mm/day) CYSEBAL(mm/day) Epan (mm/day)

12 July 2008 Landsat ETM+ 5.6 (2) 5.4 (−2) 5.5

28 July 2008 Landsat ETM+ 5.6 (−3) 5.8 (0) 5.8
13 August 2008 Landsat ETM+ 5.1 (21) 4.6 (10) 4.2
29 August 2008 Landsat ETM+ 4.9 (20) 4.6 (12) 4.1
29 June 2009 Landsat ETM+ 4.6 (7) 4.2 (−2) 4.3
7 July 2009 Landsat TM 4.8 (−13) 5.1 (−7) 5.5
15 July 2009 Landsat ETM+ 6.1 (7) 5.9 (4) 5.7
23 July 2009 Landsat TM 6.1 (5) 5.9 (2) 5.8
16 August 2009 Landsat ETM+ 5.4 (20) 5.0 (11) 4.5
25 September2009 Landsat TM 4.8 (26) 3.9 (3) 3.8
31 May 2010 Landsat ETM+ 4.3 (23) 3.9 (11) 3.5
27 August 2010 Landsat TM 5.8 (4) 5.2 (−7) 5.6
2 May 2011 Landsat ETM+ 4.2 (8) 3.9 (0) 3.9
19 June 2011 Landsat ETM+ 5.0 (19) 4.3 (2) 4.2
5 July 2011 Landsat ETM+ 5.1 (4) 4.8 (−2) 4.9
21 July 2011 Landsat ETM+ 5.6 (6) 5.0 (−6) 5.3
29 July 2011 Landsat TM 5.9 (9) 5.6 (4) 5.4
30 August 2011 Landsat TM 5.2 (2) 5.2 (2) 5.1
AVERAGE 5.2 (9.2) 4.9 (1.9) 4.8

decrease or increase, there is a respective decrease or increase of the results of SEBAL and
CYSEBAL. In can generally be concluded that CYSEBAL yields values that fall between
those estimated with the Epan method and the SEBAL (see Fig. 4); also, CYSEBAL’s values
are, in general, closer to those of the Epan method. The Epan method was used here as a
preliminary tool to assess the effectiveness of the revised proposed CYSEBAL method,
despite the fact that Epan refers to point measurements of ETa. What is important to mention
is that when SEBAL has its highest deviations for the dates 13 August 2008 (21 %), 25
September 2009 (26 % deviation) and 31 May 2010 (23 % deviation), CYSEBAL produces
much better results with only 10 %, 3 % and 11 % deviation, respectively. The average
deviation of SEBAL with respect to Epan reaches 9.2 %, while CYSEBAL yields an average
deviation of only 1.9 %. Obviously, although the difference of the SEBAL to the Epan
method is less than 1 mm/day, the cumulative error will be very important when it comes to
monthly irrigation planning; however, by employing the empirical equations, as described
above, CYSEBAL yields more accurate results.
Figure 4 depicts graphically the results of using the two methods (against Epan method)
for calculating evapotranspiration. Although it could clearly be inferred from this figure that
CYSEBAL yields superior results compared to SEBAL, it is considered important to
substantiate this superiority by using appropriate statistical testing. To this end, T-test was
performed. The T-test results are shown in Table 4, revealing that SEBAL and CYSEBAL
produce significantly different results. Comparing each of these two models to the Epan
measurements, it was found that SEBAL has a significant difference, while CYSEBAL has
no significant difference, at the 5 % significance level. It was also found that there is a
statistically significant difference between the results produced by CYSEBAL and SEBAL.
 G. Papadavid et al.

Fig. 4 Comparing SEBAL and CYSEBAL graphically to Epan method

5 Concluding Remarks

The existing literature supports the use of SEBAL as the most promising algorithm that
requires minimum input data of ground based variables; it has been widely applied in several
countries due to its accurate estimation of actual evapotranspiration. However, further
research is required to apply such algorithm and assess its effectiveness in different geo-
graphical areas with different meteorological and soil conditions. Indeed, the application of
SEBAL algorithm in Cyprus, as performed in this study, has shown that the algorithm could
provide better results if it is fed with local empirical equations regarding crop canopy factors.
It is the first time that the specific algorithm is employed for estimating ETa in Cyprus. The
modified SEBAL algorithm, named as CYSEBAL, has been found to yield closer results to
the reference E-pan method. This is an important finding, since it stresses the need to apply
SEBAL taking into consideration local soil, geomorphological and meteorological condi-
tions. The results of the T-test revealed that CYSEBAL has no significant difference from
Epan method and that the former can be used for estimating ETa in a systematic way. On the
one hand, in its classic form, SEBAL could create anomalies in terms of irrigation planning,
if it is not supported by appropriate empirical equations, regarding crop canopy factors. On
the other hand, CYSEBAL utilizes empirical equations and produces better results, espe-
cially at times when SEBAL deviates highly from the Epan measurements. The hypothesis
that if SEBAL algorithm is supported with ground data could work better was verified.

Table 4 T-test analysis (5 %

significance level) Analysis SEBAL CYSEBAL T-test statistic

T-test to Epan 3.79 1.02 2.11

T-test to SEBAL – 4.62 2.11
A Modified SEBAL Modeling Approach for Estimating Crop

The present study explores also the potential of using remotely sensed measurements for
obtaining quite accurate estimates of evapotranspiration which can in turn provide irrigation
managers and farmers with information that was not previously available and that can
enhance irrigation performance for sustainable management of limited water resources.
With its semi-arid climatic characteristics, Cyprus is characterized by long lasting very
good weather conditions (more than 180 days of cloud free days in a year) that allow the use
of satellite remote sensing on a systematic basis. Despite the fact that Landsat-5 TM is an old
sensor and Landsat-7 ETM+ faces several acquisition problems, Landsat covers the area of
Cyprus twice every month and is still considered as one of the useful tools for determining
evapotranspiration. Future research consists of further applying the modified SEBAL algo-
rithm using ASTER or other better resolution satellite imagery and examining more empir-
ical relationships regarding crop canopy parameters of other crops too.

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